World Atlas of Seagrasses

r'.' .S.."'^ '^^ '//'• £i UNEP WCMC World Atlas of Seagrasses Edmund P. Green and Frederick T. Short 3 qR^ Seagrasses a group of about sixty species of underwater marine flowering plants, grow in the shallow marine and estuary environments of all the world's continents except Antarctica. The primary food of animals such as manatees, dugongs, and green sea turtles, and critical habitat for thousands of other ani- mal and plant species, seagrasses are also considered one of the most important shallow-marine ecosystems for humans, since they play an important role in fishery production. Though they are highly valuable ecologically and economically, many seagrass habitats around the world have been completely destroyed or are now in rapid decline. The World Atlas of Seagrasses is the first authoritative and comprehensive global synthesis of the distribution and status of this critical marine habitat. Illustrated throughout with color tables, maps, photographs. and more, and written by an international team of collaborators, this unique volume covers seagrass ecology, scientific studies to date, current status. changing distributions, threatened areas, and conserva- tion and management the world. As efforts for twenty-four regions of human populations expand and continue to live disproportionately in coastal areas, bringing new threats to seagrass habitat, a comprehensive overview Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge http://www.arcliive.org/details/worldatlasofseag03gree World Atlas of Seagrasses Published in association with UNEP-WCMC by the University of California Press University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press. Ltd. London, England ® 2003 UNEP World UNEP-WCMC Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road Cambridge CBS DDL, UK Tel: +^^101 1223 277 3U Fax:+4Z,(0| 1223 277 136 E-mail; infoHunep-wcmc.org Website: wvtfw.unep-wcmc.org No part of this book or transmitted into a may be reproduced by any means machine language without the written permission of the publisher The contents of tfie ttiis volume do not necessarily views or policies of UNEP-WCMC. reflect contributory organizations, editors or publishers. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP-WCMC or contributory organizations, editors or publishers concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries or the designation of its name or allegiances. Cloth edition ISBN 0-520-24047-2 Cataloging-in-publication data of is on file with the Library Congress Citation Green E.P and Short F.t 120031 World Atlas of Seagrasses. Prepared by the UIMEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA. iiPi UNEP Si WCMC World Atlas Edmund P. of Seagrasses Green & Frederick UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley Los Angeles London T. Short WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES World Atlas of Seagrasses Prepared by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road UNEP WCMC Cambridge CB3 DDL, UK The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre Tel: +U 1223 277 10) 3U Fax: +4ilOI 1223 277 136 infoOunep-wcmcorg E-mail: Website: www.unep-wcmc.org assessment and biodiversity Nations Environment of the United arm Programme lUNEPl, the world's foremost intergovernmental environmental UNEP-WCMC organization. alms makers recognize the value Director everywhere, and Mark do. Collins the is policy implementation to apply this knowledge to The Centre's challenge into needs for analysis of nations engage UNEP-WCMC is to people all that they transform complex data and Integration, and to support the and the international community as they programs In joint decision- information, to build tools and policy-relevant systems help to of biodiversity to of action. provides objective, scientifically rigorous products and services that include ecosystem assessScientific editors Edmund Green P. Frederick T. Short ments, support for Implementation agreements, research formation, Assistant scientific editor regional development of future and global of environmental biodiversity on threats and scenarios for the impacts, living In- and world. Michelle Taylor Cartographer Corinna Ravilious Technical editor Catherine Short Layout Yves Messer Illustrations A Banson in Appendix 3 and at foot of pages: production 27 Devonshire Road Mark Fonseca: Zostera marina Cambridge CBl 2BH, UK Phillips RC, Mehez EG [1988]. Seagrasses. Smithsonian the Marine Sciences 3^. Smithsonian Color separations Contributions Swaingrove Institution Press, Printed QDPI Northern Fisheries Centre, Cairns: Halophila in China to Washington DC: Zostera Halophila capncorni. Jackson Estuarine Laboratory contribution number 396. Ron Phillips: All remaining illustrations. asiatica. australis. Supporting institutions Supporting institutions The United Nations Environment Programme environment. Its role is is the principal United Nations body in the field of the be the leading global environmental authority that sets the global to environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment, http://www.unep.org The UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs a better quality of life for everyone, ment defra at home and now and and sustainable use internationally, is working for generations to for sustainable development; come. This includes a better environ- economic prosperity of natural resources; through sustainable farming, fishing, food, water and other industries that meet consumers' requirements; thriving economies and communities in rural areas and a countryside for all to enjoy. for International Development is the UK Government department working to promote sustainable development and eliminate world poverty This publication is an output from a research program funded by DFID for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not The Department DFID necessarily those of DFID. http;//v7ww.dfid.govuk/ The David and Lucile Packard Foundation in 1964, provides international and national support to non-profit organizations in conservation, science and many other areas. The foundation currently The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, started provides funding to SeagrassNet, a global seagrass monitoring program based at the University of New The University A' UNIVtRSirr of NiW HAMPSHlRf org/, http;//www.seagrassnet.org/ Hampshire. http;//www.packard. of New Hampshire a land-grant, sea-grant and space-grant public institution with is 10 000 undergraduate and 2 000 graduate students, and a well-established marine program. The Jackson Estuarine Laboratory is the primary marine research organization at UNH and has a strong seagrass research component, http://www.unh.edu/, http://marine.unh.edu/jel/home.html woridMsugmss Asmi/moN The World Seagrass Association is committed scientists to the science, protection and members come from many seagrass ecosystem worldwide. The management of the countries and include leading marine and seagrass biology The association supports training and information of seagrass science and environmental management issues. in exchange and raises global awareness http://www.worldseagra5s.org/ The Convention on Wetlands, signed In Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for local, regional and national actions for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 135 Contracting Parties 1 Wetlands iCRAN of International to the Convention, with designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Importance, http://ramsar.org/ The International Coral Reef Action Network is an innovative and dynamic global partnership of many of the world's leading coral reef science and conservation organizations. Established in 1999 to halt and reverse the decline of the health of the world's coral reefs the partnership draws on its partners' investments International Coral Reef sites, totaling 105.9 million hectares, 230 wetland in reef monitoring and management to create strategically linked actions at local, A national and global scales, http://icran.org/ The .^^-^ Scientific Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCORl was the the International Council for Science. SCOR activities focus first interdisciplinary body formed by on promoting international cooperation in Committee on Oceanic Research planning and conducting oceanographic research, http://www.jhu.edu/-scor ^ ^ The Estuarine Research Federation lERFI created in is a private, non-profit organization. 1971 to address broad estuarine and coastal issues; meetings and supports the it The federation was holds biannual international scientific publication Estuaries, http://www.erf.org/ WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Acknowledgments World Atla5 Seagrasses Thespecial mention and deserve of a freely and extensively Without their attention of their to detail is time and experience and between many different people but a few nnerit amongst these are the 58 authors who have given a product of global collaboration extra thanl<s. First and foremost in writing the 25 chapters that constitute this World Atlas. efforts in sourcing data outside the would not have been possible. The contributions mainstream Corinna Ravilious, and technical editor, Catherine Short, have been equally Invaluable from many hundreds of disparate particular debt of gratitude to all scientific literature this book of the assistant scientific editor, Michelle Taylor, the cartographer, In the synthesis of information sources and for ensuring consistency throughout every section. The editors have a these people. World Atlas of Seagrasses go back to late 1997 when the need for a global compendium of information on seagrasses was first acknowledged. Hans de Jong, Eddie Hegerl, Paul Holthus, Richard Luxmore and Ttie origins of the the participants at the third International Seagrass Biology Workshop, Philippines, were particularly helpful In 19-26 April 1998, Ivlanlla and Bolinao, pulling these ideas together Nicholas Davidson, Salif Diop, Will RogowskI, Ed Urban, Genevieve Verbrugge and Marjo Vierros provided great support during the fundraising, support which was in making the necessary resources available. We are, of course, notably grateful to our sponsors, listed Instrumental at the beginning of the World Atlas, for Investing funds Luclle Packard Foundation and University of in this New Hampshire work. Special mention Is due here to the David and for supporting Fred Short's time. A long period of data collection followed soon after work began and involved much detailed correspondence with many people. Our thanks go out to everyone who answered our phone calls and e-mails, but even more so to those who provided us with seagrass distribution data or maps, especially William Allison, Alex Arrivlllaga, Susanne very Baden, Seth Barker, David Blackburn, Simon Blyth, Christoffer Bostrbm, NIkki Bramwell, f^arnie Campbell, Jacoby Rob Coles, Helen Cottrell, Lucy Conway, Charlie Costello, Jeffrey Dahlin, Dick de Jong, Karen Eckert, Caroline Carter, Mark FInkbelner, Terence Fong, Mark Fonseca, Sarah Gage, Martin GuUstrom, Rob llzumi, Chung II Choi, Emma Jackson, Pauline Kamermans, Hilary Kennedy, Ryo MabuchI, Ian May, Pete McLain, Thomas Meyer, Mark Monaco, KenjI Morlta, Ivan Nagelkerken, Brian Pawlak, Karin Pettersson, Ron Phillips, Martin Plus, Chris Pickerell, Jean Pascal Quod, Thorsten Reusch, Ron Rozsa, Jan Steffen, Marieke van Katwijk, Mikael von Numers, Rob Williams, Lisa Wood, Masumi Yamamuro and members of the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network IWIDECAST): Timothy Austin, Andy Caballero, Didiher Chacon, Juan Manuel Diaz and Alan Mills. Clearly a number of data sharing agreements were necessary as these data were Identified and we thank Mary Cordiner for sorting out these institutional complexities. The coordinators of the Global Seagrass Workshop, Mark Spalding and Michelle Taylor, and all 23 delegates (page 2831 are gratefully acknowledged for the time and effort they made to review, amend and correct the seagrass distribution data. The workshop itself would not however have been possible without considerable logistic and organizational support from Janet Barnes, Joy Bartholomew, Jean Finlayson, Anne Giblin, Pam Price, Ed Urban and Susan White, also all the staff at the Tradewlnds Hotel, St Petersburg Beach, Florida. Jamie Adams, Mary Edwards and Sergio Martins have provided additional geographical information systems Erftemeljer, Randolph Ferguson, Hughes, Herman Hummel, HitoshI at various stages during the preparation of the maps for the World Atlas and Elizabeth Allen, Janet Chow, Mary Cordiner and Michael Stone have spent very many long hours formatting and organizing the reference sections for the chapters and on-line bibliography (http://wAww.unep-wcmc.org/marine/seagrassatlas/referencesl. Readers will quickly note the wonderful photographs which have been kindly donated. Credit is given next to support photographs but thanks are also due here to Nancy Diersing, Florence Jean, Karlne Magalhaes, Kate all of whom helped us track down owners of pictures which we wanted to use. Most of the drawings of seagrasses In Appendix 3 and illustrated at the foot of the pages were donated by Ron Phillips, whom Individual Moran and John Ogden we especially thank for this contribution. Rob Coles, Mark Fonseca and Mike Fortes provided additional drawings Appendix 3 and the page corners, and we thank them as well. for When reviewing correspondence and notes spanning the last five years It is all too easy to overlook or forget someone. Sincere apologies to anyone whom we have neglected to mention here. Please be assured that this was simply an oversight brought about by the effort of completing the book and nothing else! Ed Green and Fred Short Preface Preface is with great pleasure that I new book from introduce this the UNEP ItCentre. The World Summit on Sustainable Development adopted, commitment base decisions. to reverse the trend of losses by 2010. To achieve this The World Atlas of Seagrasses meets importance has largely been overlooked until that need World Conservation Monitoring in the area of biodiversity, a we need for a vital hard facts on which to marine ecosystem whose now. This book would not have been possible without a remarkable collaboration between the 58 authors from 25 countries. The World Atlas of Seagrasses has played gathering information from express I my would also gratitude to like to all many of the different sources all over the world. the authors thank the sponsors Environment, Food and Rural a role in fostering international collaboration by who have of the Affairs, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, On behalf of UNEP would I like to contributed their knowledge. World Atlas of Seagrasses including the UK Department UK Department for International the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the University of Hampshire, the World Seagrass Association, the Scientific for Development, the Secretariat New Committee on Oceanic Research, the Estuarine Research Federation and the International Coral Reef Action Network. I am confident that this book will help not only implementation of sustainable development in UNEP but all interested parties to focus on the the marine environment worldwide. Klaus Toepfer Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme lUNEP) WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Foreword describing the complex relationships that exist Inmaestros that take center stage. It is carry an important representational role as they conservation programs. But The nature's orchestra. ecosystems living we should world the living world we all too often focus on the fill our television screens and become a priority many not forget the other ecological players that we an interactive and integrated continuum that in our make up partition into our own scientific convenience. The less well-known ecosystems often play a distinct and for very important part such ecosystem is the overall in harmony that we need to Seagrass beds are unusual in that they are very widespread, occurring on shallow coastlines A small group of flowering plants, just among 60 So why have they been selected in all the 270 000 species and other organisms that have colonized the sea, they owe their success tolerate a wide range of conditions. First of all, One maintain, but only poorly understand. the beds of seagrass that are found on coastlines around the world. but the coldest waters of the world. of fish, plants is in true that rain forests, coral reefs, whales, tigers and the like to this ability to for this global report '' seagrass beds are an important but under-rated resource for coastal people. Physically they protect coastlines from the erosive impact of waves and tides, chemically they play a key role in nutrient cycles for fisheries and biologically they provide habitat for fish, shellfish and priority ecotourism icons like the dugong, manatee and green And turtle. yet, despite these important attributes, they have been overlooked by conservationists and coastal development planners throughout their range. This World Atlas of Seagrasses is literally putting seagrass beds onto the a groundbreaking synthesis that provides people everywhere with the occur and what has been happening is to them. It a worrying story. first map, for the first time. world view of It is where seagrasses Seagrass beds have been needlessly destroyed for short-term gain without real analysis of the values that the intact ecosystems bring to coastal society. There and awareness As ever in is is no proper strategy very low. This World Atlas for their protection. Their significance is not well appreciated go a long way towards reversing these trends. W\[\. the production of an analysis of this kind, our scientists at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre have been able to achieve their results only by standing on the shoulders of giants. We acknowledge and applaud the dedicated band the groundwork for this recognition for Collins Director. seagrass ecologists and taxonomists who have World Atlas and prepared much them and for their UNEP-WCMC of the text. I hope it will bring seagrasses, and establish a baseline from which sustainable future for coastal peoples and the Mark of home of the gentle dugong. laid well-deserved to build a more Contents Contents Acknowledgments vi Preface 1.3 Norwegian eelgrass coverage \M Map of 31 eelgrass area distribution in vii Danish coastal waters Foreword Introduction to the World Atlas of Seagrasses Key maps and mapping mettiods to 1.5 viii 4 and along open coasts 1996-97 of seagrasses 21 Global seagrass biodiversity 22 1.7 Growth of in U 2 marine protected areas which number of sites llinel shown both and the total A 2 Major taxonomic groups found 3 Threatened species regularly recorded list of seagrass species by family Estimates brief seagrass coverage of selected areas described notes 3 12 in the 14 of the of 2.1 Western Europe (north! 39 2.2 Western Europe (south) 39 2.1 TheWaddenSea 41 2.2 Glenan Archipelago 45 The SEAGRASSES OF The western Mediterranean Italy 50 France 51 3.3 Spain 54 3.1 4 general features of 49 Distribution of seagrasses throughout (Italy, France 52 The seagrasses of The Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas 59 Map 27 Map 4 1 The Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas 61 29 Scandinavia Figures 5 (±1 of the western Mediterranean and Spam] 19 The seagrasses of Scandinavia and the Baltic Average Examples Mediterranean seagrass meadows 3.2 REGIONAL CHAPTERS Sea 49 3.2 contain seagrass ecosystems, from the Protected Areas Database The western Mediterranean 3.1 16 marine protected areas that UNEP-WCMC 48 Tables 15 goods and services provided by seagrass ecosystems Summary 38 Case Studies Functions and values of seagrass from Summary 33 The SEAGRASSES OF Western Europe Maps 3.1 in this the wider ecosystem perspective along the Baltic Sea coastline The SEAGRASSES OF The eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea SEI above-ground biomass 28 5.1 The eastern Mediterranean The Red Sea Aerial photographs of two typical exposed 5.2 eelgrass \Zostera marina] sites at the Case Study Hanko Peninsula, southwest Finland 65 Maps values for eelgrass \Zostera manna] 1.2 eelgrass [Zostera manna] Map for \NoddAiias 1.1 the distribution in from seagrass communities worldwide 1.1 33 in Case Studies 20 1 seagrass ecosystems, with 1 in Poland] Tables 7 Danish estuaries and open coasts latitudinal area protected (shaded area) 6 33 maximum Long-term changes of Relative size-frequency distribution of include seagrass ecosystems, 5 1900 and southeastern Baltic Sea (Puck Lagoon, as the k in 1900 and 1992 World seagrass distribution 538 seagrass polygons swathe 20-30°5 2 Secchi depths and in Figures 1 in colonization depths of eelgrass patches The distribution and status Maps 2 Danish estuaries eelgrass patches Global overview 32 colonization depth of 1 1.6 1 Maximum 30 5.1 Israeli coast of the Gulf of Flat 67 67 21 9 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 6 The SEAGRASSES OF The Arabian Gulf and Arabian 9.3 The Arabian Gulf and Arabian region of seagrasses in coastal states of India Map 6.1 Occurrence 9.2 lU region 104 Associated biota 75 of seagrass beds of India 105 Case Studies 10 The SEAGRASSES OF Western Australia 6.1 The Bahrain Conservancy 76 6.2 Rapid assessment technique 77 Map Arabian seagrass pastures 79 Case Study Seagrass species 75 Shark Bay, Western Australia: How seagrass shaped an ecosystem Tables 82 10.1 83 10.2 Marine turtles and dugongs 6.3 in the 10.1 Table 6.1 7 the Arabian region Map major human-induced seagrass in Western of Australia seagrasses and adjacent ecosystems 7.2 110 Summary declines of Gazi Bay, Kenya; Links between 116 Western Australian endemic seagrass species Kenya and Tanzania Case Studies 7.1 111 10.1 in The SEAGRASSES OF Kenya and Tanzania 7.1 Western Australia 109 113 84 Seagrass beach cast at Mombasa Marine Park, Kenya: A nuisance or a 1 The SEAGRASSES OF Eastern Australia 1 1 Map 88 vital link"? 11.1 Eastern Australia 121 Case Studies 8 The SEAGRASSES OF Mozambique and 11.1 southeastern Africa Maps Mozambique and southeastern 8.2 The Seychelles 8.3 Mauritius Africa 94 94 of deepwater seagrasses in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon FIGURE: Frequency of the probability of occurrence 11.2 Digging of Zostera capensis meadov\/s dos Pescadores, near Maputo at Vila city 99 1.3 in Expansion Westernport Bay, Australia of Green Island seagrass 128 FIGURE: Seagrass distribution at Green South 94 Africa Seagrass cover and area 126 meadows for the in Westernport Bay habitats 1 seagrass Zostera capensis seagrasses within each FIGURE: Distribution of estuanne Tables Area cover and location of depth stratum 96 Figure 8.2 124 FIGURE: Probability of the occurrence Inhaca island and Maputo Bay area, southern Mozambique 8.1 the 94 Case Study 8.1 in Great Barrier Reef lagoon 8.1 8.1 Mapping deepwater (15-60 m) seagrasses and epibenthos 93 Island in 1994, 1972, 1959 and 1936 lost in Mozambique 99 1 New Zealand The seagrasses of 1 34 Map The SEAGRASSES OF India 101 Maps 9.1 India 9.2 Andaman and Nicobar Islands Figure 12.1 Kadmat Island meadow 135 at seagrass bed at Kadmat 12.1 in seagrass species in Area of the Gulf of Mannar Zealand 2.2 135 List of locations where seagrasses have in New Zealand 13 The SEAGRASSES OF Thailand 105 Tables 136 144 Map 13.1 Quantitative data for major seagrass Indian waters m New seagrass at (southeast coast] in New been mapped Island, 1 various depths the historical in 139 been recorded of in estuaries where benthic habitats have the Figure Abundance changes Tables Lakshadweep beds of 140 Zealand Island, TABLE: Benthic macrofauna An example specialist distribution of seagrasses 106 Kadmat Lakshadweep 9.1 Zealand A seagrass 12.1 103 TABLE: Characterization of a seagrass 9.1 New 103 Case Study 9.1 12.1 Case Study Thailand 145 Case Study 102 13.1 The dugong - a flagship species 147 67 8 1 Contents Case Studies Table 13.1 Occurrence of seagrass species 17.1 Akkeshi. eastern Hokkaido U6 17.2 Rias coast 152 Tables in Thailand in 189 Iwate Prefecture, northeastern Honshu U The seagrasses of Malaysia Maps li.1 17.1 Peninsular Malaysia U.2 Sabah 153 17.2 153 1 of Teluk U.2 The of Kemang subtidal shoal seagrass 1 Map 158 Case Study 18.1 at known seagrass areas 157 The seagrasses of The western Pacific islands 18.1 1 18.2 15.1 Western Pacific islands IwestI 163 15.2 Western Pacific islands least] 163 18.3 Kosrae MAPS: Lelu Harbour ca 1900 and 1975 Okat Harbour and Reef 1978 and 1988 164 18.4 SeagrassNet Republic - a western Pacific 18.5 1 of seagrasses Korea 197 199 The Pacific coast of North 176 19.1 Case Studies Kotania Bay 178 19.1 link seagrasses of at 200 seagrasses of The 19.3 The seagrass meadows in Present coverage of 173 of seagrasses 19.1 Nam Island, Zostera manna and in Zostera japonica the Northeast Pacific The seagrasses of Japan 1 83 1 85 The western North Atlantic Japan 187 209 Case Studies Portsmouth Harbor, New Hampshire and Maine in Portsmouth Harbor, Great Bay Estuary, of New Hampshire and on the border Map 17.1 204 Map 20.1 in FIGURE: Eelgrass distribution by depth 1 203 20 The seagrasses of The western North Atlantic 207 20.1 Viet Shaw 174 178 Indonesia Picnic Cove, basal area cover 175 species 202 Table Indonesian seagrass-associated flora and fauna: number in Washington, United States seagrass leaves using leaf-marking techniques Canada between seagrasses and link humans 172 the Flores Sea of link Island, at Average shoot density of seagrass species in mixed and monospecific Average growth rates between the seagrass Zostera manna [ts'ats'ayem] and the Kwakwaka'wakw Nation, Vancouver 19.2 172 Average density 201 between seagrass and Flyway Average biomass The Philippines and The America migrating black brant along the Pacific Indonesian Archipelago 16.6 the Republic 195 The estimated areas 177 various locations throughout the 16.5 195 of Korea Banten Bay, West Java Kuta and Gerupuk Bays, Lombok Indonesia 16.4 in 194 Map various locations throughout 16.3 the Republic of Korea America Tables 16.2 in Morphological characteristics 194 19 The seagrasses of The Pacific coast of North 173 Indonesia TABLE: Distribution of seagrass 16.1 196 7 Case Studies 16.3 93 distributed on the coasts of the Republic Map 16.2 1 195 Seagrass species distributed on the coasts of the Republic of Korea Habitat characteristics of seagrass of 16.1 188 Physical characteristics of seagrass of pilot The seagrasses of Indonesia 16.1 Korea Korea seagrasses distributed study 1 of of Recent research on seagrasses species Case Studies 15.2 1978 and in beds on the west, south and east coasts of the Republic of Korea Maps 15.1 188 and Tables in Peninsular Malaysia 5 Japan The seagrasses of The Republic 156 18.1 of in of algal Japan 1991, and the percent area lost Table Estimate areas of total seagrass beds community Tanjung Adang Laut Pengkalan Nangka. Kelantan 1 Estimates 186 in 155 U.3 Coastal lagoon seagrass community H.I Seagrasses recorded in Japan Traditional uses of seagrasses 7.3 Case Studies li.1 The seagrass macroalgae community 190 Maine, United States 208 9 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 20.2 Rhode Ninigret Pond, Case Studies 211 Island FIGURE: Eelgrass distribution Ninigret in Pond. Rhode Island (United States] plotted by depth tor 1974 20.3 houses in 21 236 Parque Natural Tayrona, Bahia de Chengue, Colombia 239 23.3 Puerto Morelos Reef National Park 240 2i The seagrasses of South America: Brazil, Argentina and Chile the watershed Maquoit Bay, Maine South America 24.1 The area of eelgrass, Zostera manna, in the western North Atlantic The SEAGRASSES OF The mid-Atlantic coast 212 24.1 Itamaraca Island, northeast Brazil 24.2 Abrolhos Bank, Bahia State, northeast 24.3 Map of the 247 Ruppia mantima system in the Patos Lagoon 248 Figure United States 217 Cumulative number 24.1 Case Studies 21.1 244 Brazil of 216 The mid-Atlantic coast 245 Case Studies the United States 21.1 243 Map 213 Table 20.1 Florida's east coast 23.2 and 1992 Change in eelgrass area in Ninigret Pond, Rhode Island (United States] plotted against increasing number FIGURE: of 23.1 of companion species to the Brazilian seagrasses Seagrasses in Chincoteague Bay: delicate balance nutrient loading reported since 1960 a and fishing gear impacts 220 APPENDICES FIGURE: Recovery and recent decline of Seagrass species, by country or 1 seagrass [Zostera marina and Ruppia territory Chincoteague Bay FIGURE: Aerial photograph taken in 1998 of maritima] distribution a portion of 245 between disease, 251 in Chincoteague Bay, Marine protected areas known 2 seagrass bed showing damage bed to the to include seagrass beds, by country or Virginia, territory 256 from a modified oyster dredge Figures 21.1 Species range 3 Seagrass distribution (mainly Zostera manna and Ruppia maritima] in Chesapeake Bay 21.2 Changes in seagrass [Zostera manna The Global Seagrass Workshop 287 INDEX 288 Regional maps Sound, North Carolina] between 1985 Europe 218 Africa, Plate West and South Asia Australasia 22 The seagrasses of The Gulf of Mexico 22-1 Map 22.1 TheGulf of Mexico Tampa Bay Laguna Madre FIGURE: Seagrass cover Madre of Texas 22.3 Laguna de Terminos 22.2 V, facing p 118 facing p 166 Plate IX, facing p 182 225 North America Plate XI, facing p 214 XIII, facing p 230 226 The Caribbean South America the Laguna Plate Plate XIV, facing p 231 Color plates The beauty of 231 Impacts seagrass ecosystems Plate 234 Seagrass ecosystems Seagrasses and people Map The sex The Caribbean Plate facing p 38 facing p 102 VII, Plate Pacific I, III, 228 in 23 The seagrasses of The Caribbean 23.1 The Plate Asia Case Studies 22.1 262 218 and Halodule wnghtii] distribution in the Cape Lookout area (southern Core and 1988 maps 235 to life of seagrasses seagrasses Diversity of seagrass habitats Plate Plate Plate facing p 39 facing p 103 VI, facing p VIII, Plate Plate II, IV, 1 1 facing p 167 X, facing p 183 XII, facing p 215 Introduction Introduction to THE WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Seagrasses providing are valuable and overlooked habitats, worldwide. Both nutrient and sediment loading affect important ecological and economic water components of coastal ecosystems worldwide. Although there are extensive seagrass beds on the all world's continents except Antarctica, seagrasses have declined or been totally destroyed the world's to human locations. As population expands and continues disproportionately live many in in comp- coastal areas, a rehensive overview of coastal resources and critical more important than ever The World Atias Seagrasses documents the current global distri- habitats of is functional group a penetration of coastal waters. Direct construction the in global Seagrasses makes Most about of [Zostera eelgrass caulescens] in m long, to the tiny, 2-3 cm, rounded leaves of sea vine (e.g. more than A the deep tropical waters of underwater meadows of World Atlas of clear that seagrasses receive our understanding of seagrass skirt the of little seagrass ecosystems based on site-specific studies, usually in Brazil. Vast it and severe rises level storms occur more frequently. The seagrasses in change may well impact climate seagrass distribution as sea little Halophila decipiens] dredge-and-fill zone, induced nations. Very of coastal and destructive fisheries practices. Human- Thousands more associated marine plant and animal species utilize seagrass habitat. Seagrasses range blades light in seagrass to activities is the Sea of Japan, at harm beds occurs from boating, land reclamation and other 60 species of underwater marine flowering plants. from the strap-like light require- decreases to protection despite the myriad threats to this habitat. bution and status of seagrass habitat. Seagrasses are seagrasses' relatively high clarity: ments make them vulnerable is in developed known about the importance maintaining biodiversity, productivity regional and resources, global partly because seagrasses are under-appreciated and their distribution is so poorly documented. As a result, seagrasses are rarely incorporated specifically into coastal plans and are vulnerable to management degradation. Seagrass the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Southeast coasts of Australia, Alaska, southern Europe, India, ecosystems east Africa, the islands of the Caribbean and other Asia and Pacific are especially poorly researched, yet places around the globe. They provide habitat for fish in and shellfish and nursery areas the larger ocean, to and performing important physical functions coastal waters, dissipating of filtering in proximity and to, are ecologically linked with, coral reefs, mangroves, salt marshes, bivalve reefs and other marine habitats. Seagrasses are the primary food and green sea turtles, all of manatees, dugongs threatened and charismatic to many anthropogenic and natural. Runoff sediments from human impacts these in activities of threats, on land has major where seagrasses human while impacts, both nutrients and the coastal regions indirect it is these regions that the direct economic and cultural of communities upon marine coastal resources, including seagrasses, tends to be highest. The purpose of the World Atlas of Seagrasses present a global synthesis of of the distribution is to and status seagrasses. Such syntheses are available for other coastal ecosystems and have been instrumental in creating awareness, driving clearer conservation and management efforts and focusing priorities the at international level. For example, over the last ten years, species of great public interest. Seagrasses are subject in dependence wave energy and anchoring sediments. Seagrasses often occur of or measure, are probably the greatest threat to thrive; difficult to seagrasses opinion on the status of coral reefs has changed from a predominant view that the majority human unaffected by activities, to which the global decline ing threats to of coral reefs were the present view of coral reefs, in and the increas- them, are widely acknowledged. A similar understanding of seagrass ecosystems is needed in WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES seagrass distribution, and seagrass functions and threats at a global authors were asked Later, level. additional chapter to contribute to represent regions world not yet well covered; also, chapter authors of the invited co-authors coverage of the The to join their effort. World Atlas second section Seagrasses consists chapters. In knowledge of The geographical reflects this process. the of 24 World Atlas regional and of national each chapter, the authors have synthesized of seagrasses, the plants' biogeography, ecology and associated species, historical perspectives and threats to the ecosystem as well as management policies pertaining to seagrasses. Wherever possible, the authors have estimated the area of seagrass and summarized their region its status. in Case studies throughout the chapters highlight particularly interestA patch bed reef in the Philippines surrounded by a luxuriant mixed of Thalassia order achieve the to to protect this tion ing hemprichii and Syringodium isoetMium. visibility seagrass habitats and areas where human or natural impacts to seagrasses are of concern. and recognition necessary valuable global resource. Public percep- translates into Perceptions interest. political of seagrass ecosystems must achieve comparable status with those of coral reef and mangrove ecosystems, through the creation of global maps, global estimates of knowledge loss, of human impacts to the ecosystem, regular monitoring of ecosystem status and a global plan of action to reverse seagrass ecosystem decline. hope that the World Atlas of Seagrasses to the more widespread It is our will contribute recognition, understanding, and protection of seagrass ecosystems worldwide. ORGANIZATION OF THIS WORLD ATLAS The World Atlas of Seagrasses sections. The first of the state of detailed is presented in two section comprises a Global Overview our knowledge seagrasses. It presents ecosystem distribution and species diversity maps and the of most accurate possible estimate global seagrass area. of Appendices supply seagrass almost 180 countries and territories, a marine protected areas known to include seagrasses and a collection of species range maps. The species list lists for of Overview was based on a compilation of seagrass literature and a workshop held in Florida with Global Dugong feeding on Halophila ovatis, Vanuatu, western Pacific islands. seagrass scientists from around the world contributing knowledge and expertise. The Global Seagrass Workshop, sponsored by UNEP-WCMC, with considerable assistance from the World Seagrass their regional Association, was November 2001 held in St Petersburg, Florida in Of course, any comprehensive atlas builds on the work of many scientists authors. Seagrass science Seagrasses of ttie beyond the chapter owes much to den Hartog's World and the many subsequent assembling publications and books that are referenced throughout information on global seagrass distribution for the the World Atlas. All of the references used to compile World Atlas Isee page the World Seagrass Distribution from 1 specifically 2871. 5 countries participated, to begin Twenty-three delegates and all here as chapter authors. The workshop are represented page was appear a forum for discussion on the organization of an atlas, regional 21), Map (reproduced on as well as the individual chapter references, in an online bibliography at http://www. unep-wcmc.org/marine/seagrassatlas/references. Introduction 9 Additionally, the sources of information that contribute World Seagrass Distribution Map may be queried to the online through a GIS database httpV/www.stort. at unep-wcmc.org/imaps/marine/seagrass. a complex collaboration Inevitably, in some sources we have become aware of this type, data are overlooked. Indeed, of of -.__ additional sources of information on the distribution of .^^JjK^^^B seagrasses since our printing deadline. Readers with • information on seagrass distribution that they would like to add database may contact us to the The seagrass distributions mapped directly. in this World Atlas were derived from scientific journals, books, other publications and reports, reliable websites and personal communications. Where these sources provided maps actual seagrass beds, that (polygon! mapped of was entered directly onto the World Seagrass Map. More frequently, publications and sources simply mention iMi ^^] extent of seagrass Distribution other SiI.V occurrence the of laT' 'l-j Eutrophication reduces water clarity and stimulates growth of epiphytic algae, as on this Zostera marina in southern Norway. expected to occur, based on individual species reports collected for the World Seagrass Distribution Map. Using an overlay of all the map species range maps, a global of seagrass species diversity was created (reproduced on page 221. Additionally, regional maps show the same information as the World Seagrass Distribution Map, but at a finer scale in and with the locations of the case studies the region. Finally, each of the chapters has map, showing seagrass locations discussed in its own and important distribution the chapter. THREATS TO SEAGRASSES The synthesis represented by the World Atlas of Seagrasses confirms that seagrasses are one of the most widespread marine ecosystems, quite possibly the most widespread shallow marine ecosystem, in the world. They cover an area that can only be crudely estimated in at present; the the World Atlas The threats to is area we are able to document certainly a gross underestimate. seagrasses worldwide are similar and widespread. Seagrasses everywhere are vulnerable to eutrophication from nutrient over-enrichment of the environment and Women seagrass flat at low availability. Matibane, Mozambique. tide, to turbid conditions caused by upland clearing and disturbance, both leading to reduced light harvesting shellfish. Pinna murkata, from an intertidal Seagrasses are also subject to total destruction through coastal construction and other seagrass or at a particular location (e.g. a bay, beach, known latitude/longitudel. seagrass occurrence is In shown on the these cases, distribution town the map as human impacts. Direct use of seagrass plants by humans is limited, but seagrass beds support impor- direct tant coastal fisheries worldwide, and because they shallow, sheltered areas a dot, designating the mentioned location. The World occur Seagrass Distribution Map these are often subsistence fisheries. Seagrasses are Atlas gives the at the compilation beginning of the World of the all available information on seagrass distribution, as both actual beds and as locations indicated by dots, species combined. Species range depict the area where a certain of maps all (in in easily accessible, an important coastal ecosystem awareness and protection. seagrass Appendix 3) may be seagrass species Ed Green Fred Short in need of more study, WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Essential information n Bathymetry LEGEND TO MAPS 0-200 Seagrass (location only, extent unknown] m 200-2000 ^^^1 - Ce^s-e ^/' CKA^ ' m Seagrass area >2000m Species range maps [Appendix 31 Zosteraceae IIIIIj Hydrocharitaceae II Posidoniaceae MAPPING METHODS The seagrass features mapped throughout this from very many different sources. Selection World Atlas were derived criteria were used when and not extrapolation from rather inexact statements some apparent Coast] does create the Kimberley (e.g. discrepancies but in all cases these reviewing thousands of records from hundreds of sources to determine are due lo this decision. As such the collected total of seagrass features which features would be mapped. mapped The approach adopted was one that minimized subjectivity For example a statement such as "...in point at that location. At the scale of a global atlas a point is sufficiently accurate. expanses of the in in zone [of the a Gerupuk Bay Statements such as "extensive terracing intertidal Australia] often results in in of these Kimberley Coast. Western seagrass, particularly Enhalus acoroides. high the intertidal just below the mangroves" (page 110] have not been recorded on the were maps because no exact locations or extent of seagrass available. At the scale of a global atlas an assumption that seagrass occurs along large sections of the Kimberley coast would have been too inaccurate without independent reference. Some islands or coastal areas have comprehensive coverage on the maps. These are derived from studies where an entire area has been aerial photography or satellite mapped maps in be a minimal of the seagrass regarded as maps. Firstly, in were applied rules some cases to the only crude making maps were available, often covering very large areas with swathes simply indicative of the presence of seagrass They (e.g. were cut the global National Geographic 2000 Coral World map]. to match misrepresenting the depths when no specific location island a point one example. Seagrass more precise island. Yap most is was was placed is in shallow at bathymetry data to avoid which seagrasses are found. Secondly, available beyond the name of a very small the center of that island. Yap, Micronesia, recorded as occurring locators so this small enough so is all is one example'" 1 the World Atlas maps. The recorded as a point centered on the that, at the scale at which these maps are useful, a visible point covers the island entirely Pasqualini V. Pergent-lvlartini C. Pergent G [1999]. Environmental impact identification along Ihe Corsican coast (Niediterranean seal using image processing. Aquatic Botany bi: 311-320. only on referenced sources (e.g. Corsica] ABBREVIATIONS USED m meter mg milligram km kilometer g gram ha hectare kg kilogram UV ultraviolet cm/s centimeters per second kcat calorie °C degrees Centigrade Bold type is used to indicate the corresponding author and contact details psu practical salinity units (almost equal to parts per thousand] at the end of each chapter. is around Yap with no great detail, often using remote sensing. Corsica and the data were available for inclusion decision to construct the in World Atlas should Two further Gerupul< Bay. southern Lombok. Ha/odu/e unmervis densities ranged from..." Ipage 1731 would result the in representation of actual coverage. The distribution and status seagrasses of Global overview THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF SEAGRASSES M. Spalding M. Taylor C. Ravilious Short F. Green E. Seagrasses wfiicfi are a mixed group of flowering plants grow submerged in shallow marine and environments worldwide, estuarine in many places they cover extensive areas, often referred to as environments. They are not true grasses. Although they are monocotyledons, they do not have a single all evolutionary origin, but are a seagrass beds or seagrass meadows. Although there Five particular adaptations to enable survival are relatively few species of seagrass, the complex niche have been identified'": an which presents problems, notably mass and support a considerable bio- diversity of associated species. themselves are a Seagrasses an adaptation Many movements; breeding or as juveniles. to one be important shallow marine ecosystems playing a significant role in of to some of impor- Firstly we seagrasses, both as species compete with other species adaptations amongst seagrasses, have species system at their database and digi- the in of roots number a to of arguments Considerable grasses. and it changes the accepted impacts on these ecosystems, including both threats and sidered management measures for the protection of seagrass beds. Much of this chapter has benefited from the spec- adopted and especially Duarte'^' to to a Seagrasses are flowering plants which grow fully submerged and rooted in estuarine and marine is likely be seagrasses. and in Short and from the authors classification In number a the the sea- in coming of species con- the present in Table of this 1. It is lists used Coles'^', World work we have matter of in Hemminga and with further advice Atlas. These species important to bear however, that "the actual number is over of conservative approach, and consider 59 species, based on species are listed Definitions remain that there will be considerable years'^" and hence to the are also contributors to this World Atlas. Phyllospadix spp.l; nomenclature and taxonomic relations maps compiled from numerous sources, often generwe consider the importance of seagrasses to humans. Finally we look at human input of seagrass experts worldwide, some genus Halophila]; and an extensive ously contributed. Next who led and rhizomes'". tal those the elongated or strap-like leaves (with the exception of geographic distribution and look atlas, including a detailed distribution ialist in notably: flattened leaves (with the exception of Syringodium and Much of this work is the presentation of new datasets that have been developed for this patterns. entirely The protection distribution, seagrasses worldwide. consider the definition habitats, mechanism; pollination morphological characteristics which are widespread The overview summarizes the and as ability to water withstand to marine environment. humans, from coastal erosion. of submarine an system fisheries production as well as binding sediments and providing tance and status a most the lowered gas and often varying, to sur^^ive in high, anchoring an horses, shrimps and scallops, utilize seagrass for part Seagrasses are considered of salinity: other species of fish and invertebrates, including sea of their life cycles, often for this concentrations and rates of diffusion; important food source for critically dugong, manatee, sea turtles and waterfowl. ability to in grow whilst completely submerged, physical structure and high productivity of these eco- systems enable them to group, polyphyletic defined by the particular ecological niche they inhabit. of debate, depending in mind, seagrass species in part on their proximity to the marine environment and on the level WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES discrimination of in taxonomy physical and genetics"'*'. Many species of the genus Ruppia are accepted commonly occurring in the marine as seagrasses, environment seagrass and species'*'. Overview Table A list often of Species intermingled in the genera with other Potamogeton and Lepilaena are occasionally important members of seagrass ecosystems, but are often regarded as seagrass associates or facultative members of the seagrass community. We when marine and estuarine environ- they occur in have included Ruppia spp. ments, but these species are less well covered in the 1 seagrass species by family Genus Genus Species Author Enhalus acoroides iL.f.l Posidonia angustilolia Halophiia australis Doty & Stone Posidonia australis Hooker Halophiia baillonii Ascherson Posidonia conacea' Cambridge & Kuo Halophiia beccani Ascherson lincluding the conspecific Posidonia robertsoniae""] Halophiia capncorni Larkum Posidonia denhartogif Halophiia decipiens Ostenfeld Posidonia l<irl(manii' Kuo & Cambridge Halophiia engelmanni Ascherson Posidonia oceanica ILI Deliie Halophiia hawaiiana' Doty & Stone Posidonia ostenfeldif den Hartog Halophiia johnsonit Eiseman Posidonia sinuosa Cambridge & Kuo Halophiia minor' IZollingerl Halophiia ovalis IR.Brownl Hooker Halophiia ovata' Gaudichaud Zostera asiatica Miki Halophiia spinutosa IR. Zostera caespitosa Miki Halophiia stipulacea IForsskall Zostera capensis Setchell Halophiia tncostata Greenway Zostera capncorni Ascherson Thalassia hempnchii lEhrenbergl Ascherson lincluding the conspecific Zostera mucronata. Zostera Thalassia testudinum Banks Zostera novazelandica"""] Hydrocharitaceae Author Species Posidoniaceae Royle Cambndge & Kuo f. \ Kuo & Cambridge den Hartog Zosteraceae f Brownl Ascherson Ascherson ex Kdnig Cymodoceaceae Zostera caulescens Miki Zostera japonica Aschers. Zostera manna Linnaeus muellen and & Graebner Amphibolis antarctica ILabill.l Amphibolis gnffithii IBlackl den Hartog Zostera noltii Hornemann Cymodocea angustata Ostenfeld Zostera tasmanica IMartens ex Aschers.l den Hartog Cymodocea nodosa lUcnal Ascherson Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenberg & Sonder et Ascherson Hempnch Ascherson Iformerly Heterozostera] ex Phyllospadix iwatensis Makino Phyllospadix japonicus Makino Hooker Cymodocea serrulata IR. Brownl Ascherson Phyllospadix scoulen Halodule beaudettei* Iden HartogI den Hartog Phyllospadix serrulatus Ruprecht ex Aschers. Halodule bermudensis' den Hartog Phyllospadix torreyi S. Halodule emarginata' den Hartog Halodule pinifolia* IMikil Halodule uninervis IForsskall Ascherson cirrhosa IPetagnal Grande Halodule whghtii Ascherson den Hartog Watson Ruppiaceae Ruppia Iformerly spiralis] Synngodium fililorme Kutzing Ruppia mantima Linnaeus Synngodium isoetifolium lAschersonl Dandy Ruppia megacarpa Mason Thalassodendron ciliatum IForsskall den Ruppia taberosa Davis & Tomlmson Hartog Thalassodendron pachyrhizum den Hartog Note: * Species designations thai are i under genetic and morphometnc matter of debate and currently investigation. t Species proposed as conspeci c with Halophiia ovali^"'- \ 11 | The distribution and status many Literature than seagrasses of other species and have not been universatty accepted as seagrasses. seagrasses grow Typically, in areas dominated by such as sand or mud, but some species soft substrates can be found growing on more rocky substrates (e.g. Phyllospadix]. Seagrasses require high levels of light, more than other marine complex below-ground because plants, structures their of which include considerable amounts of non-photosynthetic tissues. Thus, although they have been recorded more generally waters'", they are waters due to m 70 in clear restricted to shallow attenuation of light with depth. to the rapid Seagrasses can form extensive monospecific stands or areas mixed species. Such areas are of known as seagrass beds or meadows, and make up a unique marine ecosystem or biotope. Seagrasses can also grow isolated patches, or as part of a habitat in mosaic with other habitats such as corals, mangroves, bivalve it is benthos or bare sediments. rocky reefs, Generally meadows the larger seagrass beds and which have been the subject mapping worldwide. Although study and of intensive typically permanent over Quadrat sampling in an intertidal Zostera wanna bed, Maine. USA periods of decades, seagrass systems can be highly dynamic, moving into new areas and disappearing from sources others over relatively short timeframes. distribution been had data used seagrass developing in online the Isee bibliography at http://www.unep-wcmc.org/marine/seagrassatlas/ DEVELOPING SEAGRASS DISTRIBUTION INFORMATION AND MAPS in order to develop a clearer picture seagrasses of the distribution of seagrasses worldwide, a new dataset was developed UNEP-WCMC, based to iMap 1. the World Seagrass Distribution in which appears on page Initial efforts source which details information on location in is was on in more than 120 countries and specific species. All data sources were documented and can be queried online through the GIS Igo of point- species as into Despite broad the range sources, of three categories, as discussed below. well as both descriptive terms and, Direct habitat Direct habitat maps maps are high-resolution maps, typically prepared from remotely sensed data but continued throughout a second data-gathering phase, mapped maps on were developed on IGISI. 'he distribution of seagrasses a geographical information The two datasets remained closely point locations from the GIS, and GIS the incorporation first layer boundary of also allowed information particular seagrass areas [polygons]. involved the presentation of the by UNEP-WCMC to system linked: the phase were linked initial to the for the delimiting A third phase maps prepared the Global Seagrass the to fall into a wherever possible, geographic coordinates. This work during which to http://stort.unep-wcmc.org/imaps/marine/seagrass]. geographic information can be seen largely compiled territories worldwide, and the majority include information on Map 211. focused on the acquisition information spreadsheet with at on literature review and outreach expert knowledge. An output from this dataset presented here These sources provide information on references]. Workshop in entirely from field of they seagrass distribution. most They provide the accurate data available for habitat distribution, but are available for only a very limited area worldwide. some cases distribution broader they do not Sources information. In provide species-specific some included maps showing seagrasses over several kilometers or tens of kilometers of coastline, but also many maps prepared and presented sites in expert publications. references were provided, and incorrectly located or In spurious data points were removed. interpolation At the conclusion of this effort, over 520 major some cases represent the polygons showing the true spatial extent where they were thoroughly checked by regional and national seagrass experts. As a result, new data points were added, new datasets and Florida, 2001, in observations; for individual study Expert interpolations some cases, of maps have been based on ground-based observation - seagrasses may be knowledge known from the and a series W! WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES and with an accurate benthic chart of point locations, is relatively it to assumed seagrass area. Clearly such maps is highly variable, but can be generate an outline the accuracy of between these points interpolate possible to of with reliable background sufficient maps were mation and cautious interpretation. These and included utilized with caution better data were in infor- the GIS only if variation. Finally, important on a composite map, is it such as that presented here, to be aware that gaps where there are no data cannot be distinguished from gaps where seagrasses do not occur The results of this data gathering have been used show the distribution of individual species, and to show the overall distribution of seagrass habitat. The World Seagrass Distribution Map includes all the considered to be reliable. to Point-based samples maps any sort were species-specific possible to gather accurate points and areas For wide areas of the globe, it some showing seasonal variations and others showing dramatic interannual and the source was unavailable unavailable; however, associated with time. Seagrass systems are highly variable through time, with was of number point locations of seagrass beds from a large information as well as additional where species were not Interpolation of specified. was species distributions the of maps site-based seagrass publications, herbarium records used and national species inventories. Clearly, as points, The known occurrences these give no indication of actual seagrass area, but they set the limits to a generalized outline of the range of are very useful a in further information broader mapping context where no is that species. Like the maps were reviewed available. in Developing the distribution map The source maps used for producing the World Seagrass Distribution Map were created using many mapping techniques, and with various goals. There are also differences ence the area resolution, which will clearly influ- in seagrass portrayed on a map. With of remote sensing, accuracy and bandwidths limited by the resolution is generate species range to degree utilized by the sensor, the Florida. It show where 31. each species were used to raw datasets, preliminary range Global Seagrass at the Workshop should be noted that they do not indicate occurrence definite of Isee Appendix a of a seagrass species, but rather species might be expected to occur should environmental conditions be suitable. Such maps are useful in biogeographic comparisons between species, and also possible species occurrence areas which have not in been previously investigated. The data that constitute the World Seagrass of Map were make ground-truthing and sensitivity of the interpretation, as Distribution well as by the depth of the water column, the clarity of calculation of seagrass area at global and the water and other attributes of the benthos. remotely sensed images up only shallow pick will Some l<10 m) seagrass beds with a high shoot density, while large pixel size will capture small or highly to fail patchy seagrass areas. Error also plays a part, and some mapping systems may direct more sampling can have many similar problems, particularly associated with water depth and clarity. Combining from data Such work has been done a preliminary regional more detail for other nearshore marine habitats'"*'; however the weaknesses and gaps in the seagrass dataset mean levels. that initial in area calculations, presented below, are only broadly indicative. sources, multiple as SPECIES DISTRIBUTION From the world seagrass distribution datasets described above, we assembled species records for more than 120 countries and territories. The datasets include some records for countries where point undertaken here, exacerbates these problems, as locations there are always differences available], definition also used to incorporate non-seagrass species, notably macroalgae. Although typically accurate, and studies for predicting both in quality and between studies. Seagrass shoot density varies considerably and, while some studies will All the were unavailable only species (i.e. were lists and hence these are not shown on the maps. datasets were used to generate species country, presented in Appendix 1 . The species lists lists by show consider only seagrass ecosystems where seagrass that the countries with greatest seagrass diversity are shoots are continuous at high densities a countries which extend into both tropical and temperate mapping climates, including Australia 129 species!, the United definition may in techniques), others fact be forced may include all by the areas sparse seagrass growth. Differences in [such even very of scale between States (23 species including Japan (16 species). all overseas territories! and The greatest seagrass species studies introduce further variance: lower resolution diversity maps may tropics. Tropical countries with the highest tend to ignore minor breaks beds, while finer resolution small breaks which, of the it maps seagrass in will pick could be argued, are up even still a part seagrass habitat. Further problems may be in single-climate countries occurs in the seagrass species diversity include India and the Philippines (both with H species) and Papua New Guinea (12 species). The Philippines and Papua New Guinea, together with The distribution and status seagrasses of Indonesia 112 species], are considered to be the center seagrass of global biodiversity. The geographic data from the same seagrass datasets were used distribution maps presented species range maps were in generate the to Appendix (Range 3. not prepared for Ruppia species as the were deemed existing data The species insufficient.) range maps update earlier work by den Hartog'" and show areas where the may be expected to occur, but they may leave some areas where seagrass information is not by Phillips and Mehez'". They species out available. By amalgamating the species range maps, a map global page 221. of seagrass biodiversity was created (Map The seagrass species previous effort Ivlap 2 IS and for map biodiversity parts various in provided is indicates the of globe; a the of 2, number Hemminga and Duarte''". maps compiled for corals""' in modeled on similar mangroves"". Biogeograpfiic patterns Map all of Halophila capncorni female flower. Lizard Island, Queensland. shows the three clear centers 2 which occur and largest in the eastern hemisphere. The these of remain being distinctive, southwestern significant to this Other southern include and also underpin them, at it Korea of areas in is 1 is in IIX Mirroring the biodiversity found mangrove list largely based on Short et Indo-Pacific Tropical following forests, this Short in diversity in insular 5 Indian in 2 more Phyllospadix scouleri, (llll. A low-diversity temperate dominated by Zostera and Ruppia species, northern limit at 35°N its North Carolina, USA. Europe Zostera noltii. Zostera is manna is distinguished by Zostera genera, of the the main species of the region. 6 Wider Caribbean moderate seagrass continued high diversity across the A (IVl. with area tropical diversity, including species of Halodule, Halophila, Syringodium and Thalassia. relatively Although the tropical communities of Brazil are geographically isolated they are not sufficiently Key genera include Cymodocea, Enhalus. Halodule, Halophila, Syringodium, Thalassia and distinct to merit consideration as a separate flora Thalassodendron. (limited to species of Halophila and Southern Australia IXI. A center of Australia diversity (with occurs species in in southwestern genera the of Northwestern Pacific diversity region which, insular Southeast ID. The third-highest although connected Asia, is dominated temperate species (notably species of Mediterranean (Vl|. An area of relatively diverse temperate and tropical seagrass communities in in which northwest Africa as well as the Black Sea Caspian and Aral Seas. Species by Posidonia and Zostera are is flora, includes seagrass communities just outside the to Zostera and Phyllospadix]. The genus Phyllospadix 7 Mediterranean Amphibolis, Halophila, Posidonia and Zostera]. Halodule, Ruppia]. highly diverse region, dominated by temperate species. The particular 3 lower-diversity temp- closely linked to the is having a second species rapid attenuation of biodiversity across the Pacific islands. A (l|: with Halodule reaching at™]. dominated by Ocean and up the Red Sea, but North Atlantic area, of Southeast Asia and northern both the Phyllospadix serrulatus and Phyllospadix torreyi. tropical seagrass species, with a great focus of Australia, Northeastern Pacific three endemic species, coral reefs and a region is in diverse western North Pacific but also includes al™. ef the North Pacific, occurring species. This region more possible to distinguish general The to erate area, dominated by Zostera and Phyllospadix the individual species ranges that characteristics"'^'. seagrass regions 4 of regions of seagrass occurrence, each with distinctive floral unique east and the west. and India eastern Africa. Looking at diversity patterns detail, first region but Japan/Republic Australia. diversity Australia. over insular Southeast Asia. lies The other two centers are adjacent and high diversity, of plays an important role in in Basin and the of Cymodocea, common; Ruppia also the region, particularly the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. // WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 8 South Africa IVIIII. The region has both temperate and tropical species from the genera Halodule, Synngodium, Thalassodendron Hatophita. Ruppia, and Zostera. of number seagrasses. The relatively low species could evolutionary lead the to inference of seagrass recent a of however den Hartog'" reports history; evidence for the existence of marine angiosperms as long ago as 100 million years, and there are clear addition to these floristically distinct regions In there are three other geographically distinct seagrass areas which are are biogeographic interest, but which of known and poorly lack distinctive a floral characteristic, being largely depauperate. 9 Chile One llil. seagrass of from the Cretaceous. fossils Further studies have failed to produce evidence of any massive diversification or and so a tasmanica Zostera species, examples may be it evolutionary pathway. More relatively conservative work required IS major extinction events, of seagrasses have simply followed that this field'"'"'. in (formerly Heterozostera], has been found along ASSOCIATED SPECIES AND HABITATS this coast. 10 11 Southwest Atlantic Along IVl. coast the of Seagrasses do not grow Argentina and southern Chile there are extensive integral communities of ecosystems. West Africa (Vll|. Ruppia. Only one species, Halodule has been recorded; the distribution wrightii, is poorly known. fully the is required distribution in patterns species; of and connections between these regions. patterns observed patterns observed in Some forms a particular feature of maps produced usually enhanced is by other integral binding part many of food chains. complex three-dimensional structure important, providing shelter and is sediments and, altering the patterns of even scales, fine at and strength currents the in water The complex, modified seagrass environment date, provides a great variety of niche spaces on and within including mangroves"" and several major groups of the sediments, on the plant surfaces and within the coral reef taxa"". It is to important to distinguish this Southeast Asian region from the separate centers diversity seen in temperate southwestern Australia and Japan, as to tropical IMap water column. Thus, despite the relatively small of these two areas have larger ranges of climate from seagrass species, a vast array of number of other species can be found within seagrass ecosystems. Many are obligate members 21. Theories for the development of the Southeast else. seagrass ecosystem, found nowhere of the Others may be restricted to seagrass areas for Asian center of diversity have been advanced for a shorter periods number breeding or nursery areas, or settling there for their of species groups. suggested that species this region has been variously It may have been a center for accumulation linked to favorable vortex model of coral currents ("the ocean reef geography"""!; a location where high diversity maintained thanks to of The high pump diversity of areas. Table 2 provides a taxonomic groups evolutionary interest, but speculation. There Australian flora is its is in Japan also of considerable cause remains a matter contain of some of the major seagrass ecosytems. Seagrass ecosystems often play an important role in the functioning of a of groves important relict in wider suite the tropics, but also soft intertidal flats, salt of coastal and muddy bottoms, marshes, oyster reefs and even pelagic ecosystems. evidence that the southwestern may list typically associated with marine ecosystems, including coral reefs and man- model"""]. temperate species and southwestern Australia them as are found across a broad range was the combination of benign conditions and changing sea using marine habitats, but regularly inhabit seagrass bio- benign climatic conditions during levels ("eustatic diversity of their life histories, Many more adult lives. recent ice ages"^'; or a center for species evolution with Levels of species diversity systems can be very high indeed. in seagrass eco- Humm"" listed 113 elements"" but more recent events associated with the dramatic changes during and following the last ice age species of algal beds Florida. Using this, must also be considered. 26 other publications worldwide, Harlin'"' produced a It \l is intra- temperate regions. The productivity seagrass bed cover, of an Additionally, the of the several marine biodiversity and has broad algae. The abundant plant material of seagrass beds the is in these ecosystems the tropical floras mirror the east Asian center of diversity an sea- of corals and mangroves. The South- in are primary producers, including macroalgae and epiphytic uncover the inter- to complex order to grasses; to determine the patterns of evolution and migration seagrasses themselves relatively stable in the tropics annual variation Considerable further work highly of important standing stock of organic matter, which of understand The form an but isolation in and often defining part is important to consider the evolutionary origin list in of epiphytes from Thalassia testudinum some 450 algal combined with lists from species that are epiphytic The distribution and status seagrasses of Overview Table 2 Major taxonomic groups found in seagrass ecosystems, with brief notes Notes Taxonomic group Bacteria Including Plasmodiophora Fungi Diatoms IBacillarlophytal Blue-green algae ICyanophytal Red algae IRtiodophytal Including calcareous species Brown algae IPhyaeophytal Including Padina Green algae (Chlorophytal Notably Ulva, Halimeda and Caulerpa Protozoa Includes the slime molds Labyhnthula spp., and Foraminifera Sponges Includes epiphytic and free-standing species Cnidarians Includes epiphytic hydrozoans. sea anemones, solitary corals and Scleractmia such as Pavona, Polychaetes Including Psammacora, Pontes, PociUopora, Siderastrea Ribbon rag-worms Inereidsl worms Sipunculid worms Flatworms Includes amphipods, and Crustaceans many decapod crustaceans including crabs, stomatopods and commercially important shrimp and lobster many Bivalve mollusks Some Gastropod mollusks A broad range Cephalopod mollusks Sguid and cuttlefish often found over seagrass areas oysters and scallops, also Bryozoans Epiphytic on seagrass and rocks Echinoderms A range of boring species including Conus. Cypraea and commercially important species of Strombus commercially important holothurian species, ophiroids are widespread, but also asteroids and echmoids Tunicates Ascideans Fisti All groups, but including the commercially important Haemulidae igruntsl, Siganidae Irabbitfish], Lethrinidae lemperorsl. Lutjanidae Isnappersl, Bothidae Heft-eye lloundersl, Syngnathidae (pipefishes and sea horses!; many of the latter, which are used in the aquarium trade and Chinese medicine trade, are considered threatened mydas Reptiles Notably the green turtle Chelonia Birds Notably brant Igeesel and other migrating waterfowl and wading birds Mammals Notably the sirenian species dugong Dugong dugon and manatee Tnchechus manatus, Trichechus senegaleosis Source: Key references for this table include various chapters in Phillips and McRoy"™, and review comments by the contributors to this World Atlas. seagrasses, on Hutchings"" 171 Bay Roblee et of listed some polychaetes and Jervis in New at."^' probably still in A number uncierestimate. 2A8 artfiropods, 197 mollusks, 15 echinoderm species from South Wales, Australia. noted ICO species crustaceans an of fish In Florida, and 30 species have compared diversity seagrass beds with that observed in diversity than adjacent non-vegetated surfaces; if in adjacent eco- systems. Seagrasses consistently have higher levels ever, of how- other vegetated surfaces, or coral reefs, are compared these higher levels of often have similar diversity'^'. is no detailed database of Many species associated with seagrass beds. species that have been recorded are also found ecosystems, although some appear to to significantly a part of their life cycles. in of the other be restricted to seagrass ecosystems or dependent on them seagrass beds. of studies Despite this high diversity and the importance of associated species, there for at least Such seagrass-dependent species range from particular epiphytic algae'™ to the large seagrass-grazing manatee and dugong. Most the comprehensive faunal assessments undertaken diversity in temperate waters, or the waters that further of the work in Caribbean, and the Indo-Pacific in of have been relatively lowit seems likely particular will \\\\ WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES lead to large increases numbers the recorded in of conservation actions. Using the species range maps, seagrass associates. is Threatened and restricted range species the broad range Within the wider conservation arena, the continental shelf range. For such calculations restricted species with threatened together with distributions, maps concerns over these individual species, they are often a used as "flagship species" draw to Appendix 166 000 However, Two species of seagrass have been listed as threatened by lUCN-The World Conservation Union'''' of Halophila johnsonii and 31: serrulatus. A number of endemism has no although it can that only bermudensis |1 000 km'l, Halophila species are six in the process and their individual species review in question. threat to the existence of individual seagrass species, 13 species Australia, with used Such national world. the inherent be work we can see this countries harbor the sole measures in From species have truly restricted ranges, Given the problems of taxonomy, and the low is nowhere else the calculations. These range- in designations are presently extinction found modify Phytlospadix most notable which 3. of these all taxonomic populations of a seagrass species (national endemics], of to and Halodule beaudettei 17^000 km'l. km-] range. (see Table was necessary Posidonia ostenfeldii [66000 km'l, Posidonia kirkmanii both threat and restricted of it not to include areas outside hawaiiana 17000 km'l, Halophila johnsonii U2000 km'l, taxonomic uncertainty under- of mine the determination in small number notably: Halodule attention to partic- and issues. Amongst the seagrasses, however, the problems maps and area statistics are provided next to the species range species, are often singled out for attention. Apart from ular areas ecological as of endemism little value or threat of seagrass in seagrass-associated animals, although here lack knowledge hampers support to probably are conservation efforts. Similar arguments are not true for significance, basis a of restricted range, true assessment of the a Overview Table 3 Threatened species regularly recorded from seagrass communities worldwide Common name Species Halophila johnsom Species Common name Hippocampus kuda Spotted or yellow sea horse Vu R Hippocampus reidi Slender sea horse Vu wtiitei V^hite's sea horse Vu Status Johnson's seagrass Vu S tatus Phyllospadix serrulatus Surf grass Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda Horseshoe crab DD Hippocampus Tachypleus tndentatus Horseshoe crab DO Hippocampus zosterae Dwarf sea horse Vu Hippocampus abdominalis Big-bellied sea horse Vu Epinephelus stnatus' Nassau grouper En Hippocampus borboniensis Sea horse Vu Mycteroperca Venezuelan grouper Vu Hippocampus breviceps Short-headed sea horse DD Mycteroperca microlepis' Gag grouper Vu Hippocampus erectus Lined sea horse Vu Chelonia mydas Green En Hippocampus fuscus Sea pony Vu Dugong dugon Dugong Vu Hippocampus Spiny or thorny sea horse Vu Trichechus manatus West Indian manatee Vu Sea horse Vu Trichechus senegalensis West African manatee Vu histrix Hippocampus jayakan cidi* turtle Notes: ' Juveniles regularly observed This DD list in seagrass beds. includes only species which are partially or wholly dependent on seagrasses and - Data Deficient: extinction based on A taxon its is Data Deficient when there is distribution and/or population status. appropriate data on abundance and/or distnbution R - Rare: Taxa with small world populations is inadequate information A taxon in this medium-term is Vulnerable when it is category to may be make may incomplete. a direct, or indirect, be well studied, and assessment its of its risk of biology well known, but lacking. thai are not at present Endangered or Vulnerable but are within restncted geographic areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a Vu - Vulnerable: A taxon more at nsk. These taxa are usually localized extensive range not Cnlically Endangered or Endangered but is facing a high nsk of extinction in the wild in the future. En - Endangered: A taxon Cnlically Endangered: Source: Walter and A is Endangered when taxon Gillett'^^'; is it possible to calculate the total area of each species Cnlically lUCN'"', it is not Cnlically Endangered but facing a very high nsk of extinction Endangered when it is facing an extremely high nsk of extinction in in the wild the wild in in the near future. the immediate future. of full The distribution and status of seagrasses 13 many species. Table 3 provides a list of known seagrass species and seagrass associates listed as threatened by lUCN'""'. The clear threats facing some the of focus of this list towards a few groups of probably is knowledge indicative of the general lack of of the status many seagrass associates. This problem has also more widely recognized by lUCN'"' which been acknowledges that "there has been no systematic assessment" apart from some limited groups. Of the species which have been listed, most remain poorly known or are ranked at a relatively low level of threat such as "Vulnerable". DISTRIBUTION OF SEAGRASS HABITAT The known locations of seagrass ecosystems, based on the mapping efforts described above, are presented in the World Seagrass Distribution Map IMap II and in maps which appear the Chapters 1-24. in some In parts of the world, notably the western North Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, Queensland lAustralial, Western Australia and maps some seagrass on parts of the Mediterranean, the are based on fairly comprehensive information information is distribution. more Elsewhere, available sporadic, restricted to individual A sea Hippocampus kuda. among Enhalus acoroides, horse. souttiern Peninsular Malaysia bays or national coverages for smaller countries, sites, though there may be some documentation distribution patterns. Typically this of broader the case for is areas such as the western Pacific, the Indian Ocean and the Caribbean. Over a few large stretches worlds coasts, there of alone their let density, extent or species composition. This is South America and notably The calculation of a global carbon budgets, and also of future Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands. broad distribution of seagrasses in most of the the worlds Seas, and further shows the considerable latitudinal range seagrasses. The most northerly locations for of Veranger in for Zostera fjord in Norway marina which at Russia (67°30'Nl and is recorded at 70°30'N, Cheshskaya Guba in Alaska (at 66°33'N1. The most southerly locations are for Zostera capricorni New Zealand, with the southernmost record being i6°55'S on Stewart Island, and Ruppia maritima Straits of A in is distinguish result from the lack of the world, but in in the distribution of available the that maps may data for certain parts other areas they reflect knowledge that no seagrass exists. of To in seagrass and of natural global priority in setting and resources for activities such as and conservation. date the only The latter paper, an area estimate directly, 600000 km^ of is estimate for some 600000 km"^^"' Charpy-Roubaud from derived reportedly Sournia'"'. area global seagrasses has been one figure of in assessing historical and and however, does not provide and it would appear that the derived from a global estimate seagrass productivity'""' and typical seagrass productivity figures taken from an unspecified source. between "no seagrass" and "no Gaps very of lines surveyed without finding seagrass and hence do information". is in they provide no information on the extent of coast- not loss fisheries This of maps may at Magellan |54°S1. limitation of these distribution seagrass habitat area global processes, particularly in management oceans and seas, including the Black, Caspian and Aral seagrasses are Africa important and useful for an assessment of the role of seagrasses Map shows West CALCULATING GLOBAL SEAGRASS AREA northern China and the Siberian coast, and parts Distribution of reflected here. the case for West Africa, South America. Greenland, The World Seagrass much of indeed have more seagrass communities than are the almost no information on exists whether or not seagrasses occur, of Thus the western coastlines estimate'"'*' seems too large, as the original source was itself based on an area 350000 km^ for seagrasses, salt global productivity estimate of only marshes and mangrove communities combined. The calculation of global and regional habitat areas tor the marine environment can be done using two broad approaches. The first is to estimate or model probable habitat area utilizing known and mapped parameters, such as bathymetry, coastal features or existing biogeographic knowledge. The second involves ;-/ 14 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 250 50 Overview Table i seagrass Estimates of described in this coverage for selected Average area areas % ; World Atlas 35.7 _40 1 1 11 111 1II _30 200 4.84 Chapter Area Ikm Location 1 Scandinavia 150 1850 2 Western Europe 3 Western Mediterranean 4152 i Euro-Asian Seas 2600 6 Saudi Arabia 370 8 Mozambique 439 338 100 50 0.61 9 39 India Western Australia 10 JO 353 0^ 10 2 663 165 360 - 65 500 25000 *v •v. 71371 11 Eastern Australia 12 Nevif 13 Thailand U Peninsular Malaysia 44 ^ # •v. / 94 # # ^ < c^ .^^ Zealand .^ Hectares 3 / Kosrae, Federated 15 States of Micronesia 16 Indonesia 16 Philippines 4 Viet Japan 18 Korea, Republic of 495 19 Pacihc coast of North America 20 Western North Atlantic coast of 1 of polygons is plotted on the pnmary y-axis Ibarsl against a logarithmic scale of area. The percentage frequency of each size 000 class 374 polygons 292 33 percent of the polygons USA IS plotted on the secondary y-axis IdotsI and the each in size category USA In the area calculation it in this was mean of 1 -10 ha in area. In other words swathe have an average area therefore assumed of 4,84 ha. thai a third of alt points at 22 Gulf of Mexico East coast of Florida 23 Mexico 23 Belize 23 Curacao 8 for 23 Bonaire 2 characteristics and other factors reduce this area of 19349 2 these latitudes were each representative of a seagrass area 4.84 ha 800 that 37 percent of points were representative of areas 35 7 ha within the depth range of parts large the of most seagrasses, although globe turbidity, 23 Tobago 23 Martinique 41 fraction of the world's nearshore waters. 23 Guadeloupe 82 area of seagrasses 23 Grand Cayman 25 shallow water area potential seagrass. 1 24 Brazil 24 Chile 2 upper 24 Argentina 1 likely to then the 200 in In reality, is maximum 10 If of mapped data to develop a more In many studies, elements of direct botti approaches have been combined. of continental shelf (coastal waters worldwide has been estimated km"'°'. Assuming imply an area of at to a total kml This many assumptions and is of the authors of the subregional and area or consulted expert opinion almost 25 million 5 million km' of would benthos to maps for produce estimates of seagrass coverage. Further details are provided in the relevant chapters but these totals are in Table 4. These chapters document some 164000 km' area depth of 200 m) a constant slope, this estimate approximately the be an overestimate. summarized Using a simple modeling approach, the of worlds continental shelves, have either summarized the existing seagrass use the total percent area would be 500000 incorporates limit seagrasses occupy only a less than of the substrate national chapters of this World Atlas of Seagrasses most cases. their calculation. in size, in size, etc. 500 1500 Note: Almost certainly an underestimate Ml all 22 Many the area of slated at the top of the columns. In this is swathe there are 180 seagrass polygons Mid-Atlantic coast of number Notes: The 70 in swathe 20-30°S latitudinal m Nam 16 1 Relative size-frequency distribution of 538 seagrass polygons 978 17 21 OvervievK Figure 30000 of seagrass but as these cover a limited geographic area and a subset of known locations they cannot be used to generate a global area. The World Seagrass Distribution Map, developed The distribut ion and status on a GIS, now is the most comprehensive map seagrass occurrence begun to explore m the existence. Using this direct calculation of global large and important seagrass we have factored of any into meadows and should be calculation experimented with methods global seagrasses of of area. of using the estimate the seagrass area of have V/e polygon data these points by seagrass area. to The World Seagrass Distribution Map dataset includes more than 37000 polygons and some 8800 calculating logarithmic size-frequency distributions of points. A total area of 124000 km'' is polygon The clearly defined by data distribution 10-degree in was then swathes. latitudinal applied to the points within the polygons but these provide only partial geographic the swathe, generating an estimate for total seagrass coverage from a few areas which tend area (Figure than are not available. mapped 1). Very small polygons, from data derived from remote sensing (these small polygons tend represent seagrass areas where habitat Point data maps be well l^nown. to Though more poorly l<nown or clusters polygons, derived single areas, these locations are likely to have of few from sketch to maps covering Overview Table 5 Functions aniJ values of seagrass fronn the wider ecosystem perspective Function Ecosystem values Primary production - including Seagrasses are benthic and epibenthic production turtles, fish, waterfowl, etc.l This productivity lies at the higfily productive, and play a as food for critical role base many herbivores (manatee, dugong, of the food chain and is also exported to adjacent ecosytems. The growing structures Canopy structure habitat, refuge seagrasses provide a complex three-dimensional environment, used as a of and nursery for numerous species, including commercially important fish and shellfish. Epiphyte and epifaunal substratum The large surface area of seagrass above-ground biomass provides additional space for epiphytes and epifauna, supporting high secondary productivity. Nutrient and contaminant filtration Seagrasses help to both settle and remove contaminants from the water column and sediments, improving water quality Sediment filtration and trapping The canopy in of the immediate environment and ad|acent habitats. seagrasses helps to encourage settlement of sediments and prevent resuspension, while the root systems help to bind sediments over the longer term, improving water quality and in some places helping to counter sea-level rise. Creating below-ground structure The complex and often deep structures and play Oxygen production of the seagrass roots and rhizomes support overall productivity a cntical role in binding sediments. The oxygen released from photosynthesis helps improve water quality and support faunal communities in seagrasses and adjacent habitats. Organic production and export Ivlany seagrass ecosystems are net exporters supporting estuarine and offshore of organic materials, productivity. a relatively stable environment, and nutrient recycling can be relatively Nutrient regeneration and Seagrasses hold nutrients recycling efficient, Organic matter accumulation Along with sediments the organic matter in supporting overall ecosystem productivity of roots, rhizomes and even leaves can remain bound within the sediment matrix, or accumulate on adjacent coastlines or other habitats, building up the level of the benthos and supporting other food webs. Wave and current energy By holding and binding sediments, and by preventing the scounng action dampening the benthos, seagrasses dampen the effects of of waves directly on wave and current energy, reduce processes of erosion, reduce turbidity and increase sedimentation. both self-maintenance and spreading to new areas Seed production/vegetative Seagrasses are capable expansion reproduction. Recovery following storms, disease or human-induced Self-suslaining ecosystem The complex community of of the via sexual and asexual damage can be relatively rapid. seagrass ecosystem supports important biodiversity and provides trophic interactions with other important ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, salt marshes and shellfish reefs. Carbon sequestration As perennial structures, seagrasses are one relatively long penods. In a of the few manne ecosystems which few places such carbon may be bound deeper oceans and thus play an important role in Source: Derived from Short e( a(,°" and Global Seagrass Workshop recommendations. into store carbon for sediments or transported long-term carbon sequestration. be and very large pixels], into the 15 16 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES enormous areas (e.g. the global National Geographic Overview Table i "Coral World" map], were excluded from this analysis Summary to goods and services provided by seagrass of the avoid serious under- and overestimates respectively. When combined ecosystems with polygon data this method generates an estimate for the global coverage Commercial and artisanal seagrass fisheries"^' of 177 000 km' (using median polygon areas of reduced the estimate by A percent). tlounderl™ It is based on the most comprehensive dataset on seagrass distribution Mollusks Iconch, oysters, mussels, scallops, clamsl'™ to Crustacea (shrimp, lobster, crab]" number of crude assumptions and is intended to be no more than indicative of the global extent of seagrass. In any event, even the 177000 km' Finfish (snappers, Mammals and emperors, rabbitfish, surgeonfish, reptiles (dugongs, However date. based upon manatee, green turtle!'" '" necessarily and is it unavoidably a Nursery habitat for offsliore fisheries""' is an underestimate Seeds of Zostera marina used to Rhizomes of make Enhalus used as food in flour by Sen Indians"'' Lamu, Kenya" of the actual global seagrass area, many areas seagrasses have since for Food documented. Until our knowledge of been not seagrasses in large areas such as insular Southeast Asia, the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa Fodder or bedding animals'""' for improves, Used unlikely that a is it better estimate can be generated. Fiber in mat weaving, Lamu, Kenya"" Basket making, thatch, stuffing mattresses, upholstery'"' THE VALUE OF SEAGRASSES Insulation"" Seagrasses are a ecosystem: their role critical production, and fisheries in sediment accumulation in Packing material'"' and Fertilizer stabilization, many and mulch""'"' in is well documented, but there are other important roles, both in terms of their place the ecosystem and their value to humanity. Table 5 Building dikes"" number lists a Coastal protection from erosion'*"""' Water purification Reducing eutrophication and phytoplankton blooms'™ Removing toxic organic of the functions of seagrasses from a wider ecosystem perspective. Seagrasses have a relatively low biomass compared with terrestrial ecosystems, but have a very high biomass in relation to planktonic-based marine compounds from water column and communities. Figures average for biomass vary sediment'"^" considerably between seagrass species and between communities Interaction with adjacent ecosystems'"' studies; Nutrient export'"' Posidonia Source of food or shelter, as a nursery, resting ground or in biomass, the of Amphibolis, Phyllospadix and noted particular are last's for high their enhanced by extensive stem and feeding ground"' root systems. In contrast, species of Halophila, with Water column their small petiolate leaves filtration'"' and high turnover rates, rarely achieve high biomass. Maintenance of biodiversity Dugongs, manatee, green and threatened species'" turtle'" Duarte and Chiscano"", "' Carbon dioxide biomass sink'"' a in literature review, from nearly iOO samples an average calculated for different seagrass species, and by averaging these values derived an average biomass for Cultural, esthetic and intrinsic values'"' seagrass of 460 g dry weight/m' (above- and below- Places of natural beauty ground biomass combined]. As an estimate of global Recreational value seagrass biomass, such estimates are biased towards Educational value large Stabilizing sediments seagrass species. Taking these factors into account, the median biomass statistic of 205 g dr^ weight/m^ also from data in Duarte and Chiscano, may Binding function of roots'"' be a more accurate reflection of the typical biomass for Role of shoots in reducing surface flow and encouraging seagrass communities worldwide. settlement'"™ terms In of productivity, Duarte and Chiscano"" estimated an average net primary production Source: Various sources - see references by entries 1012 g dry weight/mVyear. Even of about allowing for overestimation, such figures are very high for marine The distribution and status communities, with the same source figures weight/mVday and citing productivity communities macroatgal for phytoplankton of of of 1 The g dry dioxide from the role and weight/mVday. The high productivity and biomass many are an integral part of of their of seagrasses uses and values in removing carbon is still being investigated the worlds oceans dry 0.35 change Mitigating climate g of remains seagrasses of atmosphere understood. poorly appears that It biological processes in the surface layers of the world's oceans are one few mechanisms actively the of A broad sample of the goods and sen/ices provided by seagrasses is shown in Table 6, while further information on a number of these is given in the text, both here and in many of the removing carbon dioxide from the global carbon regional and national chapters. primary productivity from human a perspective. Within these processes, seagrasses clearly cycle'"'. have minor a role productivity gives basis, and they organic Seagrass ecosystems are highly productive and also requires'""'. the global oceans on a unit area than produce considerably more Any removal organic material into the sediments or binding export into the deep waters biomass and productivity high important fish species to be maintained" species utilized '". Seagrasses important nursery area for provide an also commercially of in offshore fisheries and habitats such as coral reefs and mangrove many important species and seagrasses species are found forests. In habitats. not obligatory; the There are, however, a number show clearly is other shallow marine in the of represents effective removal the continental shelf off of carbon dioxide from the ocean-atmosphere system which could play some in role the amelioration of climate change impacts. adjacent in most cases, the association between commercially same carbon either through of providing a combination of food and shelter that enables a ecosystem seagrass the have a relatively complex physical structure, thus of high their a disproportionate influence on typically carbon Fisheries in although play, to them studies which higher biomass of such species Maintaining biodiversity and threatened species The concept of seagrasses as high-diversity marine ecosystems has often been overlooked, but this role has already been also play a role in Seagrasses briefly outlined above. safeguarding a number of threatened species, including those such as sirenians, turtles and have very associated with seagrasses as compared with adjacent sea horses, which are widely perceived unvegetated areas'^l high cultural, esthetic or intrinsic values by particular groups. The wider functions Sediment and coastal protection only submerged marine photo- stabilization Seagrasses are the maintenance biochemical of trophs with an underground root and rhizome system. understood, role This below-ground biomass resilience. often equal to that of the is of biodiversity and in a include the with genetic variability, utility, to potential though poorly possible, supporting ecosystem function and above-ground biomass, and can be considerably more e.g. Posidonia"". The binding sediments illustrated in a role of these roots is and rhizomes in highly important, as has been number of studies that have compared erosion on vegetated versus non-vegetated areas during storm events. The role process is of seagrass shoots in this also important, as these provide a stable Economic valuation have been very few studies of the direct There economic value Florida, the of seagrasses. Monroe County, In value of commercial fisheries for species which depend on seagrasses US$48.7 million per year, whilst recreational as well as the diving and snorkeling industry therefore encouraging the settlement of sediments and county, contribute large inhibiting their resuspension'"'. also indirectly dependent on seagrasses'"'. Water purification and nutrient cycling By enhancing processes of sedimentation, and through to the at fisheries, surface layer above the benthos, baffling currents and sums five was estimated in economy and that are Costanza et a/."" calculated a global value of annual ecosystem services for "seagrass/algae beds" of US$19004 per hectare per yean With their estim- by ated total area for these combined ecosystems of seagrasses and their epiphytes, seagrass ecosystems 2000000 km' they calculated a global annual value of US$3801 000000000 li.e. US$3.8 trillion], based the relatively rapid uptake of nutrients both remove nutrients from the water column. Once removed these nutrients can be released only slowly through a process of decomposition and consumption, quite different from the rapid turnover observed phytoplankton-dominated systems. seagrasses can reduce problems bind organic pollutants'^'. of In this in way almost entirely on their which is only one of same source role many values in "nutrient cycling", of the ecosystem. The gives no value to seagrass/algae beds for food production. Further information eutrophication and full economic value of is needed to demonstrate the seagrass ecosystems worldwide. 17 18 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES populations which and have resulted areas disproportionately along live the Such conditions threaten seagrass ecosystems coasts. the in substantial loss of in more populated as degradation many seagrass parts of the world, as well much wider areas of over the last 100 years. A number been of natural threats to Geological recorded. seagrasses have may impacts include coastal uplift or subsidence, raising or lowering beds than ideal growing conditions. Meteorological to less impacts can also affect seagrasses: major storm events may remove particular in surface blomass and even uproot and erode wide areas of shallow water Finally there are biological impacts. Typically these are part the of processes ongoing ecosystems, such as grazing by geese sirenians, or turtles; they seagrass in sea urchins, fish, Include also disruption to the sediments by burrowing animals or foraging species such as rays. is rare that such however, represent an Diseases, areas. It should disrupt seagrass beds over large activities important impact which can have very widespread biological The eelgrass wasting disease recorded from in the 1930s'"'" was caused by the effects. the North Atlantic slime mold Labyrinthuia zosterae"'™. This wasting disease continues to occur and remains a threat to Damage to Islands, UK seagrass beds caused by yachts in eelgrass Jersey, Channel in implicated It be important not only will from activities measure to such as fisheries but also Indirect values maintenance of many ways including 51 water quality and protecting coastlines. dollar values provide only a part of the true picture of the value of an ecosystem, and Important to consider other possible value, including quality of life value from a even when it is to quantify employment, protein supply or even as alternative measures which address human perspective. It should be noted that dollar values are estimated they do not represent the entire worth way means of the ecosystem and in no threats THREATS TO SEAGRASSES The global threats to a/."", Phillips have seagrasses number of authors Hemminga and Duarte"'] summarized In seems declines likely that (e.g. and Durako"'', Short and Wyllie- efforts are only Echeverrla"", received In here. and their many cases it seagrass areas have been the result not of Individual threats but a combination of impacts. Typical combined impacts turbidity, may include in- Increased nutrient loads and direct mechanical damage. Seagrasses exist at the margin and are highly vulnerable to the seagrasses to in now are direct destruction of these habitats. Dredging to develop or widen shipping lanes of fishery such as benthic trawling, have led to losses of wide areas lead seagrass. Boating activities frequently of propeller damage, to groundings or anchor damage, often increasing sediment resuspenslon or creating holes and Initiating seagrass beds. Construction waters have sometimes led IS a clear in losses considerable attention from a creased Florida and open new ports and harbors, and certain types example, as some arising is to losses; land a In coastal reclamation the construction of aquaculture to some direct losses, and to further from shading or fragmentation seagrass beds. The alteration regime as "blow-out" areas activities within areas. Even the construction of docks and piers can lead Short ef in an extensive seagrass die-off"". widespread. Many result ponds constitute a purchase value. in Human direct value associated with various functions liable In the North Atlantic'™'. Similarly Bay, disease caused by Labyrlnthula sp. has been result of coastal of the of hydrologicat development and the building of sea defenses can also Impact seagrasses. There are examples of direct and deliberate removal of seagrasses, for example to "clean" tourist beaches or to maintain navigation channels. In addition, many seagrass beds have been human activities. affected by the indirect impacts of Land-based threats include Increases of sediment land-sea toads: higher turbidity reduces light levels, while very worlds human high sedimentation smothers entire seagrass beds. The distribution and status while seagrasses can assimilate certain Similarly, and levels of nutrient toxic pollutants, high levels of Caulerpa seagrass beds. observed seagrass photosynthesis by excess epiphytic over- same impact blooms or competition macroalgae. Toxins can poison and rapidly. Another indirect threat introduction of alien or exotic comes from the The alga species. same species was 1999, the In impacts the of of new threat, which on seagrasses are largely undetermined"". Potential threats from climate change may come from marine protected areas WPAsl that contain seagrass ecosystems, from the Country or territory Number of sites rising sea levels, changing UNEP-WCMC Protected Areas Database Numbe r Country or territory of sites Anguilla Monaco 1 Antigua and Barbuda Mozambique 8 11 Australia Netherlands Antilles Bahamas Nicaragua Bahrain Patau Belize Panama Papua New Guinea Brazil British Indian Philippines Ocean Territory Cambodia Puerto Rico Canada Reunion Cayman Russian Federation Islands China Saint Lucia Colombia Saint Vincent and the Grenad nes Costa Rica Saudi Arabia Croatia Seychelles Cuba Singapore Cyprus Slovenia Dominica South Africa Dominican Republic Spain France Tanzania French Polynesia Thailand Germany Tonga Guadeloupe Trinidad and Tobago Guam Tunisia Guatemala Turks and Caicos Islands Honduras Ukraine India United Kingdom Indonesia United States Israel United States minor outlying sland Italy Venezuela 10 31 Nam Jamaica Viet Kenya Virgin Islands (British) 5 Korea, Republic of Virgin Islands lUSI 5 Madagascar Malaysia first there""'. Overview Table 7 Summary in the coast of California and could have the off Climate change represents a relatively from seagrasses kill released into the Mediterranean taxifolia, runoff and enriched groundwater discharge can reduce planktonic seagrasses 1980s, has smothered and killed wide areas of the increased nutrients from sev\/age disposal, overland growth, of 13 Martinique Few these sites are Mauntania Note; Mauritius protection, Mexico important areas of and in managed many cases of seagrass in directly to su pport they do not protect a region. tt e seagrass most tidal 19 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES regimes, localized decreases ctianges events. In tfie In damage from salinity, and intensity distribution from resulting In carbon dioxide fiigher Various studies have attempted to quantify the decline of seagrasses, although areas without any knowledge and Wyllle-Echeverria'" must be accepted It degraded or that seagrasses have been "' lost over vast of their existence. an provide Short analysis of seagrass losses from reports worldwide. They found 2900 km' seagrass was documented of between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, and they extrapolated Improvement are effect. areas likely seagrass losses over that time gazetted sites where certain (but (ivIPAsI, legally means human alll order in Whether out number increasing worldwide WCMC sites 1960 an in MPA the expanding in number indirect present is of fisheries. I^PAs has Increased of MPAs recent years, from less than 500 In in habitat of network. The total dramatically protection or as an Interest direct of seagrass beneficiary, some promote sustainable to or activities are controlled provide to marine resources or more than 4000 by 2001 (UNEP- to data, but note that this figure includes intertidal subtidal as well as period alone of up to 12000 km' worldwide. although only localized the establishment of marine protected Is prohibited high and rates is low. fulore practical protection, in by no concentrations"". that a loss of regional scales. Unfortunately the cost of extreme of Increases be could there contrast productivity In and unpredictable impacts from ultraviolet radiation, No MPAs have been sitesl. designated solely for the protection of seagrasses; PROTECTING SEAGRASSES however seagrasses are often one The dramatic and accelerating declines In seagrass areas worldwide are mirrored In other coastal habitats singled out ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs'^"'. Concerns about these declines have prompted some Australia). Increase In efforts protect to ecosystems. these Perhaps the most valuable protection measure wholesale reduction Impacts via legislation the is anthropogenic of the full suite of and enforcement and at local protection (e.g. when a of Many other majority of MPAs, seagrasses are not acknowledged or directly ^M MPAs on lUCN World Commission on Protected Areas. Linked Tuldlditfdpiulecleil, the areas which are II m summary ^"^ to the known has been prepared and (right-hand scalel 150 is current work, a to contain presented and may ^,— 1900 10 20 30 100 has been used seems 50 60 to 1 70 )0 and mangrove 2002 90 A is list forests (over 1 to 72 countries likely be to in literature which develop this database. Even so. that this likely In far It smaller than the equivalent network for coral reefs (more than ^=::::-ii 40 2. well occur at a site but not be recorded, or not be listed . Appendix In These numbers are territories. conservative: seagrasses f of of this Information is provided in Table 7. Worldwide there are some 247 MPAs known 200 50 list seagrass habitat include seagrasses. These are located 100 to Florida maintains a global database on behalf of the (left-hand scalel thousand km' (e.g. to the Everglades]. UNEP-WCMC jiiiiiilll! MPA With increased awareness, protected. boundaries and protection could be expanded Bay adjacent Number of sites in seagrasses even sites Include when the key natural resource behind their protection may be something else, such as a coral reef. In the 500 — for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Incorporate adjacent seagrass habitats 250 key of list recommended sites are 660'°'! 800, unpublished data 20001 and clearly does not present any form of global must be the recognition Overview Figure 2 network. Added Grov^th of marine protected areas which include seagrass the vast majority of these sites do not provide any ecosystems, shown both as the number of sites llinel and the total area protected (shaded areal clear protection within MPAs is Figure 2 Notes: The total area statistics are for the entire MPAs, there Intormation on the area of seagrass within these sites but it is Is likely to to this seagrasses for - their in seagrass that Inclusion largely fortuitous. shows the increase MPAs should be noted that the area no over the past century. be figures (shaded areal are a It measure of the total area only a small fraction of the total area. Figure 2 covers only those sites for covered by these MPAs. At the present time which a date Impossible to determine the area of seagrasses within of designation shown here there are a whose year has been recorded. In addition to the 205 sites further 42 with a total area of of designation Is not known. some 3 500 km' these sites, although It Is likely to fraction of the total area. It It Is be only a very small should further be noted that The distribution and status — "v - of seagrasses • \y •.>>•• • "O cu \...£.. s ^ \ <u — k tn i^hA^^ ''^ TO . .-^ 2: en * ai £ ^ j2 Ol ro i_) != 22 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES % , • •/••••-. I f '<^*--. >*'!"1 \y ::^. v. ? ' v^ »~. -'.V- <v* ^rA^^ S- ^1 ra The distribution and status seagrasses of designation as "protected" covers a broad range of types of protection, botfi in terms the such as sites, Research Reserves Estuarine National United States, protection under their supporting legislation. may other cases, even where the legislation may be the in do not provide any direct formal safeguard, management and of legal status Some practical application of that status. habitat many In provide a inadequate. The worlds largest MPA, Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, has made some efforts trawling seagrass areas, but in most others worldwide, is prevent to this entire park, like subject to influences still from beyond the park boundaries. managewas considered for some 3'12 MPAs in Southeast Asia and was rated as "good" for only 46 sites 114 percent!"". Finally, many of the threats facing seagrasses come from remote sources, notably terrestrial runoff. Few protected areas currently manage entire watersheds and the legal framework is typically In a ment recent analysis by regional experts, effectiveness powerless and to control nutrient and toxic pollution sedimentation arising outside an MPA. In addition to the designation of measures have proved places, MPAs, other legal some beneficial to seagrasses in although seagrasses themselves are rarely The shallow seagrass beds of Montepuez Bay, Mozambique, low at tide. singled out as the object of protection. Such legislation includes restrictions on particular activities such as trawling, dredging or *he release of land-based sources of degradation such as sediments and pollutants. For example, Queensland waters in (Australia! sea- all grasses and other marine plants are specifically protected under the Fisheries Act protection activities. 1994, of commercial and recreational of South Australia seagrass In for the fishing protected is development. Transplanting cannot be successful unless the conditions for seagrass to thrive pre-exist"". Although widely undertaken pensive'"'. Technologies for and include developing models advanced methods In under Section and dredge and seagrasses Water Act from without activities a permit'"'. important, such legislation is rare, direct Although and still fill clearly insignificant but available, at the Restoration of stage where technologies are overcoming insufficient water quality conditions remains the greatest obstacle to seagrass addition to legal protection, public education can play an important role notably via the in protection safeguarding seagrasses, of charismatic seagrass associates such as turtles and dugongs, but also directing of activities Coles and methods In which could impact seagrasses. Fortes"" provide a valuable review direct for the and indirect protection We know a substantial amount about seagrasses in many parts of the world, but there remain considerable gaps in our knowledge. As the taxonomies of various species are revised, even our understanding of of many how species of seagrass there are will be subject to debate and change. Seagrass improvement CONCLUSIONS of seagrasses. In now is criteria"". evolving, selection'™', and seeding"", for transplanting"*' success scientific for site restoration worldwide. at the global level. In many more uniformly successful and less expensive seagrass transplanting are under the Native Vegetation Act 1992. 4041cl of the Clean areas, can be quite labor intensive and ex- transplanting States, seagrass habitats are protected the United some In transplantation efforts have had low success rates and restoration may include of overall conditions for an area, such as an improvement both the seagrass growth in water clarity The range of individual seagrass species is new series of maps. By combining these range maps we are also able to look at biodiversity presented in a seagrasses as whole. The primary resulting from decreased runoff or nutrient inputs, as patterns well as direct transplanting or seeding of seagrasses"". centers of seagrass biodiversity are identified here as Sometimes transplanting is mandated as mitigation for unavoidable damage to seagrasses incurred in coastal Australia, with additional areas insular in Southeast Asia, a Japan in and southwest southern India and 23 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 24 eastern Africa. While there some important are parallels between seagrasses and the two other major tropical coastal ecosystems coral of notably with the seagrass centers of diversity Japan in southwestern Australia but also with the in occurrence seagrasses of high latitudes as well as in clear that, despite the relative paucity of is seagrass species, as a habitat these communities are in There are many thousands fact highly diverse. species recorded living in urgent need understanding of the full is more comprehensive range and diversity The work presented here includes of life in map a detailed locations of seagrass habitats around the we world. Once again are have to physical destruction and a range of indirect direct most also being decreases critical water in from nutrient and sediment inputs but clarity resulting In many linked to change. climate including seagrass declines have been threats. In cases, multiple we have assembled an the present work assessment marine of Some lUl seagrasses worldwide. made aware of considerable areas protected include seagrass ecosystems. This known appear latter recent years, and include stresses, acting together. In only a few places around develop a to in the world are measures being taken to address these seagrasses. sites are is a far with known to lower figure than for other shallow marine ecosystems, while further must concern expressed be effectiveness of these sites in about the protecting seagrasses, an urgent need for both from direct impacts and from the Indirect impacts clearer documentation of the existence and location of such as pollution and sedimentation which may be gaps in our knowledge. There seagrass ecosystems West Africa, for example. Even within areas seagrass biodiversity, our data is western South America and in in many cases about the actual distribution little in of high is occurrence and not on of area of coverage. The importance of the high levels of primary productivity seagrasses in is these are clearly disproportionate covered by these habitats. well known, and the total area to would be Invaluable It of the seagrasses worldwide to better analyze the may these that role and fisheries, in in order play global and in regional climatic and oceanic carbon cycles. the absence of any better data of the value of seagrasses, to benefit total of in evaluations economic value seagrasses in life from their presence. histories, assessing these fisheries. are constrained often and many of fail for in munities around the world, and relating distribution, to these beautiful and critically an ecosystem. The stabilizing issues illustrate status and here. seagrass com- management critical role sediments, such analyses. In of important ecosystems. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This chapter would not have been possible without the help and input from all the participanis at the Global Seagrass Workshop which was held in St Petersburg, Florida . all the chapters written by the regional authors Isee Table of Contents). The is gratefully acknowledged. Jackson Estuarine Laboratory contnbution number 397. AUTHORS M. Spalding, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK. Contact address; 17 The Green, Ashley, Newmarket, Suffolk, CBS 9EB, UK. Tel: *« IGI1638 730760. E-mail: mark0mdspalding.co.uk by to calculate the erosion and even cleaning coastal waters accounted of fish, and seagrasses Economic themes considered assistance provided by Sergio Martins and Mary Edwards of often critical! part of their analytical procedures various October 2001 The chapters authors have also drawn heavily on for a short (but considered of the They provide detailed examples in species are not obligatory users of seagrass rarely and distribution this of detailed examination of seagrass we have undertaken an Many others use seagrass ecosystems are more a the Estuarine Research Federation meeting although such values are often overlooked. For ecosystems, but appear The chapters which make up the bulk work provide at 177000 km'. There can be no doubt many seagrass areas from beyond the In analysis of seagrass area and suggest a conservative estimate the into reserve boundaries. to area of develop an accurate estimate total carried known is seagrasses. tvluch of of World Seagrass Distribution Map for the based on individual points vCI increased dramatically these of are strictly confined to seagrass ecosystems. There of the anthropogenic causes. The association with seagrass communities, although only a small proportion an of seagrasses have been widely to considered by other authors and include natural and threats, the the tropics. It The threats and reefs mangroves, there are also important divergences, and measures, which include social welfare, health and well-being, are difficult to measure. M. Taylor, C. Ravilious, E. Green, UNEP World Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, Conservation Monitoring CB3 ODL, UK. reducing is rarely F addition, other Adams Short, University of Point Road, New Hampshire, Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, 85 Durham, NH 0382i, USA. The distribution and status 22 REFERENCES Menez EG Phillips RC, Mass Press, Washington DC. Bay lUSAl. Marine Ecology Progress Series MA. Duarte CM 23 Seagrass Ecology. Cambridge [20001. Kuo den Hartog C [20011. Seagrass taxonomy and J. Short FT, Coles key. In: RG ledsl Global development. Larkum AWD, McComb In: 24 -58. SA AJ, Shepherd 25 ledsl 26 with Special Reference to the Australian Region. Elsevier, Nevi RG ledsl [20011. Global 27 Seagrass Research 28 Sinai Spalding MD, Blasco F. Field CD Atlas. International Society for ledsl (19971. 29 30 CGN 32 Short FT. Coles RG ledsl Global Vynne C. 33 McCoy ED, Heck KL The vortex model to the seagrasses and 35 biogeography and climate through the sun or led] foss/7s a pattern of islands' [1989]. 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The seagrass iZostera S, IZOSTERACEAEll industry 83 6(}: variation. 41-56. Waycott M, Freshwater DW, York RA, Catladine A and Kenworthy [20021. Evolutionary trends in the WJ seagrass genus Halophila IThouarsI: insights from molecular phytogeny. Bulletin of Marine Science. Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea The seagrasses 1 of SCANDINAVIA AND THE BALTIC SEA Bostrbm C. Baden S.P. Krause-Jensen D. supports only a small fraction Scandinavia seagrass resource; however, global reports on of Denmark""". Tfiis cfiapter importance summarizes Finland, in the distribution tfie from area, non-tidal areas of approach Is and includes information on of the Baltic Sea, Including Germany, Poland, Lithuania, and Estonia (see f^ap dominates sandy and muddy sediments of Due sites Is found around Iceland, have been identified since the forms moderately exposed Danish and extended forms eelgrass coasts to Its grows by sandbars, while in wide isolated populations on belts eelgrass protected salinity, In fully marine waters. Ruppiaspp. and Zostera the Inner edges (0.5-1.5 maximum to m noltii maximum m areas of In can co-occur depth) of eelgrass. ml water colonization depths that often the Secchi depth. parts 4 eelgrass salinity tolerance (5-35 psul'", the Inner parts of brackish estuaries and sheltered bays and down Eelgrass Denmark, Eelgrass occurs from shallow [0.5-1 the north Atlantic, eelgrass coastal in In populations generally form more coherent patches. low 1.11. Norway 1950s''*'. moderate wave exposure. to eelgrass. Along interrupted at where about 30 low of Swedish DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS In the most widely distributed seagrass, and is very exposed areas facing the North Sea are devoid in most eelgrass from Iceland, Norway and the coastal areas Latvia eelgrass marina, Denmark, Sweden and holistic, is coast, as well as in Danish waters, On the Swedish west areas based on research maps and anecdotal The Swedish west coast and Denmark distribution Baltic coastal waters. Altfiougfi of tfie quantitative Information carried out tfils Zostera eelgrass, of Scandinavian and first seagrass meadows ecosystems derive from for coastal and importance tfie of tfie tfie In match the inner parts of estuaries, the colonization depth is about 3 m, and along open coasts about 5 m"° outer in rare '". In very clear waters, eelgrass penetrates to m shallow exposed and sheltered sandy bottoms along cases the entire Norwegian coast'" and extends Into the White mean Sea. The only Norwegian seagrass paper reports displays a bell-shaped distribution pattern along the eelgrass densities between 50 and 160 shoots/m' and depth canopy heights generally between although plant the in extreme cases the length may exceed 15 and 60 cm, of an Individual 180 cm'". Areas of low density have highest canopies. The average biomass lApril- Novemberlat the two sites studied was 20 and AO g dry welght/m^ respectively (range: 12-60 g dry welght/m^ Figure 1.11 The associated fauna is rich (265 taxa, including mobile macrofauna and epiphytes! and ranges between 5 000 and 10 000 individuals/ml The crustacean species assemblage Is dominated by six or of sea level (tidal and deep water"'' abundance The biomass in at shallow Danish and of in late summer at above 250 g dry weight/m'. Maximum 000 and 2 500 densities range between levels reaching shoot 1 shoots/m^ "'""'". Exposure, desiccation and may reduce seagrass abundance while reductions lower depth in in Ice scour shallow water, seagrass abundance towards the limit correlate with light attenuation along the depth gradient"'''"'"'. southernmost Sweden, eelgrass meadows crustose and upright algae'". Consequently, these and shallow, vegetated sites are of great importance for corresponding Skagerrak area"". '". Swedish eelgrass populations peaks flourish on stony of fish in the maximum with gradient, Eelgrass to O.A ml. intermediate depths and lower abundances seven families of amphipods, while the epiphytic community is characterized by hydroids. bryozoans and young year classes range ±0.1 1 In may reach to and sandy bottoms and densities 3 600 welght/m', respectively at 2-4 m standing shoots/m' and 470 [site 11 in Figure depth, crops g dry 1.11''". The 27 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 28 Western 600 J i 400 CD * (Baltic proper] and shows fluctuations (generally 10-18 psu in salinity water region eelgrass In this found both along exposed sandy shores and in long, inner bays ("Forden"! and shallow lagoons ("Bodden", _CTt S marine (North Sea] and brackish is -o zone between a transition is but occasionally 8-28 psu'""'!. 300 the Kiel and the Baltic Sea, Ivlecklenburger Bights, T''^^'' 500 Sea and Germany composed of Baltic The western reduced water exchange and muddy "Haffs"! with 200 substrate""^". Along exposed shores, the upper limit kj ri-lllllll Sweden Norway ^ <? ,^ Ger. ^ •$'?' ^ i? <? -<? •'§^;«^ Swed. Finland ^ ^ ^ <* of distribution by wave-induced disturbance. set is m continuous beds are found from 2.5 Typically, depth and deeper. Additionally, patchy beds are found between the sand reefs and the shore at depths of 12 of m. sandy areas, eelgrass grows down In 8 m, and there eelgrass is depth to a an almost continuous belt of along the shoreline, although on gravel- all and stone-dominated substrates plants are rare. Extended populations are found m Orth Bay, in Kiel Figure 1.1 Average above-ground biomass values for eelgrass [Zostera marina] along the Baltic |>1 Ig Klutzhoved, dry weight/m'l between Travemunde and Wismar Bay and north of Zingst (Falkenstem! Fjord 1+1 SEl in the Peninsula"". Zostera Sea coastline Schleimunde, 500 km] noltii has been reported from Wismar Heiligenhafen, Bay and Greifswald Lagoon"". Source Various sources"- "'". Oresund area between Denmark and Sweden 10 (sites 8- Figure 111 also supports well-developed eelgrass in meadows at 1.5-6 m the Kiel area (Belt Sea] the eelgrass growing In period depth'''^ In September 2000, four approximately 210 days, and growth IS June, In Kiel Fjord (Friednchsort in and Moeltenort), eelgrass eelgrass sites along this 100-km coastline showed the density following features: coverage: 20-80 percent; density: Kiel Bight 293-1 573 shoots/m'; above-ground biomass: 69-193 g dry weight/m': shoot length: 25-125 cm; and shoot mud width: 0.2-0.5 cm'"'. eelgrass standing stock for two sites There are qualitative and quantitative data on the leaf on the leaves], mobile epifauna (intermediate predator invertebrates and (secondary coast"'''". predators! fishi from and piscivore Swedish the Data on infauna are more scarce'" '*'. fish west Due to is 600-1 600 shoots/m''"'". The biomass range in 450-600 and 200-800 g dry weight/m' on and sand, respectively, and the daily production is is mean annual 1.5-2.2 g carbon/m"™'. In the 1970s, the Holstem fauna Idefined as the sessile and motile fauna living initiated is August-September and stops in March. Shoot lengths range between 20 and UOcm'™"'. peaks in A (Kiel Bight] was Schleswig- in 42.5 metric tons/ha"". 1-3 m] typical feature of shallow (depths of eelgrass beds [MytUus is their co-occurrence with blue which eduiis], mutualism""'. represents Isopods [Idotea mussels facultative a and spp.] snails {Hydrobia spp., Littorina spp.! are abundant grazers, the high organic content of most western Swedish and seagrass beds l2-2i percent ash-free dry weight], the respectively, highlighting the importance of biological infauna (40-130 000 individuals/m'l polychaetes dominated detritivores and by and nematodes. tube-building suspension dominated by is The leaf fauna is amphipods, mainly feeders (80-250 000 remove interactions, symptoms (e.g. biomass eelgrass which may epiphytes, locally override the negative of eutrophication'"^". Schlei Estuary!, eelgrass birds, especially and is In shallow lagoons also mute swans ICygnus consumed by olor]. mdividuals/m-j, whereas the IS low. abundance of herbivores Shrimps and crabs make up 90 percent of the The Swedish east coast mobile epifauna, and fishes constitute only about 10 Eelgrass penetrates into the brackish (0-12 psu] Baltic percent of the intermediate predator abundance (30- Sea, and 160 individuals/m', with maximum abundances in late summer!. The piscivore fishes (eelpout, cod and salmon] are few during daytime""'. Faunal communities of Danish eelgrass beds are similarly received little rich, but have attention since the 1960s"" and 1970s'"'. is common in most coastal areas. The northern and eastern distribution limits of eelgrass correlate with the 5 psu halocline. The usual depth of eelgrass Baltic to Sea is 2-4 m (range 1-10 ml. Zostera southern Sweden, and Baltic'"'. to Lithuania in noltii in the extends the eastern At present, the northern limit of Zostera noltii in E J Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea 20" '0'^ E 30- E ^v ;.'g: N A ."-' \ 'i SORTH V-. it.l II '' y" FINLAND \. ""/;;, "" NORWAY ^;. ^P"' 60' Archipelago ^ i^y'" Aland 'ji^ SWEDEN • ^ ' KlauvaJ MtC Gullmarsfjoia .1 Knslansand |S> ^V '. . ..^''- V^-Jj^ 1- siortIMm ' III la II Hanko Pwiinviib ESTONIA _ -^ skafl6 iiirt Sli.l Y it, /'V r , Uiilfiil VaslacviK Limljwden ^ .- ,^ i.. •Vendelsofjord DENMARK^ » J HV^^ T» •** Fredshog * Sandhammaren i ^- . Heillgenhafen " Mecklrnhun^er Biglil ' V in iiiiiwi },i,il LITHUANIA Ltomholm ZinjiM Oril, f,i,kL.i,:ixii, I'uimMib Riigen • (^ (. 'lin^iiihl ^T /X* y!^ , >.v/ fiit^H- Map Landskrofia < « tiolland _ Kalma-sund.f j,|^„j • . * lliau " •. • .;l ^^^^^ „/ '.•«„,* ,L,,,„„„ ^^^ ^^^ POLAND GERMANY 100 150 200 250 KilometefS 1.1 Scandinavia the Baltic Sea seagrass beds is in unknown. Due the Baltic to lack of tides, all Sea are permanently submerged, and often mixed with limnic angiosperms le.g. Potamogeton spp. and Myriphytlum On most extensive eelgrass meadows are probably found in is Sweden (Sandhammaren common to VastervikI, on sandy bottoms with good water exchange. The demographic information from this area anecdotal evidence, diving observations coastal eelgrass monitoring (University of is based on made during Kalmarl, and S. Tobiasson. Dense shallow stands have short (20 cm], narrow (2-3 grow in Ruppia spp.l. the brackish 16-8 psul east coast of Sweden, the the sandy Kalmarsund-Oland. Along the southeastern coast of unpublished data by mml leaves and usually mixed stands with Potamogeton pectinatus, maritima, Zannichellia palustris and bladderwrack Fucus vesiculosus, while the deepest stands are sparse, monospecific and have longer (>80 cm] and broader (5 mml leaves. The coverage pattern 10-50 m^ with a is usually patchy (patch area mean coverage of 50-75 percent, range 5-100 percent). At the main distribution depth, the shoot density 100 and 1 is mean 500-600 shoots/m^ but ranges between 0^0 shoots/m'', depending on depth. The 29 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 30 Figure 1.2 are mainly controlled by physical factors (Figure Aerial photographs of two typical exposed eelgrass [Zostera tfie marina] sites at the Hanko Peninsula, southwest Finland, northern the leeside of islands, while nnore sheltered, inner bays Baltic Sea (adjacent on to site 16 in Figure l.ll 1.21. In Arcfiipelago Sea, eelgrass beds are found towards mainland do not support eelgrass beds. the Eelgrass sites Finland vary in terms in patch size of (1- 75 m'l, shoot density (50-500 shoots/m'l, shoot length [20-100 biomass cml, [10-32.1 ash-free g dry weight/m'"" and sediment properties (organic content 0.5-1.5 percent, grain size 0.125-0.5 shoot densities result [138-523 mg dry weight/ mVday""]. The associated fauna of Finnish seagrass beds rich well described"'''. is A sedimentary fauna (25 000-50 000 individuals/m^ and species'""' 50 mm). The low low areal production rates in a distinct fauna'"""') leaf contributes significantly to coastal Finland. Northern Baltic seagrass biodiversity in communities lack crabs and echinoderms, and the nursery role for a. Kolaviken |59°49'N, 22°59'E!: the high-energy regime at this site is reflected in a complex, patchy economically important species fish but limited, is seagrass beds serve as feeding grounds bed structure. for fish. HUMAN USE OF SEAGRASSES The \JM^:^0^ use and manufacture direct of eelgrass-based materials has been local and intermittent. Denmark In and other countries dried eelgrass leaves have been used as fuel, packing and upholstery material, insulation and roof material, feeding and bedding livestock, fertilizer In and as a resource for domestic to obtain salt"""'. Sweden, dried eelgrass leaves have mainly been used for insulation eelgrass of houses. resources of Historically, the sheltered the abundant lagoons western Baltic Sea (Germany) have been the in utilized for upholstery and insulation. The last eelgrass collector at Maasholm, Germany, b. Ryssholm (59°60'N, 23°05"E): the continuous eelgrass bed at the abundant eelgrass meadows Notes: The areas covered by eelgrass in [al and [bl are 23 and 6 hectares, approximately 2-6 m. is southern Sweden (Skanel and the east coast 1940s'''™. The current appreciation of the of seagrasses primarily concerns the services that seagrasses provide of enhancing biodiversity, providing ecosystems in areas for commercially important species, improving water quality by reducing particle loads and absorbing dissolved influencing global carbon and nutrient cycling'^". limit of distribution associated fauna have been carried meadows support more rich leaf is Few studies of Stockholm'"'. out'^ in but these than 20 infaunal species and a fauna with over 30 species"". stabilizing sediments and HISTORICAL AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION Norway Along the southeastern coast of Norway (between the Norwegian-Swedish border and Kristiansand), almost 100 sites Finland, eelgrass nutrients, the of the Finland and Aland Islands In terms nursery and foraging shores of Gotland Island support extensive eelgrass northern Archipelago the before the Oland Island lack eelgrass"". The semi-exposed sandy meadows. The northern the In indicating the area in to the overall functioning of coastal above-ground biomass may exceed 100 g dry weight/m' (site 13 in Figure 1.1). The steep, exposed coastal areas of 1960s, material before the Second World War, outer edge of the bed. respectively The depth range covered by eelgrass the in human communities on Curonian Spit [Lithuania) used eelgrass as upholstery interrupted by sandbars, while circular to highly irregular, elongated patches are found retired southeastern Baltic Sea, is have been monitored since the connection with grows exclusively on exposed or 1930s in beach seine surveys each autumn [September-October) by the Institute of Marine moderately exposed bottoms with sandy sediments. Research'". The estimated by aquascope, and seagrass cover has been spatial patterns of eelgrass beds in shallow water The presence of vegetation has been Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea divided into the following categories: some = few plants. 3 = bottom covered. totally fraction of = no vegetation, 2 Figure 1.3 many Norwegian eelgrass coverage 1 plants, 4 = Unfortunately, plants, 5 = small only a dataset has been compiled and most ttiis unpublished. The general impression, however, is that is the coverage of eelgrass increased during the 1930s, and since then it has varied irregularly IFigure areas showed signs of reduction was apparently there Now the .3 a, bl. Some reduction probably indirectly a bloom related to the great 1 the late 1960s, and in of Chrysochromulina coverage seems generally 1988. in be good'"'. to 40 1933 The western and eastern coasts During the 1980s inventories of 50 60 70 80 2000 90 Sweden of the shallow coastal a. Long-term trends in the presence of eelgrass [Zosiera marina] areas including eelgrass were carried out along the at shallow, soft-bottom sites Swedish west coast as southeastern Norway (Kristiansand to the Norwegian-Swedish management. eelgrass of the In basis a zone coastal for 2000, a revisit and inventory of 20 km' of meadows in five assessed by aquascope in borderl during the period 1933-2000. km coastal regions along 200 Skagerrak coast was carried out using the same 5 methods laquascope) as during the 1980s, but mapping Monotypic Zostera marina accuracy was improved by using the global positioning 4 system (GPSI. This study showed that areal cover had decreased 58 percent (with regional variations) years. bottom along 200-km section this one eelgrass Trelleborg (site 1 1 in site Figure 1.11 has been included eelgrass this at has site r many Oresund region increased 1994 (linear regression for biomass; seems = 0.811, and this positive trend p<0.001, true for eelgrass monitoring sites of the (sites 8-11 in Figure to probably due 1.1''"'l of the total No An estimation exist. Islandl yields minimum and maximum numbers between 60 and Between respectively'"'. northern distribution eelgrass Coverage is still limit in common, this region 130 and the the Stockholm Archipelago but far less abundant due to 80 where eelgrass occurs in and mixed with benthic algae (black linel Notes: 1 = no coverage, 5 = bottom sampled each year 138-134, mean turbidity. 2000 90 single stands (green linel. Number totally covered. 931 vary due to variation of sites vraler in No data obtained dunng 1940-44. Source: Norwegian Institute weight'^'. In the 1930s, declines in of Manne Research"". Dennnark only percent 7 vegetated areas, and occurred only estuaries Denmark, records of eelgrass distribution date back to describe long-term changes. widely distributed in unique opportunity a In 1900, eelgrass to was analyses of all marine waters (Figure 1.4"'^'l. between 270 and 960 g dry weight/m', in dense stands, respectively, and was estimated Danish The standing crop ranged total at 8 million of aerial northwest the of formerly the southern, most No ^^'1. 1941 national and 1990, but photos during the period from 1945 show an by marked to lag after the wasting disease initial followed recolonization in the 1960s''''"'. Today eelgrass again occurs along most Danish coasts has but extension'^'^". sparse and distribution annual eelgrass Limfjorden, metric tons dry in 1.4'"' the 1990s Danish coastal waters, and covered approximately 6 726 km' or one seventh in the low-saline inner parts of in (Figure monitoring took place between around 1900, and provide to substantial salinity is highest (Figure 1.4'"'l. In 1941, covered eelgrass wasting disease led eelgrass populations, especially Denmark where Danish production at sites 70 60 brackish waters and lack of suitable substrate'^". In 50 eelgrass coverage along the southeastern Swedish coast (including the Oland km', b. 40 area covered by eelgrass along the whole Swedish west coast (>400 kml of the total 1933 be the in greater exposure and/or invertebrate grazing''". estimates Mixed Zostera marina 1 the in biomass of V f--- 2000"". Since in monitoring program. Shoot density and significantly since D^"'s^Yv^^ ^ 3 southwest Sweden near in local coastal to 2 the west coast, of was present while only about 8.4 km' 1994, 10-15 in the 1980s, eelgrass covered about 20 km"' of In the in in reached not two large 1900 and in former the Based on comparisons Oresund regions, the 1990s, areal eelgrass area of we and estimate that present distribution area of eelgrass in Danish 31 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 32 Figure 1.4 Map of eelgrass area distribution in Danisli coastal North Sea >, X' ---'- 1901, 1933, 1941 and 1994 in A'or/Zi 1901 1 -< A^' n 1 waters ^ Sweden —L ^^"^> .^ Kattegat Denmark ff^ ""rk^ ij %t^^h "^^^ K German^^^ *\ 1^^ ) Baltic > Kattegat I Denmark V^^ 1933 '^ Sweden S 1 -^ 5ea Sea /^ Cb <y^{\Germany ?&^ ?4^ yUr^und 1994 A'onA Sea /^5^i4- | ^ \ * ~ \ Denmark Kattegat y \^' T !* ^?ia A Notes: Darl( green areas indicate liealthy eelgrass while black areas (on still present 1933. in M "^^>-\ (n •t'^ <!r^rv Germany The arrow shows the ttie data from the national Danish monitoring program, produced by Jens eelgrass in 1900 (Figure 1900"' in Limfjorden and at only 1.4|. The area distribution was thus estimated 84 l<m' in at 345 Oresund, eelgrass covered about 705 146 l<m' in of l<m* 1994 (based on aerial photography data from the Limfjord counties!. only about l<m' in 1900'" 1996-2000'"". In and Differences in methodology influence these comparisons since the distribution last maps of ^'^ S ** 3 Baltic Sea P t) j^ 1933 rnapl indicate where eelgrass was allected by the wasting disease but eelgrass from the beginning map based on visua( examination of aerial photos and Sund Laursen! coastal waters constitutes approximately 20-25 percent in in location of Limfjorden. Source: Various sources: 1901 (redrawn'"!, 1933 (redrawn'"'!. 1941 (redrawn'^^'! and 1994 (coarse of that Sweden ^ -^A t:3f% V^*\ Germany Sea Baltic of the century were based on extrapolation between sites visited in field surveys, while based on image analysis large areal reduction is maps from of aerial the 1 990s were photography. This partly attributed to the loss of deep eelgrass populations as a impoverished to eutrophication. In 1900, light conditions maximum m in open waters (Figures the 1990s, colonization depths about 50 percent to 2-3 open waters. consequence colonization depths averaged 5-6 estuaries and 7-8 1.6!. In due m in 1.5 of m in and were reduced by estuaries and 4-5 m in — Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea Colonization depth Colonization depth along open coasts in "10 40 12 estuaries • 1900 40 30 30 • 1900 1992 10 • •, ^ ?8 at o .. 1. So llill lillll 1 1^" o llli 1111 • er Wv' V9 o S 40 i 30 1997 io . ^ i' 20 4 2 6 10 8 12 Secchi depth (ml 10 > '" 2 30 1 20 " 1997 1 1 4 2 0. 6 10 8 1 . 12 Figure 1.6 4 2 6 10 8 12 maximum Secchi depths and Colonization depth Iml patches in depths colonization Danish estuaries and open coasts in of eelgrass 1900 and 1992 Figure 1.5 Maximunn colonization depth of eelgrass patches estuaries and along open coasts in Source; Based on data from 12 sites coasts investigated by Ostenfeld'" program nnonitoring in Source: Measured by Ostenfeld'" Danish monitonng program in in 1900 and by the national Danish 1992. estuaries and 18 sites along open 1998, filamentous green algae [Cladophora glomerata] 1900 and by the national Danish dominated in in in 1900 and 1996-97 along the coast, and considered rare and endangered; 1996-97 eelgrass no eelgrass was was found during underwater surveys during 1993-97'^". Germany, Poland and Lithuania In Germany (Kiel Bightl, eelgrass competes amounts increasing filamentous algae, and of areas the depth distribution 6 m of eelgrass decreased from m the 1960s to less than 2 in 1980s"". In with some in at the end of the the Greifswald Lagoon (island of RugenI, the distribution of eelgrass has remained fairly stable, despite the almost total disappearance of red algal belts during the period 1930 to 1988"''. Nevertheless, eelgrass sandy In is by far the most abundant macrophyte on muddy shores to Poland IGulf of in this area'"'. Gdansk, Puck Lagoon), abundant meadows grew down eelgrass to a depth of 10 m in the 1950s, but were almost totally replaced by filamentous brown algae and Zannichellia palustris during the period 1957-87'""' (Figure 1.7). The change from dense sea- grass beds to algal-dominated assemblages has caused a shift in the commercially important fish communities. Hence, eel [Anguilla anguiUa] and pike [Esox lucius] have abundance and have been decreased in by roach [Rutilus suffers from ruWusl""". heavy In metal partly replaced addition, Transplantation of eelgrass has been tested Lagoon"". place in Recently natural recolonization some areas Along Lithuanian coasts scientific likely in the in the Spit, Long-term changes in the distribution of eelgrass (Zosfera marina] the southeastern Baltic Sea (Puck Lagoon, Poland! southeastern had virtually disappeared before evaluation Figure 1.7 in was made. Eelgrass most occurred along the 90-km-long sea side Curonian Puck has taken of this lagoon"". Baltic Sea, eelgrass any eelgrass contamination"". Notes: Scale bar 5 in lower right corner corresponds km. Green areas indicate eelgrass cover of the covering thousands of hectares'*". In Source: Modified after Kruk-DovKgiallo'"'. to approximately 33 3A WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES One northern supported IPalangal site indicating that eelgrass The seagrass ''^'. along the whole Lithuanian coast'" from Latvia and Estonia literature eelgrass, was probably present formerly algal-dominated assemblages but scarce, is among eelgrass has been reported to occur sparsely lead to anoxia. High water temperature microbial decomposition stimulates thereby further increases the risk deficiency in Oxygen the meristematic region of eelgrass "', possibly mass The only long-term analysis an eelgrass of southwest Finland recorded no change stock standing was about 85 site in density and in between 1968 and 1993"". eelgrass biomass 1993, In weight/m' and g dry corresponded well with the yearly means for 1968-70 in showed marked signs eelgrass fauna abundance eutrophication. Total increased almost fivefold, and the total had infauna of of animal biomass had more than doubled over 25 years. The number showed minor changes over time. of These faunal between interactions combination with sulfide in show temperature, water light, wave nutrients and physical disturbance like strong action and ice scouring play important regulating roles, and that recolonization may also happen deeper water in if siltation and mechanical damage. For example, the construction km 1995-2000 in of Denmark and Sweden, the Oresund bridge between almost 8 relatively fast conditions improve'^'"'. Other threats include ash-free dry weight 120 g/m'). By contrast, the associated taxa a in large and rapid fluctuations, suggesting that stochastic Finland of is mortality exposure"". Shallow eelgrass populations often terms and rates of anoxia. key factor explaining events of likely eelgrass beds'" the Gulf of Riga'™'. in may detritus also long and one of the most massive marine constructions was Scandinavia, in large eelgrass populations the likely to affect Oresund. However, in strict to regulations on dredged quantities and spillage during eutrophication. Unfortunately, no long-term data from the construction works prevented detectable negative other Finnish eelgrass sites exist to verify this result. impacts on eelgrass""™ changes indicate increased food Genetic analysis of Finnish eelgrass an age of meadows suggests these plant ecosystems between 800 and have taken place at present in and have through persisted also in of landlift, fluctuations in ice may mixed populations, mussel in constitute populations""'. In Sweden threat a eelgrass to the increasing leisure boat harbors with uncontrolled anchoring, dredging and water currents from propellers are the main physical severe threats to seagrass meadows. in wind disturbance, sedimentation and temperature and mussel occur blue fishery "'. estuaries where eelgrass and of anthropogenic stress and long-term physical stress terms some Danish In the terms were not affected by the wasting disease 1930s"" 600 Those eelgrass salinities. populations near their limit of distribution salinity 1 must indicating that eelgrass colonization "', years"'' due availability, cover Based on very The As Sea Denmark and Sweden, Baltic in the drifting and sessile crude areal estimates, and extrapolations from the forms number of known eelgrass serious threat to seagrasses in other areas of the Baltic'" "'", which will probably have negative effects on about 50 eelgrass sitesl, in sites verified by diving (totally our guess Finland is that the total coverage of filamentous algae constitute a the whole eelgrass community'"'. During the past ten probably less than 10 km'. is of fast-growing, years, increasing amounts THREATS algal Kattegat and Skagerrak the northern Baltic Sea'" Since the lower depth limit of eelgrass water transparency, eutrophication is especially deep eelgrass populations. determined by effects main threat filamentous Maximum Secchi depths and colonization depths approached 12 open Danish waters in in the 1990s (Figure depth is column m 1900 but rarely exceeded 6 phytoplankton biomass is in free dry weight/m' algae communities, e.g. a in deeper common in "' biomass was algae (mainly in Today, the biomass of drifting 000 g dry is also It is 1 of to the Baltic clear that these algae are Sea seagrass ecosystems. In oil spill accidents could be detrimental to seagrass vegetation. Other threats include sand suction and construction. associated faunal shrimps and crabs'"" stratified at less than 5 g ash- commonly exceeds shallow areas. major threat 1968-71 the heavy traffic coastal areas of the Baltic Sea, decline consuming decomposition weight/m'"' ""'. in and subsequent periodic anoxia Finland in In Danish coastal waters'™. "''"'. In shallow stagnant waters with limited oxygen pools, as well as shallow localities a ephemeral) may shade seagrasses, hamper water exchange and cause at with profound negative the main determinant of filamentous Eutrophication-gained "', mats were already common sites, but their in also correlated to the concentration of water nitrogen, which eelgrass algal m The maximum colonization 1.61. ephemeral, filamentous on the benthic communities"". is a to of mats have been observed waters, the oxygen- ephemeral algae and NATIONAL AND SCANDINAVIAN POLICY Several political initiatives affect Scandinavian seagrass populations. Action In 1987, the Danish Plan on the Aquatic Government passed an Environment including Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea measures on wastewater treatment, the storage of animal manure and reductions of agricultural nitrogen and phosphorus. The aim was to reduce annual total nitrogen discharge by 50 percent, and that of phosphorus A second measures was passed by 80 percent, within containing further five years. ensure that the planned reductions phosphorus discharges will be in of action plan 1998 in to nitrogen and effect before 2003. In addition there are several directives concerning point and sources protection announcement on mussel groundwater of fishery in Denmark fishery at water depths shallower than 3 m An prohibits in order to A nationwide Danish monitoring protect eelgrass beds. program was established 1988 in to demonstrate the Convention on Biodiversity also place demands for monitoring seagrasses on political in Scandinavia""*. Mor'; details on nutrient reductions and initiatives monitoring are summarized 6.21. On the marine biotopes List of instrument In making. the Red In Laane in management and dominated by macrophytes" and "sand banks vegetation" are classified as "heavily endangered" and "endangered", respectively'^". Accordingly, during the Implementation work of the European Union Water Frame- Directive, eelgrass should be Included as an Environmental Protection Agency""!. Large construction range and biodiversity works be used for ecological classification was the case for the fixed link across Oresund. As Denmark, in In to Sweden key pollution is part of Swedish national environmental goals (Governmental Proposition and specifically says that 20001, of may eelgrass beds indi- depth potentially of Baltic coastal total macrophytes included are the in HELCOfvl COfvlBINE program""'. since the late 1980s, but not fulfilled. The latest action plan against coastal nutrient future years, the coverage, In waters. Guidelines for monitoring eelgrass and other aiming a series of action plans reduce nutrient discharge have been agreed of the zone with or without macrophyte photic sublittoral policy- sandy bottoms "sublittoral List cator species. have associated monitoring programs, as (Chapter ai.'""' the Baltic Sea'^" serves as an in conservation, effects of the Action Plan (for latest adjustments, see typically ef the Helsinki Commission, a Red initiative of However, classification meadows as threatened regular quantitative Is Sea seagrass Baltic of only a step obligating first estimates of the distribution patterns, dynamics and diversity of seagrass meadows. nitrogen discharge with anthropogenic origin from land Consequently, these parameters should be obtained should be reduced by 30 percent from 1995 not later and evaluated within standardized, national monitoring than 2010, whereas phosphorous should decrease programs. Presently, only a fraction Sea of the Baltic continuously from 1995 to 2010 with no specific aim. seagrass resources undergo regular monitoring. However, future, only not but pollution nutrient also overfishing might be part of the decreasing extension of seagrass through a possible, but down the control mechanism"^'. still most fish much-debated topic, in stocks are overfished to levels below biological safe limits. This a is but has so far not been the subject of serious action plans. Finland Is follows political agree- ments, which are carried out by national Protection Targets for (e.g. Renewed 2005, In order In to understand and sustain these important ecosystems. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Tlie authors would Water Nature like to thank the following persons for data, comments or logistical support during the preparation of the manuscript: Penina Hartvig Blanket!, GjBsaeter, not committed to monitor seagrass meadows. However, Finland crucial unverified, top- the Baltic, as well as In Kattegat and Skagerrak. measures are such Christie, Jan Fnda Hellblom, Agnar Ekebom, Stem Fredriksen, Jakob Ingolfsson, Hans Kautsky, Jonne Kotta, Hordur Knstinsson, Jouni Lemikki, Mikael von Numers, Sergej Olenin, Panu Oulasvirta, Reusch, Aadne Lars-Eric Sollie, Persson, Eeva-Liisa Poutanen, Thorsten Stefan Tobiasson and Jan Marcin Weslawski, Susanne P Baden gained financial support from WWF (World Wildlife Conservation Act [1996], Renewed Water Act and EIA Fund) and the County of Vastra Gbtaland, and Dorte Krause-Jensen from [Environment Impact Assessment) the European Union l#EVK3-CT-2001-00065 International [Habitat Directive procedures) and and Natura 2000) environmental programs. Thus, seagrasses in Finland are only Indirectly protected through limitations on nutrient initiated discharges. In discharges A new governmental program June 2001 alms to the Baltic at reducing nutrient Sea and protecting and monitoring marine coastal biodiversity. In the Rio Declaration (1992/93:131 as diverse habitats in 17.86 of protection d). Further, and monitoring (Chapter 17 part D the AUTHORS Cfiristoffer Bostrbm, Abo AkademI University, Department of Biology, Environmental and Marine Biology, Akademigatan Finland. TeL +358 10)2 21 1, FIN-20500 Abo, 5i052, 4631045. Fax: +358 1012 21 53428. E-mail: christofferbostromOabo.fi At the International level, seagrasses are listed need "CHARM" and EVK3-CT- 2000-OOOW "M&MS1. Susanne P Baden, Gbteborg University, Department of Marine Ecology, Kristineberg Marine Research Station, S-45034 Fiskebackskll, Sv^eden. European Water Framework Directive, the Habitat Directive, the Helsinki Convention (HELCOfvll, the Oslo-Paris Convention (OSPARI and the Dorte Krause-Jensen, Department of National Environmental Research Institute, Marine Ecology, Vejlsovej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark. 35 1 6 . WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 36 REFERENCES 1 Petersen CGJ [18911. Fiskensbiologiskeforhold ol the Danish Biological Station 2 In; Beretning Landbrugsministenet til 1900 og 1901 station. produktion fodsel. I af CH farvande. In; [19081. Aiegraessets [Zostera Petersen CGJ Beretnmg danske biologiske marma'i] udbredetse Landbrugsministenet til Ingolfsson A, Kristinsson H. Personal communication. 6 Fredriksen H [2002, S. 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PhD Reusch T Personal communication. Ophelia 23; 33-46. 1 the Western Baltic; 34 biomass and net production. L.l German Kiel University. 170 pp [in Structunng the Mytilus- and Zostera [1994]. Factors in 33 and autotrophic variation der Kieler Bucht L. in 108:265-282 Danish coastal waters. Estuaries, in Op/ie(/a 14; 185-201, 15 Lotze edutis[ mobile ol manna Seegrass Zostera shoot growth through biodeposition. Baden 5P, a am Environment Proceedings 32 32, 14 Reusch TBH complexes press]. in marine -507, 1 ; of the lsef|ord Okologische und Produktionsbiologische Stages, Benchte aus Publikationer/3 fagrapporter/rapporter/FR375.pdf [accessed July 20021, 13 1 1 1-316. 5; the eelgrass IZosteral vegetation and of Albrechts-Universital, Kiel, 134 pp Miliotilstand og Technical Report No. 375, p 110. http;//wwwdmu.dk/l^viden/2_ 12 J [19771. 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Goteborg University, 29 pp zone, flora energy flow and bottom habitats. soft of Infauna in the Swedish West Coast ecology of dominating species Hanne Abundance, IL.l; 27: 109- 121. Berg T [20001 Quantitative Studies Its the littoral zone. ICES Journal ol manna Zostera [19851. Benthic faunal Correlated to Organic Content Seaweed Symposium. in of some shallow marine den F|0sne K, G|as5ter J [19961. Dietary composition and the potential food competition betv*een 0-group cod ICadus Rosenberg R P, Pihl L, Meadows on seasonal and local variation. Proceedings Irom the nth - Moller vore Ira lAngiospermael and fucus serratus [Phaeophyceael as habitat for and fauna The cryptofauna [19901. Manne Ecology Progress Senes 25 Japetus Stcenstrups for Baden SP biological interaction in Kobenhavn, Centraltrykkenet. XVI pp station. OVF Rapport Oresund. Oresunds vattenvardforbund. i Research 21 -.il-n. 24 Kommission hos GEC Gad, Kobenhavn. Bianco Lunos Bogtrykkeri. Ostenfeld [20001 Arsrapport, Sydkustens vattenvardforbund. biomass and population dynamics. Netherlands Journal ol Sea Jungersen, HFE og Warming, i hundredaret 5 7 23 etc. bsndeitangens IZostera mannal aars- anlednmg i Undersokningar den danske biologiske Ira de danske farvande. Kap. X i Eug Mindesknft i Om Petersen JCG 119141. Danmark optaget i rusealens vandnnger Kobenhavn, Centraltrykkenet X pp 3-28, . TOXICON AB 22 2001:1 med bemaerknmger om Irene 1899 og 1900 21 1-63. 1: Petersen CGJ [19011 Fortegneise over aleruseslader I 3 Holbaek Fjord Report I Ecology Progress Senes 205; Danish coastal waters. Estuaries 45 Bostrom C. Mattila J [1 999], The 1 of seagrass shoot density, for faunal recruitment. Marine 23- 1 38, relative importance of food and shelter for Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea seagrass-associated invertebrates: A choice by isopod grazers. Oecotojia i6 comparison latitudinal of habitat 20: 162-170. 1 Lehmann MCG [18U1. Derendeckte Nutzen desSeegraseszum Fullen 68 der Kissen und Polster Kobenhagen bey Schubothe. 47 Cottam Munro DA C. Management relations. Journal ol Witdlile RB Thayer GW, Wolfe DA. Williams [1975], The impact og Flora: Dansk etnobotanik. Bind [19871. Folk 54 Blegvad H [19351. En epidemisk sygdom Den Danske XXXIX pp 55 Lund 5 in 57 Tangforekomsterne for I'l, Reitzels Forlag, Kobenhavn. 1 5161 1 : 58- 1 74. H, M F, MF Josefson [Submitted manuscript PhD of Eelgrass. B, Krause-Jensen Middelboe AL, Sand-Jensen J. Danish for the Aquatic J [19851. Development manna] along of epiphytic communities on eelgrass Danish estuary. Marine a nutrient gradient in a Isaksson changes Pihl L [19921. Structual I, benthic macrovegetation in fiesearc/i. 30:131-140. Greve Borum T, in J, Pedersen press, 20031. Meristematic oxygen [in eelgrass [Zostera manna]. Limnology and Oceanography 48. Holmer M, Bondgaard EJ [2001]. Photosynthetic and growth response of AguahcSotany 70: Danish Ministry of 29-38. the Environment and Energy, Danish Ministry of 79 Feedback Monitoring Centre Eelgrass Variables of Institute 80 in semi-annual report. 22 pp. 1th 1 Annual Compliance Test [20011. Limfjordsovervagningen [19961. Vegetationsforhold omrader lukket 81 Norkko for muslingefiskeri Bonsdorff J, E, Norkko A ol appendices. 2000. 42 pp i i Limfjorden i perioden 1988-1995. Amtskommune, [20001, Drifting algal Viborg Ami og mats as an and Laminana sacchanna. The Authorities' Control and Monitoring to a transient Programme fco/ogy 248: 79-104. SEMAC W [19961. The Schramm 0resund. Benthic vegetation. for the fixed link across ledsl JV on behalf 1 Danish and Swedish of the 82 Baltic Norkko Bonsdorff E [19961. Population responses A, zoobenthos 15 pp. Sea and its transitions zones. In: Schramm, Marine Benthic Vegetation - Recent Changes anil resource. Journal ol Experimental Marine Biology to Vahteri P. Makinen, A.. Salovius S. Vuorinen Messner 4mi)io 29: 338-343. JA [19911. Long-term changes communities in summer Possibilities ol Restoration. IDS, 84 of 1987. In: of phytobenlhos [in of 85 of Kruk-Dowgiallo Hagerman meadows in in 86 the the Gulf of Gdansk. Heck Jr KL, Pennock JR, Valentine L, ledsl its reclamation. A, K, P, Ciszewska Ministry of JF, Coen LD, Sklenar SA [20001. Pitkanen H, Arheimer B. Behrendt H, Jarosinski W, Lucane S, Raike A, Shekhovtsov A, Svendsen L, Kruk-Dowgiallo Wolska-Pys M, Zmudzinsky L, Valatka S [20021. L, Proceedings ol the 12th L, Osowiecki Trokowicz. D [1 A, 87 Rybicka D, 9921. Trends in the Baltic Sea Catchment Area, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki. Back, S [1999]. Guidelines for Monitoring Animal Communities programme. 12 J, 1, and large predator removal on seagrass regarding Nutrient Load Reductions of In: Marine Biologists Symposium. Olsen & Olsen, Fredensborg. pp Ciszewski overvagning af Evaluation of the Implementation ol the 1988 Ministerial Declaration Zmudzinski L [19921. Deterioration Jensen K L, Laane Pachel 43-46. Wiktor for nursery habitats: An experimental assessment. Limnology and Polish with filamentous brown algae the Puck Bay and biotechnical approaches to E, Finland' pp. Effects of nutrient enrichment Oceanological Studies 1-2: 125-135. Baltic SW Oceanograp/iy 45: 1041-1057. degradation of the underwater BjBrnestad Are drifting algal Environmental Protection Agency [20001. NOVA-2003 Environment and Energy. 397 The Puck Bay - Warszawa. pp 109-122 Kruk-Dowgiallo L [19961. The role P, [20001. I Archipelago Sea, Programbeskrivelse for det nationale program English abstractl. Ciszewski of the vandmil)0et 1998-2003. Redegorelse fra Miljastyrelsen no. et Piscatona 22: 77-84. Kruk-Dowgiallo L [19941. Distribution and biomass the the Greifswalder the underwater Puck Lagoon. Acta Ichthyologica in the vertical 22: 135-143. Kruk-Dowgiallo L [19911. Long-term changes of the in in coastal Progress Series 140: 141-151. 83 mats conquering the bottom U, von Oertzen of and stress induced by drifting algae. Marine Ecology the Effects of Eutrophication. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 131-163. the inner Puck Bay 67 Stockholms norra I allernative habitat for benthic invertebrates: Species specific responses meadows 66 Borum Link's Coast-lo-coast Installation. Environment 1995. Ministry Sodden. Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatona 65 En Zostera marma-forekomst Link [20011. Final Report on the Environment and the Oresund Fixed Inlets - State of the Middelboe AL, Chnstensen PB, Rasmussen MB. distribution of macrophytobenthic 64 [19591. Hollebeek P [2001]. Benthic Vegetation Zostera manna, Ruppiaspp.. W, Nienhuis, PH 63 M Nord)yllands Amt, D. An ancient eelgrass [1999], Fries Limfjordsovervagningen ved Ringkabing Environmental Authorities. 62 Slam WT, Olsen JL FR179.pdf [accessed July 20021. Status report 2000. 61 C, the Baltic. Marine Ecology Progress Series 183: 301-304. http://www.dmu.dk/l_viden/2_Publikationer/3_fagrapporter/rapporter/ Krause-Jensen indicate effects of Transport, Swedish Control and Steering Group for the Oresund Fixed D, K, 205 pp. 179. Long term changes [20021. in events 78 Environment and Energy National Environmental Research 60 77 thesis, Environment, Trends and Causal Relations. The I'lonitoring Programme TechnicalReportNo. Norkko A P, manna community clone dynamics bl. Aarhus, Rasmussen A. [19961. Iwlarme Areas. under the Action Plan Kangas eelgrass to low oxygen and high sulfide concentrations during hypoxic of Plant Ecology, University of Jensen HS, Svendsen LM, Windolf Pedersen Reusch TBH, Bostrom Sea on spatial distribution. Mohlenberg E. and associated epibenthic faunal communities. Netherlands Journal ol 76 Olesen B [19931. Population Dynamics Department 75 Laursen J5 [Submitted manuscript, D. eelgrass [Zostera manna] landscapes: Influence in Bonsdorff C, fto/ogy 87: 211-218. area distribution of eelgrass IZostera marinal in the phytal zone of the north-eastern Baltic Sea. in skargard. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrilt %3: 469-474. de danske farvande og i Frederiksen M. Krause-Jensen D. Holmer Kaas 73 74 Danish coastal waters, Long-term changes 59 CA deres udnyttelse. Dansk Tidssk Farm Krause-Jensen Long-term changes Martin G [20001, Factors affecting the distribution of J. a brackish water Zostera [Zostera of physical setting 58 bandeltangcn {Zostera marina i Ministrenet for Selart og Fiskeri Ira til Biologiske Station 193i. [19411. Frederiksen a). 72 1-8. mulighederne 56 Beretning [edl Bostrom in Personal communication. Blegvad H In: Biologists eutrophication. Estuanne Coastal Shell Science 55: 795-804. Tobiasson In: Manne Proceedings Estonian Academy ol Sciences Biology Ecology 49:253-269. Personal communication. 53 LI. Macrophytes as indicators of J [19971. Tallinn 1997. pp 86-100. benthic invertebrates University Press, Cambridge. S. materialy the Puck Lagoon [southern Balticl. in Orav H, Kotta 71 GjbsEter Sollie A. i 33-84. S- 70 Seagrass Ecology. Cambridge 52 J, Biology Weslawski JM. Personal communication. 2nd 1. Olenin 5. Personal communication. 120001. Pempkowiak L. Puck Bay ecosystem. Studia 69 edn. Rosenkilde og Bagger. Kabenhavn. Hemminga Mk. Duarte CM Kruk-Dowgiallo Symposium. man on of seagrass systems. American Scientist 63: 288-29. Brandegaard VJ Manne Ojaveer E ledl Proceedings from the Uth Baltic U9-460. 18: of the 60. heavy metal contamination Eelgrass status and environmental [1?54] long-term alterations oceanologiczne nr of 88 Institute of in the Baltic Sea. of Phytobenthic Plant and Annex for HELCOM COMBINE pp. Marine Research, Flodevigen Marine Research Station. Unpublished data. 37 38 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 2 of WESTERN EUROPE C. Hily M.M. van Katwijk den Hartog C. Western Europe of the France, found considered here as the coasts is North Sea. the Channel and Sea as Irish under continuous unfavorable almost 90 percent Spam and populations of western Europe" Portugal. Two seagrass species are coastal and estuarine areas: Zostera marina A noltil. occurs less abundantly in the southern part of the area The widgeon grasses, Ruppia maritima and (Portugal). Ruppia Cymodocea nodosa, third species, sometinnes cirrhosa. seagrasses, occur in ponds and low-salinity considered brackish water to The seagrasses are found on is to a maximum depth variety of marine and estuarine habitats. They often of about 10 m. They occupy a large dense beds and extensive meadows creating infralittoral lor occasionally in the a named Zostera large variety of animal of commercial beds are interest or cultural value. Therefore, seagrass recognized as biodiversity; an they important shelter of coastal same habitat reservoir in endotaunal and epifaunal species the in angustifolia, Kingdom United the sediment, and middle part of the live many areas in noteworthy that a specific distinction in the between Zostera is still made'". Zostera in of the mediolittoral belt. the middle The species under permanent subtidal conditions in small brackish streams and coastal lagoons with euhalme In conditions. the United Kingdom. Zostera marina more common species; it is but widely, is the patchily. distributed around the coasts of England. Scotland and swimming coast of and which is higher on the shore and occurs noltii lives Wales; the Seagrasses are consequently It angustifolia and Zostera marina creeping and walking species on the leaves, as well as species''^'. lower and behaves as an annual. can also a several are the leaves previously considered as a separate species, spawning or food area by these, in zone but can develop sublittorall and upper parts Among area the but most areas compared with in previous distribution. Zostera marina lives mainly productive and diverse habitat used as shelter, nursery, species. After this period, progressively recovered covered remained low the develops a morphological variety with narrow and short sediments soft '''. in polyhaline western Europe and generally ephemeral. in the 1930s Zostera marina mediolittoral lor eulittoral) zone. There the species coastal lagoons; occurrence under marine conditions very rare many beds of such as sites'", mesohaline be to of in the loss in in of the plants environmental conditions, resulted well as the Atlantic coasts of the British Isles, and Zostera grow weakening of mam concentrations occur along the west Scotland including the Hebrides and in considerable economic and conservation importance. southwest England including Devon and Cornwall, as The dense well as the Scilly Isles and root network stabilize the underlying of the seagrasses sediment and is able to to increase the sedimentation fluxes by reducing the hydrodynamic Their essential ecological forces. primary production ecosystem is at the hard bottom surfaces with scarce. The importance beginning of scale mainly recognized the 20th of the in role of in terms the of coastal the areas where intertidal form distributed, of but less concentrations occur the Thames Channel Islands. The Zostera marina in abundant; the Exe Estuary, Estuary, and the also widely is sites in with major Hampshire, Moray and Cromarty Firths in Scotland. Zostera noltii has a predominantly the United Kingdom, more or macroalgae cover are eastern distribution beds was higher less coinciding with the distribution of the intertidal century, at the before the "wasting disease" struck. The proliferation of the pathogenic slime mold [Labyrlnthuta zosterae] in the leaves of Zostera marina, considered to be the consequence of in Zostera marina form"". In Ireland. Whelan'"' carried out an extensive sur- vey of Zostera spp.; Zostera marina is frequently found along the coasts under subtidal conditions IVentry Bay, Regional map: Europe f> •^ < f • 1^ ^S^-, te; tw '•„ %y. •» ® as O « la J * •» V '* U ^^V-w :. © ^ So A... WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES THE BEAUTY OF SEAGRASSES Thalassia testudmum meadow in Florida. USA Spotted eagle ray teeding on benthic invertebrates in a bed of Tbatassia testudinum and Syringodium Miforme, Turks and Caicos Islands, Caribbean. C.ovvrifisri and anemone /)empnc/i// meadow in in Enhalus acoroides and Tbatassia Kavieng, Papua New Guinea. Western Europe —WT5 10* 200 100 300 KilometefS 60° N W 5»W 120 180 240 300 Kilomelers 60 I 39 ' ? 4 Croinarl}' hirth t Hebrides "'/ i^ ^ J TLANTIC OCEAN ./• Glenan * Isles -• "" Gulf of Morbihan Moriiv Fitih Loire Esliiaiy 4» Mareiuif.s-Oli'ron Basin --. liiiifikohiiij' h'niixl SI:. Bavn/Bisc^n ^.^, ^^ NORTH .ircachon Ba\iii J 1 ' *' -- , . \ Ba\ 'i^v —^ • FiriH . , 0° I FRANCE Wudden Ueyn Peninsula -^ 4 Ventty Samau ^ / -'' ,• A* ^* PIvmoiilh BELGIUM SoUiii 50° N IsleolWighl ^^---^ ,. PORTUGAL GERMANY SPAIN Sound ilcdcBoiz-.^ Channel ,. Graveling en ^ /'&e Exilian•' • Tliame-s Bay Scilty Isles, *> NETHERLANDS ^ ^ liuyufBrcsl —^ „ „ Cotentin Peninsula Is. ^„...^^ FRANCE . \ Rla Formosa Moni Si MitliclBcn .. ics Bay Brehul Aa-hipcbgo Isles— CiliJnan • Gulf of Morbihan = <i .-> Map 2.1 Western Europe .- c InorthI (iibraltar Galway West Cork sites, symptoms were observed Wasting sitesl. disease this country in ttie 1930s'". in The sandy, surf-exposed North Sea coasts Map are devoid restricted to the from the full Wadden Sea area, which hydrodynamic forces Frisian Islands. Along the Danish marina occurs southern part lations in protected ocean by the west coast, Zostera the enclosed Ringkobing Fjord. Netherlands some of the estuarine branches mouths of the In in of the rivers and Meuse. Some second part of the 20th century, but still contain submerged beds of of the popu- intertidal two Zostera species occur the of of the is these branches were diked the Rhine 1 TER ft ! XtA .\ SEA Western Europe IsouthI In localized bays the (e.g. Vigo seagrass beds are Portugal, drowned in river Bayl, mouths with (nasi and protected zoned occurrence a of large muddy mediolittoral flats and Zostera marina (accompanied sometimes by Cymodocea nodosa (e.g. Ria Formosall in the upper part of the infralittoral. Ivlany of the the In of Zostera marina (Lake Grevelingen, Spam and the two species of Zostera. Zostera noltii occurs on some in Ep of Seagrasses are seagrass. of \f 2.2 Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Betgium and France ^ • numerous these beds are concentrated Galician rias in in northwestern Spain"". Europe, Zostera marina reaches the southern limit its Atlantic distribution southern Spain near in Gibraltar Lake Veerel. In France, the two Zostera seagrass species are widely distributed. The brackish water species Ruppia maritima and Ruppia cirrhosa are mostly encountered brackish in uncommon and ponds along the Channel coast, and the Guerande north Estuary; their distribution is insufficiently of the Loire known, (^/lany small Zostera marina beds occur along the Channel Normandy to the west of Brittany, mainly on the sandy bottom under both intertidal and subtidal marine coasts from the west of west of Brittany to the From the south of the Bay of Biscay, the sites are either subtidal Glenan Archipelagos! or Brest, Gulf of Morbihan, can occupy large areas. conditions""'. around islands IMolene and in very sheltered bays (Bay of Arcachon Basinl in which they BIOGEOGRAPHY Zostera marina occurs under large a range of environmental conditions which can be identified as the following three main biotopes; Sheltered habitats in low-salinity semi- with turbid rias. muddy sediments. and waters and enclosed enclosed bays, estuaries and Eelgrass beds are limited to a narrow depth range (<2 ml and because extend of the high turbidity much below mean sea level. often appear as long narrow (<30 do not These beds m wide) ribbons along the small subtidal channels which groove the muddy Galicia, intertidal flats Arcachon Basinl. Kingdom, Brittanyl the (many North Sea In some intertidal sites, sites (United Zostera marina '<: WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 40 form ["Zostera angustifolia"] can extend across muddy areas targe the in medlolittoral mainly on poorly drained sediments water layer remaining o belt, witti a thin sediment surface at the biofilm and epiphytes, calculated by adding the surface area of in 1 all m' sediment and Connan and (Ireland) Semi-open habitats under marine conditions (salinity of 32-36 psul. These beds occur on sandy algal species even on coarse sediments from a locally depth +2 of m mean spatial extension sea level -3 m. Their to depends on the rocky platforms, small islands and substrate hard structures area index). Whelan and only one bed the Bay of Brest. Some are found only on Zostera leaves, or have their most luxuriant development on these, such as the small Phaeophytes Ascocyclus clavaeformis, Cladosiphon zosterae and Punctaria magnusii, Myriotrictiia and the Rhodophytes Fosllella tenuissima. Erythrotrichia bertholdii, Eryttirotrichia Rhodophysema This common along the western marine and subtidat Open habitats under fully conditions (-2 to -10 m mean sea level! mainly very clear waters. Swell in georgii. lejoUsii, boryana and community, epiphytic described as Fosliello-Myriotricfiietum clavaeformis, coasts of the Channel. around islands in these species of hydrodynamic forces (strong currents, swell and is Ventry Bay Brittany beds including 60 species in in in Hily"" found 82 epiphytic which protect the beds from the most extreme waves). This type occurs only along the oceanic coasts and is very fish and sensitive to pollution. western Europe, many commercial In is meadows probably the main factor limiting the extension of shellfish species use eelgrass these beds to the intertidal zone. Zostera marina Some can occasionally be observed nocturnal migrations (Labridae, Morone labrax and lagoons, in artificial fish as a habitat. predators occupy the beds during tidal and Others use the beds as spawning sites and brackish pools and abandoned salt production flatfish). areas on the French Atlantic coast"^' with a nursery areas \Muiius surmuletus]. The juveniles morphology close sheltered noltil is very often found environments in estuarine and described as above but occupies higher levels on the shore. The species mainly occurs in muddy and sandy sediments and can form is France, hibernate in the sediments of the subtidal beds"". The beds are actively exploited by handnet fishermen for the shrimp Leander serratus. Many commercial bivalves such clams the Venus verrucosa, razor pultastra, Venerupis shells, Lutraria Morbihan and Arcachon never found below the low-tide Zostera marina beds and are heavily exploited for areas (Wadden Sea, United flat Kingdom, Ireland, Gulf The species the Chlamys opercularis and Pecten maximus, are especially abundant in the extensive beds on tidal Basin). of crab Maia squinado. an important commercial species morph, to its intertidal in Zostera of and lutraria, pectinids, recreational fishing. mark. Some AND ROLE PRODUCTIVITY, BIOMASS NUTRIENT IN CYCLES rare and endangered species like the sea horse {Hippocampus beds in the area. sp.) still A few occur in Zostera marina invertebrates directly consume is the eelgrass leaves, e.g. the sea urchin Sphaerechinus the highest of the coastal sedimentary environments of granulans and the sea rabbit Aplysia punctata. Brent the region. The associated organisms supported by geese [Branta bernicla] used eelgrass production are numerous and diverse. The on the eelgrass The primary production of Zostera marina meadows meadows to be strongly dependent [Zostera noltii and Zostera main beds are used as refuge and nursery areas by many marina] which are generally found species, including commercial fish and invertebrates. migration sites. At present they have found alternative in their morph is food sources following the loss of eelgrass. Other birds continuous throughout the year, although limited in such as At this growth latitude, winter, so there is a of the perennial permanent flux of seagrass tissues inducing a detritus-based food chain. The detritus often becomes accumulated functional role calculated that in 1 the marine ecosystem"'. g (dry weight) of supports on average 9 The living mg It has been seagrass detritus of bacteria and protists'". leaves are used as a substrate by diatoms, bacteria and heterotrophic protists and many macro- epiphytes (algae and invertebrates). The teal, widgeon, mallard, pintail, shoveler, pochard, mute swan and coot are also consumers of eelgrass. by waves and tidal currents outside the beds which thus spatially extend their ^ (leaf Cullinane"" identified 60 algal species during the low-tide period. and m' the leaves of the shoots, can reach 6 to 8 of total surface area available for the superficial HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Before the outbreak of the wasting disease eelgrass beds were very coasts. uses The beds were (soil improvement common locally in the 1930s, along the European harvested for different (Galicia, Spain), embankment or dikes around fields on small islands (Brittany, France), sea walls (the Netherlands), cushions (Normandy, filling France, of mattresses and the Netherlands), Western Europe packaging, roofing and insulation material); therefore was disease. From the 1960s onwards the economic importance. As an example, about 1 50 km^ were covered by eelgrass in the a western Wadden abundance, already increased turbidity urging development increased eelgrass historically of Sea"^'. Despite this was by the 18th century, f^^artinet"" of a method to multiply eelgrass. because "one cannot beds eulittoral of Zostera marina and Zostera no/t» declined, probably as consequence activities of increased turbidity"". In was found sediment than one site the be more related to dredging and particles, to filling increased phytoplankton. to much of it""". Though little documentation is available, seems that Zostera marina was more AN ESTIMATE OF HISTORICAL LOSSES abundant than Zostera Without doubt, the losses have too it Most noltii. the of subtidal Zostera marina beds did not recover from the wasting Case Study 2.1 and improved The Wadden Sea one is world's largest the of international marine wetland reserves. Before the contained large beds of subtidal and low- it were covered with intertidal flats Zostera marina and Zostera disease level]. in m mean increased turbidity, shell- increased construction activities and creased nutrient loads are the caused the losses and lack mam in- mesocosms and literature, in the been field, locally outdoor in as well as laboratory, long-term environmental data and global system information knowledge of (GIS] studies, provided all suitable donor populations, habitat requirements and potential habitats'"' ™'"'. In transplanting began Wadden Risks will be the western in spread space and in transplants will be protected first years Ito in Sea. time, the the field during the prevent seed-bearing shoots drifting to open sea] and protective mussel ridges constructed 2002, will be to provide refugia for the transplants. factors that have although the of recovery, open still dispute™'". to km^ German seagrass beds 170 km^ and Danish seagrass beds some 30 km^ In the Netherlands, an Currently, Dutch seagrass beds cover 2 intensive monitoring program has revealed large fluctuations for in example a within cover of manna Zostera sixfold increase in area particularly: was observed two years Ifollowed by some decrease], whereas at another area an 80 percent decrease was obsei^ed between two different years Ifollowed by some increase]. The Zostera noltii fluctuates less than twofold, which to some banks, strategy. bed may be cover ascribed habitat characteristics, including firm clay and the plants' perennial The Zostera marina beds Sea are mainly Ibut fluctuations cover in vulnerable to local not totally] make when the Wadden annual. These populations the and temporal disturbances, caused by human actions or by particularly reproductive in the area scour or gales, ice becomes small, and the habitat offers no local refugia. Since assigned 1987, by and the in University of Nijmegen, cooperation with the Government, has investigated the restoration of Zostera marina in Dutch possibilities for the western Wadden 20th Wadden Sea has have the in of the the wasting disease losses during the of 1930s are the losses occurred from the 1970s Increased fisheries, of After the wasting noltii. narrow zone around la new Here, onwards. causes mixed bed a the 1930s, seagrasses survived only in mid-intertidal zone sea many mid- Zostera marina, whereas shellfisheries Experiments prohibited. 1930s areas occupied by eelgrass Sea. Water clarity of the Dutch THE WADDEN SEA intertidal of have been very great since the beginning Transplanted Zostera manna in the Wadden Sea, Nettierlands. 41 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES A2 century in western Europe. After the wasting disease in the 1930s which destroyed most of the Zostera marina was beds, the recovery at all. western Wadden Sea estimated In 1919 by van was reduced 1971 to 5 km' In Glesen'"' in the meters was found to be covered by 1 50 km' the area estimate Goor"'"', km' only and the beds were estimated 2 small, completely From the In Intertidal In areas"", considered that in 1990 Zostera marina had declined to the point of virtual disappearance in Dutch Wadden Sea; of this species are still at present only two locations known in the the early 1990s a in submerged stand in few square of a very shallow water The extension to a A halt. large-scale die-off started around 1986-87, and has so far not been explained Most observations recent the of however, the gradual regression ina exercised directly by dredging, development, aquaculture and underline, the eelgrass bed of areas under anthropogenic influence. may be '^'. a convincing way'" in Mytilidae, Veneridael the area. intervention, declined to manna beds soon came the Zostera of cover approximately to ]')9A™, mainly consisting of Zostera noltiF". human this sites very slow and at eelgrass did not recover seagrass many seagrass before almost complete disappearance; Human impact and mar- filling mollusks lOstreidae, of farms, anchoring and fish shoreline other boat activities, and directly and indirectly by the modifications have facilitated the growth of eelgrass effects of eutrophication, such as increasing turbidity, a In beds. In few cases, anthropogenic the second part of the 20th century several development blankets of macroalgae and invasive floating macroalgae which may suffocate the of seagrasses, and development epiphytic microalgae and high of biomass of macroalgae on the leaves. In the geographic area considered, the intensity of these perturbations varies from one region to the other Along the Channel coasts the natural harbors are used as semi-permanent anchoring sites for pleasure boats as here the optimal conditions for this including tidal activity, considerations, protection from level swell and currents, and distance from the shore are met. Unfortunately, these are exactly the sites where Zostera marina has ecological its activity IS an important cause beds and it Is same way, of the optimum. This erosion of eelgrass increasing very rapidly everywhere. recreational fishing Is In increasing; the the digging of mollusks during low tide at spring tides by very destructive tools induces a rapid regression of the parts of Zostera marina beds. intertidal eelgrass sites of Zostera noltii Numerous and Zostera marina are progressively disappearing with the rapid extension of aquaculture. In France and Spain, on intertidal sites. In Cornwall and Devon (southern England) many losses were pointed out by Aerial pliotograph showing the impact of sh-,.' sr^r intertidal Zostera noltii -;. no explanations were found bed. the sites construction of a dam 196^, 25 eelgrass. km upstream a second dam in at the of western Europe, generally recognized but not in the estuary Isolated is lower limits observed m was Estuary was transformed Into a stagnant salt water after 1980'". The new conditions favored the extension of the probably a factor In many in the lower limit of Zostera marina the system from the sea's Influence. The Grevelingen lake. semi-exposed continuously increasing turbidity of the coastal waters the Intertidal belt. Then, mouth under of the in , meadows conditions particularly around small islands, but the quantified, 971 Turk''*'; The freshwater Influence; at that period the eelgrass beds 1 ^ In by marina Grevellngen Estuary, isolated the ecosystem from the covered about 12 km' ^V colonized Zostera Holme and these losses. The less- for beds are probably the deeper subtldal threatened large constructions along the coast of the Netherlands modified comparing the results Glesen'^' by given by Covey and Hocking''", and ;n an 13 The in 1977-78, 10 m In really the variations of the beds. As an example, in Ventry Bay llrelandl 1980 and continued to fall been quantified for loss of eelgrass has not more than 50 percent Zostera marina beds, which became permanently the whole region, but probably submerged, and occupied about 3A km^ the period the beds are subject to one or other of the types of common perturbations mentioned, and are threatened by total 1971-85'"'. Zostera noltii, In which was the most of Western Europe A or partial destruction over the next ten years. abundant review known, but many beds are recorded from the numerous concerning eelgrass in rias western Europe suggests that the general trend of approximately the of literature recovery after the almost complete disappearance of the sublittoral beds 1930s the in largely is being the of Portuguese coasts""). recorded as a reversed by the diverse, and generally adverse, local subtidal and regional anthropogenic impacts. nodosa. AN potential In France, along the Channel and Atlantic coasts, most known. Along the western of the eelgrass sites are However, of present at seagrass of planned Baie des Veys near Isigny on the benthic in eastern side of the were located and mapped Brittany a/.'"", Eelgrass beds peninsula'"'. although the exact area of in 1999 by Hily e( in each bed has not been determined. This study identified more than 70 sites from the Mont St Michel Bay Estuary in and 1 them are small 5 ha. but there are at least ten more than 100 ha large beds covering 10 to the Gulf of Morbihan, Glenan Archipelago. Bay of Brest, Etel Rial. To the south, the Arcachon Basin km' 19841 in manna de Batz, lie Marennes-Oleron Basin noltii. Further the largest site of Zostera is is a the south the to noltii (70 Europe, and also a large site of Zostera in km' (4 (including Brehat Archipelago. Abers Estuaries and large site of Zostera mapped and consist of marina (including the about 140 sites Some Zostera of and about 70 them extend over of considerable area, such as the Zostera marina bed a in the Cromarty Firth, Scotland, which covers 12 km"'" and United considered the largest bed is Kingdom. In England, the in the cross-border sites of Scotland and Solway the and Firth northern the Northumberland coasts have coverage respectively 2 and 9 km""™. Along the coast seagrass coverage of some documented: Essex estuaries large Isle of Plymouth Sound and estuaries smaller beds occur the main sites are Sarnau, while in in in of has been sites (6.50 km'). In Some Wales, Peninsula and the Northern Ireland the beds in the Strangford Lough cover 6.30 km"". Zostera marina beds are also sediments of the common on the semi-sheltered Along the southeastern coasts to of the North Sea, the sheltered Sea and southwest Netherlands and cover Group may Biodiversity Steering survey) Kingdom the result quite an in area. in this PRESENT THREATS Direct destruction of beds As a result of the rapid and sailing over the last 20 years, filling development for extension or creation many eelgrass Wadden a total of of pleasure fishing and dredging harbors have destroyed of beds. As a consequence of economic and environmental arguments such developments are becoming harmful nowadays, but the damage has less been done. mussel and aquaculture sediments has been the cause many eelgrass beds because the culture on littoral of the destruction of the optimal conditions for these animals correspond with the of optimal conditions for the beds. This activity is still expanding, and will probably be one of the main threats beds to the in the future. Anchoring mooring and outside harbors damaging. Anchoring causes the formation of is deep may become points of impact for the eroding forces, while the chains dragging across holes which the in bottom their turn destroy surrounding the biocenoses including the seagrass communities. Hand hoes fishing for to catch the clams using rakes, forks and endofaunal bivalves at low well as within the seagrass beds, results as tide, in whole plants with their rhizomes being pulled out of the damage sediment. This causes considerable seagrass beds, because erosion. Collecting clams it is caused in to the generally followed by in this way is popular, so this type of perturbation of becoming very increasing in perturbation is is the eulittoral seagrass beds by digging for polychaetes such as Arenicola and Nereis to be used as bait. Professional fishermen on boats dredge on the 200 km'. In of the coastal network accurate estimate of the potential habitat western Europe'^". The same kind Channel Islands. seagrass beds are restricted for Brittany is Habitat Action Plan for seagrass beds developed by the UK Thames Wight (4.40 km'l, Devon and Cornwall. the Lleyn of England, the 18.44 km'). North Estuary (3.25 km'l, Solent and both for Zostera the United In region. would be more than it (REBENT communities Oyster intertidal sites! sites of Zostera noltii"'. measure the whole 2003 with a long-term survey in beds and Cymodocea to the in An estimate noltii. including Zostera beds. in 1984]'"'. the United Kingdom, most of the beds are In noltii the north to the Loire the south of Brittany. Most of in beds between possible three times the actual coverage occur near Granville, and the most eastern beds are not habitat can be estimated that it marina and Zostera noltii Zostera and Formosa is French Portugal, the Ria In covers nolti, the Zostera marina and coast of the Cotentin Peninsula, beds of Zosters marina Zostera between site for intertidal beds IS It OF PRESENT COVERAGE ESTItvlATE km' 20 [Zostera region Galicia Spain, the actual seagrass coverage is not limits of the beds to catch bivalves. The natural 43 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 4A acclimation Venerupis clam Japanese the of phiUppinarum the south of the area (from south In Brittany to Spain] increases the direct impact of this activity on the seagrass beds because develops dense populations beds much damage has been done Netherlands, still and around the eelgrass In bays and estuaries"". the sheltered of In the to the few eelgrass beds by professional cockle existing with their modern, fisheries species this environ- but effective, reduce maintenance and releasing the dredged sediments on levels. Spatial competition with Indirect destruction of of organic matter and of from terrestrial effluents favors phyto- plankton. causing blooms which light their turn in plankton Moreover, availability. able Is where the sediment the eelgrass beds in coarse or includes gravel, stones and/or shells. is these beds Sargassum gradually takes over and Most decrease production these threats concern the eelgrass of Zostera marina. The intertldal species Zostera has been assumed noltii be threatened by a combination of to various factors including turbidity, eutrophication and mud associated epiphyte cover, the decrease of snail Instantaneous blomass populations [Hydrobia ulvae] which graze on the becomes longer and in some areas with numerous successive small blooms'"'. As a cons- epiphytes, and also as a result of bloturbation by the increases not only In terms of but the period of production also longer, and can be observed all year equence growth light available for the further reduction of light is brought about by increased epiphyte cover on Zostera leaves and macroalgae The participate. In of which both diatoms community specific small epiphytes mentioned above to is. however, the disappear from the seagrass bed in of first the case in semi-enclosed, sheltered bays the green algae can form thick blankets which float around and can be deposited on the Zostera beds muddy Intertldal weather. a very important potential threat Is the worlds busiest shipping routes and the chance that accidents occur cannot be excluded will ladverse weather conditions; human Notorious error). disasters were those with the tankers Torrey Canyon and Amoco Cadiz Eril<a in the western Channel and recently in North Biscay The impact these of on oil spills the whole coastal ecosystem has been disastrous. Eutrophication also Increases the eutrophication. production of green macroalgae [Enteromorpha, Ulval; particularly Finally, shipping. The Channel and the southern North Sea are among of Zostera. Apart from this shading effect by plankton, a element lugworm Arenicola marina. These processes have been in the Dutch Wadden Sea by Phillppart'™. well studied these plankton blooms, the water trans- of parency decreases, limiting the of the during periods flats of When European Union lEUI Directive for both terrestrial mam elaborated these blankets flats, Habitats natural habitats and their cultural identifies the value for further consideration are deposited on the bare surface of the intertldal a and marine habitats which sandy and suffocated, leading to complete die-off within a very short tlme'^". POLICY RESPONSES The very calm Under such conditions the seagrass beds become smothered and and conservation. In terms of protection this context eelgrass In beds are as particular ecological units of several Identified marine habitats: sandy shore, mud These subtidal sandy sediments. being and coastal flats initiatives have led targeted to for the spatial competition favors the green algae which eelgrass prevent the extension of the seagrass beds, and reduce conservation and restoration'^". But although they are the growth of shoots by shading and suffocation effects considered as biotopes of special Interest, they are not in the areas where they border the seagrass beds. In habitats specifically considered as "endangered" and so not considered for these conditions the beds decrease progressively, and immediate and strong protection. may completely disappear marina The increase with input effluents as a of In only associated terrigenous particles by river of consequence soil few years. can also result from an but agricultural practices; leaching In a of turbidity is not eutrophication. Increasing of modern winter. large-scale changes in practices encourage the Extraction of calcareous sediments and calcareous macroalgae [Llthoptiytium sp.l from sublittoral beds Induces high high levels of sediment J western prevents the rejuvenation of eelgrass"^'. beds seagrass beds. The increase nutrients develop the main cause of indirect destruction is In Europe. The brown algae Sargassum muticum to may species invasive also limit the extension of seagrass beds In Eutrophication seagrass during of Dredging for harbor and channel the seafloor also increases turbidity and lowered light floor mentally unfriendly equipment. and cover the leaves light resedimentation. in suspension turbidity; the In the water but Is is Is listed In not the In the list Red Book of In France Zostera threatened species Zostera of protected species. localities, some Zostera beds municipal authorities. and Zostera Red List of In noltii In are noltii in few protected by not considered. Additionally, very locally and March 2002, Zostera marina were both incorporated in the Dutch threatened plants. the United Kingdom, the eelgrass beds have been considered conservation and for a many years as targets for habitat action plan for seagrass Western Europe Case Study throughout the year induces fragmentation 2.2 GLENAN ARCHIPELAGO In the beds the northern part of the Bay of Biscay, the Glenan mites Isles are located 9 the continental coast of off south Brittany, France. The area ten characterized by numerous rocky and islands snnatl is 5m surrounding an enclosed, shallow l< main sheltered subtidal in five fishing of the intertidal extraction calcareous sediments Imaerl of miles 1.5 heavy turbidity off for beds; the archipelago induces the northern waters of the in archipelago which deep], may extension of limit the sandy area well protected from the oceanic swell. the beds Aerial photographs are available from the year 1932 limits of the laminarians close to the and allowed estimates ment of the long-term develop- induces recreational fragmentation beds) islets clams of sites; depth in la decrease of the deeper beds was recently demonstrated""). of the areas covered by eetgrass""'. This an interesting experimental is site consequences) associated which minimized Is This example underlines the complexity of the be- cause the continental influence (eutrophication and dynamics of the eelgrass beds which are under the Influence of factors working at various spatial and allows the obserA/ation of the natural dynamics of the temporal scales: here the positive climatic factors beds under climatic factors, but also because working human negative impacts of the perturbations induced by perturbations to (anchoring, fishing] induce local activities the eelgrass beds. So in separate the role of each it is possible on the cover 1932, in considered that a surface of 10 l<m' eelgrass beds, but area was in can it is be suitable for 1990 only 25 percent of this colonized by eelgrass. In 2000, this percen- tage increased to around 40 percent as a result of positive climatic conditions since 1995; this Is also coasts"". observed In However dredging many beds this evolution negative impacts of for Is tendency a Zostera must be moderated impacts while increasing. the future) in hard It is in the to explain to the human activities the beds because of their cover spatial necessary is actually explain that under to the cumulative effect, with in human Impacts, would induce dramatic and rapid loss of the beds, and consequently preventive action should the this site are bed is adverse climatic conditions (which are expected the opened manna it authorities and users alike that Brittany of in pleasure Fortunately, the management working with the authorities at scientific teams on a sustainable development plan to preserve the Image central subtidal part of the area; Anchonng on activities at the local scale. be planned. numerous for the This example also underlines the difficulties of numerous human activities'"': clams by professional fishing by compensate global scale moderated by the boats prevents recolonizatlon anchoring the seagrass conservation: control the dynamics. Based human the factors that of at boats Glenan Archipelago. of high environmental quality in this tourist area. 45 1 46 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES France they are called "sites Natura 2000". The regulations suggest that relevant authorities from the various work should sites management group. In together within a most countries, the presence of Zostera beds has been a criterion (but not the only one] as a SAC. to retain a site When SAC, specific management procedure to is bed a is included a in is required for the bed. This be applied independently by each Some country, and has not yet been achieved. sites derive their conservation status from a combination of several different directives, and this can reinforce the conservation of Zostera beds. For example, some sites are also RAMSAR Directive, which reinforces the international recognition of the and/or sites sites of EU Birds the sites importance and requires the government to strongly protect the site. However, the sites indicated according to these directives are far from covering the eelgrass beds in Europe. all therefore remains very It important to give global consideration to eelgrass habitats on a wide scale and remains necessary it to define specific conservation regulations at the level of the species or genus and/or the habitat. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Zostera manna on a maerl bed in M Asmus Dr R the Bay of Brest kindly provided Zostera German Wadden beds was prepared by the Group. Biodiversity Steering cover percentages for the who provided data on the Glenan Archipelago. complementary way, the South West a In UK manna Sea. Thanks to Ingrid Peuziat Regional Biodiversity Habitat Action Plan has also been developed. These initiatives are integrated EU the in AUTHORS Christian Hily, Inslitut Universitaire Europeen de Habitats Directive which requires the identification of viiestern European marine Tel; network called "Natura sites in a 2000"; sites which should be managed order in to la Mer jUniversity of Bnttanyl, Technopole Brest Iroise, 29280, Plouzane, France. +33 Fax: +33 1012 98 49 86 45. 98 49 86 40. 1012 E-mail: chnstian.hilyrauniv-brest.fr maintain or restore the favorable conservation status of and species. Each state their habitats of the EU has the statutory responsibility, via the conservation agencies, conservation objectives for developing in each SACs are called the United site. In Ispecial areas Kingdom these of sites conservation!, in REFERENCES 1 waters. Hydrobiologia SI 2 den Hartog C -. Biology, dominated communities in Management and diversity western Europe. Marine Tect)notogy 7 Hily C, Bouteille feeding guilds meadow in M [1 999], Modifications of the specific diversity and 8 |Zos(era manna] (Brittany, France]. III, Comptes Rendus de Sciences de la Vie/Lite 9 den Hartog C phenomena 5 Giesen W and other dynamic 10 [1994]. The Genus Zosfera Scarce Plants in Ireland. Whelan PM, Cullinane JP [1987]. manna in PhD in thesis, The occurrence of "wasting Ireland in the 1930s. Aquatic Botany University of Nijmegen, Netherlands. 138 pp. Connan C [19991. Les herbiers flore. de zosteres en Rapport Diren Region Bretagne, Universite de Bretagne Occidentale, Brest. 57 pp. and Present Eelgrass Condition. Report to Dutch Ministry of Transport and Waterways. Hily C, Raffin C, Bretagne: Inventaire des sites, faune et Zostera beds. Aquatic Botanyll: 3-13. [1990], "Wasting Disease" [1986]. Project, pp. 27; 285-289. [19871. "Wasting disease' m JNCC, Peterborough. disease" of Zostera Sciences 322:1121-1131. 4 Pearman DA, Preston CD A, Bntain. UK Marine SACs SAMS. 95 University College Cork, Ireland. 215 pp. an mtertidal sediment colonized by an eelgrass I'Academie des Sciences Sene Marine SACs. Reports AMMW Wilson, Stewart Whelan PM of Sensitivity Charactenstics for Conservation of Task Manager, Zostera- in Nijmegen, PO. Box 9010, 6500GL Nijmegen, Davison DM, Hughes DJ [1998]. Zostera Biotopes: An Overview Dynamics and of poikilosaline Society Journal]! '.m-U7. 3 University of Netherlands. 15-22. 11933]. Structural uniformity Box 9010, 6500GL Nijmegen, Netherlands. P.O. Cornelius den Hartog, Department of Aquatic Ecology and Environmental 6 den Hartog C [19311. Aquatic plant communities M. van Kalwyk, Departnnent of Environmental Studies, University Nijmegen, site, defined as a statement of the nature conservation aspirations for a Maneke of 1 Curras A, Sanchez-Mata la A, Mora J [19931. Estudio comparativo de macrofauna bentonica de un fondo de Zostera manna y un fondo Western Europe arenoso libre sedimentaires dans de cubierta vegetal. Cahiers de Biologie Marine 35: 12 27 Gruet Y [1976] Repartition des herbiers de Zoslera dans IMonocotyledones marines! sur I'estran des cotes de LoireAtlantique et du Nord de Naturelles de Ouest de 13 la Whelan PM. Cullinane JP Zoslera bed 119851. 28 algal flora of a subtidal Ventry Bay, south-west Ireland. Aquatic Botany 22: in 29 Hily C. 15 van Goor ACJ [1919]. Het zeegrass IZosfera marina] en 30 zi|n beteekenis voor het leven der visschen Rapp Verii Rijksinst 16 17 31 Verhandeling over wier der Zuiderzee. in manna 12000]. Possibilities for Restoration of Z. the Dutch Wadden PhD Sea. Nijmegen. thesis. University of de Jonge VN, de Jong DJ 119921. Role manna Polderman PJG C, in of tide, the Dutch hght and fisheries Wadden [1975]. Changes in 32 CJM Decline the Seagrass Zoslera noltii of the Dutch in [1994]. Eutrophication as a Possible thesis, University of Dykema ]-. Laborda AJ. Cimadevilla [1997] Intertidal habitat loss 1. Capdevila L. model. Garcia JR 11997]. 33 Beek JG 35 Sea. 1 :100,000. 36 Research L, Jean JIvl, 11996]. Twenly-hve years of changes manna, in 37 PfvlJ, [1996]. Manne silicon levels R, of 1 44: 303-307. Hocking S [1987] Hellord River Survey. A report [19361. Studies on the Helford River: Fauna records up Records No. J. 9. to to 39 C, In: Smart P. Wynde R Zoslera bed by : Sargassum mulicuma M, Campbell King M, Newbery of a littoral Botany 1*1 21-38. threat lo eelgrass 58: 37-41, 119951. J, L. Gubbay S. Hawkswetl S. Steel C. Stones T. Taylor Proposed targets Juniper J. for habitat Biodiversity Challenge. 2nd edn. van Katwii|k MM, RSPB, Sandy, Hermuus DCR. de Jong DJ. Asmus RM. de Jonge Wadden Sea for restoration of 120001. Habitat suitability of the beds. Helgoland Manne Research 54: 17-128. MM. Schmitz GHW. Gasselmg AP, Van Avesaath PH manna van Katwii|k 1 and nutrient load and their interaction on Manne Ecology Progress Series 190: 155-165. Giesen WBJT, van Katwijk MM. den Hartog C 11990]. Eelgrass condition and turbidity the in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Aquatic Botany 37:71-85. marine life of the 40 Glemarec M, Le Faou seagrass beds 1910. Cornish Biological in Y, Cuq F [19961. Long-term changes of the Glenan Archipelago [South Brittany], Oceano/og/ca/lc(a 20111: 217-227. 26 pp. Larsonneur C Long-term 120001. Zostera manna. Helford River Steering Group. 121 pp. Holme NA. Turk SM Is 11999]. Effects of salinity eelgrass Zoslera marina and water Ecology Progress Series radiata. Aquatic Wynne DW, Avery Zoslera 38 Hemminga MA, Nienhuis PH, Verschuure JM, Wessel Wax and wane Thouzeau G Marine Ecology Progress Series 200: 35-48. den Hartog C 11997]. VN in Grevelingen Lagoon, the Netherlands. Netherlands Journal ol Herman 0. Brest ecosystem: Benthic-pelagic coupling of Bedfordshire. 285 pp. Herman PMJ, Holland AMB, Wessel EGJ et Pans, pp 140-144. Ragueneau F. Bay des coles Mer du Nord: Synthese. menaces et MNHN, Dauvin In: et littorales Irancaises den Hartog C 11994]. Suffocation Tydeman Aquatic Ecology30:im-]]r Le Gall Chauvaud T. Nature Ivlanagemenl, Texel and Veth Foundation, the distribution and biomass of eelgrass, Zoslera C 11997). Les herbiers de Zosteres. Manche conservation. Verschuure Covey C, Hily Les Biocenoses mannes beds' /tquaticSofany pp. 11989]. Habitats of the German and Danish Wadden Sea Nienhuis PH, de Bree BHH, column led] Enteromorpha of Leiden. EGJ den Hartog revisited. 34 141-147. Wadden Oceanogr 22: 273- del norde de Espana. Publ Espec Inst Esp perspectives. Cause Wageningen. Netherlands. 157 KS, van Tienen G. van Institute for 26 of a spatial depletion Allantiques in Sea. the seagrass Philippart Netherlands, 25 PR and wildfowl numbers: Application variation of the den Hartog PhD 24 the Solway Firth. Report for Scottish Percival SM, Sutherland WJ, Evans JC populations of the Dutch Waddenzee. Aquatic Botany 23 in 282- 161-176, 22 (19931. Eelgrass litoral Ivll^ Hethertands Institute lor Sea Research Publications Series 20: 21 RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire. Hawker D 54-129. van Katwijk the decline of lostera 20 [1995] Annual Report of the Royal Society for the Protection Distribucion de las praderras de Zoslera noltii Hornem.. 1832 en el Netherlands. 160 pp. 19 RSPB Verhandetingen Hollandsche Maatschappij der Welensct)3ppen 20: Beds 18 noltii bassin d'Arcachon: Dynamique, production et degradation, Journal ol Applied Eco(ogy35lll: 57-63. 415-493. Martinet JF [1782] 14: 189-204. des herbiers de Zoslera Natural Heritage. Personal observations. 14 1141: le of Birds. 41-51. Wsschenj 11991]. Contribution a I'etude 234 pp. 74; 86-90. The 1 Dynamique et Geologie macrofaune associee. These de doctoral, Universite de Bordeaux. Vendee. Bulletin Societe des Sciences France la Auby Bale des Veys IManchel. Revue de la Geographic Physique 91-112. 47 119721. Sequences et environnements 41 Castric A. Personal communication. ^ 48 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 3 of THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN G. Procaccini M.C. Buia M.C. Gambi M. Perez Pergent G. C. Pergent-Martini Romero J. on seagrasses Studies the Mediterranean basin in date bacl< to the beginning of the 19th century, when most widespread and well-known the was described communities Meadows for the first and this aspects different of seagrass distribution, ecology, physiology, faunal and algal assemblages and, recently, Two international workshops in the early 1980s were dedicated to the endemic Posidonia oceanica and led to joint research programs among genetics. European countries to study and structure the functioning of the Posidonia oceanica ecosystem. Less information on exists seagrass species, although common and widespread some Mediterranean seagrasses the Biology of in them are A significant in vertical growth bottom up old'^'. to a few meters and can be thousands Posidonia oceanica male and female flowers Sexual reproduction in manna and Zostera noltii, 3.11. along the also both with l-ialophila stipulacea. wide temperate distribution (Table Extremely limited information Ruppia in the is Mediterranean and it meadows even represent genetically distinct populations, is common and eastern populations. Meadows are composed mosaic and ancient clones" of large Cymodocea nodosa to a maximum depth of classically been considered France, the However system'''. it also grows dead matte. Cymodocea nodosa Seeds remain for a long mother time in is a dioecious species. the sediment, attached The only existing analysis Mediterranean meadows showed high genetic m and to the fact, plants climax 5 m Zostera marina species in apart within a is considered the Mediterranean, meters deep. of the plant. of diversity. meadow were genetically distinct individuals""'. meadows high. Posidonia oceanica in areas previously in to from rocks has colonized by Posidonia oceanica and characterized by be meadows It be a pioneer species to the succession leading to a Posidonia oceanica climax freshwater and fine sediment beds have classically been considered one In coastal lagoons. in Shoot density reaches almost 2000 shoots/m"". sand, with the exception of estuaries where the input of is usually found on is on some 45 of substrate, of a ". sites'". most important beds are known In on different types clear genetic between northwestern, southwestern distinction exists not will considered further from the surface A few kilometers'". at a scale of a available Posidonia oceanica forms continuous some in areas. Posidonia oceanica has low genetic variability and 30-40 m. Shallow and deep stands are generally probably a recent introduction from the Red Sea; and spp., with a inflorescence. especially in Cymodocea nodosa, a wide temperate distribution; same of present along the North Atlantic African coasts and Ruppia the in sporadic, Cymodocea nodosa most commonly occurs the Mediterranean all years shallow water but exceptionally can reach a depth 2000'". Sea, forming an almost continuous belt Portugal; Zostera is of monoecious species, with a is sandy substrate and sheltered seagrass species are present of form a to biogenic structure called "matte", that arises from the discontinuous. coasts: Posidonia oceanica; rhizomes, and the slow decay of causes Posidonia oceanica material, the by SPECIES DISTRIBUTION Six ''' Seagrass offered International Corsica quite work conducted on was Fourth Workshop held of the basin. in contribution to the synthesis of the organization Mediterranean other the area'^'. although this varies from year to year'". The horizontal time. Since then thousands of papers have detailed species, Posidonia oceanica, Mediterranean coastal the of are very dense with over 1000 shoots/m' distributed substrate and It is where from the it to be a intertidal to can grow on sandy and also present in relict forms perennial a few muddy lagoons"", though it is E The western Mediterranean 10" w '»-&•"'/ "/T-ri^K-v. eUgoon-^' ^ Rousslllon A ^ Provence Alpes 1 ; V*-:- , Marse.lle> ^ '"•Monaco UGVRIWSEA - • Catrtorta -* SPAIN ^J\ Is C'wsi forsicai ,' 4.^ ,.^S?A '-'*4^..- \/ Lailo 1 ^. , * 1 ' f-. \ ''f ITALY / : 7 V. • Numana *^ f X Btn AifiK-s • "f \ Tuscany Medes VaJenda ^\ Delia .X ' CROATIA !\^-^~^ . 1 ADRIATIC Apote Andakjda • r Sandinia/ Ijjlcanclslands .^ • < Ischia 1 - • * TVSRIIEMiy i.f-J *^ M E D 1 N E T E R R A .1 .V S£ 40" 1 N E A i' Calabrta MOROCCO • ^ ALGERIA i 100 ^S'Af 0' / V. XN_ • ^** lOfJIA / -^^f x; TUNISIA 300 Kilometers 200 10- ( E Map 3.1 The western Mediterranean rare throughout the Mediterranean. Shoot density Zostera marina beds Zostera marina a is is almost monoecious 1 Halophiila stipulacea in on the plant. Studies was recently introduced to the western Mediterranean Sea and 000 shoots/m^"". the first time in species has been observed from the basin performed beginning of the 19th century and the Mediterranean. Zostera of a few/ noltii grows from the meters on sandy and muddy substrate"". also present It enclosed and sheltered areas, where in can form mixed beds with Cymodocea nodosa, densities up to almost a 1 300 shoots/ml Zostera monoecious species and no information about the genetic variability believed to have Canal, an example of Lessepsian migration. is Mediterranean it at to 25 m'"'. and nottii is is It it is in to almost 19000 shoots/m' is a of general features of Mediterranean seagrass meadows Posidonia Posidonia Cymodocea Halopt\Ha Haloptiila Zostera Zosfera oceanica oceanica nodosa stipulacea stipulacea noltii marina shallow deep shallow deep 216-1093 700 161 925-1 925 19728 13000 269-1 246 Leaf area index (m^/m^l 6.16-29 1.1-2.6 0.2-3.5 5 5.9 0.2-0.4 1.7-6.7 Leaf biomass 175-670 52-94 17-159 157.8 - 13-79 45-775 21-161 Density Ishcots/m'l dw/m^l Ig Below biomass Ig Epiphyte biomass 6 526 324 300-750 - - 31-62 7-U7 3-21.3 3.4-12.5 - - - - 0.077-0.4 - 1.0-2.6 - - - 0.7-3.2 36 50 35 30 8 25 38-60 22-84 83 53 - - dw/m'l (g dw/m^| Animal biomass Ig Number of algal species Number of dw/m^l animal species Animal density |individuals/m^l Leaf production Ig dw/m7yl 380-1 100 210-680 1486 2035 162-722 71.3-232 23.6-1 623 - 1.1-7.4 - 3.6-57.8 - 5 - Rhizome elongation Icm/yl Leaf lifespan (months) Source: Modified from Buia eta 11 '". 11 Values derived from key studies listed in Buiae(a/."'. - ' is in dioecious Table 3.1 Examples the enclosed areas. Shoot density up shallow water'". Halophiila stipulacea of its populations. In distributed from the intertidal zone can grow on sandy and muddy substrate, present extremely high, available is is been transported from the Red Sea, through the Suez depths intertidal to this for the eastern Mediterranean genetic diversity of this species have never been in was reported In 1988. - - - 70-949 109-2299 - 91-168 18-91 - - 1-3 49 50 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 3.1 Posidonia oceanica part of the Gulf of Naples. ITALY covers about LIGURIAN COAST meadows, forming a continuous island, were mapped in detail The Ligurian area is one among of the best the coasts for information on the distribution Italian and general status of seagrasses. in particular for Posidonia oceanica. Almost 50 Posidonia oceanica meadows main mapped™. been have recorded several hundred hectares, covering 48 km'. In general in total the prairies are all states of degradation for and Their extension ranges from a few due to in to about different coastal modifications harbor and town development. In addition some Posidonia oceanica beds were impacted the early 1990s by a crude wrecking one of the oil of the oil spill in worst Mediterranean exposure different and seafloor, 1779'"'. in its around the belt the coasts of the of The island, meadows extremely type, give rise to terms diversified in physiognomy (continuous of down and patchy beds], depth range (from 38 m shoots/m' at m 1 and biodiversity 80 shoots/m' to low coupled with a degree A recent monitoring year the (in beds around the of demonstrates 2000) other settlements of a and distribution of stability the previously not However, long-term studies carried reported'"'. 1979 out since depth] between shallow and deep stands"". of isolation presence m to 700 and with species], intrinsic genetic variability, island 30 at of associated communities (more of 800 associated than mean depth), shoot density (from a in substantial oil spills"". the of coupled with different environmental conditions and bottom following the tanker Haven, considered to be km^ 17 beds in detected a reduction in Ameno Lacco off have shoot density, as a result of anchoring, the impact of the local fishery and a nearby wastewater outfall. NORTH ADRIATIC COAST (VENICE LAGOON] Zostera marina present on the is the north Adriatic Sea in Uth the century. was it limited The Trieste'"'. worst oceanica has occurred 1 990 Zostera in this few patches a to manna decline area, being the in Gulf the Venice lagoon. in covered an area of 36.5 beds mixed with Zostera of Posidonia of forming pure and continuous beds I^pj^2iz5,26i coasts of recorded here Posidonia oceanica has experienced a strong decrease now Italian first of In km^ 2M km^ and noitii over the other 34 ^Qgfgf-g no/f/Vwas the most widespread species (42.5 km') and Cymodocea nodosa was also present (15.6 km'). Monitoring results four years later percent but with 13.5 from the southern showed an increase lagoon'"' in part of of the about 7.6 the overall extent of seagrass beds, more Zostera marina percent], a decrease Cymodocea nodosa and a (an increase of 10.1 percent in large decline in of The monospecific Posidonia oceanica banquette on the Cava dell'lsola beach, Zostera Ischia Island, and discontinuous beds have increased while Italy. noitii (24.7 percent). mixed species beds have declined. A high survival TYRRHENIAN COAST (ISLAND OF At a smaller spatial Posidonia oceanica surrounding the Island scale, ISCHIA] the meadows rate for Zostera marina. best-known are of Ischia, in the those northern Zostera noitii Cymodocea nodosa and has been achieved in transplanting experiments using sods and rhizomes sites in the lagoon'™-'". at various The western Mediterranean Male species. flowers frequent are the in Serranus Labndae cabrilla], Coris julis and (e.g. Mediterranean Sea but fennale flowers were only Crenilabrus observed Scorpaena scrofa and Scorpaena porous], and the sea for the first tinne in 1998. in Sicily"^'. Studies on the genetic two populations located variability of coasts showed that each shoot along the Sicilian represents a genetically distinct individual. was higher among relatedness the same Paracentrotus urchin star Asterina pancerii, the sea hippocampus and the bivalve species are protected, included of the are extremely rich number of associated plant lists of species have been compiled only a Posidonia oceanica and and 250 species have been Islands"^'. exclusive habitat for in and associated few cases, such Cymodocea nodosa where more than 800 of the island of Ischia, Medes or among in both horse Hippocampus Pinna nobilis: these and France, or are Italy species requiring a specific legislation or listed, respectively"", EXTENT OF COVERAGE Information covered by seagrasses beds some areas in The in Posidonia oceanica beds are the taking many scattered algal and animal species, on the distribution Italian into all coastline is 7500 km Electra posidoniae, long, without account the numerous small islands around the peninsula. three bryozoan However the to mal<e. is difficult and HydroUthon farmosum. the brown algae Castagnea Myrionema is are well known. surrounded by seagrass meadows Giraudia sphacelanoides and seagrasses of scattered and therefore an estimate of the total area such as the coralline red algae Pneoptiyllum fragile cilindrica, rare western Mediterranean animal species. However, complete the the for protection"". Seagrass ecosystems meadows Among lividus. (e.g. endangered associated species are the endemic sea Genetic ASSOCIATED SPECIES as the Scorpaenidae individuals collected at depth"^'. in a and maculatus] is almost entirely that, considering the It most abundant species [Posidonia oceanica. Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera extend from 0.2 noltii], to ^5 m. Clearly the potential area covered by seagrass hydroids Aglaophenia harpago. Sertularia perpusilla, IS enormous. Some Campanuiana asymmetrica, Cordyiophora Laomedea anguiata'"'"". occur the orbiculare, Posidonia grounds oceanica the juveniles for important species of fishes and in and invertebrates, such as Diplodus (e.g. Diplodus annularis]. Serranidae (e.g. of seagrass are known Sardinia, Veneto France has approximately and 150 km' of 1 species are not available. On the Mediterranean coasts of Spam, some regions have mapped meadows than 1 in their seagrass great detail allowing an estimate of 000 km* to be made. the 1970 area. This FRANCE levels of 1994, a most is likely due to the high suspended matter, ammonium and phosphate coming from the treatment plant. After MARSEILLE-CORTIOU REGION long-term monitoring oceanica beds in study of Posidonia the Marseille-Cortiou region has natural recolonization oceanica was observed in Posidonia of due certain areas, to increased water clarity recorded fluctuations over the 1883-1987 period, and the impact 890 period 1 set up in to 1 of a sewage treatment 898, when sewage plant. In the outlet was first Marseille, the seagrass bed had reached a depth of 30 m and occupied an area km^ A number 6.32 a of of about authors noted loss of Posidonia oceanica between 1900 and 1970 as the city of Marseille expanded™. At the end of the CORSICA Corsican coasts experience low with many marine 71 percent of the protected human impact areas; Corsican coastline almost is still in its natural state. Posidonia oceanica beds occupy a total surface area of 624 km"'" mainly along the eastern side of the island, where the continental limited on 1970s the bed covered a smaller area, with a loss shelf of 5-6 the steep and indented west coast. Upper limits percent per decade. When set up was in the wastewater treatment plant was 1987, the lower limit of the seagrass bed m is very wide. Their distribution are generally between 1 and 10 m is depth, while the lower limit at several sites on the east coast IS situated below 40 m. The lower limit rises to dead matte. Since then there have been further, a depth much as Ajaccio. just 10 and it greater, losses included vast stretches of amounting to 40 percent of to Friuli Posidonia oceanica beds, but estimates for other Case Study 3.2 A 350 km' 2 Lazio, Liguria, (Table 3.21. meadows are nursery of many commercially several species of the family Sparidae sargus and pusilla the of 15-20 m near large cities such more 51 52 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES PRODUCTION AND BIOMASS The beds of Posidonia oceanica are among the most important Mediterranean ecosystems, and their conservation is a high national and international EU Habitats priority le g. 19921. Posidonia oceanica role within coastal systems, seagrasses in May Directive 92/43/CEE, 21 beds exert Both below-ground and above-ground biomass values feature temperate and tropical areas, offering in l<ey striking the distinct partitioning of the biomass, mainly up to 90 percent for biomass'"'*'and production of total where leaves account substrate for settlement, food availability and shelter, as well as participating is directed into the lignified rhizomes, which can account other to that of A including the Australian Posidonia species"™. a multifunctional comparable Posidonia oceanica exceed those of other seagrasses, of more than 90 for percent'"'. In extensive study"" net primary production biogeochemical and range from 130-1 284 g dry weight/m'/year However, to geological processes. Table 3.2 Distribution of seagrasses throughout the western Mediterranean Sites Po Cn Zm Zn Hs Area (Italy, France and Spain] Comments Ikm-'l ITALY Liguria* / / Tuscany* / / / - Lazio / / / 200 48 and sandy bottom, from to 35 m'^°'. On rocky and sandy bottom, from to 40 m'" On rocl<y Large extensions of dead "matte". Meadows '. in regression at north of the Tevere River due to sedimentation from construction works. Illegal trawling within the depth of 40 Campania' / / / / m'™'". and morphological features, due different typology, extension Beds with to the highly variable environmental conditions and sea bottom topography'""'. Calabna" / / / / - different typology, extension Beds with and morphological features, due to the highly vanable environmental conditions and sea bottom topography Apulia / / / Posidonia oceanica coasts. is frequent along the southern Adriatic and the Ionian Meadows grow on old "matte" remains, in the Gulf of Taranto, while they grow on sand or rocks along the Adriatic side of Apulia. Posidonia oceanica - / Central is also present at the Tremiti Islands'""'. Posidonia oceanica coasts. Adriatic coasts is absent from the Po River delta No information on other seagrasses except (Numana Harbor, south Venetc and / / / / 96 of is of the / / / and in few spots is present only in the Venice lagoon, where Zostera of the Posidonia oceanica is present calcareous sediments. all / / Illegal trawling within the meadows damage caused by anchoring and Posidonia oceanica extends to Adnatic Sea, a few patches manna is in the Gulf present in all of the island on 40-m zone has caused in recent years, together recreational activities . along the Sardinian coast, from a few meters 30 m, and occasionally 40 m, depth. Prairies on the southern and northern coasts of the island are more fragmented (author's unpublished data). FRANCE Provence Alpes Cote d'Azur / / / / one along the Sicilian coast. Dense prairies are significant loss of Posidonia oceanica Sardinia of the Mediterranean Sea'"'"'*'. present along the southeast and northwest coasts with the manna Zostera influenced by the freshwater inflow and fine sediment coming from of Trieste / the northern Apulian Anconal. the Po River Posidonia oceanica Sicily* to for Seagrasses are not abundant along the northern coasts which Fnuli V.G. an was estimated Posidonia oceanica dense monospecific is the most abundant species. meadow from and Caulerpa Zostera nottii present in Zostera nottii is to 15 m prolifera. Zostera manna: dense meadows the Gulf of Fos, while small beds occur present in small patches in Cymodocea nodosa: depth and mixed beds with in the Bay of Toulon. the Berre lagoon'""°". The western Mediterranean production this consumption by found for of this the removal of minimally used for direct The very high Posidonia oceanica beds in primary role habitat only is herbivores'"'. is mostly due to ashore the directly participating the in system's trophic dynamics"". action. the surface, can attenuate the Under such conditions, Po Sites Cn it Zm Hs rise structure typical a to m to 2-3 attenuation of waves and high"". called some areas The banquette has an impor- develop up tant role in in in the protection of addition, the banquette In wave amphipods and Area interstitial flatworms) that contribute the decomposition of the seagrass material. Comments Ikm-'l / / Languedoc- / 26 Posidonia oceanica present only is depth, with dead and living beds Roussillon* available!. The region is 1 small patches between 7 and 15 in km -4 charactenzed by the presence or mixed beds with Zostera noltii (e.g. m from the coast (extent not coastal lagoons with monospecific Zostera of manna beds Thau lagoons). In many leg. Salse lagoon] open sea Zostera no/fH occurs in small patches (e.g. Harbor of Banyulsl"^"". / Corsica / / 624 Posidonia oceanica meadows on sandy bottom on rocky bottom on the west coast. Dense sand or muddy bottom present in shallow bays and in lagoons, often in the east coast and on Cymodocea nodosa meadows on in association with lagoons. Zostera noltiiis only Cymodocea nodosa"'''". SPAIN / Catalonia / / / 40 h^ostly to / / / 270 on sandy bottom, but also on rocky bottom. From near the surface 25 m. Conspicuous regressions have been reported, but most seem Valencia to meadows be stabilized nowadays'"'. meadows This region has extensive of Posidonia oceanica from near the surface to 25 m, exceptionally 30 m, generally on sandy bottom. The deep has suffered a signihcant regression due limit to illegal trawl hshing (Sanchez-Lisaso, unpublished data). / Murcia / / 95 The mam meadows are dominated by Posidonia oceanica, extending from the surface to 25-30 m. Conspicuous regressions have been observed near the deep limit no/(i/' / Andalucia / / / appear due in to illegal trawl fishing. is abundant Posidonia oceanica / / 750 is Extensive and dense m meadows occur all around locally (moorings, sewage, etc.). One taxilolia. In degraded locality is Po Posidonia oceanica-, Cn Cymodocea nodosa; Zm lostera manna. Zn lostera nottii: Hs also found below 30 m'"'. Haloptiila stipulacea. species present. - insufficient data • Interactions with Caulerpa taxilolia and Caulerpa racemosa. the these islands, reaching up mainly due to tourism has been invaded by Caulerpa Notes: / sites, shallow bays, dense Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea nodosa (to manna dominates"". some 40 the eastern part of the area, with rocky substrata. The western limit of near Malaga; from this point westwards depth, with to in meadows on sandy and Gibraltar straitl, Zostera / Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera shallow waters'™'. Posidonia oceanica extensive Balearic Is* is hosting a reduced, but highly specialized fauna lisopods, has been estimated that Zn of coastal also, carbon and other elements'^"' but when growing near gives beaches from erosion'™. The Posidonia oceanica matte not only represents a net sink of m matte can cause 20 of "banquette" which, mixed with sand, can seagrass as a multidimensional organisms m' 1 regression"". Moreover, the deposition of dead leaves biodiversity •'http://gis.cnuce.cnr.it/posid/html/posid.html meadows are frequent. to 53 5A WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 3.3 dataset has one of the longest series for this species, SPAIN and the show significant interannual From the first observations in 1984 and results differences. 1987, density and cover decreased sharply (e.g. at CATALAN COAST The main seagrass species on the Catalan coast sandy coasts is Posidonia oceanica. In southern part country this species forms a of the the meadows large and continuous green belt of only by rivers. This seagrass belt used to interrupted from extend the of 10 m approximately 25 to depth, although significant regressions have been detected and in many areas the deep limit now between is 17 and 20 m. Along the northern rocky coast, the meadows occur from near With publication the seagrasses an protecting edict autonomous government 1991, the in the surface to 20-25 m. of (Generalitat de Catalunyal has taken several actions proper for a management these plants and, more Posidonia oceanica meadows. the of specifically, of This includes a monitoring network, launched 1998. network consists This permanently marked from which basic data on the oceanica every total a of sites (nearly 28 of Posidonia shoot density, cover, etc! are collected (e.g. Underwater work year'^^'. performed by is m depth station, density decreased from 628 ±19 shoots/m' 1984 to 481 ±14 shoots/m^ in while cover decreased from 76 percent percent 1994! probably due, at least in station, to very high mooring on the seagrass activity reserve 1990 anchoring was no longer allowed, in and a system low-impact mooring was deployed of between 1992 and 1993. The density and cover values subsequently recovered station, density 73 percent 2001!. Moreover, in meteorological that irradiance! the at (e.g. supervised by expert scientists. This four years, has allowed a general diagnosis of both the status and recent trends of seagrasses on the Catalan The results obtained so percent of the studied healthy state, while the rest or strong are show normal or a in light (36 percent] evidence percent! (22 A2 far indicate that meadows degradation of observed increase. to the probably contributing ALFACS BAY (EBRD DELTA) Although Posidonia oceanica the most abundant is seagrass species on the Catalan coast, dominate. This is the case in the two bays at each side Ebro Delta, the southern one km^ bay, 50 in of m and, more depth. This narrow bathymetric range alga Caulerpa prolifera interspersed dominates these meadows. noltii. Some in although in the Posidonia oceanica beds. of slight, trend the beds appear to has a negative, been detected from water transparency, oversedimentation. sites illegal Overall the a decrease trawl fishing and Catalan seagrass have remained remarkably stable due the early 1980s, but detailed m to high it map was produced patchy beds years, km^ bay has undergone the vegetation changes'^". shallow in 1986 revealing a in including the southern zone. in places, was detected has never been seen again. A surface of seagrass beds of 3.5 of some as well as Ruppia cirrhosa. exist in in percent rarely, 4 is patches of Zostera been no net changes 15 In this water turbidity™. Cymodocea nodosa, with the green areas. The presence of Zostera marina in which (Alfacs mapped. dense meadows extend from extent, very near the surface to 2-3 in some in other marine angiosperms can habitats specific During the four-year period of the survey there have Only incoming (e.g. these later years have been optimal, in Bay! has been extensively studied and coast. depth would also seem it conditions trained and the m 5 reached 708 ±24 shoots/m'' and cover of the first 48 to the shallow in bed. However, after the establishment of the marine volunteers (more than 400 for the whole project!, monitoring network, after the 1994, in 1984 in in one every 15 km) vitality of the 5 In 1 total km' the last ten some remarkable Cymodocea nodosa has greatly the southern part of the bay, covering over the period 1998-2001. expanded in now about 2.5 MEDES ISLANDS area, an increase of approximately 15 percent a year The Medes Islands are archipelago situated 1 .6 km small and deserted a off Spain's main coast, the northern part of Catalonia. A large Posidonia oceanica meadow, extending from depth, and covering about 9 ha, 5 is to of the main meadow has been islands"^'. This of the ^^' in 15-20 found sedimentary bottom studied'^'' in southwest face in m the of the extensively the course of the monitoring program marine reserve established there in 1990. The km' which represents, may be This increase to stabilize the of the abundance Alfacs in Bay, processes this area™'. the replacement cirrhosa bed, of a southern associated with work performed sandbar, since sand main for this instability controlling was one seagrass the northern parts of In most remarkable change mixed Zostera described nodosa with abundant in noltii is the and Ruppia 1982™, by Cymodocea drifting macroalgae, such as Ulva spp. and Chaetomorpha linum, by 1997. The western Mediterranean Mediterranean seagrass meadows host many commercially important As well as species. fish nurseries they provide essential feeding grounds for cephalopods. crustaceans, shellfish and finfish'-". Although specific fisheries legislation does not allow destructive fishing (e.g. trawling! in the Posidonia oceanica based on the use of meadows used fertilizer in chicken in with an in- feed'"', egg production and weight. More recently, in attempts different used as is and the leaves have also been in Tunisia'"' small proportions in crease are small fisheries standing nets and cages. Posidonia oceanica detritus agriculture seagrasses, such in The only fishery allowed restrictions are often violated. on production banquette were focused to exploit the conversion of detritus into of methane'^", fungal biomass'"' and formation of dried pellet for prep- Posidonia oceanica growing on rocks and forming matte, Porto aration of light bricl<s for buildings. Further anecdotal Conte, Sardinia. uses of air-dried leaf detritus to protect glass objects in transport, and to pillows and mattresses, have been fill reported. Posidonia oceanica detritus is used in Corsica which has become widespread as thermal insulation material on roofs'^" and as sound- duced Caulerpa species and proof material'"'. The ability of Posidonia oceanica leaves dense to produce active substances, which accelerate the growth of bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, has been demonstrated. This seems presence of one chicoric acid, metabolites found to of be related the to the most abundant meadows of function seagrass of Beds of Zostera Posidonia oceanica have suffered a progressive regression throughout trawling, fisheries and sand extraction and of between Caulerpa racemosa artificial changes in sedimentation in of rivers has caused exposing or burying seagrass habitats. One dramatic Port-Man Bay (southeast Spain], in where meadow was a seagrass amount buried under a large mining debris. Eutrophication, of highly toxic seagrasses and Caulerpa spp. are serious regional threat. a is Sometimes associated with mon causes are sewage and Cauterpa taxifolia accidentally introduced France, to and Italy in and Spam 199^"". to Croatia in cages, the most com- industrial waste discharge. tropical green seaweed a the Cauleipa introduction, its is fish Monaco area taxifolia in 198i. After spread through (the Balearic Islands! by 1992, The area colonized has now reached more than 60 l<m' along the French and Italian coasts. Caulerpa taxifolia grows throughout the entire depth range in some of the places, Mediterranean seagrass species and, is progressively overwhelming them. Another strong competitor with seagrass beds introduced congeneric species listed in Table 3.2. made is the Caulerpa racemosa, by direct observation, of the area of seagrass lost or degraded by the various pressures are not available for most only in of the western Mediterranean coastline. maps the last few years have been produced. cartography may seagrass on In fact of distribution the future the application of aerial In techniques information supply important throughout status the Mediterranean'"'". which decreases water transparency and promotes epiphyte overgrowth, of between being increasingly well monitored, reliable estimates, the littoral zone, either example occurred expansion of interactions development beaches, and associated enhanced turbidity and sedimentation. The damming to favor the The locations Although Mediterranean seagrasses are now due such as harbors and coastal infrastructure'^""', noltil''"''''. edge-meadow and density to Mediterranean the oceanica and Posidonia both intro- seagrasses show that local and Cymodocea nodosa seems THREATS the last ten years. Cymodocea nodosa are likely to be less affected by seaweed invasion. The competitive success of Caulerpa racemosa with Posidonia oceanica meadows is a orientation. Competition seagrass'™'. in this in Experimental work on the interactions between In general, for Posidonia oceanica. the following statement by Conservation is European the Union for Coastal probably accurate: "The situation Western Mediterranean serious. is in the Shoot density is rapidly decreasing, up to 50 percent over a few decades. Besides, increased turbidity and pollution have resulted in a squeeze of the beds; in various places living beds have withdrawn between 10 and 20 occur abundantly, even in m depth. Dead beds waters which have already been protected for 35 years. For the French mainland coast habitat loss is estimated at 10-15 percent; but taking into account the decrease of shoot density the overall decline of the resource will be 40 percent. This Western is between 30 and probably a good estimate for most Mediterranean coastlines, although the 55 A 1 56 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES around situation Mediterranean and Islands the beds between m and 20 Posidonia oceanica of has been observed 30 years tor 13 percent of the seafloor percent (Maritime departnnent, percent Bouches du Rhone'""". son in In 6.6 18. Spain, a compari- In beginning of that at the Pergent G, area now about is the 20th century. of M, 2 G. Manna Mediterranea phanerogames marines du Oceanographique 3 MC 15 mediterraneen francais. Annates littoral Kuo In: RC, Walker J, Phillips UWA 01, Kirkman H 17 Manna Mateo MA. Romero Van der Ben Ros Perez M, J, Littler M. 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Descrizione e cartografia delle pratene oceanica e dei edit, IMediterranee Nord-Occidentalel, Telhys LambertiCV E, V, peuplements de Corte.pp 169-179. and Regione Lazio. pp 1-328. 71 Rico-Raimondmo R, 39eme Congres Nationaux, In: Limnologie contribution to the preservation o( a ma)or Mediterranean ecosystem, Rivista Manttma. suppl. 70 Semroud phanerogames aquatiques de letang de Berre IBouches du Rhone - France!. pp 1-55. Posidoma ledsl [19951 Pergent-Martini C. |1997a|. Localisation et evolution des sous- du departement des Bouches-du-Rti6ne, Contrat littorale oceanica. 82 LefevreJR (19821 Inventairedes N° 81.01.075 Mission interministerielle 69 Museum national d'Histoire naturelle. Pans, pp 98-118. restructurations des rivages et leurs impacts sur marine Bellan-Santini D, Lacaze JC, Mediterranee, synthese, menaces et perspectives. NS 57121:65-77. 68 In: Poizal C ledsl Les biocenoses marines et littorales de du domaine maritime sur I'elage mfralittorai du Var, France 92 Mas J. Franco I. Barcala E 11993]. Primera aproximacidn a la cartografia de las praderas de Posidonia oceanica de las costas mediterraneas espaiiolas, Factores de alteracion y regresion. Legislacion. Publicaciones Especiales Instituto Espanol de Oceanografo 11: 111-119. The Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas The seagrasses 4 59 of THE BLACK. AZOV, CASPIAN AND ARAL SEAS N.A. Milchakova principal characteristic of the temperate Euro- The Asian seas and Caspian) or their total (Aral is near-total lAzov and Blackl isolation from open ocean systems. These temperate seas have many common environmental features especially with regard variable to salinity and levels pollutants. of water bodies, and has been especially damaging and Azov Seas, which are commercial has been reduced by more than sturgeon stock (approximately have a distinctly continental climate, no tides Ibut considerable long-term fluctuations both coastal upvi^elling and sea of level, downwelling, All four seas contain the estuaries of 250000 metric Clupeonella cuUriventris. tons) of kilka, has been reduced by 40 percent. Twenty thousand Caspian seals and about 10 million birds have died. High concentrations of heavy metals and nearly every case these rivers have been severely oil products were detected in the dead animals'". major rivers and are consequently dependent on the influx of freshwater In The largest and unusual chemical composition"^'. of half. the Caspian Sea has dramatically have occurred), minimal or zero water exchange with other seas and seawater In in the last two years, the commercial stock decreased. number these seas: they of the greatest significance for fishing in the region, the usable fish stock Geographical proximity and isolation determine a of special features inherent in to the traditional fisheries of these four seas. In the Caspian Seagrasses play systems of a key role In the coastal eco- the seas and occupy vast areas shallow bays and gulfs of the Black, Azov, in the Caspian and disrupted from their natural state by the construction of Aral Seas. The diversity of algae, invertebrates and dams, and upriver pollution and water extraction, as fishes well as changes condition and distribution of seagrasses are strongly across their watersheds. rainfall in Therefore long-term changes seawater chemical in composition and concentration have occurred near the mouths. Distinguishing hydrological charac- river teristics main potential the coastal shelves, the of habitat for seagrasses, are their shallow depth (about In seagrass communities astonishing. The is influenced by freshwater influx, industrial, municipal and sewage, agricultural dredging, dumping, and shelf. Fluctuations in the oil shipping, sea-bottom and gas extraction on the sea level of the Caspian and Aral Seas also influence the coastal ecosystems. 20 m) and large area, marked seasonal and interannual fluctuations in productivity, winter dominant wind-induced seawater water exchange owing to the Highest productivity of the is ice pre- cover, circulation, and fast and about 300 macroalgae small capacity found in the brackish areas north Caspian Sea, the northwestern Black Sea, and the Sea of productivity due is Rivers Volga, Azov and Kerch to Strait'^ massive freshwater ' ^'. This high influx from the Danube and Don, and the correspondingly high nutrient input, fast turnover of these nutrients, summer warming, dissolved oxygen content of the brackish water and the longer summer intense daily growth period at high higher latitudes. However, same time anthropogenic pollution BLACK SEA There are four seagrasses, two seagrass associates at the substantially reduces the biological diversity and productivity of the Sea'". Communities of the flora of the Black In Zostera marina, Zostera noltii, Potamogeton pectinatus and Ruppia cirrhosa occupy vast areas in shallow bays and gulfs, especially northwestern part of the sea""". The ecology of Black Sea seagrass was beginning of the 20th century'" of first Sea, and reported at the '". impacts environmental seagrasses, being obtained in the and with further details seagrass biology and community structure Black '^ '^', in distribution in on the the subsequent decades'" '° During 1934-37 communities of Zostera marina were seriously damaged due to a wasting disease im 60 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Karkinitsky Gulf of is 1 109 g wet weight/m' with a density 105 shoots/m"''''. Lower biomass and higher density occur the Donuzlav Salt Lake 1836 g wet weight/m'' in and 218 shoots/m'l'"'. Near the mouth where the River, salinity is less than of the Chernaya other parts of the in Black Sea 111-17 psu). seagrass biomass reaches 2986 wet weight/m" and density g Black Sea occur recorded for the Kamysh Burun Bay in part of the Kerch Strait (5056 g Kerch 136 shoots/m""', 1 maximum biomass values although the in the southern wet weight/m'l"°'. the In which links the Black and Azov Seas. Strait, Zostera marina biomass ranges from 2008 g wet weight/m' Kerch Cape at 3958 Fonar'"' to g wet weight/m' and plant density from 916 Bay''", shoots/m' respectively. The longest shoots of Zostera marina, at more than 2 m, have also been found Early symptoms ot wasting disease epidemic in the 1930s seriously seagrass in the Black manna Zostera in - damaged communities Kerch an their length of this more population of this species"". Atlantic Zostera coves, that registered along the to noltii, was also widely found not affected'" in the shallow bays and '"'. in tons"" "'. Zostera of the four largest bays of the Black Sea, was estimated 1982 After The spp. wet weight/m'; the highest values were down to coasts the these of bays Zostera spp., of summer''' ""'". in about 50 percent, sea bottom of the in that the recent eutrophication of coastal fvlany researchers have noted that Zostera spp. usually grow in the coastal salt lakes and the deltas of the rivers'" "'. There is sometimes in no information on IS Estimates occurring. have increased two- Kerch Bays, and 1981-83 in Sinop Bay, on the Anatolian coast of Turkey Seagrasses the in Black Sea grow in sandy sediments, often with depths at single many occurred 1 The greatest increase '". Kerch Bay. and the greatest increase in from The Streletskaya Bay. This increase algal species have been identified growing in 115 Zostera Kazachaya. spp. most density, biomass Is significant 252 of which 936 to probably due pollution industrial in to to be reduced and the natural resilience encrusting the leaves and occasionally the rhizomes Southern and roots. Cladophora, Enleromorpha. Ceramium. Oceanography Polysiphonia and Kylinia spp. predominate. There are meadows more than 70 species despite extensive annual excavation of sand. fish larvae in of invertebrates, seagrass 3^ fishes and 19 meadows, among which shrimps, scad and perch predominate'"'. The average biomass of Zostera marina in My to Research in noltii to of environmental unpublished data obtained by the Institute Kerch, the Fishery for amount of and Zostera spp. in the Karkinitsky Gulf has also increased, own observations indicate that restoration and enlargement occurring Sevastopol. Kerch and Yalta Bays, in in several factors, the Zostera marina and Zostera changes. According in the yield of Zostera likely Is shoots/m'. marina communities, and 62 in communities of Zostera noltif™'. The majority of the algae are epiphytes In in 185 to 3958 g wet weight/m'. has a portion of shell grit. Some seagrass beds the Kerch Strait, over a period from in shoot psu. localities, including of the to threefold in Laspi. and of 0.3-19.5 the long- Zostera marina biomass silt which they are found range from 0.5-17 m, across a salinity gradient of 1994-99"*"" to biomass. from species and mixed communities, located on of Kamyshovaya. Streletskaya. Severnaya. Holland and Georgia and Bulgaria. Zostera found of Zostera spp. communities have revealed that there are the distribution of Zostera spp. along the shores of noltii is in dumping grounds, where recovery 000 metric tons dry weight. Strait. ecosystems plankton communities""", the dynamics /1 shallow bays the Black Sea has led to degradation of key benthic and term changes observed production of Zostera spp., the actual annual the Though most investigators have acknowledged estimated at 35 000 metric tons dry weight''". However, estimate was about more all Zostera spp. communities cover a similar por- according to previously calculated data on the annual leaf is area of of the total Sevastopol region, the Kerch Bay and Kerch 633 000 metric at accumulated considerable cast-off of m 1 sea-bottom area occupied by Zostera total the bays of the northwestern Black Sea in bays""'. tion, between 25 and 100 biomass estimates vary from than 950 km", or AO percent the Tendrovsky, Dzhanlgatsky and Yagorlitsky Bays and the Karkinitsky Gulf, nottii, registered at depths Fortunately, During the 1970s and 1980s, the stock spp. growing North the in other areas of the Black Sea in typically varies cm"^'". For Zostera Sea 0.5 to 2 kg epidemic similar though Strait''", in 600 to of self- Zostera beds is all of The Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas 30" 6q"E E Minor Bavs and Sea — \SyrcJa/ya UKRAINE 50" KAZAKHSTAN N SivBsh National Nature Park ,,. Maloclmy Obitodiny , Sail / / Like RUSSIAN FEDERATION /Betosaraisky TendrmvUy Buyi ^ / - urtm \ - Mangy'shliikxh' Ba\- ;rBerdyansky V' Wi— KercliSr ^^ \ lull Darvbe Delta Bio^ihew Reserve- ^ Sevaslopolt^y ^ •MaMiadikala lruft<jfA*r fiui CASPIAN Doiiirztuv Sair itiAi' 'i SE SLACK I TURKMENISTAN Krasnovodsky Bay J si;. I litikiiBui ; Tuiiriicn^kf Bar TURKEY 100 200 300 400 500 Kilometefs Map 4.1 The Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas from recreational but all considerable disturbance extensive and dense Indeed not only seagrass This species grows on silt-sandy sediments with shell Black Sea benthic macrophytes are stabilizing and recovering from recreational pressures over wide areas. In contrast seagrass and algae communities are most degraded areas with heavy sedimentation in loads. This decline has occurred particularly along the deepest boundary of local agriculture as a forage additive Insulation for barns for livestock'"'. It and was mixed has been proved Zostera with Increased by 15-20 percent. Weight Increases percent In sheep fed Zostera. and of In for winter experimentally that the daily yield of milk fodder of cows marina of 20-30 10-15 percent in pigs'"', have also been observed. Seagrass additives appear to increase milk quality and fat in and provide better quality and quantity Zostera spp. are a valuable source solutions which of dairy cows sheep wool. of pectins, produce firm gels. aquatic Being rich in hemicellulose and pectin substances, seagrasses are also used as a gluing component in mixed fodder the Black Sea, seagrasses have been placed under protection in national control of ten nature reserves under the Ukraine and Romania'^"-^*'. The them are the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve and the Chernomorsky National Reserve. largest from 0.2 of m'""' and across singte-species beds and also SEA OF AZOV of seagrass, three seagrass associates and 6A macroalgae The Zostera spp. have a in the flora of the sea"". Mediterranean origin and are believed to have appeared In the Sea of Azov in the Paleocene'"'. Zostera nottii but In mixed communities with in are the most and Enteromorptia spp. Polysiphonia. Ciadoptiora Zostera and Zostera marina are found almost noltii everywhere along the shoreline the coastal salt lakes, river is due those and also of in floodplains. This the Sea of Azov has shoots 15-70 cm Zostera long, while Zostera marina measure 20-90 cm. The vast meadows manna predominate in of Communities of Zostera Zostera noltii and Zostera the northern part of the sea, close to sandy spits, and in of the sea'"', mouths and to their tolerance to salinity fluctuations. noltii in in the coastal salt lakes. noltii are also widely prevalent the eastern Sea of Azov, while Zostera marina found here only in patches''*'^". In is the western part of the sea, Zostera spp. are rare, being usually found as sparse seagrass beds. Along the southern coast Zostera spp. are dispersed. Zostera spp., ashore after the leaf fall, washed abundantly cover the coast. The annual commercial after-storm harvest amounts to about 200 metric tons dry weight. 1 Recent field measurements have recorded both Zostera species around the Sea of Arabatsky 1 blomass in the of 197 g/m^ Kasantyp 28A g/m^ Tamansky and Berdyansky 400 g/m'l with the the bays (wet weights: 374 g/m', Betosaraisky 860 g/m', Obltochny 1 of same depths other seagrasses, mostly Potamogeton pectinatus and Azov. Zostera noltii There are four species a salinity gradient of covers a considerably smaller area. Zostera spp, grow blomass The meadows to 8 2-26 psu. Zostera marina inhabits the solitary granulation and packaging. In grit Ruppia cirrhosa. and with algae such as Ceramium, macrophyte growth. Black Sea Zostera spp. are traditionally used whose compared with other seagrasses. to activities. which have been subject salt lakes is 1 180 g/m' generally comparable (wet weights: Sivash 157-1 400 g/m*', Molochny 378 g/m' and Utlyuk 667 g/m'l but higher than the seaward coasts of the large 61 62 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES sand spits which are such a feature of the Sea of Azov Iwet weights: Belosaraiskaya 28 g/m'. Fedotov 30 g/m^ Obitochnaya A5 g/m" and Berdyanskaya 30 The biomass g/m^r"'"''"'"-''''"'"'. of Zosfera manna also measured at three of these locations: in Sivash (2000 g wet weight/m'l and Molochny (592 g wet weight/m^l salt lakes and Tamansky Bay (219 g wet was weight/m^ at m 1 species and mixed communities of Zostera noltii v/ere found on sand sediments with shell silt communities Analysis of structure Zostera communities indicates of despite changes eutrophication, marked with that, The distribution of Zostera noltii 1930s, the biomass of Zostera marina in Utlyuk Salt Lake was estimated to range from 213 to 2 2^2 g wet weight/m'™ and in the early 1970s from 333 to 1 024 g wet weight/m'"". Furthermore, over the past 30 years, the biomass of Zostera noltii in Utlyuk Salt Lake has present day. means of deterring rodents in barns. The high silica content of this material reduces Its flammability and therefore its risk as a fire hazard. It has been experimentally proved that dried Zostera marina mixed with urea is a valuable forage additive for at this In Sea of the under the protection and the state laws many of Azov have been placed of international conventions of Ukraine'^*'. They are the object of protection in seven nature reserves, the largest of which are Sivash National Nature Park and the coastal Molochny in Russia. Mangyshlaksky, seawater ranging from 25 level ever Zostera documented weight/m' and that wet weight/m' Bay, in higher than '"•'. of in the salinity of the to 51 psu, the highest salinity biomass for Zostera noltii. the was estimated noltii the length much time were Kaidak Bay, with the of be 7 000-8000 g wet to Ruppia cirrhosa 10000-12000 g of Zostera noltii from The shoots Kaidak Bay were 75-100 livestock. Seagrasses and modern Ruppia and Potamogeton beds. Estimates of the of Zostera noltii and Ruppia cirrhosa in the Caspian Sea winter and as an efficient in Kaidak, coast eastern species at this of Makhachkala, Kazakhsy and Turkmensky Bays, and the Mangyshlak Peninsula, were the main locations of mixed Zostera, uses Zostera traditionally presence Astrakhansky and Kizlarsky Bays Along the the period in were extensive present-day Azerbaijan, with in and Izerbesh Derbent, spp. cast-off to insulate housing, for livestock during local population seagrass beds. biomass increased from 260 to 667 g wet weight/m'""'. The in beds along western coasts, principally records indicating the the late algae the 1930s there In recent 60 years have not been in Chara, of seagrasses and macrophytes the Caspian Sea changed markedly 1934-61 to 1967-81. Baku and Kirova Bays radical changes. For example, mixed in and Charophyceae, noltii common and Cladophora are the environment and increased in the the of Zostera Ceramium, Polysiphonia. Laurencia, Enteromorpha in long-term dynamics the of Ruppia and Potamogeton spp. Species depth but more than ten times this at 3.5 ml. but never on a grit bottom. Highest productivity takes place cm was 25-30 cm. long, while the open sea in comparison with Kaidak In the open sea the biomass of this species weight/m". The total stock of Zostera Caspian Sea was estimated at was 100 to 1500 g wet substantially less, varying from noltii for the approximately 700000 metric tons (wet weight], with about 500000 metric Salt Lake. tons for the eastern and 200000 metric tons for the western coast. The area covered by the seagrass CASPIAN SEA Three species of seagrass. two seagrass associates and 65 macroalgae make up the submerged Caspian Sea'^". The and distribution produced in of flora of the work on the composition earliest Caspian Sea seagrasses was 1784'"' but it was not until the 1930s that the most comprehensive reviews on the topic were published'""'. This was the hypothesis about Zostera Krasnovodsky Bay decreased noltii was introduced the east. 1935-38 the biomass In the Caspian Sea in Black Sea. the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea were 50-1 300 g was Strait. communities were then widely distributed throughout the Caspian Sea"^' " depths of 2.5-4.5 m "', typically along eastern shores, though occasionally as shallow as 0.5 across a narrow range of m Ever the western coast and becoming seriously depleted connected by the Kumo-Manych at . degrading, having almost completely vanished along and as deep as 18 m. salinity, 12-13 psu. Single of Zostera in along coast "'. 127-1 340 g wet weight/m'' '"'. some beds in enlarged considerably, so much biomass the area of Despite the decline in Krasnovodsky Bay so that in 1970s different experts evaluated the stock noltii \n no/(// ranged from 50 to 8000 g wet By 1971-74 the range had decreased to wet weight/m''""", and in the early 1980s it weight/m-'" noltii substantially'' penetration into the that the eastern Zostera i\K flourished, vanished and the area of others such as the to just During the 1950s coastal configurations changed and many shallow bays such as Kaidak Bay, in which Zostera noltii and other macrophytes formerly Paleocene, 36-65 million years ago. At that time the from the Mediterranean in 650 km'. 1 since that time. Zostera no/t// communities have been time Caspian Sea from the Black and Azov Seas was advanced. Presumably Zostera was the first noltii s the northeastern Caspian Sea Krasnovodsky Bay to the early of Zostera be 200 000-440000 metric tons wet weight. Apparently, such an expansion may be The Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas due to environmental changes and the drop which brought about the extinction of in sea level competing algae At present, available data indicate that Zostera only rarely found Makhachkala and in the western Caspian Sea at Bay Seagrasses have Kizlarsky in completely disappeared from the southern Caspian mixed communities Single and Sea''' ^". spp. are found growing Astrakhansky Bay in Ruppia of in the west Komsomolez, Kazakhsy, Krasnovodsky and Turkmensky Bays in the east, on silt sediments at and in depths from 0.5 m. to 3 of sea bottom covered with seagrasses have substantially declined, they are important in on which the state ''". In the the nutrition of invertebrates in commercial of fish stocks depends" northern Caspian Sea, Zostera no((//growth because of special significance, this is where wild Caspian roach, bream and other valuable and still the ecology of the Caspian Sea. Seagrasses play an important role feed'". percent fish is spawn Other seagrasses are the usual food item for of that of biomass swans and gray geese and 5A-QA biomass was just 42 g Tshe-Bas Bay Zostera wet weight/m", whereas in noltii not only tolerates salinity as high as 45 psu but thrives on silt-sandy and sandy sediments supporting beds with biomass 2258 of wet weight/ml Intermediate values were observed Berg Strait 1417 g wet weight/m" Butakov Bay 1899 g Shevchenko Bay 076 II wet weight/m' g wet weight/m' at 30 psul'"'. bays of metric million in has level decade. for the past Total macrophytic stock contributed mostly to persist Minor Sea, where the sea remained constant Zostera to disintegrate, communities are expected 1.34 23 psul, at 36 psu) and noltii the g in at As the Aral Sea continues the sea in estimated is at wet weight. The share tons by Zostera noltii about is percent 8.1 1109000 metric tons wet weight], while algae such as Charophyceae and Compared The seagrass communities have been placed two national nature reserves in positively correlated with the Syrdarya Estuary at salinity of 7 psu In Vaucheria dichiotoma contribute 77.6 and 13.4 percent, respectively'^". ducks. under protection in more brackish area the in now apparently is salinity. carp, waterfowl. Ruppia spp. constitute up to 25 percent of the intestinal content of biomass have increased of its decreased. Records from the early 1990s show that the Though the areas and estimates near the Syrdarya 's mouth biomass has considerably such as the Charophyceae. noltii is noltii the northern bays, while as Zostera phytoplankton, macrophytes such to are of noltii little importance in the food Aral Sea. However they are ecologically (Astrakhansky and Krasnovodsky National Reserves). chains ARAL SEA spawning location There are two seagrasses, Potamogeton pectinatus Benthic invertebrates and fish predominantly feed on and 16 macroalgae in diatoms [Navicula spp. and Merismopedia Presumably Zostera was introduced from the Aral Sea, also through the Kumo- of the The meadows important. t^editerranean to the l^anych Strait. the flora of the Aral Sea'™'. noltii The most extensive knowledge about seagrass distribution had been acquired prior to the found in the mid-1950s'^" that caused abundance'^' in the of of diverse ""' Zostera noltii are the invertebrates and spp.) fish and are have collapsed where the Aral Sea has almost point fish. However, during the past 50 commercial years, the catches of lost to its significance for fisheries. severe anthropogenic disruption of the Amudarya and Syrdarya river systems 63 There are no data regarding nature reserves along the coastal zones of the Aral Sea. catastrophic changes to the ecosystem of the Aral Sea ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and adjacent water bodies. Zostera noltii grew from 0.1 to 10 most growth being concentrated m at 0.1-2 deep, with m depth in I am O.A. grateful to Prof. R.C. Phillips (Marine Research Flonda Institute), AI(imova. the mid-1950s, the lYugNIRO), noltii was estimated to be 17 to weight/m% with the largest values registered near the mouth of the Syrdarya Riven In Klimentova AUTHOR recent years, the environmental crisis which Nataliya the northern shallow bays'*' biomass 800 g of ^". In Zostera in is wiping drastic increases changes in the in salinity which, biological in turn, have led components of all ecosystems. However, the areas occupied by Zostera Kosarev AN, Yablonskaya EA 11994), Safonov IIBSS), Dr M.Yu. for their help in preparing this Academy of Department Milchakova, A. Sciences of I.I. Serobaba chapter Biotechnologies and of Ukraine, 2 Nakhimov Ave., Sevastopol 99011, Crimea, Ukraine. Tel: +38 101692 544110. Fax: +38 10)692 557813. E-mail: milchalSibss.iuf.net Caspian Sea. Backhuys MatishcvGG, DenisovW[19991, Ecosystems and bioresources ol of Biology of the Southern Seas, National the European seas of Russia Ttie Publishers, Hague. 2 Guseva, Maslov jNikita Botanical Garden) and Ms Olga Phytoresources, Institute REFERENCES 1 I.I. wet out a large part of the Aral Sea has manifested itself to G.F. Dr centuries. 3 in the late XXtti - early XXIst Murmansk. Zenkevich LA [19631. Biology ol the Seas ol the USSR. Nauka Publishing, Moscow jin IH^ Russian). I I 64 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES It Kasymov AG The Caspian Sea. Hydrometizdat Publ. [1987]. 30 5 Mamayev V Zaitsev YuP. 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In: thesis IBiologyl, Odessa, pp 1-46, Shelyag-Sosonko YuR Institute VNIRO Publishing House, Moscow, pp the bays of the VNIRO, Moscow, pp 81-87. [1999]. Donuslav in 49 Pogrebnyak Russian]. Kireyeva MS. Shchapova TF |1957bl. Bottom vegetation of 138-145. [1951] Aquatic vegetation of Utlyuk coastal salt lake spit [in algae and high aquatic vegetation of of Krasnovodsk Bay Proceedings olthe in Pnroda 1:94-98. VN KM 125-137 of the 49-55. Morozova-Vodyanitskaya NV [1938]. Epidemic disease DSc 27 Comparative structural analysis composition and biomass Northwestern Black Sea and 26 its Dubyna DV Komsomolez IDead 49: 68-72. 25 Russian Plain and 43 80: 27-36. sites of coastal salt lake 24 Hydrophylous Flora olthe Southwestern Garden Commercial Algae and 23 Russian], [in Al [1992], [1989]. of IBiologyl. St 122-144. northwestern Black Sea and the prospects 22 DSc Kireyeva MS. Shchapova TF [19391. Bottom vegetation of the Black Sea. Plant [19981. Ecobiological features of and Arabatskaya 21 Upper Shelf Sections of growing along the Crimean southern coast. Bull Nikitsky Botanical the Black Sea. 20 Bottom Vegetation 998], [1 Kiev, 42 41-47. 1: Sadogursky SE Arabatsky Bay (Azov Seal. Algologiya 19 the USSR: northeastern Caspian Sea, Bull Soc Nat Moscow. 6/0/48(2-31: 3-14. NA Milchakova marina in National Nature Reserves ol ledsl [1999] at. Congr Hydrobiol Soc, Murmansk L. thesis IBiologyl. Sevastopol. ppl-22. 16 1-22. vegetation of the northern coast of the Azov Sea, Abstract 6th of the Structure of Phytocenoses and Populations of Zostera marina in Black Sea: The Kazantip Nature Reserve. Yalta, VNIRO. Moscow, The Spatiotemporal Description [1988a]. Kuzmichev Territorial 41 NA Milchakova Gromov VV Press, Apatites the Black and Azov pp 7i-80. 15 e( A Guidebook. Biological Processes 40 Kulikova of the Odessa pp thesis IChemistryl. News. Natural Sciences Russian]. olthe Northeastern Black Sea, Rostov University Press. Rostov-on- U Leonenko VB river flood-plain Hydrobiological Studies In: PhD Petersburg, pp 1-45 SavenkovMY[1910], Materials of the Study ol Oikology and of the life of the of the Southern Seas of Russia, Synopsis in Russian] [in Seagrasses Borodin AM, Syroechkovsky EE ledsl [1980], Reserves Ukraine: 36 the Black Sea, Aquatic Botany 6b: 21-32 11 49-52. 8: [19861. Polysaccharide A Guidebook. Lesprom, Moscow, the status of seagrass communities Milchakova GD Synopsis 34 in 3-28. : Sea Environmental Series Diversity: Ukraine. Black 10 [1998J, Black 1 1 Pnroda the Black Sea. Lukina Chemical Composition. Structure, Properties and Practical Use. 959], Aquatic plant associations the Black Sea, Proc Sevastopol Biot Station 9 Morozova-Vodyanitskaya NV [19391. Zostera as a commercial object Russian!, |in 76: 34-35. 32 Kalugina-GutnikAA[19751, Phylobenthos ol the Black Sea. Morozova-Vodyanitskaya the coastal sea Maslov [19921. Personal communication. 33 Naukova Dumka Publishing House. Kiev 8 in near the Crimea. Bull Nikitsky Botanical Strait 31 Resources ol the Caspian Sea. CaspNIRO, Astrakhan, Hornem. [2000]. Zostera noltii Kerch of the Garden the Black Sea: A Study of Change and Decline. United Nations 6 Sadogurskaya SA water Leningrad Botanical Garden 76: 26-27. crisis in the Aral Sea"] 250: in coastal zone of the of the field studies 21-37 [in and experiments, RAS Russian]. ["Ecological The eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea The seagrasses 5 of THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND THE RED SEA Lipkin Y. Beer S. Zakai D. chapter This considers the divided Is two sections and into seagrasses eastern the of Red Sea. While the Mediterranean and the eastern Mediterranean has a relatively restricted range of species, the Red Sea is home to species, 1 1 all of seagrasses on the Turkish and Greek northern Aegean do not include Zostera marina among the coasts'"^"' seagrasses The only report area. this of seagrass from Egypt'" "' - based on the former - was probably papers misidentlficatlon; EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN Zostera marina. However, Tackholm ef later case a on tropical origin. In this of the latter reference being of Egyptian Mediterranean seagrasses, Aleem did not mention Early contributions from the eastern Mediterranean Cymodocea nodosa lalso reported as Cymodocea aequorea or Cymodocea reported on the presence of major], Posidonia oceanica lalso as Zostera oceanica], Zostera marina and Zostera nana], a in noltii lalso as Zostera Greece, Syria and Egypt. Halophila stipulacea, migrant from the Red Sea, Mediterranean from the island century'". LIpkIn'' " reported v\/as first of summarized Rodos Its the in late in the 19th distribution In the Mediterranean through the early 1970s: during the last three decades Halophila stipulacea has spread further, mostly In the eastern basin (e.g. Methoni and Paxol Sea" Ionian Islands, Kolpos"", but also ^'; and near at Korinthiakos Marmaris'"'; Sicily"" The most common seagrass Mediterranean Is Cymodocea nodosa. '". occurs on It all reported mummy was composed of Zostera marina, which indicates that the plant must have occurred, or was even common, in shallow Egyptian waters some 2000 years ago, and seems to have gradually disappeared, first from the warmer southeastern wider areas Mediterranean, and remained eastern recently on retreat corner, then from wider and the eastern and central parts of the in Its rather until northernmost coasts. A similar coldest, from a former, wider range seems also occurred with Zostera mainly which representation In disappeared, or Aegean have to concentrated is Aegean Sea with considerably the In noltii, become very In rare, less northeastern other parts of the Mediterranean, and almost none eastern the in al."" that the filling of an ancient Egyptian the south. even has It the south in Sea'"'. coasts of this basin on sandy and, less frequently, muddy bottoms. The next most prevalent seems Posidonia oceanica. a climax seagrass. In In many be to regions the northern part of the basin the balance between the two the is inverted, with Posidonia oceanica more common. The be Zostera noltii third in stipulacea. Zostera marina, a if it to common Halophila species common in the and the least western Mediterranean, seems eastern part, becoming abundance appears still to exists there at be all. rare In the Collections of the latter species reported by den Hartog"'^' were from the northern parts of the Aegean Sea, made In 1854, 1891 and 1910. Publications later than 1930, by Greek and Turkish authors'" the same "', reported Zostera marina from area. Interestingly, more recent papers about Ecosystem description Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera noltii shallow water, from a few centimeters 3 m usually to a grow in depth of 2.5- has been reported that Cymodocea nodosa lit occupied a depth range LImassol, Cyprus'^"^'). 5-10 of m In Posidonia oceanica is Bay the of found from the shallows, where the tips of the leaves reach the down surface, beds of to 35-40 m. Halophila stipulacea, which also occur in penetrates much deeper reported as the deepest seagrass it Limassol, growing at 25-35 they reported a range situ, material of many the shallows, e.g. at Rodos, water. m Ifor Bianchi In ef the al.''''" Bay of Posidonia oceanica 10-30 m). Fresh, seemingly was dredged from around 145 m in off u 65 66 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES occurs greater depths, on sandy bottoms. Zostera at was represented (reported as Zostera nana] nottii scattered was Halophila stipulacea rare Ionian Greece around in m 1990, occurring at two sites only, at about 2.5 depth Methoni, together with the siphonous green alga at Caulerpa prolifera, and at Paxoi"""'. Most seagrass beds are composed in the eastern Mediterranean one seagrass species of Beds only. Posidonia oceanica are usually very dense. Only when they start to deteriorate, for example Cymodocea nodosa beds, the seagrass accompanied by Caulerpa percent of when affected by do other marine plants, usually algae, invade. pollution, In by beds are recently reported. no plants; Mixed populations cover"". plant the of occasionally is which may reach 20 prolifera. of Posidonia oceanica and Cymodocea nodosa"'"' or Zostera noltii ar\(i Cymodocea nodosa™ also occur. Egypt Boundary of Ponaorua uccanica meadow wiiii on structure in bay of the m was it rather waters and grow seagrasses four Mediterranean on mud soft at frequently occurs accumulate in the in bottoms, quartz sand sandy small in in shallow stipulacea and pockets that crevices or small depressions on rocky often found on rough is It growing Halophda stipulacea, noteworthy that is in a wide range environmental conditions of the northern Red Sea, including substrates"", has a the all much narrower kinds of in coastal ecological range eastern fvlediterranean, being restricted in in this basin to soft substrates only. The form with bullate leaves, the so-called "buUata" ecophene, so beds healthy substrates such as pebbles and gravel and even solid rock. Marsa Matruh Harbor (western end of the of Egypt! and its close vicinity was eastern Cymodocea nodosa greater depths. and Posidonia oceanica flats, at Mediterranean coast described by Aleem scarce'^ All common community and habitats the eastern Mediterranean are scanty, compared with the information available on these subjects in the western basin. The seagrass vegetation Cymodocea nodosa growing on sand Cyprus; however, below about 50 seagrass Reports in of In 1957-60, m long m wide and about cm 2 to m, on the slope between the watermark and the horizontal bottom m. At the innermost part scattered patches. In that starts at 2 of the bay. the belt l-latoptiila of the slope at 2-8 stipulacea of m belt, m on the depth, a belt of similar occurred. size Posidonia oceanica formed a bed 70-120 about 300 broke into extremely sheltered areas, the seagrass was absent. Right below this lower parts a the inner part of the bay at a depth of in around 50 Halophiila provided Cymodocea nodosa beds covered a continuous belt 10-40 750 nodosa. Posidonia oceanica and map. distribution He reported the early 1960s"". in Cymodocea m wide and long, outside the inner bay, in an area been reported from the eastern Mediterranean. Several more exposed to winds and waves. At El Daba, about 160 km west ecotypes of Halophila stipulacea occur the northern (Alexandria). Posidonia oceanica covered a small area Probably only one of them has penetrated along with a few small patches of Cymodocea nodosa. extreme conditions Red Sea"*'. and spread into the in the northern Red Sea, has not in Halophiila stipulacea did Mediterranean. of Al Iskandariya not occur at this site. The Seagrasses occupy extensive areas in Greek waters"". Clusters of Cymodocea nodosa appear in very macrofauna and algal macroflora were also scarce, shallow water only a few centimeters deep, mostly individuals. For in both in numbers of species and sheltered areas, and to a lesser extent on beaches found on the leaves and exposed oceanica"'-'-'". to winds and waves. Cymodocea nodosa tends and form larger beds. In to of .*>: IT little occupy deeper bottoms 60 cm down to 1.5-2 m. In numbers of Aleem"" described development and in rhizomes of Posidonia detail the establishment, stabilization of the Al Iskandariya. His description was seagrass beds at later incorporated found on sandy bottoms, by den Hartog"" into his account of the ecology of deeper on muddy ones. Posidonia oceanica Posidonia oceanica. and therefore will not be repeated shallower water, the plant a sheltered areas, the southern Ionian Sea, such beds appear from a depth and In in example, only 12 epiphytic algae were is N E E The eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea • • ITALY GREECE • ^ 80 240 160 400 Kilometers 320 ** ^^ ^^ A Thermalkosy • *? AEdEAN "•" _.b SE * TURKEY 1 Koriiilhiaka. Kolpos IONIAN SEA Izmir Korfeii , .' • Methoni • f'i'"-^ ri*'' ,, Miios ,,; " Pholegandros f^^^ >• isi^j % Al Ladhiqiyah sYRIA • • 35" CYPRUS N Tartous * Ras ibn Hani • Al ME D T 1 SEA E R R A N E A N Savda . Arwad '-^'^°'' Akkoff ISRAa ^Bur Sa'id LIBYA , • ==^""'"' EIDaba' 25- 20' Map Bardawfl El JORDAN Arlsh EGYPT 30- E E 35- 5.1 The eastern Mediterranean E it)" Sue: Canal 4i>''b -. vEI Suweis ^ \ Aqabah ••Al' ' (Elat) Smai - Gulf ij/Aquha l\ here. At that time (the 1950sl, however, the Posidonia oceanica beds, once established, persisted for long periods of time. Later, as became they sites, pollution Israeli some other Mediterranean / R^ • Gulf of Suez to dwindle'"'. of Sinai ^ iuhanvnad \ fc \ \% 25- and the southern part of the 1 » y affected by domestic and industrial and started The coast in SAUOl ARABIA \ EGYPT coast are mostly covered with pure quartz sand, V with only a few rocky outcrops here and there. This part of the eastern Mediterranean coast, lacking bays and coves, is \ \ "^ f t. highly exposed to wind and Cymodocea nodosa beds occur wave depths at action. m of 2 more, along the Sinai coast, below the littoral belt in worked by the breakers. intensively A few small stands of * and which the bottom sediment is Joddah Wide ked\ SEA ^ Posidonia oceanica were reported by Aleem"" from the several rocky SUDAN habitats between Bur Sa'id and El 'Arish; the status of , these sites has not been reported since 1955. Sabkhet el Mediterranean coast of Sinai, harbors a large bed Ruppia cirrhosa, which covers up lagoon'"'. The ERITREA BardawTl, the large lagoon on the size of this a to of third it _Dalilai, \ c<^'"»l»'"'^» YEMEN J 15°N s \ of the bed fluctuates considerably seasonally, and during severe winters . 100 200 I ETHIOPIA 300 KllometefS , may disappear Map completely. ., , Xtuiidiil' 5.2 The Red Sea Israel Along the generally exposed Cymodocea nodosa Israeli coast, rich sheltered sites. The best developed northern end of Haifa seagrass also occur submerged beds of are found on sandy bottoms at in Bay. is at Akko, Small patches sand-filled at of level. All Cymodocea nodosa populations in size, the occasion disappearing completely, eventually the from the seed stocks depressions on for Israel are very mean sea has been carried horizontal platforms just below are subject to large seasonal and year-to-year fluctuations in to on renew the sediment'^". Area estimates approximate since no exact mapping out. We estimate the total Israeli Vr' 67 68 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Mediterranean coast populations to Cymodocea nodosa of be no more than a few Inundred square meters. Turkey Along the Turkish coasts, Lebanon dominate the lower From the Lebanese coast there no information about is seagrass beds except that gathered by J.H. Powell on Cymodocea nodosa and Halophita some 800 m off Saida ISidon), in which the occurrence of a stiputacea bed former comprised 70 percent the from judge To cover'^'. few very the seagrass the of records of seagrasses from the Lebanese coast, seagrass beds are uncommon. common'"'. Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera Banias, beds noltii mouths between Tartous and the vicinity of Jable, in embayments north small, relatively calm in Ladhiqiyah (Latakial and near of Al Arwad and the harbors of Tartous, Al Al Ladhiqiyah, where they grow intermingled with Caulerpa scalpetli- formis and/or Caulerpa prolifera'"'. Zostera appears also as an accompanying species noltii the plant in community dominated by Caulerpa scalpeltiformis at Tartous and Al Arwad. monospecific beds rich considerable variations is on clayey this coast seem organic matter They in localities: Posidonia oceanica in salinity. northwest near Ras Ibn Ham. developed; in his of Al Arwad islet, and opinion they were in Island, a great part of was that had in in only m that the rapid degradation common Posidonia oceanica of common all m installations a short while previously at Posidonia of of oceanica and at water they formed isolated 8 m tufts different much Cymodocea nodosa. Mixed populations are found, but less often. Halophita Bab al The quickly expanding green alga Caulerpa racemosa unchecked, shallows well as to into a depths Posidonia oceanica beds. the island wide range of at in 1991, of least 60 oceanica"''''^'. it has spread, habitats from the m, on sandy as muddy bottoms, competing Posidonia -17 in directly of shallower deeper water. 2- beds""'. with all of its relatively are: Halodule Cymodocea rotundata. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassodendron Enhalus acoroides, Tlialassia hemprichii, Halophita ovata, Halophila stiputacea decipien^^^-''''-^K Only a single plant of Halophila decipiens has hitherto been reported from the Red Sea, grabbed from 30 and distribution see For early records m'''°'. Lipkin'"". Enhalus acoroides seems not beyond the Tropic of to reach much Cancer, whereas the other ten species continue to the northwestern part of the Red excluding noticed in Mandab. These Cymodocea uninervis, other two; they also descend to considerable depths'^'. first and In Historical and present distribution The Red Sea harbors 11 seagrass species, Sea proper, but only seven to the was RED SEA stiputacea beds are not as plentiful as those of the Since bays. in formed quite large or more, they depths, Posidonia oceanica beds descending of be to depth. Posidonia oceanica three islands studied, not just and Halophila stands the in on sandy deposits around the entire coast at Cymodocea nodosa are common Kos, more common. In the western part, large seagrass beds were reported from the islands of Sikinos, Milos and Pholegandros. Vast beds of Cymodocea nodosa were found on mud in shallow bays at the latter two ciliatum, considered a threat of narrow mouth sewage Cyprus is island which were already replaced by the result of large deeper than those the at eastern Aegean, the latter seagrass appearing which penetrated through Seagrass beds are widespread around the island Rich on the Aegean Turkish coast. Greece From Greek waters, Bianchi and Morn"" reported dense monospecific stands of Cymodocea nodosa and l-lalopliila ovalis, Cyprus. diameter'^". Similar in tropical origin, of Al nearby Tartous'"'. of much larger meadows are Posidonia oceanicawere of and more Arwad been constructed of a bay the process of Posidonia oceanica beds northwest Caulerpa, it both cases, the beds were not well He assumed disappearing. of the In tolerate to rare on the Syrian coast; Mayhoub'"' found two Posidonia oceanica and of Cymodocea nodosa were reported from Izmir Bay llzmir Korfezi), as were mixed beds of the two. Cymodocea nodosa beds were 20-50 m in diameter, localities, at 0.3-4 These seagrasses grow on sand available, except is seagrass beds are un- too, are found near the river levels of the infralittoral zone, but Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera noltii have also been found in the area"". On the Aegean coast, probably coast, the of Posidonia oceanica that whereas those Syria of no further information about them - 150 On the Syrian eastern part at the Mediterranean coast, meadows (the above listed species Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea serrulata, Halophita ovata and Halophila decipiens] penetrate into most of the Gulf of Elat (Gulf of [Halodule uninervis. ovalis, Halophila ciliatum] into Kirkman''"' Aqabal and only Halophila stiputacea, five Halophila decipiens and Thalassodendron of the Gulf of Suez. Hulings and much reported Cymodocea serrulata from shallow lagoon on the west coast of the Gulf of "a Aqaba The eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea AO km south of but Eilat", record this Halophila stipulacea, confirmed. and Halophila ovalis appear at seagrasses that reach the tips although old records also should be Halodule uninervis present to be the only of these gulfs"'™"', listed Thalassodendron ciliatum and Syringodium isoetifolium from El Suweis and from Af (SuezI, at the tip of the Gulf of Suez, Aqabah at the tip of the Gulf of Elat, and in addition listed Cymodocea rotundata and Cymodocea serrulata from Notably, Aleem'"' did not find any El Suweis'"''. seagrass Bur at Halophila northern part near Taufiq, Suweis. common very Red Sea, of the and southern central El stipulacea, is parts'"^^', its as well as at the tropical east African coast south of the becomes common again on the in rather scarce at Horn of Africa. It the east African coast near the Tropic of Capricorn"". Thus, Lipkin'"'concluded that species this subtropical affinity rather than of is tropical. Some Red Sea seagrasses occur of the deep as 10 as stipulacea down widely found is 50 and to down ciliatum to m 20 the Gulf of Elat at depths The northern Red Sea taken from the Space m harbors 30 m'" "'. to Elat, in was found and one and the In at Thalassodendron the populations of Halophila of seagrass species - 1 1 all of Shuttle. The Red Sea tropical origin. Gulf of Suez, 30 m. Halophila ovata On the Jordanian coast ovalis at 23 m'"'. be Halophila even 70 Halophila dec/p/ens down However, '*'. m'^' at the may shallow subtidal, not deeper than 5 m, but found the in zone and most species usually grow interlidal of the Gulf of two Halophila ovalis stands were found and at 15 Lipkin'^''', including information accompanying fauna. Below a is about the summary typical of the few available descriptions of the seagrass vegetation some Red Sea in localities. 28 m, respectively'^-'. seagrasses Ivlost in the Red Sea grow on mud, silt Eritrea or fine coralligenous sand, or mixtures of them. The In eurybiontic Halophila stipulacea and, to a lesser extent, Eritrean coast, seagrasses are not Halodule vegetated uninervis hemprichii, however, or is wide a variety of Thalassodendron ciliatum and Thalassia substrates. that on thrive seem to prefer coarser substrata, coarse sand admixed with coral and shell debris even rather large pieces coral of from surrounding fringing reefs or coral knolls exposed the all beds of acoroides Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis whereas monospecific, Thalassia occur often monospecific multispecific coast, e.g. as as well in the Gulf of Elat it occurring in was found only in account of in this basin is in in the the late 1970s that stipulacea grew predominantly as pure stands, common in the Red very limited. A general Red Sea seagrass beds was given by but were sometimes mixed with other seagrasses. He remarked that Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata and Halodule uninervis {ended to form mixed communities. Thalassodendron ciliatum beds, 30 m' Sea. information about the seagrass habitats and plant communities For the central part of the Saudi Arabian coast, Jeddah area, Aleem"" reported Thalassodendron ciliatum, Syringodium isoetifolium. mixed populations. Although seagrass beds are the archipelago'*". Enhalus acoroides, Halophila ovalis and Halophila communities on the central Saudi Arabian whereas in multispecific Syringodium isoetifolium forms stands found hemprichii and in seagrass communities. This tendency also changes geographically, community was reported from sandy patches at the lowermost intertidal zone'™'. Small patches of Halophila stipulacea and Halophila ovalis were also Saudi Arabia Thalassodendron ciliatum and are common. A sparsely Caulerpa racemosa-Thalassia hemprichii sites considerable water movement'""^^'. to Almost Enhalus at the south, within the Dahlak Archipelago, on the in size, to 20- grew on coarse coralligenous sand with shell debris and sometimes on dead corals that were covered by a thin layer of sand. These stands of the seagrass appeared Beds of at about 2 m or a little Thalassia hemprichii, to 100 m' deeper'"'. in size, were Tf 69 70 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES plentiful appeared on the central coast of Saudi Arabia; they depth as mixed vegetation at 1-2 rm which in Thalassia hemprichii constituted 60-70 percent of the Cymodocea rotundata 20-30 percent and plant cover, Halodule uninervis 10-20 percent. Pure stands common Halodule uninervis were shallow water on beds are composed coven plant m deeper, form. seagrass beds in deep, mal<ing up 70 percent of the the In little the wide-leaved of Cymodocea serrulata dominates between 0.5-2 in very shallow lagoons, a thin-leaved In form appears, whereas on open coasts, a the coast this of shallower beds 10.5-1 ml, it is accompanied by Halodule uninervis and Halophila and avails Cymodocea Small, 0.5-A m' in the deeper beds (1-2 ml by in rotundata and Halodule uninervis. size, almost pure patches occurred at one of along this coast at depths site green The 0.5-1 m. Syringodium isoetifolium of alga Caulerpa accompanied the dominant seagrass In another in serrulata these patches. Halodule uninervis. Beds Cymodocea rotundata and Enhalus acoroides were of unusual on the central Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast. Pure patches, about 30 m' in size, grew m at 1-2 one on this coast. Halophila ov3(/s formed site small patches, 0.5-2 shallow water in on mud coarse sand with shell debris on top and black in muddy m most in diameter, of sparse growth in Mixed stands larger. the lower intertidal zone of of Halodule uninervis with Halophila stipulacea, and sometimes also Halophila were common ovalis, the two gulfs as well'^'™'. Four in other communities dominated by Halodule uninervis were reported from the the community, Sinai coast of the Gulf of Elat: uninervis-Syringodium Halodule Halodule the Halodule uninervis-Cymodocea rotundata community and uninervis-Halophila Halodule the stipulacea occupy a wide range of habitats. Mostly Halophila stipulacea represented by rather dense is monospecific beds that extend between the lower intertidal zone and depths Suez and the Gulf thin-leaved Halodule Case Study of Elat, in the north, formed uninervis sparse m 50-70 of the Gulf at of Elat. Density these beds decreases below 10 m"*'. in Here and there mixed stands occur, stipulacea Halophila ovalis, and IGhubbel ez-2eitl with in which Halophila accompanied by Halodule uninervis or is one small patch near in mouth at the Thalassodendron Zeit The Thalasso- the most complex of is Red Sea seagrass communities, and probably the most forms. The roomy space under life as its of own assemblage The height of many its woody vertical pelagic animals, as well and animals. of sciaphilic plants these vertical stems, varying with depth land the largest-leaved shoots) occurring 5.1 ISRAELI COAST OF THE GULF OF from 18 ELAT well as biomass within the bed, has been to observed Along the Israeli northwestern end IS coast of the Gulf of Elat, at the of the gulf, the only seagrass found at middle of the site where a In stipulacea 2001 was but one (the south of the Marine Laboratory, small bed presentl. Halophila stipulacea all sites of Halodule uninervis the distribution is also Halophila of of of the Gulf of Elat. Halophila stipulacea occurs along the northern shore of Elat, probably extending of the Gulf towards and beyond the nearby Jordanian town Aqabah. The plants grow to fluctuate during the to last at of depths from 5 more than 45 m, with the highest Al' m densities few years, with a general decline during the last SIX years. Several sites are located near the navy base and the commercial harbor Plants grow depths from 8 to more than 25 m. A is near the harbor where further site 30 Along the northern shore An extensive bed 25 m. The extent of the bed, as and petrol are unloaded. Plants grow follows: Bay Suez, also of the Gulf of ciliatum''"'^°'. dendron ciliatum community stems harbors larvae At the Gulf of ovalis community. Vegetation types dominated by Halophila the seagrass canopy and between Gulfs of Suez and Elat isoetifolium uninervis-Syringodium isoetifolium-Halophila stipulacea community, the important for other localities visited"". in coasts. In the subtidal zone, pure stands of this seagrass were much denser, and the plants were Syringodium isoetifolium was mixed site, with Thalassia liemprichii, below, monospecific prairies A m at oil at 20- depth, substantial site extends from just south of the Steinitz Laboratory grow at Between there Egyptian border depths from 7 this are klOOm'j llnteruniversityl the to and the m site to Plants over 30 m. near the harbor, sporadically occurring beds. Marine smaller The eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea cm from around 15-20 at m 30 shallows at the to more than 1 m depth, determines the volume of this under- canopy space. Thalassodendron ciliatum Sea seagrass communities is among Red unique extending right up in to coral reefs, without the usual "halo" zone that typically separates reefs from seagrass beds This halo is formed by seagrasses. Standing community ciliatum the of stocl< is their proximity. Thalassodendron among Red by far the highest Sea seagrass communities; among in reef fishes grazing on the other productivity, however, its is the lowest. This seeming contradiction stems from the extremely low consumption of most of the matter produced by the seagrass and by organic epiphytic algae the under-canopy space. The only in highly productive and quickly community consumed element in this that of photophilic epiphytic algae of the is upper, well-illuminated surface of the canopy, on which many herbivorous snails, graze'" fishes the Gulf of the Elat, where rare is seagrass in Red the some about 5 (only km long! 0.5-1.0 km'. forms small patches. it EFFECTS OF POLLUTION in communities they dominate. Monospecific stands of Most in beds of Red Sea coast Israeli probably occupy However, the plant accompanies other seagrasses sparse vegetation in and invertebrates, mainly '''°'. The Synngodium isoetifolium community in Butterfly goby [Amblygobius albimaculatus] Sea, Jordan, Halophila avails usually appear of the in few reports on pollution effects on seagrass the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea the Gulf of Elat as a narrow belt at the lee margins of refer to chemical pollution. Haritonidis ef a/."" in 1990 larger stands of Halophila stipulacea. or reported considerable declines clearings in within wide beds of the latter Mixed stands of Halophila preceding two decades, with the former suffering in common seagrass community in Gulf of Elat, forming monospecific dense stands the down dominates in this coast. in common The authors attributed these phenomena to the increased amounts of domestic and industrial four communities at the southern part of pollutants discharged into the gulf during that period. The first is of the Gulf of represented by dense mono- beds growing on a layer, very coarse-grained substrate coral debris covering the cm about 30 made underlying of thicl<, of gravel-sized Beds rock. Thalassia hemprichii and Halophila stipulacea in of same type of substrata, unconsolidated layer was somewhat thicker. Wide areas Thalassia hemprichii with of dendron ciliatum appeared at Thalasso- Ras Muhammad, on the Peninsula, to the seaward of of the Sinai specific Thalassia hemprichii stands on a thin mono20-cm layer of even coarser unconsolidated material. Finally, areas hemprichii. of with dense vegetation of Thalassia 20-40 percent Halodule uninervis, covered large stretches of wide reef Marsa abu Zabad and Shorat coarse coralUgenous sand at el flats between Manqata', growing on 0-30 cm below the low of spring tides'^". The total In contrast, Zostera populations of Halophila stipulacea on the least noltii, three seagrasses that occur in the gulf, common seemed of the to have benefited from the increased discharge of sewage, as the area covered by its beds had increased. A similar decline equal proportions occurred on the water marked changes Elat, Thalassia hemprichii, although the least large greatest losses. They also remarked that the density of the shoots had decreased, and that the seagrass epiphytic communities had taken place. m. seagrass on the Sinai coast tip the in wider areas. Cymodocea rotundata beds are appear the second least but the the sizes of beds of Thermaikos Kolpos (northern Aegean Sea) during the Halophila stipulacea and specific in Cymodocea nodosa Halodule uninervis ovalis, to 2 Posidonia oceanica and area the in occupied by Posidonia oceanica beds, and their thinning, was reported for Cyprus'"', but here the authors attributed these phenomena to competition with the invading green alga Caulerpa racemosa. Between 1992 and 1997, dense stands of the latter replaced Posidonia oceanica beginning Posidonia part of the area in of this period oceanica it (total beds in at the cover in the plant decreased percent to AO-60 percent), and a previously found had covered number from 70-90 of algae, not the thinned beds, penetrated into them, not replacing Caulerpa prolifera, an accompanying species in some of the Posidonia oceanica beds during the earlier period. Similarly, Fishelson a/."" reported that ef Halophila stipulacea meadows. xr 71 72 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES formerly widespread, dramatically retreated at the northern end of the Gulf of Sea. Here the source of pollution cages the northern Red Elat, in was fish culture in Dando et a(."*' dealt with the effects of thermal They reported that Cymodocea nodosa replaced Posidonia oceanica near hydrothermal pollution. discharge vents bottom at the Aegean Sea. of the Geseltschaft 2 Elat 88105, Israel. 20 im Mittelmeer Verhandlungen der Wien in Lipkin Y [1975a]. Lipkin Y [1975b]. Halophtla stipulacea in Hantonidis S, Tsekos coast, Botanica 5 Tsekos I, Manna 19: 22 6 Cink S [1 989], 7 Malea R, of the Manna marine algae of the 23 manne la ilore 24 Hantonidis S [1989], Concentration of aluminium 25 26 Biliotti M, Abdelahad N [1990]. Halophila stipulacea [Forsk.l 2: 27 lllalie, manne algae Manna 17: of 30-39, on (he distribution, growth and (1977], Studies Acetabulana mediterranea Lamour From the of of Turkey Ege Universitesi, Fen Fakultesi, Yijksek Turkishl, (in Gijner H [1978]. bucht Izmir einige befindliche Punctaria In Turkish with lin Guner H, German 1 Polilis J [1930], Sciences Journal, ser B] 1: im Golf von Izmir Ege Sen B [Ege 241-251 some Aysel V (19791. Studies on Politis J [1 5: Grece, Rapp la Comm Int Mer [in University, Faculty Turkish, with German of the Polysiphonia Grev. Species of Izmir Ege Diannelidis T [1935], Algues 30 flora of the island of Crete, 10: 1-30 \2] [213]]: mannes du Akademy Athenon [in 31 Golfe de Pagassai, 935 Greek paper [reference Diannelidis T [19501. Greek manne flora and 1 1 : 32 33 51]. Aleem AA V, I'lle Cink S 11990], Note preliminaire sur la de Gdkceada (Mer Egee nord, Turquiel. 13: 33-37. (1945J. Contribution to the study of the its vicinities. MSc thesis, marine algae of Farouk University. Nasr AH, Aleem AA [1949], Ecological studies of Tackholm V, Tackholm G, Drar M 1: some marine 251-281, [1941], Flora of Egypt, Vol 1, Bull [in Giaccone G [1968], Raccolte di fitobenthos nel Mediterraneo Bianchi TS, Argyrou t^, Chippett HF [1999], Contnbution of vascular-plant carbon to surface sediments across the coastal Praktika margin Greek, with of Cyprus [eastern Mediterranean], Organic Geochemistry 30: 287-297, English summaryl. 9531. Turkish, with English onenlale, Giornale Botanico Italiano 102: 217-228, 205-209. its utilisation. of the Hellenic Hydrobiological /ns(itu(e3[2l: 71-84 [1 (in FacSci Egypt UnivM: 1-574, 249-254, de rinstitut Botanique de iUniversite d'Athenes Diannelidis T 19-42 algae from Alexandria, Hydrobiologia Greek!, Diannelidis T [1940], Algues marines du Golfe de Pagassai, Actes 1 3: Alexandria. 182 pp. On the marine [translation of the Zeybek N. Aysel Alexandria and 195-205, 932], Cirik S, Thalassographica 29 b^\]\: 1-275. Plantes marines de 375- Aysel V [1978]. Taxonomische untersuchungen uber vegetation marine de Verhandingen of the world, : abstract]. summaryl. the western Mediterranean, 28 den Harlog C [1970], The sea-grasses Praktika of Contnbution a la connaissance des algues 34 mannes des Spordes du Nord [Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Hydrobiological Institute 6(21: 41-84. Lipkin Y [1977], Seagrass vegetation of Sinai and Israel. CP. Helffench C ledsl Seagrass Ecosystems: Perspective. Marcel Dekker, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceael Praktika of the Hellenic 19 the Sciences Journal, ser B] in Proceedings of the Academy of Athens 18 V, of associated with a Halophila stipulacea (Forsskall Ascherson IMedKerNS 17 Aysel A survey islands, Greece, Botanica Universitesi, Fen Fakultesi Dergisi (Ege University, Faculty of Natuurkunde, Tweede Reeks 16 [1974], I Rindi F. Maltagliati F, Rossi F, Acunto S, Cinelli F [1999], Algal flora der Koninmliike Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Aid. 15 Tsekos IRhodomelaceae. Rhodophytal from the Bay Oceanologica Acta 22: 421 -429, 14 Mer Med/ter 22141: /n( abstract]. 23-26, [Hydrocharitaceae, Helobiael stand 13 A Yayinia of Posidonia Newsletter 12 S, Universitesi, Fen Fakultesi Dergisi, Greek and Turkish waters, 1955-1977. Posidonia Aschers. [hydrocharitaceael: espece nouvelle pour 11 de phanerogames marines et Comm die einigen Ulva Arten (Chlorophytal Newsletter i: 1-10. 10 Diannelidis T [1973], La resistance Dergisi [Ege University, Faculty of Sciences Journal, ser B] Zibrowius H [1993]. Records of Halophila stipulacea from "Calypso" in Hantonidis 384 the last 20 years, Posidonia Newsletter 3:5-10, cruises S, Arten und ihre verbreitungsgebiete. Ege Universitesi, Fen Fakultesi manne Diapoulis A [1990], Evolution of Greek phanerogam meadows over 9 Diannelidis T [1972], Protoplasmaresistenz Lisans Tezi, Izmir 32 pp 20/21:241-248, S, S, Hantonidis 1, Aegean coast in Antikyra Gulf. Greece, Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry Hantonidis Tsekos development 60-102, Hatophila stipulacea IForsk,) Aschers, and the substrate of the 8 Hantonidis 1, Thassos and Mytilene 20; 47-65. Especes tares ou nouvelles pour 7: Tsekos 57-58, Hantonidis S [1977]. A survey egeenne, Petagos CH-Schwellen der aux sels de metaux lourds, Rapp Greek west of the 273-286. Ionian Islands, Greece, Botanica [1968], 1 du protoplasme d'algues marines Marine algae [1976]. 1 Diannelidis J. Tsekos Schwermetallsalze, Protoptasma 75: 45-65, Cyprus and Rhodes, 1967- 1970. Aquatic Botany 1:309-320. 4 Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, P.O. The Elat 88103. Israel. von Meeresalgen und Meeresanthophylen gengen a review of a successful immigration. Aquatic Botany]-. 203-215. 3 1013 Protoplasma 66: 231-240, 21 Habphila stipulacea, 640 9848. Fax: +972 tau.ac.il Uraninfarbbarkeit des Protoplasmas pflanzlicherZellen, Zootogisch-Botanischen k.k. ibJOi-m. Plant Sciences, Tel Aviv of 1013 David Zakai, Israel Nature and Parks Protection Authonty, RO. Box 667, mannen Hydrochandee Fntisch C [1895]. IJber die Auffindung einer +972 University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel, Tel: Box469. REFERENCES 1 Yaacov Lipkin and Sven Beer. Department 640 9380 E-mail: lipl(in0post the gulf. in AUTHORS 35 New particularly of those Halbmseln des agaischen Meeres. Denkschnften der northern Red Sea, Aquahc Botany natura/issenschaftliche Klasse, Wien 105. 924 pp. 36 In: McRoy Scientific York, pp 263-293. Lipkin Y [1979]. Quantitative aspects of seagrass communities, Rechinger KH (19431. Flora Aegaea. Flora der Inseln und Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mathematisch- A dominated by Halophila stipulacea, 7: in Sinai, 119-128, Pergent G [1985], Florasion des herbiers a Posidonia oceanica dans la region d'Izmir (Turquiel. Posidonia Newsletter 1. 15-21, The eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea 37 localization of ttie tierbiers ol Aleem AA The occurrence [1962], [19901, First results on the marine ptianerogams Thermaikos. Posidonia Newsletter 38 G Haritonidis S, Diapoulis A, Nikolaidis in 50 of the sea-grass: Habphila 51 Faculty of Science. University ol Alexandria Viliello P, Sourenian benthique, Rapp Thelin I, I Comm Donnees generates sur Int Mer 52 Comm Aleem AA [19551, Structure Int and evolution communities Posidonia and Cymodocea Mediterranean domaine le 53 II, [19851, Le benthos Lherbier a Posidonia in honor in Mostafa HM Mediterranean Sea some of the of Alexandria, of 55 Captain Mayhoub H in 56 syrienne Etude experimentale sur la morphogenese la cote the Mediterranean, UNEP, Athens, Argyrou M, Demetropoulos of the workshop on 57 Ecosystems ol Amsterdam, [1974], Cirik 5 [19991, Bianchi CN, invasive Cau/erpa species M la Morn C costiero dell'isola Mom Dynamics A, Gardus Y, ttie World. Ecosystems of the World, Vol of benthic Symposium Beit-Aneh communities [19831, 1: Bay, Cyprus. 60 la Note sul benthos 61 manno 2: Har-EI I, M In: communities of the islands of Milos Greece!, Bulletin de la of the marine algal and Sikinos ICyclades, Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique 107:387-406, [19791, A Gvirtzman ledsl Sinai. Pt G, h Sinai Defence Publishing House, Lipkin Y [1987bl. Marine vegetation of the Museri and Entedebir Red Seal. Israel Journal of Lipkin Y, Silva PC [in pressl. Marine algae and Botany 36: seagrasses Lipkin Y 11988), Thalassodendron ciliate to quantitative contribution to the study of seagrasses along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia, Aquatic Botany 7: 71 -78. of the in Sinai [northern Red Seal aspects. Aquatic Botany 31: Abelson A, Stone The two sides ol man-induced changes Bresler Fishelson L, Mohady [20021, V, I, Gefen Rosenfeld M, E, an example. The Science of the Total Environment A preliminary study [19741, Aleem AA 55-68, in littoral marine communities; eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea as 96-114. Coppejans E the coral 125-139, baie d'Akkuyu 205-212, Kos [Egeo sud-onentalel, Na(ura74: di in pp 495-504 Im Hebrewl. with special reference vegetation de remarks on Dahlak Archipelago, southern Red Sea, Nova Hedwigia. In 22: 517-528, A propos de [with pp. 391 -427, Islands IDahlak Archipelago, 59 [1999], macroalga Caulerpa racemosa and changes in Red Sea 87-99, Hadjichristophorou A, Faculty of Science, King Lipkin Y [1987al, Seagrasses of the Sinai coast. Shmueli et la 16 pp, IMersin, Turquiel, Flora Mediterranea 49 M of biotopes through reef tract evolution. Proceedings of 2nd 58 Oceanologia Acta 48 Pichon marine algae Malhieson AC, Nienhuis PH ledsl Intertidal Israel, [19981, Report of the of the Gulf 31-89, the littoral of the in In: 4: - ptiysical geography. Eretz, Ministry of softbottom macrofaunal assemblages 47 part,l Bulletin ol tfie Doctoral dEtal IDocteur des Sciences naturellesi, Universite de UNEP of the The algae and seagrasses inhabiting the Suez developpement de quelques especes peu connues. These de Expansion 46 IV - International Coral Reef vegetation marine de of the reefs oi Tulear [Madagascar!: Succession and transformation of the the thesis. Faculty of Science, la in 45 Littoral 24. Elsevier, Caen, 288 pp, 44 Red Sea of 89-105, 2l>: [19801, Contribution to the study of the Lipkin Y [19911, Life and marine phanerogam Recherches sur [19761, AA Red Sea, the Gulf of AdenI, Alexandria University. 288 pp, 43 and bibliography The ecology, biometry and biomass [19791, Canal [systematic associated communities PhD history, catalogue Abdul Aziz University. Jeddati of his birthday, July 26, 1955, [19911, Ecological study of the Posidonia oceanica and A Aqaba, Botanica Marina 22: 425-430, 54 Aleem University of Southern California, Los Angeles pp 279-298, 42 NC Hulings of the southeastern the Natural Sciences Hancock on the occasion 22: Hulings NC, Kirkman H [1982], Further observations and data on the Allan Hancock Foundation, Miscellaneous In: Pubhcations. Essays Lipkin Y [1975cl, seagrass Halophila stipulacea along the Jordanian coast of the sea grass in the Zeit Bay area Gulf of Aqaba.fethys 10: 218-220, Dabaa Mer Mediter 29: 247-248, Rapp in seagrasses along the Jordanian and Saudi Arabian coasts H. Mediter2'): 245-246, Dabaa [Mediterranee, Egyptel, oceanica. Allan littoral d'El Mosse RA, Boudouresque CP, Lion R littoral d'El 41 benthos [19851, Le I [Mediterranee, Egyptel, 40 79-84, i: Boudouresque CP, Carries JC. Hassan EMA, l^aubert B, Thelin Dicks B [19851, Seagrasses Ras Gharib lEgyption Red Sea CoastI, Aquatic Botany seagrasses Israel Journal of Botany stipulacea jForsk,! Asch. on the west coast of Egypt, Bulletin ol the 39 at 137-147, 11-18, 3; RPWM, Jacobs and the gulf of \ in pressl online uncorrected proof. 62 Dando PR, Stuben D, Varnavas SP [19991. Hydrothermalism Mediterranean Sea. Progress in Oceanology U: 333-367. m the 73 7A WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 6 of THE ARABIAN GULF AND ARABIAN REGION R.C. Phillips seagrass ecosystem The Arabian Gulf the of (hereafter called "the Gulf'l is unique biotope. a The Gulf is a shallow semi-enclosed sea measuring ca 000 km by 200-300 km" '. The average depth is only 35 m. The maximum depth of 100 m occurs near the entrance to the Strait of Hormuz. There 1 are vast areas in some of the Gulf States, such as the United Arab Emirates lUAEl, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, m shallow areas less than 15 vi/ith deep suitable for and Manifah, in Tarut the of the Gulf" in as a key renewable resource'' It considered is a critical They have also been ". There are only three species Gulf. Uqayr and Al al."' km' occurs ". of UAE is also of 5500 in Abu Dhabi Emirate the in be a very stressful habitat for to the Gulf were soft sediments. Outside the Gulf, as in many as 1 1 Red Sea for the was It largest flats seagrass beds within the in of also appears that the on the western of the beds the Gulf, one proceeds eastward along the size as The three species found are salinities. considered to be tolerant of such conditions (Table known the alone. most extensive shallow its increase are in and southern coastlines. From an analysis southern shoreline. been described provide documentation or mainly rocky, the western and southern coastlines Gulf has seagrass et An estimated seagrass occurrence seagrasses"', characterized by large seasonal air and and high Sheppard were extensive along the of Qatar, but failed to water temperature variations, fluctuating nutrient levels extensive'"^'. is maps. The seagrass occurrence extensive"". Bayl, parts the Gulf of Salwah'". Seagrass in stated that seagrasses coasts of Abu'Ali, in Dawhat Zalum (Halfmoon Jones'" stated that while the coastline of Iran Seagrass habitats have been designated listed Al-Musallamiyah, south occurrence around Bahrain seagrass growth. marine resource Bay'^', in area""'. the Arabian Sea Gulf of Aqaba"- "'" and eight , in 6.11. seagrass species have Seven species seven species the in BIOGEOGRAPHY The Arabian Gulf is characterized by large seasonal temperature variations. The area many months of drain into the Gulf. There the Gulf of Suez'". Jones'" observed that seagrasses occur at only He stated that the Iranian coastline No seagrasses have been reported is and and very hot for the year. There are few rivers that freshwater runoff. In is little rainfall and very addition, the evaporation little from SIX locations in Iran. Gulf waters leads to salinities averaging 40 psu, but was mainly which exceed 70 psu for Iraq. sparse"". rocky. Seagrass occurrence beds of Union'" Kuwait is quite Jones'" stated that Haloduie uninervis the principal species Arabia. in in was Kuwait and reported that large seagrasses extended along the coasts lUCN-The of Saudi World Conservation diagrammed seagrasses along the entire Gulf However, coastline occurring in scattered locations. As a whole, the resulting report stated that seagrasses were of only limited occurrence along the Saudi Arabian coast. in the Gulf of Salwah'". Price and Coles"" reported that inshore waters of the Gulf vary seasonally in temperature from the Gulf can tolerate Haloduie uninervis. these \\ in the north between Safaniyah Halophita Very few studies on seagrasses in the Gulf have been produced reporting density, biomass and primary production values. Basson e( seagrass occurred in conditions: Halophila ovalis and age dry weight of extreme stipulacea. Price"" sampled at 53 sites along the entire coastline The largest beds 39°C and to 38 psu to 70 psu. The three species which are found and found seagrasses at only 15 sites. 10°C offshore from 19°C to 33°C, with salinities varying from of al.'" seagrass leaves calculated the averin Tarut Bay (Saudi Arabial to be 128 g/m'. They doubled this value for an The Arabian Gulf and Arabian region annual average. They calculated the energy content the 175-knn' seagrass bed an energy equivalent of in of the bay to be ].Ax 10" kcal, about 95000 barrels samples from Price and Coles"" took of k oil. a series of IRAQ sites along the entire Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. They IRAN took triplicate samples at eight stations during four KUWAIT*' seasons in 1985 and three seasons in 6.0 to ^35 g dry weight/m' ^usallamiyah-*. Ad Dan -^,. « AJ- Imeans for each station ranged from 53.3 to 23^.8 ----- Jubail Alanne They reported g/m'l. significant correlations between size, but salinity, ;;„-,„ _^ B„, ' , I ^^3^„|„|^ -25 ^ i^ AIAziziyah,-y. AlUqayr-''^ //• ! QATAR //..™"-- . ^_ Jfcj^Abu FashlAdhm no significant correlations between biomass and season, — Wildlfte S. seagrass biomass and depth, sediment hydrocarbons and sediment grain yovir K,„„l , biomass values ranged from IRABUt ' 1986. Seagrass .... Dhabi ^^ | Oul/ofSalwah or nutrient • concentrations and heavy metals. Kenworthy SAUDI ARABIA et al.'"" ^ reported total biomass of OMAN Halodule uninervis from two heavily oiled sites at Ad Dafi and Al-Musallamiyah (northern Saudi Arabia), ranging from 50 to 116 g dry weight/m^ At one non- K * 15° ^ \ Table 6.1 Seagrass species Arabian Gulf in ttie Number Iran of species Species 1 Halodule uninen/is Iraq Kuwait YEMEN Arabian reg on 2 \ 100 200 300 400 500 KilomelefS i » 45- E 55- E No seagrass Map 6.1 Halodule uninervis Tfie Arabian Gulf and Arabian region Halophila ovalis Saudi Arabia 3 Bafirain 3 Qatar 3 United Arab biomass was 188 Halodule uninervis oiled outer bay site nearby, the Halophila ovalis weight/m'. For Haloptiila ovalis. the lowest values were the oiled inner bay stations 112 and 17 g dry Halophila stipulacea observed Halodule uninenis weight/m^l, while the largest biomass Halophila ovalis non-oiled outer bay site (39 g dry weight/m^l. The Halophila stipulacea biomass Halodule uninervis greater at another heavily oiled site (Jinnah Island! as in of was Halophila ovalis was found nearly three times compared compared with Halodule uninen/is uninervis Mav\ed from a high of 5879 shoots/m' at oiled Halophila ovalis inner Halophila stipulacea Musallamiyah of species Species 3250 shoots/m'|. Densities 4 Halodule uninen/is heavily oiled inner Halophila ovalis Musallamiyah and Dawhat Ad 12 an unoiled to g bay site dry weight/m'l. and mid-bay to the (TanequibI 13^ Densities stations at of Halodule Dawhat Yemen 7 530 and 2533 Al- lowest densities recorded for oiled inner bay and mid-bay sites at Dawhat Ad Dafi Oman the Halophila stipulacea 3 Number in Halophila ovalis Emirates Arabian Sea g dry for and mid-bay leaf pairs/m'. A (1 960 to Halophila ovalis at sites at Dawhat Al- ranged between Dafi similar range of values Syringodium isoetifolium 1 Thalassodendron ciliatum existed Cymodocea serrulata Tanequib and Jinnah Island, densities ranged from for Halophila stipulacea. At oiled at 721 to 3 776 leaf pairs/m^ for Halophila ovalis, with a Enhalus acoroides 1 Halodule uninen/is single Halophila ovalis stipulacea at Tanequib. This study Syringodium isoetifolium 1991, one year after the Gulf Thalassia hempnchii Thalassodendron ciliatum sites In value of 2 772 leaf pairs/m^ for Halophila War was conducted Tarut Bay, Basson ef al"' derived tentative productivity values by converting from of in oil spill. biomass values seagrass leaves. They estimated the production 75 76 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES value of the leaves to be 100 g carbon/m'Vyear. These productivity of calculations did not include the productivity of roots and station at many assumptions rhizomes. These values included and were largely et Durako Case Study 6.1 determined the net al"°' leaf Dafi. single a at Values ranged from from a ef exposed plants a(.''" of all area seavi/ard vi/ell-flushed three species the south of of THE BAHRAIN CONSERVANCY In the summer 1982, of km across 25 sea of the to island The causeway, consisting Bahrain'"'. parallel roads state of of five bridges embankments, linked by seven solid of engineers won a civil roadway from Saudi Arabia contract to build a carries two from Jasrah on the northeast coast Umm Bahrain, across Nasan Island, over the Gulf of Bahrain to join the Saudi coastline at At The largest Aziziyah. bridges weighs of the metric tons, and passes 28.5 m 1 200 above the water It can carry 3000 vehicles per hour. Halfway between Umm was Na'san and Al Aziziyah, an house coastguards, customs and to built immigration offices Madany et total cost of the project was one artificial island a/."" stated that the was US$564 undertaken of the largest projects and million, in the At least half of the of embankments spoil. In of m than 100 away Of greater concern were the more obvious physical impacts of dredging and reclamation. The water became more turbid the team moved closer the Long plumes of causeways span consists dredged rocks and fine mud construction work. to the sediment stretched downstream from the construction areas. Just the causeway, 20 cm flora it found a layer thick, with a and fauna, but north of of surface abundance of infaunal a high Ceratonereis. by silt was a once healthy bed of seagrass, now almost completely dead. This was probably Below the once a part of a large nursery of shrimp within the bay area, as large numbers of juveniles and thrived the nearby intertidal in These flats. the west coast of Bahrain evidence of causeway on of the was no there consideration of the massive negative SYMPTOMS OF STRESS At the offshore sites on the east coast, Organization for the Protection of the Marine relatively unspoiled conditions Environment from Pollution IROPMEI arranged to team instead found cooperate of visibility Bahrain's with Environmental Affairs the carry out an ecological to possible Directorate effects of building the of fine was silt Research Unit horizontal lUCN and the study through York carried out the United Nations Environment Programme lUNEP) Sampling was done three visits in temperature, looked Flora salinity, in and turbidity 1983, each of fauna, and and chlorophyll concentrations, and zooplankton were sampled at SIX coastal and six offshore sites. be critical habitats. In Many of the sites causeway between sampled were deemed in the to the immediate vicinity of the Umm Na'san and the main island of Bahrain, the water saline faces like a the now was found to be 9 psu partly enclosed bay on the south side of the road than just to the north, less and to a layer the coral of sedimentary stress, with showing bleached skeletons monk's head with top branches month. one water On calm days, into the water, devoid of polyps. The round heads of Platygyra with SAMPLING THE SITES turbid cm covered the seabed out symptoms classic at the University of only 60 where were expected, the These reefs were already displaying the reefs. causeway, A team from the Tropical Marine more clear damage. extensive seagrass beds of Bahrain, the Regional about fish flats also supported a rich fauna, including crabs and impacts which this project could have on the study on mud complete absence worms dominated polychaete to the of very fine silt mollusks. At two sites south Middle East during the 1980s. oiled 0.09/i to 0.250 g dry weight/mVyear hypothetical'^'. Kenworthy Halodule uninervis Dawhat Ad of a tonsured haircut, bleached white. Dead and dying Acropora were covered with sea urchins or were turned green by colonies of epiphytic algae. Madany et a/.'^" did not state whether this was regulated by the Environmental Protection Committee of Bahrain. This committee project has established specific rules and regulations to control dredging and reclamation projects before implementation. However, the authors found that some projects permission were carried out without the of the committee, due to the lack of legislation to support the regulations. The Arabian Gulf and Arabian region Dawhat Al-Musallamiyah, weathered Kuwait crude was 12 Arabia, un- to The treatment duration There were hours. 18 to Saudi oil. no significant faunal species associated with the seagrass beds in Tarut Bay, an area of -ilO km'. McCain'"" found 369 species of benthic organisms in the seagrass beds on photosynthesis as against irradiance response effects, the Saudi Arabian coast between Manifah and Bandar nor were there any effects noted on respiration rates. Mishab. was Their conclusion that War Gulf the primarily impacted intertidal communities, rather than the submerged communities plant of the northern Gulf Haloduie Phillips et al."" found density values of uninervis from five sites in shoots/m^ while the UAE from to vary 7A5 1 to to and shrimp" '^ ^ ' '". ' Jones'" Outside the Gulf, Wahbeh''*' and Jones et al.'"', the critical seagrass habitat. The preliminary studies done by Basson per year This, 326 g carbon/mVyear for Haloduie uninervis in the Gulf of Aqaba, 617 g carbon/mVyear for Haiophila million kg of fish, at a value of stipulacea and 11 carbon/mVyear g Haiophila for The studies Basson of ef and Price al."' ef may be importance greater of Coles and McCain'"' identified a of total use 83i Bay US$8 of to yield 2.3 million annually, or quantity of shrimps at a value of seagrass for US$12 percent efficiency 1 and shrimps]. fish lUCN'" estimated that the industrial shrimp fishery totaled the Saudi Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea in some US$35.28 the Gulf than that from phytoplankton. in might be expected turn, in million per year [conversion rate of a/.'"' suggested that primary production from seagrass and shallow water benthic algae same the for ovali^". ef al"' of the Tarut seagrass beds may be about 230 million kg wet weight using oxygen release methods, estimated values of 1 the in northern Gulf has been largely attributed to the loss of suggested that the annual production 108/m'. 1 the of the Gulf are dugongs, green sea of turtles, pearl oysters leaf pair densities of Haiophila from two sites varied from 166 avails seagrass beds stated that the collapse of the shrimp fishery region. 21 590 The major associated animal species spill oil 6 800 metric tons, with million. an increase of The net profit a value of was US$13.9<1 million, US$^.78 million from 1982. The lUCN sand/silt report concluded that this economic value of the Saudi substrates at seagrass stations north of Al Aziziyah Arabian fisheries would be maintained and increased, associated species Mean numbers ISaudi Arabia). the seagrass with and of benthic organisms in seagrass beds averaged nearly 52 000/m', an average and up of to 36000/m' the Manifah-Safaniyah in around 67 000/m" Basson in Tarut area'"'" Bay et al"' reported a total of but only that floral and managed on a sustainable basis. previous to the date of the report. This the either 530 if It shrimp production had dropped over the resource being was also noted five years the result of overexploited, or destruction of the critical seagrass habitat, or both. Case Study 6.2 RAPID ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE Price"" devised technique a requirements simple, assessment rapid zone coastal for management The method was based on semi- individuals for fauna, area of the after the both within each sample quadrat. Cluster analysis scores were recorded. was applied The method quantitative Irankedl data on coastal resources, chosen uses and environmental impacts. He recorded and the resource uses/impacts was the Bray- data at 53 geographically discrete km Intervals of usually less than 10 sites, at along virtually 450-km Saudi Arabian Gulf shoreline. Each sampled site comprised a quadrat 500 m x the entire Curtis similarity Index, followed by a hierarchical clustering abundance or magnitude seagrasses, halophytes, of the mangroves, algae and freshwater vegetation were estimated and recorded semiquantitatlvely. The attributes were scored using a of sites, using the determined centrold. The results arithmetically of the cluster analyses were depicted as dendrograms. Correlations were determined between, and 500 m, bisecting the beach Within each quadrat, the for analyzing the biological resource data within, the following resources and resources and groups of variables: biological latitude/salinity; and biological uses/environmental Price"" concluded that the impacts. method can be of value greatest impact). For the resources, abundance managers and scientists alike, to determine associations between different environmental scores were based on estimates of areal extent variables, ranked scale (m^l for of flora, 0-6 or 10 was no impact; of estimated 6 was number the of to and management. is especially useful for a 77 78 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES widespread around the islands, covering most Adhm east coast, from south of Fasht the of Hawar to the Seagrasses also covered significant areas Islands. around Fasht Jarim and along the west coast, south and north Saudi-Bahrain causeway and along the of the southwestern coast. He also reported that the seagrass beds died back beds low cover to be healthy to beds occurred majority of well-developed southeast common was as sites of winter, but found the in March 1986. He concluded in Bahrain. Halodule uninervis species. In summer, Halodule high as 90 percent. was that the the to the most uninervis cover More than 50 percent of the which seagrasses occurred supported 40 at percent or greater cover UAE, the In Phillips et performed an a(."*' extensive study of seagrass distribution and extent of growth in 1999 and 2000. Halodule uninervis was the most abundant species Dugong feeding on seagrasses. in the Gulf waters of the UAE. Seagrasses occurred from Vousden'*' linked surrounding Bahrain the extensive seagrass stages of commercially to juvenile number important penaeid shrimp and to a species, e.g. beds Siganus spp., of adult fish popular local food a resource. Seagrasses also provided a habitat for the settlement [Pinctada high of densities of oyster spat pearl an important commercial species sp.), in Bahrain. Vousden'^' reported a herd of 700 dugongs at one location over seagrass beds in m 1.5 to m 15 deep. Even though Ha/odu/e un/nerv/s was occasionally found m Halophila deep, dominant species tended ovalis .5 m to m 1 1 of m. Halodule uninervis Ifor deep). Digitized estimates there were 5 500 km' the 11 meadows were found wherever water depths were suitable 1 at 15 become depths greater than in Extensive continuous from to of seagrasses in show that the Gulf waters Abu Dhabi Emirate. Bahrain. PRESENT THREATS AND LOSSES HISTORICAL AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION Jones'" stated that seagrasses were sometimes present in the upper subtidal zone 12-3 Arabian coast as a band situations, m some deep) along the Saudi 1-20 seagrasses were recorded the shore sites inspected, but m wide. at In 57 percent of seldom luxuriant in The report estimated an areal extent stands. grasses along Saudi Arabia of these of in the Gulf sanctuary between Ras az-Zaur and the northeast point of Abu All. They found that Halodute uninervis formed meadows from the low-water mark to 3 m deep. Locally, was replaced by Hatophila avails and Halophila stipulacea. In some places near Dawhat Ad extensive affect seagrass cover declined rapidly below 3 m At the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary ISaudi was again the dominant species, with the best developed beds at Z-A m deep. Both species of Halophila were mapped the seagrasses of Bahrain medium-term percentage cover was concerned, seagrass beds were subtidal zone. went to H and marine to in the Gulf. They medium-term impacts, to long-term impacts, and possible longer-term impacts. Except for globules and my own oily observation on the effects of oil black films over the bottom near an oil processing plant west of Jabel Dannah (seagrasses absent under the films], none of the literature records any negative impacts from oil-related pollution in the Gulf, Vousden'^' stated that the agricultural industry was one of the major sources of organic nonto the marine environment. He found that the agricultural sector contributed m He found areas where the seagrasses m deep. Seagrass distribution was 50 percent of the total biological oxygen demand (BOD) loading to the waters around Bahrain. An discharged 19 percent remaining discharges Sheppard using satellite imagery. He reported that, as far as the major soft-bottom habitat type within the 2-12 or could affect seagrasses oil of the loading, with to some 25 came from other discharges amounting also found. Seagrasses were not found below 5 m. Vousden'^' listed a variety of coastal petrochemical pollution deep. Arabia), Richmond'"' found that Hatodule uninervis a(''' ranked them as short-term it Dafi, ef uses and their major environmental impacts which sea- 370 km". De Clerck and Coppejans'^" studied seagrass distribution Sheppard percent. of The industries. et ai'" stated that coastal and dredging represented one refinery domestic reclamation the most significant impacts on the coastal and marine environments the Arabian region. development and They infilling reported that of coastal have been far greater along The Arabian Gulf and Arabian region Case Study 6.3 MARINE TURTLES AND DUGONGS The seagrass beds upwards - [Dugong dugon] population largest distributed mostly home the Gulf are in second largest assemblage of worlds to the endangered dugongs of 7000 the off is THE ARABIAN SEAGRASS PASTURES IN individuals'" (the coast Australia), of the southern and southwestern in regions of the Gulf. The dugongs belong to the incubation'™' Adults can reach over m 1 exclusively on seagrasses. The Gulf green same beaches to and over several nest within seasons'^'. This fidelity coupled with a relatively low emigration rate from the Gulf, other than marine mammals, feeding Omani nesting They can m in be 70 years live to length and 400 kg non-sirenian relative in on seagrasses. age and grow of become capacities sexually mature until about ten years of age. with subsequent calving only occurring seven or more years. at intervals of dugongs in the Gulf are on either side of Bahrain, Threats mortality loss in of grounds. While most Gulf- their the Gulf of Kutch. northern India, suggesting the Gulf isolated. Until some 30 years ago. dugongs formed the staple diet of many Gulf-bordering villages, and had been used for rendered fishing gears, off many fishing number of eggs, do, and the Gulf and significant loss or habitats, foraging is in and physically in harvesting, adult bordering nationals do not generally eat turtles or Dhabi"'. Outside the Gulf, the nearest population genetically as the for replaced with a IS and egg commercial and artisanal nesting of Abu population much populations to the turtle moderate include off Saudi Arabia between Qatar and the UAE, and the to suggests that populations which dugongs. genetically and physically isolated. alteration The most important foraging habitats site, nest and feed within the Gulf are. believed to be the elephant. is Dugongs have extremely low reproductive as they do not over 3 to weight. Their nearest living turtles exhibit strong nesting site fidelity, returning to the monotypic order Sirenia and are the only herbivorous directly length in and weigh over 150 kilograms, and feed nearly crews are being boat and unless the nesting beaches are patrolled the fishermen frequently dig up clutches Fishermen are also known to of eggs. take adults on an An important modern impact opportunistic basis"". IS who other nationalities the extensive dredging and landfilling projects of into oils'". This several Gulf-bordering nations, which are altering or suggests that populations were significantly larger completely destroying foraging IseagrassI pastures. their leathery skin than size at present, fats and further reduction population As of survival which the green turtles in might adversely impact their chances in the case of the dugongs. the seagrasses upon supreme importance FEEDING GROUNDS the Gulf depend are of in to the survival of these isolated, regionally important populations. Significant populations of herbivorous green turtles [Chelonia mydas] also depend on the seagrasses of the Gulf. They nest on Karan and Jana Islands Saudi Arabian coast lea 1 southern coast among to Iran, seagrass the southern and of Gulf. a the 000 females/yearP", outside the Gulf at Ras Al-Hadd, females/yearl'^*', off Oman smaller extent and are believed pastures Evidence of this is 4000 lea off the CALL FOR PROTECTION Based on the genetic of and population sizes isolation these two species, a recent meeting Hanoi. Viet Nam. concluded of experts in that the Gulf seagrass outstanding universal value habitats are of global and recommended they should be at a to feed bordering the protected through international instruments such as supported by re- the World Heritage Convention. Although there are a level, cent tag returns from Saudi Arabia and Oman'^''^". number The green regional initiatives, they tend to be species-specific ductive turtles in the Gulf also have low repro- sexual and IS-AO years, and a survival tats with capacities, maturation periods of estimates rate of hatchlings of roughly only These one in of a thousand. turtles have several key physiological features that set them apart from other Testudines. such as not. of national as conservation yet, directed at programmes and preserving marine habi- other than coral reefs. There is a need for focused attention on the remaining habitats, particularly seagrass pastures, dugongs and green if the populations of turtles are to survive. non-retractile limbs, extensively roofed skulls, limbs converted to paddle-like flippers, and salt glands As with other to sex of excrete excess salt. hatchlings dependent on temperature during is reptiles, the Nicolas J Pilcher Community Conservation Network, Patau P.O. Box W17, Koror, Republic of 79 80 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES However, no one has throughout the Gulf States. documented amount the seagrasses as a result needed. The study appears of this activity. of Such studies are et al™' Phillips of loss historical of in UAE the be the only study that has precisely to documented the extent of seagrass distribution in any of the Gulf States. Such studies are also needed. POLICY AND IvJANAGEMENT Each Gulf State has designed one can still the Red Sea or other parts of the approximately AO percent of the Saudi Arabian coast had been developed, involving extensive infilling and reclamation. They found that conditions were similar in other Gulf States, such as Bahrain and Kuwait. I^ore on an area for further infilling of observed have almost 200 km' in dredging extensive around the UAE. These activities involved maintenance channel dredging, dredging for new channels and land reclamation. They were being activities carried out inshore the most extensive continuous in and coastal Tarut Bay and the Jubail area, and also affect not only the of shrimp and e.g. Bahrain and in that such activity was likely to fish stocks, but also the Vousden''' stated that marine environment of shallow intertidal flats became smothered in a centimeters deep and nature. the effects significant Bahrain. next to of little biological the coastal to the silt the that reclamation thick glutinous Offshore, of problem He noted a that the priority concern was the current extensive loss or severe degradation of seagrass habitats, and the probable reduction in natural resources associated with this habitat. of Price'", the Coral Reef and Tropical and Price et Unit'"' detailed recommendations beds the Gulf area. These in for a/.'^" contained conserving seagrass focused largely on preventing further uncontrolled habitat destruction and widespread pollution. lUCN/UNEP'" concluded that any aimed legislation followed preventing at by enforcement. Little impacts must be has been done UAE, none of the often value due to its benthic communities would that an effective management of with start baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts. The distribution in and rate of the various seagrass loss needs KAP be to countries. As of 1985, the conservation status of seagrass habitats had been considered detail in in Bahrain'""' any of the Sheppard site many countries has taken any steps to implement the beginning program to the for UNEP and Saudi Arabia'^ other KAP "', but not in countries. ef al"' stated that in addition to the Regional Seas Programme, there were other regional agreements, including those of the Cooperative Council), the GAOCI^AO IGult GCC IGulf Area Oil became choked by the anoxic sediments. Primary productivity was reduced drastically by the high Companies fvtutual Aid Organisation) and others. These agreements relate to environmental management and sediment loads and consequent increase pollution control. turbidities. Price et a/.'''' become smothered as in water noted that seagrass had a result of the sedimentation caused by dredging. Thus, many studies have recorded the large-scale and continuing dredging and land reclamation projects ^1 region are signatories of lUCN/UNEP'" reported the convention. determined coastal habitats generally. development represented a anoxic infilling were occurring throughout Saudi Arabia, He conjectured KAP All countries within the implement these recommendations. Except Abu Dhabi Emirate. in Price'" noted that dredging ecology effort There a plan, the Kuwait Action Plan IKAPI, based on the The reports Kuwait. and protection at the regional level. Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Marine Research projects seagrasses, the feeling within that this conservation the late 1980s, there were plans artificial land'^". In seagrass beds little of IS than 30 km^ 13306 ha) of Bahrain was either reclaimed 1 so Protection of the fvlarine Environment from Pollution. lUCN"' and Sheppard and Price™ reported that Bahrain'"'. is marine conservation would be best accomplished Arabian region'". or countries. Since there between the states as concerns is In in all effective cooperation the Gulf the Gulf coast than of authorities see massive and continuing dredging and land reclamation haioauie uninen'is, adu unaDi area number a varying study and/or protect seagrasses. However, to AUTHOR Ronald C. Avenue, S.E., St Phillips, Florida (Marine Research Institute, 100 Petersburg, Flonda 33701, USA. Tel Ihomejt +38 413086. E-mail: ronphillips67raiiotmail.com Eigfith 101 692 1 The Arabian Gulf and Arabian region REFERENCES 1 21 lUCN/UNEP The Management and Conservation (1985], Renewable Marine Resources the Indian in UNEP Kuwait Action Plan Region. of Ocean Region in Marine Pollution Bulletin 22 [19921. Marine Ecology of the Arabian Region. Academic Press, London. 359 3 Basson PW, Burchard JE, Hardy ttie 4 Western Arabian [19771, Biotopes of ROPME ROPME Sea Area. Proceedings of 24 Vousden DHP [1988] The Bahrain Marine Habitat Survey, ARG Price 982], Conservation [1 Vol, and Sustainable Use lUCN/MEPA of Natural 25 Price ARG, Chiffings TW. Atkinson MJ, Wrathall Vol. I. TJ [1987]. the Saudi Arabian Gulf. in New Coastal Engineers, in 27 York, pp 1031- 28 Arabian Waters. Immel Publishing, Preen A [1989], The Status and Conservation Vol, Series Report No, MEPA 1, 10, of Ougongs Coastal and Marine in 29 the Management several sites in Oman Perspective. Marcel Dekker, Aleem AA [1979], A Red Sea coast Hulings NC [1979], New A 30 31 Scientific 7: 71-78, The ecology, biometry, and biomass of the Gulf Aqaba, Botanica Marina 22: 425-430. RPWM. Ras Gharib [Egyptian Red Sea CEC/NCWCD, pp Richmond MD in coasti. Aquatic Madany IM, All UNEP UNEP, TMRU of the of coastal Research 34 zone management 35 Ocean and Shorebne Seagrasses of Abu Dhabi Emirate. United Arab Emirates. Arabian 992], Aspects of [1993], Ecology of seagrasses year after the Gulf \Nar 213-222, in oil spill. [19871, [19901. State of the marine life survive The impact in the dredging and of Management^: Marine Environment in the Regional Seas Reports and Studies, No, Management Requirements Valavi H, Thayer GVI/ to MEPA 1 1 ROPME 2, Rev, for Natural Habitats and prepared by Coral Reef and Tropical Marine in Ross JP and Barwani In: MA [19821. Bjorndal Smithsonian KA Review [edl JO [19851, Institution Press, Embryology and Maderson PEA 39 sea turtles Turtles. northeastern Saudi Arabia one Conservation Status Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: Arabia, Coastal and Marine of pp. in the Washington, DC. pp 373-382. marine turtles. In: Gans [edsl Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. & Sons, pp 269-328. Miller JD [19891, Marine MEPA, Jeddah. 289 of of Biology and Conservation of Sea As-Saady Personal communication Miller & Biology 3: the Arabian Gulf. Chelonian Conservation 37 seagrass ecology along the Kenworthy WJ, Durako MJ, Fatemy SMR, MS Al-Ghais. Personal communication. western Arabian Gulf coast, Hydrob/o/ogia 234: 129-141, 20 [1991], Will 36 38 Gulf, Tribulus. [1 NCWCO. Pitcher NJ (20001. Reproductive biology of the green turtle Chelonia Turtles. Loughland RA, Youssef A [Submitted manuscript], ARG. Coles SL Oil Spill. Unit. University of York. Arabian Area. 13: 1-19, Phillips RC. Price A Marine Environmental Research Gulf. lUCN Report Price 19 soft-substrata to lA [edsl Botany23: 137-147, 17 Management Abuzmada AH, Mader Nairobi, [1982] mydas 18 Jubail and III, 1759: 36-40, SM, Akter al. 730-734. the Arabian Gulf, F. Bahrain. Journal of Shoreline Linden et Jones DA [2002], Personal communication, in in Sea Area. 16 assessment Krupp In: Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf of Aqaba, Tet/iys 10: 218-220, [1990], Rapid Phase Biological Resources on the Arabian Gull Coast of Saudi Arabia, seagrasses along the Jordanian and Saudi Arabian coasts ARG for 254-280, the Zeit Bay and at Hulings NC. Kirkman H [1982], Further observations and data on requirements: Case study of the Gulf Marine Habitat and Wildlile [1996], Status of subtidal biotopes of the Jubail Sheppard CRC, Price ARG 1. 33 Dicks B [1985], Seagrasses of a 255-268. 32 of the seagrass Halophila stipulacea along the Jordanian coast Jacobs Frankfurt, reclamation York, pp 263-293. Saudi Arabia, Aquatic Botany Establishment Gulf NewSaen(/s( contribution to the study of seagrasses along of New Riyadh and Seneckenberg Research Institute. Frankfurt McRoy In: Coppeians E [1994], The marine algae In: and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War at Aquatic 8o(any53: 199-213, CP, Helffench C [edsl Seagrass fcosysfems; 15 0. communities. [1996], seagrasses of Lipkin Y [1977], Seagrass vegetation of Sinai and Israel. of De Clerck Wildlife abundance and species composition 102-126, Marine Wildlife Sanctuary with special reference Meteorological and Environmental Protection Jupp BP, Durako MJ, Kenworthy WJ, Thayer GW, Schillak L Distribution, 6: 11985], Bridge over fragile waters. Sanctuary for the Gulf Region, Final Report Administration, Jeddah, 200 pp. 14 Saudi Arabia, Fauna of Saudi Arabia Vousden DHP. Price ARG The nearshore. northern area, Arabian of the Scien(/s(No, 1451:33-35. London. 59 pp. Arabian Region, Regional Seas 11984]. Marine ecology of Saudi Arabia, bottom benthic communities Sanctuary, Vine PJ [19861. Pearls the McCain JC Gulf, Domurat G Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management. of UNEP the Coles SL, McCain JC [1990], Environmental factors affecting soft In: OT. Converse H, Miner D, Tobin LT, Clark D, American Society to Shrimp Causeway Environmental Research 29: 289-315, 1045. 13 [19831, Ecological Study of benthic communities of the western Arabian Gulf, Marine for the Expert 26 [edsl 5th 12 Sea. Programme, Geneva, Coordinating Council to review environmental of the Gulf Magoon 1 Red [edsl Press. Oxford, pp 169-193, under Construction, lUCN Report 1, pp, Marine. Report for II. Appraisal of resources 10 Head SM ARG, Vousden DHP, Ormond REG Price in and shallow [1987], Littoral A, Fishery and Possible Impact from the Saudi-Bahram 71-89, issues. 9 MU Edwards In: Programmes [ROPME/GC-4/21, pp Meeting 8 Jones DA, Ghamrawy M, Wahbeh Pergamon marine of the Associated Organisms [Jordan], D Phil, thesis. University of York, subtidal environments. of the Some Sites on the Coast of Bahrain, with Special Reference to the Resources, Part 7 23 pp. and Productivity [19801, Studies on the Ecology Aqaba the northern Gull. Symposiun) on Regional Marine Pollution Monitoring and Research The Technical Report, ROPME, 103 6 ARG Jones DA [19851. The biological characteristics habitats found within the 5 JT, Price the Gulf of of on the oil 27: 223-227, Seagrass Halophila stipulacea. and pp. Aramco, Dhahran, 284 Gulf. Wahbeh Ml seagrasses of GW Thayer Valavi H, Kuwait crude of the toxicity of photosynthesis and respiration the Regional Seas Reports and Sheppard CRC, Price ARC, Roberts C Assessment [1993], Studies No. 63. 63 pp. 2 Durako MJ, Kenworthy WJ. Fatemy SMR, Volume Marine Turtles in Management 1: 1 4, C, Billett An Assessment the Kingdom of F John Wiley of the Saudi Series Report No, 9, 81 82 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 7 of KENYA AND TANZANIA C.A. Ochieng P.L.A. Erftemeijer Seagrasses are a major component the rich and of productive coastal and marine ecosystems in the East African region. The Kenyan (600 km| and snorkel bottom IS covered In narrow continental shelf bordering the Indian Ocean and are characterized by extensive fringing coral reefs, several sheltered bays and creeks, limestone seagrass growth mangrove cliffs, The tidal forests, amplitude is sand dunes and beaches"^'. rather large - up to ^ l^ombasa'" - and therefore there intertidal in many mainly The near a fairly extensive zone between the fringing reefs and the coast places. of is m The substrate in this zone consists carbonate sands derived from eroding reefs. productivity of these intertidal areas predominantly by the presence is determined seagrasses and of macroalgae, which grow wherever shallow depressions retain a covering of water during low beaches or cliffs tide, reefs. fish species that many tide, leaving for other deeper Mtwapa, Tudor, Gazi and Funzi in Tanzania! where meadows and interrelated coral terrigenous sediments is also reefs ecosystems. common in is River Rufiji Tanzania, in minimal. following seagrass 12 have species encountered during several studies Syringodium Cymodocea isoetifolium, Cymodocea wrightii, rotundata, Thalassodendron serrutata, been Kenya and in Halodule uninervis, Halodule Tanzania"'": ciiiatum, Zostera capensis, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila minor, Halophila ovalis, Halophila stipulacea and hempnchii. Thalassia species appear to be widely distributed All Seagrasses stipulacea. communities consisting species. mangroves, seagrass of of observations, occur often two to Thalassodendron ciliatum such as Halophila mixed in several of the 12 is often the most dominant species, forming pure stands with high biomass. Three additional seagrass species {Halodule pinifolia. may Halophila ovata and Halophila beccarii] have for the region" constitute but these observations '^', need further misidentifications and confirmation. There in Kenya, and at Tanga, Bagamoyo, Mohoro, Kilwa and Mtwara is BIOGEOGRAPHY The been reported these lagoons grade into sheltered semi-enclosed bays Kilifi, Kenya and the Halophila minor and At several places along the East African coast, Mida, in number offshore waters during the ebbing tides. le.g. at River Zostera capensis, reside permanently inside such lagoons, species feed there during high seagrasses. of between the but high-tide waters pass over the reef many growth with only a limited and the adjacent fringing crest into the lagoon. Apart from a luxuriant in Narrow channels connect the lagoons with the sea during low in the inside rivers very clear and the is along the entire coastline of both countries, even those tide. The most extensive seagrass meadows occur back-reef lagoons, which are found small the delta areas of major rivers, such as the Tana Tanzanian 1800 km) coastlines have a shallow and relatively and creeks in mangroves, where the water the is species some controversy over the occurrence of Halodule wrightii in East Africa. authors have included Halodule wrightii in Most their species occur as adjacent and descriptions for the region based on leaf width and Where morphology" limited, supply the of seagrass vegetation the creeks and channels that run °'. However, indicated that leaf tips bicuspidate to in field observations in tip Florida"" Halodule spp. vary widely from tridentate on shoots of the same through the mangroves, possibly functioning as traps rhizome. Experimental culture"" revealed that leaf tips and reducing the extent of of the fluxes of particulate matter and nutrients between the mangroves and the ocean. In Gazi Bay IKenyal, for example, it is possible to Halodule are environmentally variable, related to nutrient variability or tidal zone. Furthermore, isozyme analyses of diverse collections throughout the tropical Kenya and Tanzania Seagrass beds populations Lamu lormi \^ Buy a •" * Kenyan Watamu Marine - Mombasa Manne / the 4' Bambun National ..' the green turtle was by far species'"'. In Tanzania, there are no Kenyan coast revealed ten dugongs during November Pcmba 199^ and Island Clmaku Dar as Salaam INDIAN dugongs during February-March 1996, six representing a significant decline in comparison earlier counts of over 50 animals in the 1960s and 1970s'^'''^". Um Bagamoyo * \ among which coast, most common Zanzibar * 199^, In recent population studies"". Similar surveys along the Diani-Chaie Lagoon ••KiMn, • which feed on seagrasses. iA3 sea turtles was recorded along the of Park and Reserve Funzi TariBa.' the green National Park • Mombasa^ GiEi Bay total i.e. and the dugong Dugong i» ^ Kiijfi :t the region also support sizeable mydasl^°'^'" dugon'"^'^^', both of Mambrul Malindi Mida Creek Chelonia turtle Island in two endangered species, of The most important dugong can be found in main centers of the Lamu habitat Archipelago. Kinondoni dugong population have been reported Mafia area"". The need for protection and of Kenya in Tanzania, the In along the Pemba-Zanzibar channels and OCEAN to in the Rufiji- management sea turtle and dugong habitats Iseagrass beds! has been stressed'"'. importance The ecosystems East of for fisheries is seagrass African gradually emerging from an increasing research effort on the role of the seagrass meadows 40 BO 120 200 Kilometers 160 Mtwara* of Map in region this breeding and nursery, as feeding grounds for marine fish and crustacean species economic importance such as shrimps [Penaeus] and spiny lobster 7.1 IPanu/Zri/sl'"^' "'. Several fish species graze on seagrasses, notably rabbitfishes ISiganidae) Kenya and Tanzania and surgeonfishes lAcanthuridae), while parrotfishes a [Leptoscarus spp.l preferentially graze the epiphytes ocean on the seagrass. Adult fishes, such as snappers, western Atlantic as well as the Indo-Pacific revealed clear genetic between difference tfie two systems, but genetic uniformity within each of the ocean systems"". Based on these results concluded that it two groupers, grunts and barracuda, feed on the infauna of was seagrass beds while the is plants Iwith this morphology! from all the Indo-Pacific are Halodule uninervis while those in the tropical western Atlantic are Halodule wrightif'^'. Nevertheless. reported in Halodule to be and isozyme findings'" " is a need continues literature despite these field, culture '". appears therefore that there It analyses further for wrightii of relationship between nutrients and leaf morphology of The seagrass beds East Africa, as indeed in elsewhere, harbor a diverse array of associated plant and animal species. Detailed studies on seagrass species of in this region have identified over 50 macroalgat and epiphytes'^'"™', least at invertebrates"'""' - 75 18 species species especially of of algal benthic gastropods and bivalves - several species of sea cucumbers'"' and at least seven sea urchin lobster clearly species'"'''', various shrimp, and crab species'"^"' and over 100 species'"""' in fish association with seagrass beds. This underscores the importance meadows an important contributor crab the to Bagamoyo and Dar es Salaam, fishery for biodiversity conservation. of seagrass in said to inhabit shallow is coastal habitats such as estuaries, sheltered bays and open waters sublittoral seagrass), where all were found bare sand areas which may include of its life cycle are found'"'. higher fish abundance and catch Significantly rates (all stages of in in seagrass beds a study of dema comparison in trap fishery to the in coastal waters of Zanzibar, Tanzania'"". Similarly, Halodule species. associates stages mainly seagrass-derived detritus. Portunus pelagicus, chromosomal differences and physiological studies to determine the diet of their juvenile 1 1 of the 99 fish species of Tudor Mangrove Creek (Kenya! are typically associated with seagrass total catch!'"', while families] 7A species of and 15 species of 16 percent of the fish (in a total of 39 macro-crustaceans were reported for the seagrass beds of Chwaka Bay and Paje Genres on Zanzibar'"'. At both of these latter sites. oyena was the dominant the seagrass beds l>60 percent fish species in of the total catch). Harvesting of bivalves (notably Anadara antiquata, Anadara natalensis and Anadara uropigilemana, Gardium assimile, Gardium pseudolina, Gardium Scapharca erythraeonensis] and flavum and gastropods (including Murex ramosus, Pleuroploca 83 84 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 7.1 BETWEEN SEAGRASSES AND ADJACENT ECOSYSTEMS GAZI BAY, KENYA: LINKS km Gazi Bay, a semi-enclosed bay (15 km'l ca 50 south Mombasa, of characteristic of the creeks and is bays along the East African coastline. Mangroves, seagrass meadows and coral reefs occur here as Mangroves are found along adjacent ecosystems. small seasonal rivers on the landward side and are drained by two grass vegetation is mangroves, where sea- and between the functions as a trap reducing the it sediment, organic material and nutrients from flux of mangroves the tidal creeks. Extensive common among small rivers ocean. Snorkeling to the among the in creeks and mangroves can be a sensand ational experience: the water can be very clear bottom the is covered schools luxuriant a in by mangrove seagrasses, traversed to of juvenile fish hide growth from predators. Adjacent some intersected by of where roots mangroves on the seaward side are the flats, bay of the intertidal channels, and shallow subtidal areas which stretch to the fringing reef. Most of this area is covered by various species grasses and macroalgae, with the exception sandy patches"''^'. Seagrasses sea- of of a few Gazi Bay cover an in ments All the in is 250 cm. 12 seagrass species of eastern Africa Gazi Bay. Macroalgae are most conspicuous among floral associates. Sixteen their species Chlorophyta. 4 species of Phaeophyta and 31 of species of Rhodophyta associated with seagrass beds in Gazi Bay have been Euchema. leaf these were Ulva and Sargassum, which include species Average Among identified'^'. Gracilaria, of all economic value of potential production of Thalassodendron ciliatum, the most dominant seagrass species, ranges from A.9 to 9.5 g/mVday"-'". and population ciliatum has dynamics shown fastest reported for nodes. I.e. A separate rapidly most that Thalassodendron vertical its any seagrass to growth is the date 142 inter- 42 leaves/yearl, whereas the horizontal growth rate (16 cm/year) is among a result of the slow horizontal the slowest"". As rhizome growth, shoot recruitment through branching of vertical shoots an important part of the clonal population and so an essential growth component of is this of the Seagrass meadows are open systems subject impoverishment due mediated by the in processes The intriguing feature of very close proximity to one tidal inundation. occurrence, to export man- trapped within km 2 in of the forest, with mangroves'". the carbon signature seston flowing over the seagrass zone during flood tides pointed to a reverse flux of organic particles from the seagrass zone to the nearby coral reefs existing measurements Direct flux seagrass litter showed litter is reciprocated by a the mangrove, and this litter in mediated by is the inner parts of the in of a rather whereas tides. has indicated that the detntal Further research forms part isolation. mangrove that trapping of give-and-take relationship cycling apparent both mangrove and of by adjacent seagrasses retention of seagrass mangroves, with the in cycling mangrove forest closed system based on local in the outer parts of the forest connected with the adjacent seagrass tightly ecosystem'"'. Despite the presence of tide-mediated chemical fluxes which allow one system to influence another, the input of mangrove carbon did not coincide with subtidal enhanced seagrass leaf production of the Thalassodendron dominant ciliatum"'". Presumably, carbon outwelling from the mangrove coincides with only limited export of nitrogen and phosphorous, and the restricted effects nutrients on the seagrass (if any! are of masked these by other local factors. Gazi Bay in is major fishing grounds typical of the Kenya, most of which are located in shallow near- coastal waters due to a lack of sophisticated gear and motorized boats which would allow exploitation deeper waters. Carbon isotope and delta into trophic relationships Gazi Bay allowed the in identification of three trophic levels, zoobenthiplanktivores i.e. herbivores, and piscivores/benthivores. Seagrass beds were found grounds providing food of "^N studies to be the main feeding for all fish species studied in Gazi Bay, Kenya"". Seagrass plants were the major production of Thalassodendron ciliatum. to nutrient the seagrass zone in decreased with distance from the litter However, marked decreases of study of the growth of move- of fish"". Analysis of the stable isotope signa- groves, but deposition of particulate organic matter IS Gazi Bay in dissolved of revealed significant carbon outwelling from the inputs, range terms in ture of the sediment carbon maximum tidal study the interlinkages to nutrients and seston fluxes as well as shuttle estimated total area of approximately 8 km'. The are found another, of mangroves, seagrasses and corals 4 Bay attracted scientists between these systems in Gazi source of carbon for four fish species studied in the bay They also contribute (together with mangrovesj to the particulate zooplankton, organic carbon for prawn larvae, shrimps and oysters, hence support for food webs'"'. their Kenya and Tanzania trapezium and Oliva buibosa] many in areas of the intertidal No Tanzania. for food Is common on or without seagrassi Iwitfi data currently exist on the quantities Strombus gibberulus, Strombus trapezium and Cypraea tigris, all of which collected from seagrass areas. common are popular curio goods, are seagrass in areas around Dar es Salaam'". Twenty species common cucumbers, the most Hoiothuria scabra. Bohadschia argus. chloronotus. Stichopus Bohadschia Thelenota anax, variegatus and hemanni, are harvested from sea which are Holothuria of nobilis, of vitiensis, found to be more sensitive to desiccation than subtidal seagrasses with Syrmgodium however, may exception the high irradiances, as well as the high nutrient inputs from the shore, apparently allows the shallow species to occupy the uppermost intertidal zone. Seagrass beach cast material may contribute significantly to along the Kenyan coast'" stability, studies Detailed significant beach "' in as implied by a study Isee Case Study Gazi Bay, meadows and PRODUCTIVITY AND VALUE organic mangroves, with nearby coral reefs existing Kenya and Tanzania have in growth and geographical distribution limiting the environmental seagrasses, values of seagrass ecosystems Leaf productivity and stresses of indirect Thalassodendron ciliatum of Chwaka Bay fringe of from the seagrass zone as far as concerned. Export of particulate into in to the apparent organic matter is organic matter from mangroves (Tanzania) was in also limited to a narrow seagrasses immediately adjacent to the mangroves'"'. Despite the presence of tide-mediated this region. in particles isolation'" revealed a reverse flux of Studies on the ecological processes and functioning of provided a better understanding of the natural factors 7.21. Kenya, carbon outwelling from the mangroves the adjacent seagrass seagrass ecosystems tolerance, not be a trait that determines the vertical Stichopus seagrass beds! along the Tanzania coast for export'""'. species the zonation of tropical seagrasses. The ability to tolerate Stichopus intertidal areas (including of Desiccation isoetifolium""^'. chemical fluxes, which allow one system influence to ranges from 4.9 to 9.5 g/mVday""'^"". Vertical growth another, the input of mangrove carbon did not coincide rates of Thalassodendron ciliatum {A2 internodes. with enhanced leaf production of the dominant subtidal i2 leaves/yearl measured reported fastest date, to horizontal growth rates 116 cm/year] rank whereas its among the measured any seagrass species for i.e. Kenya are among the in in recruitment Shoot slowest"" meadows seagrass rates along the coasts of Kenya and Zanzibar were either the same as or larger than shoot mortality environmental quality suggesting rates, in this region that the seagrass Thalassodendron ciliatum'"". Carbon isotope and delta relationships showed main feeding grounds '*N studies on trophic seagrass beds were the that for all fish species studied in Gazi Bay, Kenya"". An experiment on feeding preference showed Catotomus carolinus IScaridael, the that second most abundant fish in Watamu Marine National suitable for is still sustaining vigorous seagrass vegetation'"'. factors tvlost govern primary production, that including light and temperature, are relatively constant throughout the year composition region. this in However, the the oceanic water and the of amount of freshwater which enters the coastal areas are variable. At several sites along the coast substantial seepage of freshwater occurs, as a result is often found in areas cf of which brackish water seagrass beds'"''. Using nitrogen stable isotope signatures, groundwater found to influence abundance was seagrass species diversity and where Thalassodendron ciliatum dominated high groundwater outflow areas as opposed to Thalassia hemprichii. Photosynthetic studies carried out Tanzania, indicate seagrasses that favorably to any future increases in in Zanzibar, may respond marine carbon dioxide levels due to global climate change'""'. The enhanced photosynthetic rates by and Cymodocea rotundata exposed, intertidal zone in the l-lalophila ovalis high, frequently air- may have been related to a The catch from a trap fishing trip in the seagrass beds - mainly the capacity to take up the elevated HCO3" levels directly'"'. seagrass parrotfish Leptoscarus vaigiensis, some pink ear emperor Furthermore, these tropical intertidal seagrasses were Lettirinus lentjan, and a grouper Epinephelus ftavocaeruleus. 85 86 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES the pioneering preferred Park, species seagrass short-lived climax species. The study also highlighted to grazing of role fish seagrass influencing in Sea urchins mediate the competitive success different seagrass and fish species, in terms some dominance indicates high a of some of at a rate of 1.8 that support sea urchin species of the gratilla, for instance, seagrass shoots/mVday sea a while the parrotfish'^*', pressure on herbivorous fishing graze abundance urchin can at fronts of 10.4 The species composition of seagrass reef environments appears to be individuals/m^'"'. communities species of Tripneustes fish species'"'. in by affected partially of and abundance. Sea urchins can reduce grazing rates of relative maps this region. Distribution of seagrasses for Lagoon diadema appear seagrass beds dominated by to favor Alias of Coastal Resources shows that seagrass beds occur throughout the 600-km-long Kenyan coastline in sheltered tidal lagoons and creeks, with the exception flats, of the coastal stretch adjoining the Tana Delta'". The testing of a remote-sensing methodology for seagrass mapping in southern Kenya estimated the net area of vegetation cover to be approximately 33.63 km' within a stretch of km around 50 that most stands of Ground-truthing revealed of coastline'". these areas were dominated by pure Thalassodendron cilialum. of Chwaka Bay on prey choices of the dominant grazers. Parrotfishes and the sea urchin Echlnothrix UNEP and Chwaka Bay. The recent in seagrasses are only available for Mida Creek, Gazi Bay, Diani-Chale abundance'™'. distribution ESTIMATED COVERAGE There are very few area estimates the eastern side of Unguja Island (Zanzibar!, which covers more than extensive mixed 100 seaweed-seagrass has km', areas, with Thalassodendron ciliatum, whde other sea urchin seagrasses representing between 50 and 80 percent species such as Diadema setosum. Diadema savignyi the macroflora biomass'^'. and Echinometra mathaei favor areas high approximately 15 km', seagrass beds cover an area of in Thalassia approximately 8 km' from the lower margin of the hemprichif^^'. There have been lew studies on western Indian Ocean seagrasses of to date. A recent bibliographic survey marine botanical research outputs from East Africa mangrove flats up sandy to forest through the The Diani-Chale Lagoon along the "'. patches''' between 1950 and 2000 yielded only AA papers and reports that dealt with seagrasses'^". Even baseline data beds covering up on distribution are largely however, the number of lacking'"'. recent years, In seagrass publications from zone management and for integrated coastal participatory management seagrass including recognition of of marine protected areas indicating beds, important the growing a value seagrass of area of approximately 20 total 60 percent covered by seagrass beds''". "best guess" of total seagrass coverage Tanzania, become new mapping but from available in Kenya and data are expected to recently started a regional seagrass research project under the Marine Science for Management Programme (MASMAI. ecosystems. Massive beaching of seagrass coast'"', rendering was reported Watamu on the litter as early as 1969 by an expedition to Kenyan km' with seagrass At present, there are insufficient data for even a the region has increased and efforts are in under way 6 75 percent"". The Nyali-Shanzu- to Bamburi Lagoon, with a km'', IS and subtidal intertidal the fringing reef, with the exception of a few Kenyan coast measures roughly studies unlikely that it these THREATS The lack continental shelf, stretching out no of a true few kilometers from the Kenyan and accumulations have increased over past or recent more than years"". Tanzanian shores, makes the coastal resources No direct utilization of has been the seagrasses reported'""" except for small-scale use of in East Africa anecdotal reference the leaves of to Enhalus a more vulnerable from activities appear to overexploitation to on land'"'. In general, impacts than mangroves or coral reefs but this into flour for in Kenya, who cooking what mf/Vn/)/"'. Quantitative data dry and then grind is known as locally on such direct uses as well as catch statistics of the seagrass-associated the seagrasses have experienced fewer direct negative acoroides for weaving mats and thatching huts, and Lamu Archipelago all and influences the harvesting of their rhizomes by people of the them of Gazi Bay, which covers In may merely (quantitative) data. harbors results reflect the Deepening in of in the region, lack of any reliable channels lor ships at uprooting and burial of seagrass plants by dredge-spoil'"'. Several beaches and adjacent coastal areas in it Kenya and Zanzibar are under increasing pressure impossible to draw any conclusions regarding trends. from expanding tourism development'"'. High hotel There are no published data on estimates density fisheries in this region are lacking, or degradation from the East African making of area loss region"''^'"'. At in close proximity to the beach Seagrass beds are locally damaged common"". the waters near these present, there are insufficient data for even a crude propellers and anchoring estimate. highly intensive tourist areas'"^". While in is by motor boat mooring buoys Kenya and Tanzania have been deployed within the marine park to protect the coral reef, the seagrass beds remain unguarded, some areas in very popular vj\th tourists stretches of seagrass meadovi/ (deemed a nuisance swimmers! to are cleared by cutting and/or uprooting'^". addition, In the cumulative effects of raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material may have negative impacts on the functioning adjacent seagrass of the meadows"". Direct destruction of seagrass vegetation occurs by trawling activities. Commercial trawlers operating the Bagamoyo and Tanga Bay (Tanzania!, as well as Kenya (where they reportedly have in effort well in Mtwara and coastal areas between Delta, Rufiji beyond the potential sustainable Ungwana a fishing yield'™'!, are non-selective and are destructive to the seabed. Illegal trawling - even during the closed season - occurs Bagamoyo, Tanzania, where up bycatch to in 80 percent of prawn seagrass'"'. Trawling has also been reported is as a major cause of mortality of the green turtle along the Kenyan coast'"'. Artisanal fishermen often connect separate channels navigable causing damage seagrass, albeit to pose a could Overfishing likely confirm to agricultural seagrass for the coral reefs activities in tons/year in the in in river to Sabaki sediments from as much as 7-U metric tons/year at present""'. Considerable amounts of sediment brought down by the river to the coral reefs and seagrass beds have been implicated in the low seagrass species composition at Mambrui'''". The apparent absence Bay and northern to siltation by the Rufiji of seagrass beds in Ungwana Delta"" might also be related Tana and Rufiji Rivers, but no studies Oil pollution in oil in is one of the potential threats to East Africa owing to spillage harbors and the risk posed by a large of crude fleet (over oil 200 tankers per day! from the Middle East across the coastal waters. There have been no major oil spills to when 5000 metric tons from a Mombasa destroyed a nearby area date, except in 1988 pierced fuel tank in industry on seagrasses, Seagrass cover has front of a Mombasa nortfi coast beacfi hotel, may be high but remain uninves- tigated to date. Increasing populations coastal towns and in such as Mombasa, Malindi and Dar es Salaam, to the coastal solid waste, sewage present a potential (but localized) threat seagrass resources from domestic disposal and dredge spoil dumping, responsible for the declining water blooming locally, especially in points from sewage"" of which are all of quality'"'. Seasonal Enteromorpha and Ulva species occurs of "'. hotel areas close to sewage discharge establishments and municipal Although low organic loading is a feature the well-flushed lagoon system, eutrophic conditions and high bacterial contamination semi-enclosed Significant have been conducted here. seagrasses lounsm in sheltered lagoons, to accelerated soil erosion 1960 up vi scale'"'. although there are no direct reports tremendous increase some 58000 million small cities, Recent a at a this. catchment have resulted and ln,pa^;s declined threat communities, as has been reported in this region'"', through for their canoes, digging by make way intertidal flats in order to in the sheltered and been have creeks reported'"'. heavy metal pollution from urban and industrial effluents has been reported in coastal waters around Dar es Salaam"", affecting edible shellfish populations'"'. Reclamation of tidal flats, such as proposed by the Selander Bridge coastal waterfront reclamation project in another potential threat Dar es Salaam, constitutes to seagrass ecosystems. The expanding open-water mariculture farms of seaweed Eucheuma spinosa currently cover around 000 ha of intertidal area on Zanzibar (Tanzania). The mangroves and associated biotopes. The seagrass species Halophits stipulacea and Halodule wrightii the have not reappeared various adverse effects that seaweed farming has on of Tanzania, severe - oil is at the site since the spill'"'. In pollution along the coast - though not heaviest during the southwest monsoon"" The extent and specific effects of oil pollution on seagrass ecosystems in East Africa's largest harbors, Kilindini and Dar es Salaam, especially in creeks and 1 intertidal areas could well socioeconomic benefits decline in mar the positive picture of its to coastal people. A marked seagrass cover from physical clearing of seagrass vegetation by seaweed farmers has been reported"". Seaweed farming areas on Zanzibar appear 87 88 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 7.2 SEAGRASS BEACH CAST AT MOMBASA MARINE PARK. KENYA: A NUISANCE OR A VITAL LINK? The Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve encompasses (Kenya! major part a Shanzu-Bambun Lagoon maximum depth m. of 6 120 It is of the Nyali- within a stones throw of their rooms. Although the bordered by white beach cast phenomenon Mixed seagrass com- (dominated munities and associated seaweeds cover 60 ciliatum] percent Thatassodendron by of the lagoon, which Is typical for most of industry the employ hotels staff material from the beach and bury phyll a do not reach eutrophic levels lagoon is is of macrophytes, 88 percent of a of rake the seagrass the immediate vicinity it phenomenon showed that burying the material does not significantly affect decomposition rates"". The same study, however, also pointed role seagrass beach cast of beach well flushed'"'. Large banks which because the it Some under the sand. A detailed study on the beach cast compared with the sheltered creeks and bays and, due to hydrodynamic forcing, the spatial and temporal concentrations of nutrients and chloro- removal. its to in considers area this in nuisance and would prefer of the hotel is relatively high By stability beach filtering out wave action, the reduce can material cast to the contributing to in erosion of seagrass, are deposited on the beaches beaches caused by swash/backwash processes. become detached from The beach cast material may also reduce beach the sea bottom by the surge effect from waves. erosion due to wind. Furthermore, the cumulative phenomenon is seasonal and controlled by tides and monsoon winds"'"'. The most intense accumulations - as much as 1.2 million kg dry effects (beach cast] as the plants This weight along a 9.5-km stretch beach - are of washed ashore during the southeast monsoons when wind and current speeds, water column mixing and wave height are usually greatest'^'. The Mombasa Marine Park to tourism such lagoons along the Kenyan coast. Turbulent these areas seasonal and only is peaks during the low season, the burgeoning water motion (exposure) in enjoy the other water sports km'l which has a sandy beaches on the landward and a fringing reef on the seaward sides. whose guests stretch of about 30 hotels, white sandy beaches and have a lower abundance of meio- and macrobenthos than unvegetated sandy areas, and seagrass productivity due to "fenced" by a is may cause declining of removing seagrass beach cast may of intensify sand beach erosion either through the export the process or the loosening up of in compact the The potential rate of beach erosion in this study was estimated removal) at if marine conservation guidelines in Africa. was gazetted as protected area for establishing active countries in The first parks and reserves, beach sand (per beach cast material any given at equipped parastatal organization that has received support. Most, in if not all, of the marine Kenya contain seagrass beds, but distribution maps of seagrasses in these protected areas are not available. marine early as 1968. Kenya's of wave custodianship of the Kenya Wildlife Service, a well- detailed most of the kg 'i92'l50 protected areas POLICY RESPONSES Kenya has been one removal of or protecting material that slows much donor shading""". through action. sand, In addition, several legal and instruments address aspects related and management of administrative to the protection marine protected areas and thus seagrass ecosystems. These include the safeguarding marine ecosystems and preserving rare (indirectly) of species have been adopted from the United Nations protection of wildlife species, regulation of fisheries, Environment Programmes (UNEP'sl Action Plan the East African Regional Seas for Programme"". There are no existing management practices to protect existing seagrass beds from overexploitation or pollution per environment six se. is However, concern for the marine demonstrated by the establishment marine protected areas covering a total land planning and coastal developments, research and tourism. of area of 850 km^ while an additional marine reserve has been proposed. All protected areas are under the Dugongs and turtles are both listed as "protected animals" under the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act and various conservation closely with have been initiatives for their implemented. By working respective local authorities, the Wildlife Service may Kenya avoid approval of activities that could impact negatively on marine parks, as provided for under the Land Planning (1968) and the Physical Kenya and Tanzania moment was removed from km stretch). The the entire beach 19,5- annual deposition total beach cast was estimated be to seagrass of the order of 6.8 in kg dry weight, indicating that about 19 million percent of the annual production meadows kg million (14.7 through passes lagoon decomposition oxygen speed up the release adjacent ecosystems and to the detrital amphipods/m^ other various vigorous nutrients and of dissolved or energy pathways The material was further found 23000 where These processes action'"'. into the thus contribute and drying fragmentation by wave back 3100 groups, faunal contain over to and isopods/m^ tide. seagrass beach cast accumulations role of nutrient regeneration stability, and as nursery thus IS highly beach seagrass sites and tourism, would cast, have source a in in beach and processes and shorebirds for fish, crabs zone, an providing important food source for fishes during high The the in beach, the accelerated through exposure to is availability, particles seagrass of carbon/yearl of food the nearshore Removing significant. though desirable for impacts on the negative health and functioning of adjacent seagrass beds, on which artisanal fisheries and tourism Seagrass beach cast in significant Planning Mombasa Marine amounts National seagrass litter Parl<, are 1995 - washed up on the Kenyan beaches with each tide. made to protected areas of parks, of which seagrass ecosystems are part, were Acts. (19961 of itself rely Efforts being are encourage environmentally sensitive tourism as one the measures achieve to protection A goals. national strategy for sea turtle conservation is draft currently under review while seagrasses have been considered management the most recent plan of the in Mombasa Outside marine and marine Conservation concentrated protected are coastal and of its areas, however, control overthe exploitation of coastal resources virtually non-existent. marine systems has marine resources such as shells and coral reefs. Therefore it would seem that the important functions of seagrass beds related to fisheries nursery grounds, or to only recently gazetted effort, as marine primary two marine first 1995. Despite considerable in management of protected areas in Tanzania, many developing countries, suffers from the in insufficient capacity and law enforcement. One the of Strategy, provided for by the Fisheries Act (19701. protect the production, their contribution to energy pathways (involving a diversity of and biological productivity is to diversity of coastal and aquatic ecosystems by preventing habitat destruction, pollution and overexploitation. Management Tanzania's Coastal attention on either tourism-related or directly exploitable Tanzania"", the stated objectives of the National Fisheries Policy and Marine National Park and Reserve. management and in whose goal is to coastal zone governance, national programme ment. Among the Partnership, establish a foundation for effective has produced the first Manageprogram are a for Integrated Coastal first outputs of this State of the Coast Report, a National Mariculture Issue guidelines and forum organisms), or linkages with land-based activities are Profile, not at the top of the conservation agenda. dealing with such issues as trawling and dynamite Since the recommendations to establish marine fishing. A a conflict resolution draft national Integrated Coastal Manage- 89 90 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES ment Strategy and profile awaiting government approval. These is more initiatives and, understanding level of importance of the of Implementation zone coastal integrated of management initiatives in Tanzania is currently under way in Tanga Iby lUCN-The World Conservation Union), Bay Conservation Zanzibar (Menai REFERENCES UNEP [1998], 1 UNEP [2001], Eastern Africa Atlas of Coastal McClanahan TR Aleem AA in Programme, the Western Indian Ocean. 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Francis urchin abundance and diversity 323-336. 814]: gastropods and of Proceedings of a Workshop on Ecology and Bioproductivity of 4miio 23 and Tfialassia hempricfm from Ochieng CA11995]. Productivity FJ, and fishery Salaam, pp 59-65. 22 McMillan C [1980]. Flowering under controlled conditions by in [1988]. Ecology [1998]. Coastal resources utilization issues isoetifolium, Zostera capensis 1988. 18-20 January 1988. Faculty of Science, University of Dar es in serrulata, Halophila stipulacea, Syringodium Oyster of Marine Coastal Waters Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 18-20 January Marine Coastal Waters of Eastern pp 359-374. intersystem (luxes Kayombo NA led] tfie Marine Science at Proceedings of a led] molluscan species along the Dar es Salaam coast. Marine Science in Smithsonian [1988]. Seagrasses. the Marine Sciences No. 34. 104 pp. to Faculty of Science, University of Dar es Salaam, pp 51-58. 21 Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of Kenya. Aquatic Sotany Australian 17: 29-42. Menez EG Phillips RC, Bay, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The seagrass and [2001]. Anniversary Conference on Advances Cymodocea of seagrass Thalassodendron ciliatum (Forssk) den Hartog Angiosperms. Tanzania. 28tt) June-lst July 1999, Zanzibar, Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA [1981]. Isozymes, McMillan C (1983). Morphological diversity under controlled Contributions selected beaches along Dar es Salaam Richmond M, Francis in Florida. in Halophila, Halodule, Zostera, Amphibolis and /Iguadc Botany 20 Lugendo BR, Mgaya YD, Semesi AK 20tf) 14 McMillan Workshop on Ecology and Bioproductivity [1968]. Tanzania. 28th June- in seagrass Halodule of the of Eastern Africa, Development 13 On species [1967]. Ecology Progress Series 106: 291-301. coast. 12 Marine Science in adjacent seagrass beds and coral reefs IGazi Bay, Kenya]. Marine FM 177, Halodule uninervis complex from Shark Bay, Western Australia. The seagrass and 119921. Hemmmga MA, Slim E, Kazungu J, Ganssen GM, Nieuwenhuize J, Kruyt NM [1994]. Carbon outwelling from a mangrove forest with Isaac PO. Box Posidonia. Australian Journal of Botany 29: 247-260. of Bay IKenyal. Hydrobiologia 247: 59-75. Coppejans associated macroalgae 11 delft hydraulics, conditions for the Halophila ovalis - Halophila minor complex and M de Wit H, RC Phillips seagrasses seagrass connmunities of Journal of East African National History Society 27: 29-47. 10 1 secondary compounds and expenmental cultures coast. Hydrobiologia 400: 63-73. 9 WL Bulletin of Marine Science 17: 672-676. 44121: 191-199. Angel In: 16 sensing and zonation of seagrasses and algae along the Kenyan 8 Erftemeijer, Netherlands.. Tel: +31 I0]15 285 8924. Fax: +31 I0]15 Delft, the IstJuly 1999, Zanzibar, Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA. pp 343-357. Ocean and Adjacent Waters. Deep Sea Beeckman macroalgat vegetation 7 MH 2858718. E-mail: paul.erltemeijer0wldelft.nl 31(6-81: 919-933. Research 6 AUTHORS Nairobi. Ill pp. and ecology [1984]. Distnbution Coppejans in Programme]'™'. V pp. 1 1 [1988]. Seasonality in East Africa's coastal waters. the North-West Indian 5 Fund], and Management Area Coastal [Kinondoni Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Marine Ecology Progress Series 4 Kinondoni Eastern Africa Atlas of Coastal Resources. Kenya. United Nations Environment 3 Mafia Project], United Nations Environment Programme. Nairobi. 2 WWF - the World Wildlife Marine Park (by marine resources, including seagrass coastal and beds. process have raised the so, the in In: dema trap Jiddawi N, the Traditional Fishery Sector: Information Needs. Proceedings of the National Workshop on the Artisanal Fisheries 22-2i, ;W. Zanzibar pp 125-134. Sector, Zanzibar, September . Kenya and Tanzania 29 Little MC, Reay PJ, Grove SJ [1988], The community fish an East of 47 African mangrove creek. Journal of Fish Biology32: 729-747- 30 Knowledge on Marine Frazier J [19751. The Status of Western Indian Ocean. East African 31 KM Howell Mainoya JR turtles in Tanzania. In: role of marine of ledl mammals and of Clark Turtles 33 Khatib F, A 48 Dar es Salaam, pp [19941. Preliminary Report on the Status of Zanzibar and in Wamukoya GM. Pemba WK Marine Aerial Survey of 49 Rays. Kenya Wildlife Service Technical Series Report No. in 35 dugong, Dugong dugon IMullerl Ligon SH Kenya. Clark JG [edl Mammals the Seas. in Volume IV: 51 in 5. Kendall B [19861. The Status and Conservation Needs of the A the East African Region. UNEP/iUCN under a study for Utilization of 53 Ottichilo WK. Salm RV Dugongs [Dugong dugon] Marine Mammals. 54 [19971, Aerial Survey of Ungwana Bay and in the 55 Lamu 38 WH and destruction [19811. Alteration Implications for marine fisheries. Resources of Kenya, July 13-19. Research of Arts 39 Institute Africa MD and Kenya National Academy ledl [1997]. of the lor P, Islands. SIDA, Department Duarte CM. Marba N, N, Hemminga MA P, 58 in a 59 Growth and population Kenyan back-reef J. Verheyden A of [in JF. Mateo MA, Marba N. pressl. 60 Groundwater Effects Lagoonal Seagrasses in carbon by seagrasses from Zanzibar, East 44 Schwarz AM. Bjork M, Buluda Bjork S. Anonymous Wakibya JG Africa. [20011. Challenges for M [20011. Emphasis on Seagrass research diversity, the eastern in ecology and ecophysiology. [19691, Report of the Watamu Expedition by the Bangor [19951. The potential human-induced impacts on the UNESCO Report in Marine Sciences 66: 176-187. In: in Interlinkages between J, NAlWl,] A Survey of the Coral Reef Habitats of the Mombasa Marine Park and Reserve with a Review ol the Existing T. Wildlife Service - Kenya's Coasts: of Findings and Recommendations for an Action Strategy Sanders MJ. Gichere SG, Nzioka Samoilys RM M [19881. the in pp, [19901. Report of Abundance and species richness fish on the Kenyan coast: The effects and fishing. Kenya of protective of coral reef management Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Katwijk van in situ. MM. Meier G. Malmdi-Watamu Ngoile MA Mainoya JR of Kenya (Indian Oceanl. Marine Biology [edl Proceedings of a Workshop on Dar es Salaam. Tanzania, 18-20 January 62 Kenya-ICAM [19961. area. 74 pp. Mwangi S, Seagrass Beach Cast from the Beaches along the the Kenya Institute, 1988. Faculty of Towards Integrated Management and Sustainable Development of Kenya's Coast. Findings and Recommendations Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research in Science. University of Dar es Salaam, pp 133-143. Shanzu to reefs [1988], Marine pollution in Tanzania: Sources, dispersion effects. In: Africa. Marine Biology ]2T. 755-761. Reserve. Technical Report NF, van Loon R, van Hove EM, Giesen WBJT, den Hartog C (19931. Sabaki River sediment load Progress Series 191: 121-126. pp. Reports and Unit, 13 pp. Coast Development Authority [1995]. Towards Integrated Ochieng CA [19961. Environmental Impact Statement on the Wildlife Service. Mombasa. Ecology and Bioproductivity of Marine Coastal Waters of Eastern Mtolera M, Beer S [20GG1. Weil A. Beer S [19991. Photosynthetic tolerances to Mombasa Marine Park and Marine Research 2, 117:675-683. 61 desiccation of tropical intertidal seagrasses. Marine Ecology Mombasa. 58 CA East Africa: Results of a bibliometric Muthiga the Photosynthetic utilisation of carbon and light by two tropical of in Johnstone R [19951. Community production and nutrient fluxes and seagrass species as measured Removal of and coral stress: Correlation between sediments and condition Kenya and Marine B/ology 129: 363-366. 46 Bandeira van der Velde Bjbrk M, Weil A, Semesi A. Beer S [19971. Photosynthetic utilisation Bjbrk M. Uku A multiple-choice feeding-preference seagrasses with a natural population utilising Marine Fisheries Subsector Study. FAO RAF/87/008/DR/65/E. 44 pp. on Zanzibar Island [East Africal. Marine Ecology Progress Series. of inorganic an interlinked Symposium, pp 261-266. Hemminga MA, Tack on Diversity and Abundance 45 Alcoverro T [19991. Development Authority, Mombasa. 74 Mateo MA. Mtolera M. [19961. Thalassodendron ciliatum Kamermans in Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu Area. Draft report, August 1995. Coast pp. Leaf production, shoot demography, and flowering Mtolera M, Stapel 43 S. Erftemei)er PLA, Semesi AK, Ochieng Initial seagrass Thalassodendron ciliatum [Cymodoceaceael along of Hemminga MA, F, Management and Sustainable Development for lagoon. Atjuaf/c Botany 55: 1-11. 42 Mariani Publications Series No. Seashores of Eastern to the Hemminga MA. Marba J [2001]. dynamics Marguillier S. van der Velde G, Dehairs Kenya Advancement the East African coast. Aquatic Botany 70131: 243-258. 41 forest 50: 159-170. Park Boundaries and Reserve Areas Restricted from Fishing. on Aquatic 57 A Guide and the Western Indian Ocean Kamermans Stapel Institute Kenya Marine and Fisheries 1981. Research Cooperation. SAREC. 448 40 56 of coastal habitats: and Science, pp 247-255. Richmond mangrove the proximity of a Eastern-African Coastal Ecosystems. Contract No. TS3'-CT92- Proceedings of the Workshop In: Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research of the J [19951. 0114. Final Report, pp 88-93. pp 1-13. Brakel Kazungu P. the seagrass seagrass beds lUnguja island. Tanzanial. Archipelago. Kenya, Kenya Wildlife Service Technical Series Report 2. Botany Kenyan seagrasses. Wamukoya GM, No. in of University. Wales. UK, Nairobi. 67 pp. 37 de Koeyer South African Journal of Botany 67: 420-425. of the Global Plan of Action for the Management and Conservation, completed report partially FJ. Thalassodendron ciliatum Africa region: in Tanzania. 28th June- survey. South African Journal of Botany bT. 411-419. 52 pp 511-513. Dugong Slim marine botanical research Small Cetaceans. Seals, Sirenians and Otters. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fisheries Series No. 36 in herbivorous fishes Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 295-299. dugong. Dugong dugon [19821. Aerial survey of the In: P, [Gazi Bay, Kenyal. Aquatic experiment 82-88. 4: in Ecology Progress Series 151: 115-121. 50 Kenya, fast African Wildlife Journal In: mangrove-seagrass ecosystem as traced by ""C and "^N. Marine 1 pp1-22. of the Hemminga MA, Gwada Rajagopal S [19971. Trophic relationships [19961. Report on the Marine Mammals, Sea Turtles, Sharks and 34 Jarman PJ (1966). The status Bay, Zanzibar Marine Science in Leaf production and nutrient content Sea Islands. 10 pp. Mirangi JM, Oltichillo Chwaka Marine Science Development IstJuly 1999. Zanzibar. Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA. pp 205-226. 154-161. 32 J ledsl Conference on Advances Marine 1988. Faculty of Science, University of E [2001], The Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Coastal Waters of Eastern Africa, Bar es Salaam 18-20 January B. Jordelius the nutrient cycling and productivity of in Richmond M. Francis Proceedings of the Workshop on Ecology and Bioproduclivity SM, Johnstone RW, Widen mangroves adjacent seagrass communities. Turtles in the Wildlife Society. 16 pp. The conservation [19881 Mohammed 63 for an Action Strategy Kirugara D. Osore M. Njoya Status of Marine Pollution in J, in the Nyali-Bamburi- Yobe A, Mombasa Marine Dzeha T [20011. National Park. Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya. Kenya Wildlife Service Report, Coastal Regional Headquarters, Mombasa. 91 92 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 64 Daffa JM waters of (19961. Bjork M, Semesi AK, Pedersen M, in to the coastal Land-based pollutants Dar es Salaam and the effects Marine Botanical Research Proceedings of the 3-1 in to the Bergman B ledsl 68 Parks, Conservation Areas the East African Region. 1 in 69 Cooperation, Pratap HB In: Mainoya JR ledl 70 Marine Coastal Waters of Eastern Africa. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1 988. Faculty of Science, University of Oar es Coastal Zone Management IMNTRE, SAREC, World 67 Olafsson E, May SGM seaweed farming on the meiobenthos of Experimental Bank), 1995. 2i pp. Johnstone RW, Ndaro [19681, Marine Parks lor Tanzania. Results of a survey of the & New York Zoological Coughanowr CA, Ngoile MN, Linden G SOZ and [19901. in [19951. Coastal zone Eastern Africa including the island states: A review initiatives. Ambio 24(7-81: 448-457. Netherlands Indian Ocean Programme, Part 3: Kenya Shelf and Coastal Ecosystems. Netherlands Marine Research Msuya FE [19951. Environmental and Socio-economic Impact of Seaweed Farming on the East Coast of Unguja Island, Zanzibar, Tanzania. Paper presented at the National Workshop on Integrated Zanzibar, 8-12 Ray C of issues 71 Salaam, pp 121-132. 66 ledsl National of Protected Sustaining Society. Smithsonian Institution Press, management Proceedings of a Workshop on Ecology and Bioproductivity of 18-20 January KR Society, Baltimore, Maryland, October 1968. 47 pp. heavy metal pollution on the bioproductivity of marine coastal waters. Miller and Development: The Role Parks. The Conservation Foundation SAREC.pp 315-331 [19881. Impact of establishing coastal and coast of Tanzania by invitation of the trustees of Tanzania National Ocean. SIDA Marine Science Programme. Department for Research 65 in in McNeely JA, In: Washington, pp 101-108. the Biology the Western Indian Pertet F [19821. Kenya's experience marine protected areas. In: Current Trends December 995 Symposium on Macroalgae and Seagrasses of Microalgae. and marine marine plants. [19951 Effects of intensive in a tropical lagoon. Journal Marine Biology and Ecology 191111:101-117. Foundation, pp 1-28. 72 Woitchik AF ledl (1993). Mangrove Ecosystems. to the EC. Dynamics and Assessment of Kenyan [Project No. TS2-0240-C, GDFl. Final Report Free University of Brussels. 239 pp. Mozambique and southeastern Africa The seagrasses 8 93 of MOZAMBIQUE AND SOUTHEASTERN AFRICA S.O. Bandeira F. seagrass species occur Thirteen and 12 region. Madagascar has nine common species. Five species occur and up Mozambique in remaining southeastern African the in South Africa, seven in Comoros and Seychelles" to ten in mantima, recently defined as dominant species Mauritius in "''. a seagrass'"', has been and sandy coasts 12/i Zambezi typically and River; km 500 three north of the rocky limestone a surrounded by coral the Zambezia province up reefs, coastline, which runs from the northern end of the to country, and also covers the Tanzanian and Kenyan Seagrasses abound coasts'*'". in the sandy and limestone areas. general occur in especially stands, mixed seagrass areas. intertidal in in The three dominant mixed-seagrass communities on the sandy substrates of combinations Mozambique Thaiassia hempnchii, consist of Halodule Zostera capensis, Thalassodendron ciliatum wrightii, and Cymodocea In southern of the seagrass communities of the quite different, with seagrasses intermingled tending species'". occur to Here, the with dominant botanical communities also include Thaiassia hemprichii and Halodule wrightii, but species such as Gracilaria Halimeda spp. and Laurencia papillosa occur mixed with Thaiassia hemprichii, and Sargassum Thalassodendron ciliatum. Elsewhere spp. with salicornia, Zostera capensis and Halodule wrightii also form The underground biomass general presumably IS environments because lower than (1070 g/m'l, is of relatively sandy (8-10 Thalassodendron high sandy in biomass (862 g/m'1, while total significantly the rocky seagrass beds in comparable. Although possibly slower growing, the Thalassodendron ciliatum plants sandy habitat have wider 112.51 cm ±0.61 leaves than (1.^ in cm ±0.11 in the and longer the rocky habitat (0.7 cm and 8.2 ±0.5 respectively!. The b'omass epiphytes on Thalassodendron ciliatum plants order of magnitude higher in is the rock (512 g/m^| than of an in the sand (iO g/m^l, and consequently these organisms account for nearly half (48 percent) of the combined seagrass and epiphyte biomass, compared with just 5 percent the southern sandy-bottom beds. in minor are found only in northern Mozambique while pure stands of Zostera capensis are Halophila found only in the south'"". Pioneer species observed Thalassodendron ciliatum and in Mozambique include Halodule wrightii, Halophila ovalis and Cymodocea serrulata. The first two species act as pioneers in coastline, silted exposed sandy areas close whereas Cymodocea serrulata is to the a pioneer in channels. South Africa Zostera capensis mixed beds. In in Enhalus acoroides, Halophila stipulacea and more northerly limestone areas are seaweed the rocky areas 120- higher shoot density (i561 shoots/m' and 888 ciliatum serrulata"'. contrast, in 57 mm'Vdayl than shoots/m" respectively). ±0.1 Seagrasses to g/m' respectively! and beds are characterized by a regions: a sandy coastline from the southern end of the River up to around grow faster on plants to g/mVday and up to 22 mmVdayl. Leaf biomass in rocky areas is more than twice that of sandy (258 g/m^ and much into former growing along the rocky southern Mozambique'". Leaves of 26 g/m'/day and up country to the Save River; an estuarine coastline from the Save Mozambique. A detailed comparison of the appear BIOGEOGRAPHY Mozambique The Mozambican coast can be divided in made also a the southeastern Africa region. in Thaiassia hemprichii are the dominant subtidal sea- grass species Ruppia is Gell is most widespread and one dominant seagrass species in South Africa. It of the occurs M tji 94 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES N * A QuinmtwAn.hipclui.\30° MOZAMBIQUE.? ZAMBIA S COMOROS__ ,' „,„„,;^«^, Term.. Vl-Uoo J Lumbo-* Table 8.1 / Area cover and location ^1 for the seagras Zoslificafensis'm South Africa G» .' • ''T"'"'^r' ZIMBABWE Ulnhassoro y • f Bicanjro \ | 1 AFRICA , % Kwa^iilii-Nalai J 30- / __ ^ ^ 200 40O 600 600 1000 Kllonnetas 20° E Map 8.1 Mozambique and southeastern Ikm'l Estuary Climate classification St Lucia 1.81 Subtropical Estuanne lake Mbashe 0.01 Subtropical Permanently open Mlalazi O.Oi Subtropical Permanently open Mngazana 0.02 Subtropical Permanently open Mtakatye 0.04 Subtropical Permanently open Xora 0.01 Subtropical Permanently open Knysna 3.48 Warm temperate Estuanne bay Klein 0.37 Warm temperate Estuanne lake Swartvlei 0.23 Warm temperate Estuanne lake Keiskamma 0.12 Warm temperate Permanently open Keurbooms 0.64 Warm temperate Permanently open Krom Oos 0.02 Warm temperate Permanently open Qora 0.08 Warm temperate Permanently open Swartkops 0.16 Warm temperate Permanently open Hartenbos 0.01 Warm temperate Temporarily closed Kabeljous 0.02 Warm temperate Temporanly closed Ngqusi\lnxaxo 0.01 Warm temperate Temporanly closed Total 7.07 S INDIAN OCEAN • ^. Area name Inhata IJand SOUTH ,- Estuary Clhiiwel J J* \ MADAGASCAR Mo=m,b,^,a- ; ^ BOTSWANA .' , ''- ; Africa 5G'E N INDIAN OCEAN A SEYCHEUES Praslin ' ^^ '^Lj Digue Source- Colloly"" S,y,l,,-IUs Bank ^. ^^. ^ Silhouene mostly • Anse aux Pins in estuanne w/aters along from Kwazulu-Natal Mahe important Anotfier species 9 27 18 45 Kilometers 36 is to tfie found off number of estuaries location seagrass witti Kwazulu-Natal. Here, a number of protuberances rocky a western Cape region. into ttie sea are mostly dominated by Thalassodendron cilialum adapted Map 8.2 live in The Seychelles rocky areas experience generally dynamics and winds similar N to rocky habitat together with seaweeds"". These to strong water those of southern Mozambique"'. A \ South Africa • Poudre d'Or Poste Lafayette * ? The distribution 20° h -'.^. Mont Choisy Port Louis is of Zostera capensis well recorded. It grows in in southeast 17 estuaries (Table 8.1). Individual beds are small, generally only a few hectares, and the total area covered by seagrass is about 7 kml •Wbion INDIAN OCEA N \ Madagascar Little is known f IWAURITIUS of ' likely that in y ; about seagrass species in the dominance relative Madagascar although it is the southwest of the country they are similar to the species from the limestone areas of -*.. Mozambique, with most 5 10 15 20 25 KjIcxnelefS ated by hemprichii. Map 8.3 Mauritius u the of the meadows being domin- Thalassodendron ciiiatum and Seaweeds are also intertidal Madagascar"'". and subtidal a common seagrass Thalassia feature in areas of Mozambique and southeastern Africa m Mauritius ciliatum, both of Thalassodendron ciliatum, Halodule uninervis and and the smaller species Cymodocea rotunddta and Syringodium Isoetlfolium appear common seagrass species most be the to Cymodocea forming an understorey known about the seagrass meadows is Comoros. Being located less than km 400 Mozambique and sharing coastline of of east of the a similar climate, quadrat surveys areas and subtidal seagrass species dominated by found together such very low tides. Thalassodendron as Such unusual Seychelles Cymodocea 115 granite and coral of meadows Seagrass islands. dominated are Pins'^' Mahe. Shoot density varies from 1 1 107shoots/m''in Cymodocea serru/ata plants, 1 1 761 in of Syringodium isoetifolium and 540 common in down subtidal areas depths to common a was Enhalus found which were mainly ovalis, areas that were exposed in predominance to the air at Enhalus acoroides of is the region and, even within the Quirimba in has extensive seagrass beds, Montepuez Bay was the only area dominated by Enhalus acoroides. Other subtidal seagrass beds in the Quirimba Archipelago were dominated by Thalasso- dendron ciliatum. Dense meadows 093 between 50 and 100 cm| Enhalus acoroides were home to 123 to 627 to of larger species. In on the Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassia hemprichiP'. also by Syringodium isoetifolium and serrulata. Thalassia hemprichii occur at Anse aux main island seagrasses of Archipelago which composed is stands in Montepuez Bay seagrass beds, acoroides with Halophila ciliatum. Seychelles of the and spp. dominated by Enhalus acoroides. The most combination species height, most common seagrass types were stands the Comoros may have similar meadows to northern Mozambique with mixed seagrass species in intertidal broad-leaved in small quantities, often in I Little 1 Halophila isoetifolium, Halodule spp. are present Comoros over to serrulata. Small seagrass species le.g. Syringodium Mauritius"". in which can grow of 33 in of diverse range of invertebrates and to a seagrass itself was covered (often tall fish, and the epiphytes, altogether in is constituting a complex habitat. Over 30 species of algae m were throughout the Seychelles"^'. 95 identified on or living seagrass""'. Fishers in association with the in Montepuez Bay target shallow areas of Enhalus acoroides for their main fishing SEAGRASS FISHERIES MOZAMBIQUE IN The Quirimba Archipelago the coast of northern Mozambique, running from north of the town of Pemba up to the Tanzanian border One the largest and most populated islands Quirimba. Quirimba is km 6 long by 2 a population of 3000. This island is in km the chain bay. located is and this income and protein and 1997 part for people Archipelago Marine Research Quirimba fishery which seagrass ecosystem'" Montepuez Bay in from the Montepuez is In of 1996 Quirimba studied the dependent on diverse a flats and 10 m deep and and banks, large areas seagrass are present in serrulata, of intertidal of between water kept the net as was hauled it carried out areas in and 12 men. Fishermen Halodule wrightii, isoetifolium, Halophila ovalis, seagrass beds are dominated by 1 was net fishing to 8 meters deep, in Enhalus acoroides. The nets used were of stretch and a m in length with a main cod-end of 2 cm mesh size of stretch, or less. The mean duration of a fishing trip was about five hours and the mean catch per trip was 75 kg. Catch per unit effort 3.6 kg of fish per Cymodocea rotundata, Seme into the boat. per man-hour spent the bay: Enhalus acoroides, the in place and drove the fish into the net shallow water, from approximately 100 cm five in fish Halophila stipulacea and Thalassia hemprichii. The teams was Syringodium not methods which enters the southwest Thalassodendron ciliatum, was Seine nets were set from small sail-powered boats by name its Mozambique mainland. Ten species the bay from the Fishing 4 River, of l-lalodule uninervis, source seagrass. The bay takes of Cymodocea mam Programme 1 this the Quirimba Archipelago. in wide and has on the island. between is hemprichii. Although the direct use of seagrass plants observed '". has extensive intertidal which are covered the the in Thalassia by is separated from the Darwin/Frontier the of is collect invertebrates beds dominated has been reported from other places, the shallow seagrass beds of the in seagrass fishery seagrass intertidal of mainland by the Montepuez Bay. The islands main fishery women whilst activities, a chain of 32 islands off is man-hour spent at sea. fishing or 2 kg of The net catches were highly diverse, with a total of 249 fish species families identified from The more than 46600 fishers also caught invertebrates in fish net in the catch. The fishery in terms most important species of 62 the seine nets, particularly squid. Approximately 30 fish species common in sampled"". were in the weight were the African whitespotted rabbitfish Siganus sutor (24 percent); the Thalassia hemprichii. Subtidally, the most abundant pink ear species are Enhalus acoroides and Thalassodendron seagrass parrotfish Leptoscarus vaigiensis emperor Lethrinus lentjan (12.2 percent); the (1 1 percent); Wl %J r/-( 96 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES ^^3^^^ W^ less than 15 all cm H in many were juveniles. Virtually the seine net fishery were eaten. Amongst the more unusual food species that were common in the fishery were the tailspot goby Ambtygobius -^ -'-^ long and the fish caught and albimaculatus the three-ribbon wrasse Stethojulls stngiventer. in Montepuez Bay are known marema. They are of an arrowhead design and constructed from woven bamboo panels secured together with palm fibers. Marema were set by The traps used locally as fishermen from outrigger canoes Bj^K'-^^^^^^^ Enhalus acoroides low at shallow areas in were sometimes following day at low tide. The traps baited with crushed Terebralia snails collected from mangrove areas, or with not baited at stones and all. sguid, but often the traps were The traps were weighed down with placed amongst long, densely growing Enhalus acoroides fishermen (the said that this seagrass was very important for keeping the traps A marems fish trap in place an Enhalus acoroides bed, Mozambique for a emperor Lethrinus vanegatus the variegated (7.4 in fisherman setting AO traps was nearly 7 kg and the spinytooth parrotfish Calotomus spinidens of fish Case Study of fish caught in seme (3.2 nets were unit effort for the trap fishery per hour spent fishing and the trap set for 2A hours was mean of fish, was trip. 2.2 kg catch for a 0.2 kg of fish. Trap catches 8.1 INHACA ISLAND AND MAPUTO BAY AREA, SOUTHERN MOZAMBIQUE Seagrasses at cover more Inhaca Island and N/laputo Bay area than 80 km'. Inhaca At Island seagrasses alone cover around 50 percent entire intertidal area'". The diversity of of where seagrasses species can in Nine hectare'". identified m be seagrass the area namely: Cymodocea found species just Cymodocea also accompanied by a band of Syringodium isoetifolium parallel to the is eight one rotundata, in coastline. wrightii When it is Thalassia hemprichii and Halodule co-occur mixed species communities, in Thalassia hemprichii is found small depressions in whereas Halodule wnghtii occupies elevated areas which are exposed at low spring Seagrass meadows serrulata, Halodule uninen/is, Halodule in wnghtii, Halophila ovalis. Syringodium isoetifolium. widely used by the people Thalassia hemprichii, Thaiassodendron ciliatum and seafood tides. Maputo Bay region are who collect, by hand, most common being mussels [Anadara natalensis, Cardium flavum, from them, the dominant seagrass com- Modiolus phillipinarum], oysters [Pinctada capensis], munities: Thaiassodendron ciliatum/Cymodocea gastropods {Conus betulinus, Strombus gibberulus] serrulata. Thalassia hemprichii/Halodule grouped three main in wnghtii and Zostera capensi^"''. Zostera capensis shoot density is higher Maputo Bay [1 at Inhaca 12880 shoots/m'l than 285 shoots/m'l as are leaf, at rhizome The species Thalassia Thaiassodendron ciliatum tend hemprichii to and occupy deeper areas far from the coastline whereas Halodule wrightii and Cymodocea serrulata tend shallow areas closer and urchins sea Tripneustes gratilla]. in. to occupy Thaiassodendron ciliatum. Salmacis (e.g. bicolores, They also use the meadows fishing using traditional techniques, for species as Crenidens crenidens, Leiognathus equulus. and root biomass'"'. y^y homogeneous stands in the Zostera capensis"'. These seagrass species are M some areas where except been have the subtidal fringe, occurs the seagrasses very high, especially at Inhaca Island in macrolepis, indicus, Gerres acinaces, Lithognathus aureti, Lutjanus lulviflamma, Pseudorhombus arsius, for such Liza Platycephalus Rhabdosargus sarba, Scarus ghobban, Siganus sutor and Terapon jarbua, and crustaceans such as Matuta lunaris and Portunus in daily catch although catches could be as high as 27 kg per The catch per The majority mean the strong tidal currentsl. The percent); the blacktip mojarra Genres oyena (6.3 percent) percent!. of and were hauled the tide, pelagicus'"''-^^'. The sea cucumber Mozambique and southeastern Africa dominated were fish the by Leptoscarus parrotfish which accounted vaigiensis. over 74 percent of the for caught by weight. Other Important species included Caiotomus spinidens parrotfish the percent 15 by Enhalus acoroides greatly exceeded that for common or for other seagrass species, Thalassodendron ciliatum Cymodocea spp. Catch compositions from the three seagrass species were also different Catches different. weight], the rabbltfish Siganus sutor (4 percent], the from Enhalus acoroides beds were dominated by the dash-dot goatfish Parupeneus barberinus parrotfish Leptoscarus vaigiensis as the fishermen's 14 percent), the blackspot snapper Lutjanus fuiviflamma and the flagfin percent]. A fronn wrasse Pteragogus species total of 61 3500 percent] fiagelllfera of fish were sampled from the trap fish 13 Identified fishery, with about 16 of these species appearing commonly fishery. A wide were kept swimming crabs was used from the seme net the Identify to These were also the mean percentage fishing mean (vjontepuez Bay with the highest unit effort. fish sites In catch per sites with the highest cover of seagrass and highest seagrass biomass. This suggests that seagrass cover and biomass may Influence productivity. In ence to In of Enhalus acoroides was shown to be well mean catch per trap other species of seagrass founded. biomass and fishery fish experimental trap fishing, the prefer- fishermen for areas of trap Thalassodendron catches from but were dominated by the file fish Paramonacanthus barnardi, and catches from beds ciliatum Cymodocea spp. by the snapper Lutjanus fulviflamma. Invertebrate fishery Women most did collecting of seagrass inver- of the tebrates that could be achieved without a boat. They use as food. for catches were, the [Portunidae] which Spatially referenced catch data fishery in Invertebrates entered the variety of traps. Including 12.5 these experiments the Holothuna scabra. presently endangered was in many walked out over the seagrass beds collected bivalves by hand. traveled groups by boat in the bay The mam On spring to some become that at low tides and tides, some women banks of the larger exposed low at species they collected were the ark shell Barbatia fusca and the pinna shell Pinna muricata. found in sand seagrass beds, and the oyster Pinctada nigra in which grows on the seagrass plant were dried and most of them were These shellfish sold on the mainland would fetch on the for higher prices than they particularly the pinna shell itself. which is due industrial area. Sedimentation island, a local delicacy'"'. erosion and to earlier heavily collected by floods further diminishes local seagrass coverage the local people at Inhaca and north of Maputo city around Maputo. Trampling and the heavy concen- parts of the country, and sold for export to Asia. Holothuna true of is atra. but to a lesser extent. More than 20 nets are set daily around Inhaca from boats and by people walking on the Island beach, and around 100 people edible The same may be seen collecting organisms during the spring low north of Maputo dos Pescadores, close meadows at invertebrates, counting involved in estimated this activity, areas for the To the for in collection of the mid-1990s'". around 200 people being used to fill able stress from a Island'" and the dried of the variety of sources. Sewage grasses there, with polluted areas tending to be covered by seaweeds Ulva spp. and Enteromorpha Instead especially of seagrass. oil spills, The combination of all mam village. another disturbance. is these factors places heavy pressures on the extensive seagrass meadows, and has already caused a disappearance capensis from Some In front of Inhaca's of of sewage Zostera village'". areas for inten/ention priority increased these disturbances include and reduction mam to reduce monitoring disposal, industrial pollu- tants and port activities. At Inhaca Island, only the to coral reefs are under be reviewed to target the conservation of seagrass areas with a high concentration vertebrate of and threatened species such as depleted holothurians in- and seastars, e.g. Holothuna scabra and Holothuria atra. area are under consider- disposal along the Maputo coastline threatens sea- spp. very shallow water in protection. This protection should piUov.'s. The seagrasses Fishing at Inhaca Island's seagrass beds located close purpose. Seagrasses Thalassodendron ciliatum as of meadows which includes digging the Inhaca at detached leaves tourist activities directly disturb seagrass same have also been reported as being used for alluring and bewitching and tration of fishing 50 people dug up seagrass low tide mainly bivalves, Recent Intertldal to spring tides'". the fishing village of Bairro city, at In tide. Additional comes from pollution, the city harbor and The Thalassodendron ciliatum communities occurring in rocky protuberances In the sea habitats have only recently been described. This form of seagrass only occurs waves in In sandstone rocks facing the strong of the Indian Ocean'". Mozambique and tection should be put Few similar areas some kind of therefore in exist pro- place for their conservation \ 97 98 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Some fishermen went in small canoes out on the seagrass beds with dive to masl< to a collect invertebrates, mainly sea cucumbers, and mollusks such as the tulip shell Pleuroploca trapezium and the was apparently sustainable. The seine net fishery did appear some have to and substantial amounts murex Chicoreus ramosus. Sea cucumbers were one of the more valuable seagrass residents and were Trampling dried and sold across the border minimum exported to markets m in Tanzania, to be the Far East. During the study period fishermen reported the virtual disappearance of cucumbers from the seagrass beds sea Montepuez Bay, and attributed by local and itinerant fishers. Fishermen involved seine the murex. of this to overexploitation in and trap fishery would also collect net and sea cucumbers when they got tulip shells Murex were eaten and the shells of mollusks were collected and burnt used was unregulated cucumber beds. in leading changes to many people Montepuez Bay a larger activities relying protein, their conservation One on the seagrass beds and sustainable use reasons that the resources of the and with the employment or sources alternative of sedimentation in for their livelihoods, Subtidal surveys identified 34 species of large invertebrates that were not to a the catchment of the Montepuez River - particularly With so of On came from upstream scale, potential threats paucity Commonly observed a and commercial sea fishers itinerant fishing for international trade. locally in building. invertebrates which were associated with the seagrass to seagrass fishery came from external sources, mainly these and other for lime that kept small paths across the of small area. The main threats to the sustainability of the rates. Tanzania. use seagrass that restricted the trampling damage opercula which were sold in seagrass was intertidal of by the deforestation traders seagrass, sponges and of small corals were sometimes brought up with the nets. the opportunity. Tulip shells were collected for their to negative effects on the seagrass beds. The nets were often dragged along the bottom Bay seagrass beds are so widely used of is vital. Montepuez of the that the habitat is locally included the sea urchins Diadema setosum and Tripneustes gratilla, the sea cucumber Synapta macutata and the starfish Pentaceraster at tuberculatus and Protoreaster shore and are sheltered from the heavy seas that the collected [incki. is so accessible, even resources. low Much tide, to of the those with the most limited seagrass can be reached on foot and even the deeper areas are close eastern coast of the island Local value of seagrass resources The seagrass fisheries of this study more in More than a hundred women from the seagrass beds. in in in Quirimba In the seagrass utilized the reef resources because accessing the exposed reefs is seen in The sheltered was estimated at of around 500 metric tons per year, or 14.3 metric tons per km' per year. This figure does not include invertebrates, but is still compared with many tropical reef and estuarine fisheries. A minimum estimate for annual invertebrate high collection from seagrass beds around Quirimba was 40 the difficulties of other places where fishers with small boats, or on foot, are able to fish from the 35 km^ seagrass beds of their traditional fishing in vessels. This issue of the accessibility of seagrass beds fisheries of Quirimba. out of a total population of 3000. the whole bay At the time of resources including mangrove forests and extensive 500 people were involved total fish catch to. and diverse marine coral reefs on the east coast. However, few fishers also collected invertebrates total over rich many the mainland villages and from other islands vicinity. subject Montepuez Bay supported over 400 fishermen on Quirimba Island alone and the is Quirimba Island had to in seagrass beds bays or lagoons. A priority research should be to look at how in for shallow seagrass manage best to open-access, multi-user seagrass systems such as Montepuez Bay, to ensure their sustainable use, and to conserve biodiversity. The Quirimba Island seagrass fishery of is a clear, seagrasses and to local rare, example of the direct value communities. metric tons per year In the study period, the fish caught in Montepuez Bay had an estimated annual saleable value US$120000, based on prices paid half the fish ca Roughly caught was consumed by the fishers and their families or The other for fish locally of half exchanged was for other goods or services. dried and traded on the mainland by the owners of the net fishing boats, or other traders who HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES AND LOSS The digging of Zostera capensis beds to collect bivalves has dramatically depleted the seagrass cover cover of around 60 percent or more less in the last ten years (Figure for the entire spring tide period 8.11. to a 10 percent or This activity lasts spanning about 1 5 days buy the surplus from trap fishermen. each month. The bivalves are collected mainly for food. Management completely destroy the Zostera capensis beds It issues During the study period the local fishery seemed to have a relatively low impact on the seagrass beds and 74 at Bairro dos Pescadores Inear Maputo, Mozambique) from IS expected that this activity will dos Pescadores, and that the food security population will suffer as a consequence. eventually at Bairro of the local a Mozambique and southeastern A f r Sedimentation due floods to in floods southern Mozambique of in has buried sea- Maputo Bay and Inhassoro. grasses in the heavy In 2000 around lU km" seagrasses may have been buried here. Harbor development, sewage and coastal development in areas of southern Mozambique have further diminished seagrass coverage. Heavy concentrations fishing boats in low tides have also caused species In at of artisanal combination with intense trampling reduction of in high use of fertilizers i c 99 the sugar cane industry, and in specifically by the eutrophication of coastal lagoons that is caused when they leach these shallow into contained areas. Seagrass beds are being dredged and destroyed tourists. mining bathing and skiing areas for to provide Sedimentation, sewage disposal and sand among are other threats to Mauritius seagrasses. seagrass In Anse aux Seychelles, Pins, sedimentation. Inhaca Island, Mauritius seagrasses are threatened by the Table 8.2 Figure 8.1 Seagrass cover and area Digging of Zostera capensis meadows at Vila lost in Mozambique dos Pescadores, near l^aputo city name Site Main seagrass Area Area species lkm-| Ikm-'l Quinmba Cr Archipelago Ho, Hs, Hw, Tc, Th Mecufi-Pemba Hm, 45 Ho, Hs, Hu, Hw, Fernao Veloso Hm, Cs, Ea, Si, Tc, 30 Th, Zc Hm, Cr, Cs, Ea, Ho, Hu, Hw, lost 0.02 75 Si, TcTh Quissimajulo Th Relanzapo Tc, Th, Matibane- Cr Hw, 2 macroatgae 8 Th Tc, 34 Quitagonha Island TcTh Chocas Mar- 19 Cabaceira GrandeSete Paus Island a. Ptioto taken in 1994 - hunl<s of plants being then placed upside down - plant cover lifted, washed and is still higfi. Mozambique Cr Cs, Island-Lumbo- Hu, Hw Cabaceira Pequena Tc, Th, Goa Island Tc Inhassoro- Cs, Tc, Hm, Ho, 15 3 Si, Zc 1 Th 25 10 Bazaruto Island Inhambane Bay Hw Xai-Xai Tc, 30 macroalgae Bilene Rm, Hu Maputo Bay Ho, Hw, Tc, Th, Zc 37 Inhaca Island Cr 46 Inhaca-Ponta Tc, 3 Cs, Ho, Hu, Hw, Si, Tc, 0.5 0.04 14 0.03 Th, Zc macroalgae 69 do Ouro Total Notes: 439.04 27.55 Cr Cymodocea rolundata; Cs Cymodocea serrulata; Ea Enhaius acomides; Hm Halophila minor: Ho Hatophila ovalis; | Hs Halophila stipulacea: Hu Habdule jnmervis. wnghtii; Tc b. Pfioto taken in 2002 - plant cover is very low and in most areas Rm Ruppia mantima: Thalassodendron ciliatum: Si Synngodium Th Thatassia Hw Habdule isoetilolium: hempnchii; Zc Zosfera capensis the seagrass has already disappeared. f WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES and decreased water quality associated with salinity disctiarge effluent river seagrasses'". Flooding estuaries in mam threat to the is a affected adversely liave PRESENT COVERAGE Mozambique has 8.21. km' a total of /i39 of seagrasses (Table There are 25 km' around Inhassoro and Bazaruto km' Mecufi-Pemba and 45 km' the the survival of Zostera capensis on the South African Island, 30 east coast. southern Quirimba Archipelago. The largest seagrass Other areas where seagrass cover has been include Pemba. Mozambique and Inhaca Island liable loss of seagrasses some although of the The 8.2). in lost Inhambane Bay known historical Island, total Mozambique 27.55 is km', areas affected by the 2000 floods beds occur unknown. Mont Choisy and Poste Lafayette [Syrmgodium though the actual area lost is unknown. isoetifoliunn] estuaries to in covered capensis Zostera by in Kwazulu-Natal. South Africa, are believed have been seriously depleted by periodic heavy Salomao 0. Bandeira, Eduardo Mondlane, 491223. Fax: +258 REFERENCES 12 is Titlyanov E, Ctierbadgy Kolmakov P I, primary production and dependence irradiance of photosynthesis on 13 seaweeds and seagrass Thatassodendron ciUalum in Bandeira SO [20001. Diversity and Ecology of Seagrasses 15 Ingram JC, Dawson TP [20011. The impacts of a river effluent 16 RG ledsl Hartnoll 6 Gove DZ RG [19761. The ecology of some [19951. Workshop and Management The coastal zone of 17 rocky shores in In: Linden Policy Conference on Integrated Coastal in ledl diversity in [19961. Kuo Dl, Walker The 21 intertidal distribution of ledsl In: M [20011. 23 Emphasis Seagrass research to diversity, South African Journal of Botany Barnabas AD [19911. in the MW, Quinmba Barnes DKA, Adams of anatomy and carbon the Seagrass in Beds PhD of the thesis. MW [2000]. Diversity of fishes in seagrass Archipelago, northern Mozambique. Come A, In: beds Manne and b3: 115-121. Whittington M, Can/alho MA, Gell FR [19981. in the Quinmba Archipelago, of Shellfish ffesearc/i 17111: 51-58. M [1999]. Estuanne primary Allanson BR, Baird D ledsl Estuaries of South Africa. a\. of Inhaca island. Mozambique South African AR Martins dinamica da erva duas areas da Baia de Maputo. Licenciatura Mondlane 24 [1997]. Distribuicao. estrutura, Zostera capensis e estudo de alguns parametros fisicos Kalk M thesis. Eduardo University, Maputo. 49 pp. [19951. A Natural History of Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg. 395 pp. Thalassodendron ciliafumlForsk.l den transport. Aquatic Botany kQ: 129-143. E [19921. Photosynthesis Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 91-118. Martins ARO, Bandeira. SO [2001]. Biomass and leaf nutrients em the eastern ecology and ecophysiology in 1^, in Antonio CM, Corne A. Gelt FR [19971. Technical JB, Bate GC, Q'Callaghan mannha 67: 420-425. Hartog: Root structure and histochemistry Current Trends in B|6rk Journal of Botany b7:i'i')-U2. Western from rocky and sandy habitats. Aguatic Botany 11: 13-24. Bandeira SO, Bjbrk In: Central Islands Group - Ibo. 3: Thalassia hemprichii Bandeira SO [20021. Leaf production rales Thatassodendron Africa region: 11 22 Seagrass Biology: of 202 pp. seaweeds Madagascar] ledsl P, Titlyanov and Fishenes Mozambique. Journal southern Mecufi Bay, northern Mozambique. Kirkman H of Archipelago, Northern Mozambique. Freshwater Research 20 and conservation. Proceedings of an International Workshop. University ciliatunn [19991. Fish Whittington in Australia, Nedlands. pp 15-20, 10 FR Cell producers. at Phillips RC, Kolmakov T, Bil K, Gell FR, Whittington 506-509. seagrasses and seaweeds Former East African Region. SIDA/SAREC, Coastal shellfish resources use Mozambique: Sea grass and seaweed CM in Antonio MC. Unpublished data. Metro Manila, pp 251-273. Bandeira SO [19951. Marine botanical communities ISW at Taliara 19 Eastern Atnca including the Island States. Bandeira SO, Antonio [1996]. Ecological distnbution of 18 Zone Conference Proceedings. Coastal Management Center ICMCl, 24: Parnik Report tropical 4: 1-21. Mozambique. of Estuaries of the thesis, University of Port Elizabeth. University of York. Seagrass Research East Africa. Estuaries Coastal f4anne Science Importance Dulymamode. Personal communication. Quinmba Methods. Elsevier Publishing, Amsterdam, pp 5-30. 5 RN Rabesandratana PhD metabolism. Photosynthetica 26: 213-223. bl-.m-W Short FT, Coles In: [2000], Botanical the seagrass Thalassodendron ciliatun): Leaf on a Short FT, Coles RG, Pergent-Martini C [20011. Global seagrass distribution. BM Colloty Uppsala, pp 141-161. 14 Journal ol Botany 9 1011 492176. E-mail: sbandBzebra.uem.mz Marine Botanical Research in University J, 1011 of Biological Sciences, Universidade Semesi AK, Pedersen M, Bergman B coastal seagrass habitat of Mahe, Seychelles. South African 8 is Box 257, Maputo, Mozambique. Tel: +258 two fringing coral reefs of Dynamics, Nutrients and Genetic Variability PhD Ihesis, Gdteborg Ambio Department P.O. Ciskei/Transkei Region, [1995]. Daily vanations of Mozambique: Emphasis on Thatassodendron Citiatum Structure, 7 Madagascar, in Seychelles, the exact area Fiona Cell, Environment Department, University of York, Heslington, York the Seychelles Islands. Photosynttietica3V. 101-115. 4 over 7 km': AUTHORS Y010 5DD, UK. 3 South Africa In of just meadows do occur Comoros and measurements being available. known about the loss of seagrass from Madagascar, Comoros or Seychelles. Nothing 2 area without floods"" 1 total other seagrasses species cover smaller areas. While areas such as Albion iHalodule uninervis], Poudre areas remote coastal areas. particularly in Mauritius, Similarly Fernao Veloso, Quirimba and Inhaca- at Zostera capensis covers a Mauritius, seagrasses have diminished from d'Or, in Ponta do Ouro. Additional inventories are needed, extensive seagrass have already regained seagrass coven In at relation to apoplastic 25 de Boer WF, Longomane FA [1996]. The exploitation food resources at of intertidal inhaca bay, Mozambique by shorebirds and humans. Biological Conservation 78: 295-303. India The seagrasses 9 of INDIA Jagtap T.G. D.S. Komarpant R. has coastal wetlands India consisting 63 630 of ca estuaries, of km, lagoons, bays, mostly brackishi lakes and salt pans'". The intertidal and waters, seagrasses have not been introduced Surprisingly, even at the level science education programs. of plant Hence, large number may be unaware of the seagrass ecosystems. Here, we present an managers coastal zone lands harbor various marine macrophytic ecosystems existence of such as seaweed, seagrass, mangrove and other overall account of seagrass habitats Epiphytes form Coastal wetland habitats are of a gate halophytes. immense productive nature, and are of ecological and researchers and students, of supralittoral shallow sheltered regions of these wet- obli- Rodrigues India in seagrass ecosystems from India. important constituent of an though very limited India, in socioeconomic importance. Marine macrophytes sup- information port various kinds of biota, and produce a considerable comprise a few species amount Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Rhodophyceae and of organic matter, a major energy source in the coastal marine food web; they play a significant role in nutrient regeneration and shore stabilization processes. The major seagrass meadows the southeast coast IGulf of the lagoons of islands in Arabian Sea to Bengal (Table in India exist along Mannar and Palk Bayl and from Lakshadweep in the Andaman and Nicobar 9.11. The in the Bay of comprises ^U species and flora dominated by Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea is serrulata, Hatodute Halodule uninervis, Thalassia hempnchii. pinifotia. Halophila beccarii, Halophila ovata and Halophita ovalis (Table Distribution occurs 9.21. intertidal zone to a maximum depth Maximum growth and biomass occur in the from the 1 5 m. littoral zone to a depth richness and biomass of of 2-2.5 of ca of a predominant and specialized group of marine flora, are poorly known in compared to other similar ecosystems such as mangroves. Earlier studies dealt mainly with the India, seagrasses'^'^'. made to taxonomic Over the last aspects Indian of structure and function in India""'". of Indian Oscillatoria were observed of Cyanophycean members to be dominant epiphytes. diatoms have been reported on seagrass blades and roots. The oldest leaves and roots were found to be more infested and Navicula, Nitzschia and Pleurosigma form the characteristic diatoms associated with seagrasses" also been reported species of fungi "". Large numbers of fungi have association with seagrass""'. Nine in have been recorded \n India"". litter in association with Microbial flora actively and constitute about 1-3 percent of detrital biomass"". The epiphytes contribute (Figure 9.1 bl results mostly from algal genera such as Metobesia, Hypnea, Ceramium and Centroceros. The intensity of epiphytization increases with shoot decreases at depths Epifauna of mostly consist diversity of the information and almost total lack of awareness might nauplii be the reasons for this tack of knowledge from seagrass beds to of protozoans, tardigrades, cope- rotifers, made age and 3 m. amphipods and chironomid pods, attempts have been India. more than nematodes, polychaetes, However, in in shallower (1-3 ml depths. The higher epiphytic biomass seagrass ecosystems remain poorly understood"^"'. Inadequate to Microcoieus. Mastogocoleus and of Ten species 20 years, efforts have been understand the community structure and function of seagrass ecosystems the "'. 7.5-52 percent of total seagrass ecosystem biomass Seagrasses, though one and such as species mineralize seagrass open epiphytes Rhodophyceae, particularly part of epiphytic biomass" m. Greatest species in floral marine algae belonging occur frequently and are a dominant sp., Thalassia hemprichii seagrass occur mainly of Bacillariophyceae. The Metobesia The available"'"'". lower marine sandy habitats. distributional is larvae. explore Very few the faunal of India. Harpacticoids, and nematodes are rarely found on seagrasses India"'"'. WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Most groups of the algal marine seagrass beds In coral or shell debris, and on seagrass grow on stems roots, in their earlier stages. Later stages of these and seagrass beds; however, Dugong dugon, the marine mammal recent [dugong], has been very rarely reported The years''"'. fish fauna In reported to consist of is algae in the waters overlying 192 species, dominated by sardine, mullet, eel, cat- and the of algae have been re- parrotflshes become detached and float meadows. Some 100 species ported from seagrass 9.31. The algal flora in various regions of India (Table general in lactuca, Ulva fasciata. morpha linum, dominated by Ulva is Boodles composita, Chaeto- Halimeda Chnoospora implexa, spp., Chnoospora minima, Dictyota bartayresiana, Dictyota and figris and Nerita costata. There are four species common. and macrofauna Indian waters general in seagrass beds compared Region species Southeast coast Area Biomass No. of Ig dry weight/m'l is unvegetated areas to beds varies from i be of great significance sediment may of the determining density In 8 15-72 1.12 seagrass growth. Well-established seagrass 9 - 8,3 accumulated sedimentary 4 - Patchy influence of islands mean size, sorting, from seagrass beds of islands West coast times higher than to 13 percent, ten The textural characteristics Mannar Nicobar group the in the sediments from unvegetated areas. 30 and Palk Bayl Lakshadweep meiofauna of relatively very high in the Sediment organic content from seagrass vicinity"^'. Ikm'l 2.5-21.8 14 sea of Chelonia mydas and Lepidoclielys olevacea The biomass and species richness in (Table 9.3). Conus generalis, Cypraea spiniger, Acniaea stellaris, being group echinoderms Mollusks are mostly represented by Acanthopleura Table 9.1 Quantitative data for major seagrass beds (U3 mollusks numbers [77 species) are also found In large turtle, with IGulf of The grouper'"'. species), crustaceans (150 species! and between relict skewness and shape the of The sediments particles'"'. Lakshadweep Islands show coefficient and kurtosis prevalence of a Notes; - no data available. of the correlation significant of meadows (r = biomass, total environment'"'. This a p<0.05) 0.85, Indicating means that the deposltlonal environment, which developed from Source: Vanous sources'^' '^°"' coral reef biota over geological time, is most suitable for seagrass growth, a concept supported by the occurrence of dichotoma, Dictyota divaricata, Hydoclattirus clathratus, Gracilaria Hypnea musciformes. Amphiroa edulis, fragillissima. Amphiroa rigida, Centroceros clavilatum and Centroceros spp. Coralline algae, particularly Halimeda of spp., contribute substantially to the formation sediments suitable Most of the matter for the growth seagrasses"". '^' in water column over the the to Baclllarlophyceae Dinoflagellata; their occurrence population density is and mostly patchy and remains phytoplankton from the seagrass beds very of The low. Lakshadweep was reported to comprise 13 species (Table 9.31, commonly represented by Achnanthes longipes, Asterionella japonica, leading the succession process in Indla'"^". Thus, seagrasses play a very important role as basic land builders and shore stabilizers, in a similar way to sand dunes and mangroves. Diploneis weisfloggi, Pinnularia sp., and Navicula Trichodesmium sp. Seagrass habitats are mainly limited sandy regions from the lower of ca 10-15 m and Palk Nicobar of In and Bayl, Lakshadweep in anemones, moUusks, sea cucumbers, common Vertebrates such as fish and turtles star- invertebrates. commonly occur In A number a and depth the lagoons total 8.3 In Mannar islands of Andaman and the Bay of Bengal. The largest area [30 km') seagrass occurs along the Gulf of of the Arabian Sea and of is of Mannar and Palk estimated that ca 1.12 km' occur major islands and sea urchins are in flats to a India occur along the southeast coast [Gulf of lagoons The regions of India that are colonized by seagrasses support rich and diverse fauna"" ""'. Hard mud zone along the open shores and picoplankton from the seagrass environment of India. to intertidal around islands"". The major seagrass meadows it 1-^ in mangrove formation to Bay, while fishes association with coral reef grass, acts as pioneer species Absolutely no information exists on nanoplankton and corals, sea In Halophila beccarii. an estuarine sea- '". BIOGEOGRAPHY seagrass environment. seagrass beds largely belong hennedyii, '° associated algal biomass contributes organic to the Phytoplankton the of the major seagrass beds regions" km' of of Lakshadweep"" In the [Table 9.1). seagrass cover has been reported from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a large portion of which Is confined to islands Katchall and Great Nicobar"" reported to occur In like "'. Teressa, Nancowry, Seagrasses have been long or broken stretches, or small Regional map: Africa, West and South Asia ^^%^.— ^' I CM :;> ^ o o CM ' .. ' '. • '-I- • S; v^^ . Co ^ a tij o a ;--'•. • as ^ b Ol O -. ' . •••• .J- • *> ' ^^'\® ^--^ *.• :^ E X Q s. ^ s o o • '" -'. /."' CN f* 3>v-. i-v^ ; 1 -Is *^ * "'''•. i' ^s g ,'\.. V ->; -^--"- 1 ol k _ ' > -|^^H ^i^u lK5iiB- c-'t'--^ ^' i . % ..; • • " - ''•^*-^ /'^"'•^-^ ../' •- b; ••' •'•^i ""i/-" / • ' ^.~-. - '' • V' ^. ^ m^^ J^^H mi VK ^V ^ ir E^O ^ :''^M 1 J. CM b b — ><._ j s J \ '- - -k.^ ...->•-•. f'H^ • > •. # • <»/;:..•' : ^ • •• ^Qr^^HH P ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ -^^^^^^^^^_ ^ j^ •. b CM WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES IV IMPACTS TO SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEMS •% ^^ 200 Patch reef in ,^^ ^^^^M m Florida lUSAI, Dark areas are seagrass herbivorous fish which live in meadows. Light areas around the coral heads 125-50 Seagrass beds on the Epiphytic algae growing on Zostera Rhode A1, V Island. USA. m diameterl are haloes created by the corals and graze on the seagrass manna, Ninigret Pond, flats being destroyed by boat adjacent to an Indonesian community are traffic, fishing activities and waste discharge, contrast to the healthy seagrasses across the channel (lower left]. in E India 80* E 70- 103 1 ^^^GulfofKulch A (.«// uf 20- Kluiinhliiii St N North AndaiTur » IK.IHI ,s 1 •. *, INDIA Middk • .'Viidarnan • Ajldjiiiatl 1 ^ • * Isbnds Ueilgul « 1 * • " 1 • - , Kjiimai '. 1 HuH Lakshadwecp (Laccadive Islands) * Kalpeni 200 100 Map 300 400 10- // N 1 Lictlc /Hull ^ B„i ../ SRI . 500 Kilometers .\ndaman , ^^L—^™ .ISD.I 1 Af.\.\ St A 9.1 Ten /)i'i,'rci' ( huniiil India The maximum seagrass cover, '°'". patches" to Large abundance and species richness are generally found the sandy regions along the seashores, and lagoons where of islands, The estuaries, bays, lakes and number mud intertidal 40 psu) salinity gulf regions seagrass species of flats in . CarNicohar salinity of overlying w/aters remains above 33 psu throughout the year (Table limited in the in to amorta lower the in regions of moderate 9.21. harbor a CinnJ high (10- N,ancowry during pre-monsoon (March-June) and Nicobar post-monsoon (November-February) the monsoon particularly itself periods'"'. During Islands (July-October) the seagrass beds, are seagrasses, estuarine subject to freshwater flooding and become silted and decay'"" The new growth of August-September with and attains gradual increase a maximum growth during harbors all 9.2). H species belonging The Tamil Nadu (southeast] 1A species, while eight and nine species have been reported from the Lakshadweep and Andaman-Nicobar groups of islands, respectively The mainland east coast supports more species than the west coast of India. hemprichii, The main seagrasses are Thalassia Cymodocea rotundata, serrulata, Hatodule uninervis and Species such and Halophila species. as spp. Meadows Map 9.2 Islands from Kalpeni and Kadmat Islands of India consist of seven genera (Table coast Nicobar 80 100 Kilometers 60 Andaman and Nicobar PRESENT DISTRIBUTION to 40 20 in salinity, November- December, and May-June'". The seagrasses {in;al estuarine seagrasses starts during occur in patches isoetifotium as mixed are mostly heterospecific. However, composition respectively""'. Gulf numbers is of Lakshadweep, and monospecific, bispecific and bay estuaries mostly harbor low dominated by Halophila beccani in the lower intertidal regions, and by Halophila ovalis in the of species, lowest littoral zones. Enhalus acoroides has distribution in the mid-intertidal regions and shallow brackish waters'^ ""'. restricted Cymodocea Halophita ovata. Syringodium plant swampy Seagrasses grow from the regularly inundated zone intertidal zones" found of '"'. in to ca 15 m depth in the sandy subtidal Unlike other species, Halophila beccarii the upper intertidal. The is maximum number species and highest biomass usually occur at the ¥ 104 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRAS5ES depth m of 1-2.5 (Figure 9.11. The biomass seagrass beds has been reported |r = -0.63 and -0.71 , major p<0.05l correlated with depth" Cymodocea hemprichii, Thalassia of Cymodocea serrulata and considerable contribution to total seagrass system biomass" be significantly to '"'. to vary rotundata, Haiophila ovata the Biomass '"'. from 4 month August and of PRESENT THREATS depths l>3 ml. The natural causes of Indian seagrasses varies from 180 720 g wet weight/m' (see also Table uninervis and Cymodocea rotundata depths 10.5-2.5 ml, and 9.1 1. insufficient stratum ambient light. mainly attributed of seagrass destruction in India are Exposure at ebb tide may result in the desiccation of the bed. Strong waves and rapid currents generally destabilize the meadows loss of seagrass rhizome. to excessive causing fragmentation and The decrease in salinity freshwater runoff also appearance, particularly due causes dis- seagrass beds of estuarine in the confluence regions. Anthropogenic the hinterland or to harbors The older plants provide sub- for colonization by epiphytes, in October'". fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Cymodocea serrulata from the deeper l>3 ml waters, the main contributors to biomass along the southeast coast (Figure 9.11. A similar trend of distribution and abundance was observed from major seagrass beds of Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea'". The lower biomass and reduced number of taxa in is in Halodule are m maximum reported cyclones, waves, intensive grazing and infestation of Thalassia hemprichii and seagrasses deeper than 2 a is minimum to the shallower in Haiophila beccarii are well adapted to the poor ambient light at greater Biomass of 2A g wet weight/m' with a to which make a such as deforestation in mangrove destruction, construction of activities or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction material as well as anchoring and moving Table 9.2 Occurrence of seagrasses Seagrass in coastal states of India States sp. West East GJ MH G KA KL LD WB OR AP TN Cymodocea rotundata - - - - - ++++ - - - +++ + + Cymodocea serrulata - - - - - + - - - ++++ + Enttalus acoroides - - - - + + - - - + +++ Halodule - - - - - - + - + +++ +++ + - - - - +++ + - + +++ + 4. + pinifolia Halodule uninervis Halodule + wrigtitii A&N Haiophila beccarii +++ +++ t^ +++ - - +++ +++ ttt +++ - Halopliila decipiens - - - - - - - - - + - Haiophila ovalis + - +++ - - +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ Haiophila ovalis Mar. ramamurtiana - - - - - - - - - + - Haiophila ovata + - - - - +++ + + + +++ +++ Haiophila stipulaceae - - - - - - - - - + - Syringodium isoetifolium - - - - +++ : Thalassia hemprichii - ++++ : +++ + : +++ +++ - Ruppia maritima - - - ++ - - - - - ++ + Total no. of species 4 1 2 2 1 8 6 3 6 14 9 Status of seagrass ecosystem D G G D MD C G G G D VG Salinity (psul 35-40 0-33 0-33 0-33 0-33 34-36 0-31 0-33 0-33 33-35 33-35 Notes: States: GJ Gujarat; TN Tamil Nadu; MH Maharashtra; G Goa; A&N Andaman Frequency of occurrence: - absent; + very Status of seagrass ecosystem Source: Vanous sources"- •f-^ KA Karnataka; KL Kerala; LD Lakshadweep Islands WB West Bengal OR Onssa APAndhra Pradesh; and Nicobar Islands VG rare; ++ rare; very gooc '''°-'°'"' +++ common +++ + dominant- Ggooc D degraded; MD most degraded; C in the process of formation. | India However, seagrasses India have been largely to of Associated biota of seagrass beds of India other ecologically sensitive habitats such as mangroves, sand Number dunes and genic pressures, is it quantification, 33 Fin fishes the lack imperative to develop a national management plan for the mapping and regular monitoring Crustaceans 150 evaluate changes over time; Mollusl<s 143 education, research and awareness programs; Turtles 4 Mammals 1 mitigation of adverse impacts; and identification germplasm Flora conservation of 13 Phytoplankton Figure 9.1 9 Fungi Abundance Source: Various sources"- '' 20. 221 of seagrass species Mannar Isoutheast at various deptfis in the Gulf of coast! Thalassia boats and ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, filling and untreated sewage disposal, are some the major causes of seagrass destruction result of the as areas centers; rehabilitation. 100 Marine algae to environmental impact assessments; 77 Echmoderms of seagrass ecosystem with the following objectives: 138 Ornamental fishes Considering educational and conservation 21 Bait fishes corals. awareness, limited distribution and rising anthropo- of spe cies Fauna land out left management compared Table 9.3 Group of in education, research and 105 the sediment load As in India. above natural and anthropogenic hemprlchli of a activities, the overlying waters of seagrass in beds increases, reducing the amount of ambient light, resulting in lower productivity because of a decline in photosynthetic processes and increased respiration. The excess sediment input siltation and decline of in the region results seagrass beds. The seagrass beds has been commonly observed of Kutch, Gujarat, most Andaman and Nicobar in the siltation of in the Gulf and Islands, in 4 of the estuaries. Seagrass beds Gulf of Kutch and a 5 Depth (ml in the lower intertidal region number of islands in the have experienced Figure 9.1a decline. Haiophila decipiens, reported earlier'"' along the west coast, has totally disappeared, which might be due to its elimination during natural ^ succession. Overexploitation of fisheries, particularly sea cucum- r. bers and sea urchins, has impacted the resources associated with seagrass beds. was abundant Epiphytic ^M Seagrass Dugong dugon. which decades ago"", has five Total totally dis- appeared along the Indian coast. The last report of dugong sightings dates back to 1994-95 in Andaman waters'"'. The loss of this mammal from the Indian coast could be attributed to overexploitation for meat, as well as the obvious declines in fat and seagrass beds. POLICY RESPONSES In India, \ seagrass regions, along with mangroves and 0.5 corals, have been categorized as ecologically sensitive ecosystems under the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification to the Environment (Protection! Act'"'. 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 L I 5.0 10 15 Depth Iml Figure 9.1b ^ 106 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 9.1 KADMAT ISLAND Kadmat Island located at is and 72°45/ll"-72°4779"E. north to south, ranging m. with an area 1°10'52"-1 1 ri5'20"N stretches ca 8 km from width from ca 50 to ca ^00 in of 3.12 It km^ The lagoon leeward Iwesternl side, with a depth of on the is 2-3 m. The storm beach along the eastern side has an average width A 100 m. of ca coralline algal ridge occurs along the breaking zone of the storm beach. The island submarine platform with a IS the form of an atoll. It is a coral reef in crescent-shaped, having a north-south orientation. The western margin lagoon submarine bank marked by a is a fixed transects laid The length Island. m Sampling and observations occurred along Cfiaracterlzation of a seagrass meadow at Kadmat five line on the 1 monsoon (November 19981 and pre-monsoon (May seasons. The collections and observations 1999) were made from depths reef slope of -10 m and from -1.5 and -2.5 and from exposed in m in m on the the lagoon, and storm beach flats of reef The seagrass bed and -5 . Kadmat Lagoon occurs region of the lagoon covering the northwest some OAA km^ and March 1999 Lagoon MId-lagoon Lagoon Lagoon MId-lagoon Lagoon towards region towards towards region towards land fore reef fore reef land 0-0.5 Deptfi Iml 1-1.5 1.5-2.5 0-0.5 1-1.5 1.5-2.5 Substratum StCD S S S+CD S S >2.5 5-10 >10 >2.5 5-10 >10 97.1-97.95 97.8-98 9i.8-97.6 - - - 0.23-2.8 1.67-1.82 2.02-2.48 - - 0.1-2.03 0.32-0.42 0.41-2.74 - - - 0.11-0.27 0.21-0.23 0.36-0.42 1.08-1.4 1.52-1.96 0.92-1 SP LP BS SP LP BS 2 1 2 2 1 Tfiickness of substratum Icml % Sand Silt (range) % (range) Clay % (range) Organic carbon (%) Nature of seagrass beds Quantitative aspect of seagrasses Number of seagrass species 1 Thalassia hemprichii % occurrence 10-20 10-20 A 10-20 50-70 A dry weight/m-j N 5 NA N 7.5 NA frequency Blomass Ig of Cymodocea rotundata % frequency of occurrence Blomass Total dry welght/m'') biomass Average (g (g (g dry weigtit/m') total drifted biomass A 10-20 50-70 - 50-70 >70 NA 15 17 - 23 26 NA 20 17 N 30.5 26 NA NA N NA NA 195 dry weight/m) Notes: - data not collected. S sandy; A absent; CD N coral debns; negligible. Source: Desaietal"". SP small NA not patches; LP large patches; applicable. BS broken in patches as well as longer stretches along the shore. Lakshadweep Island, to the topography or the contour The samplings were done during the post- November 1998 Period Zone on the reef transect varied from ca of the A dense meadow occurs towards reef below. m above high-tide km depending upon 3.5 of the narrow down from -10 slope up to ca 150-200 stretches. India patches zonation. Mostly sparse and small marked exhibiting of Thalassia hemprichii occur sandy regions towards the fore the shallow in while the mid- reef, lagoon deeper region (1.5-2.5 m) harbors mixed dense beds of Cymodocea Thalassia hemprichii and rotundata. The shallow region 10.5-1.5 ml towards been Cymodocea of similar kind of distribution trend has A rotundata. growth intensive supports land from reported Kadmat comprises two species on islands other the Laccadive Archipelago"™. The seagrass the flora of with higher biomass 120-35 g dry weight/m^l occurring from the mixed zone the mid-lagoon Isee table, in drifting seagrasses 1195 A biomass of was left). dry weight/m'l g when the biomass was higher 126 recorded during March of the g dry crop seagrass standing weight/m^l. The frequency of occurrence of drifting seagrass increased from 20 percent mass: It IS 70 percent to maximum March, reflecting seagrass during bio- during this pre-monsoon period that high wind speeds cause disturbances the state of the in sea, including lagoon waters. Previously, five species of seagrasses were recorded from the lagoons of has been observed that the small-sized seagrasses, such as Hatophila spp,, commonly grow as pioneer species and form a suitable substratum Kadmat'^". It for other larger-sized seagrasses to follow during the Thalassia hempnctm. succession process"""'. The absence of such species from Kadmat Lagoon during to competition by might be due this study during species existing the macrofauna considerable amount of Macrofauna faunal population from the seagrass beds has been group reported to be higher due to high organic carbon Polychaeta the sediments"^'. The organic carbon in in of were Macrofauna largely were from Polychaeta Invertebrates in seasonally"^'. seagrass bed of Island, The by 137.3 percentl llO.l percent). Nematoda 18.71 - 1 40.17 - Pelecypoda 3 2.96 Oligochaeta K0.17 Gastropoda 8 2.32 Crustacea 6 It species and Crustacea in meiofauna is from the Isopoda Aschelimmthes 1 - Unidentified 0.61 4.47 0.44 represented by 19 Turbellaria 134.2 percentl, Cenlhium, Cerithidea Ophiuroidea seagrasses Mesodesma, Amphipoda, macro- of India'"'. Onuphis, Donax was reported major the 1221 taxa Lumbnconeries Polydora Oligochaeta of Dominant Syllis, Island meiofauna Kadmat'™ groups dominated Nematoda of 18.96 right). the seagrass beds The composition 22 table, group"*'. constitute 20 Kadmat earlier that Polychaeta \AA.6 percent) percent) % composition of maximum number percent), but the No. of species Isee groups eight No. of 1 fauna from the seagrass bed varies Kadmat at genera the sedi- ments, particularly from the seagrass beds, varied from 0.11 to T96 percent Isee table, left). Macro- (42 seagrass bed seagrass biomass contributes to the detrital food chain"". The benthic consisted In tfie Lakshadweep succession. A Bentfilc Note: - not identified to genus/species and herpacticoid copepods Source- Branganza ela/."^' level. Echlurida 107 108 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The Ministry Government of role Forests, department has a vital adapting and implementing educational and in management plans for the seagrass environments of similar to those for India, mangrove and coral would be importance of great the formation of a in management national seagrass ministry must encourage Hence, the plan. and national universities REFERENCES Anon 1 [1 A Government 3 4 AN Henry Ministry of Environment and Forests, SAM/SAC/COM/SN/n/92. 100 of India, Santapu H, in India. C5IR Publication, [19731. 19 Halophita beccani importances and biology, ctiemistry ledl All India 20 21 of seagrass in Ramamurthy K, K, Ganesan R India. Flora of India, ser 4, 24 Jagtap TG, Untawale AG teccani (AschersI Mandovi estuary, Goa. Indian Journal of in k [19811. Ecology of 215-217. of algae, Jagtap TG [19911. Distnbution of Jagtap TG [19961. India. of Some 26 tfie Indian 27 the southeast coast of 28 Lakshadweep, Arabian Sea, India, Aquatic Untawale AG, Jagtap TG [19891, Marine macrophytes atoll of the [1984]. Benthic 29 of Minicoy 30 macrofauna of 13: 32 Lakshadweep AH [1991]. Hacketl HE MD Fortes abundance 33 in coral reef lagoons, Arabian Sea. Coral Reefs 10: 127- Raghukumar S Sathe V, of the seagrass Thalassia hemprichii lEhrenbergl Ascherson. [19911. Fungi breakdown and their biomass in in some bays some A Report: Component Studies Manne [19771. the central west coast of India. Indian known from Maldive algae A Resource Unknown [19891, Seagrass: Jagtap TG [19921. Marine PhD thesis, Shivaji flora of Parthasarthy N, Ravikumar Nair RV, Lai Anon Birch detntus 34 of the deltaic Quaternary Deltas of ledl India, Nicobar group Mohan K, Ramamurthy K India. RS, Roa CMFWSuHehn. KS IFl - Desk - WR, Birch M The Dugong [Dugong [19751. 42 pp. in of observation. and development II, Section 3 In], Govt of India, 1/97. [19841. Succession seagrasses [19881. Halophila Aquatic Botany 32: 179-185. [19901, Coastal area classification Mann KH of Islands, Sea. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 22: 56-58. Cockle and pattern Bay Queensland, Aquatic Botany [1988]. Production and use of 19: of tropical Australia: A 343-368. detntus in various fresh water, estuarme and marine ecosystems. Limnology in Seagrass venA/eij 35 Branganza 36 Desai C, Ingole BS, W, Komarpant and Jagtap TG. Unpublished data. DS, Jagtap TG [Accepted manuscript]. Distribution and diversity of and Management. CRC Press, New Atoll AJ, the Asian in 22. Publication GSI, Bangalore, pp 243-265. of New Islands. Atoll Relation to the Mangrove in India Vaidyanadhan R In: Bortone SA (19991. Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology Larkum AWD, McComb composition, recent carbonate Sediment depositional [1984]. in BV.Mijderchl.pp 11-215. -h^ in Oceanograpfiy 33: 910-930. Ecosystems along West European Coasts. DRUK: Drukkenj Seagrasses. Elsevier, Bulletin 43: 256 pp. Untawale AG, Jagtap TG [1991]. Flonstic composition intertidal Botanica Marina 2i: 271-277. [19821. union terntory of the of constituent Jagtap TG [19851. Ecological Studies decade RPWM CMFRI India. Rajamanickam GV, Gu|ar AR No. SC 595 Seagrass 131. Jacobs resources regulations. Gazette Notification, Part 126-127. habitat complexity and microinvertebrate Coimbatore. 32 pp. seagrass meadows from using aerial photographs. J Ind living Swinchatt JP [19651. Significance dugonl. seagrass [Thalassia Ansari ZA, Rivonker CV, Ramani P, Parulekar of Andaman and 4, indicative survey with suggestions for decipens Ostenf. Southern Arabian Sea. Aquatic Botany]'): hemprichiil bed at Minicoy, Lakshadweep. Indian Journal of Marine Sc/ences llndial, Marine [1989]. Lakshadweep - an Memoir 31 Ansan ZA James PSBR Andaman 97-103. 17 Mapping [19911. Lakshadweep Islands regions of India, Jagtap TG [19981. Structure of major seagrass beds from three iLakshadweepI coral 16 SN Jagtap TG, Inamdar of Technical Report No. University Kolhapur 212 pp. Botany 60: 397-408. 15 SACON Environment along the Goa Coast, Botanica Marina 39: 39-45. coral reef atolls of 14 Seagrass Habitats [19961. Status of Region. ICLARM, Manila, 46 pp. seagrasses along meadows from of the Research Bulletin 210: 2-27. seagrass and coral guantitative aspects of structural seagrass storm beaches of the Journal of Marine Sciences 53-59. 25 Jagtap TG [19871. Distnbution components 13 Das HS environment seagrass bed Halophila Coast. Agualic Botany iO. 379-386. 12 The ages [19801. Mediterranean Sea. Progress of the sediments. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 3b: 71-90. BSI, Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 16: 56-260. 11 HN texture and skeletal [19921. communities from Laksfiadweep Islands, Eastern Arabian Sea. 10 Oceanography 21:189-200. development, Cochin, Plants, Coimbatore. 79 pp. 9 m Siddique Occurrence and distnbution 11988], marine fungi along the coast of 23 Balakrishnan NP, Ravikumar Marine Sciences 22 utilization. In: Symposium Marine Seagrasses of Coromandel Coast, 8 Jones EB, Grasso S V, of Soc Remote Sensing 1'):V -81. [19851. Ecological Institute of 101832 456700 Lakshadweep iLaccadivel Marine Geology 3S: M11-M20. Proceedings. Donapaula, Goa. pp ni-lfh. 7 Cuomo the tfieir 91 4390. Fax: +91 10)832 456702/456703. E-mail: tanaiiScsnio.ren.nic.in the National Institute of Oceanography 10: 91-94. Lakshmanan KK National Institute of Ifie encouragement. tiis Rodngues, National R. lAschersI from Mandovi estuary, Goa. India. Mahasagar, Bulletin of Krishnamurthy V 6 Komarpant and D.S. Nicobar Coast, of Director of tfie Donapaula, Goa, for Oceanograpfiy, Dona Paula, Goa - 403004, India. Tel: Delfii. Untawale AG, Jagtap TG [19781. A new record marine plants, 5 T.G. Jagtap, pp. A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants New jCSIf?!, AUTHORS Note by Space Application Center HSROI, Scientific auttiors are grateful to Oceanography 18 Ahmedabad, funded by 2 Ttie Environment' A Remote Sensing Application 9921. 'Coastal Mission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS reef The necessary inputs based on research habitats. laboratories to undertake investigations on the various aspects of seagrass ecosystems. management zone coastal country. Ttiis in tfie and coordinates environment and biodiversity-related programs Environment of India, York. 309 pp. Shepherd SA York. 841 pp. [19891. Biology of Kadmat Island Research in manne flora in coral reef ecosystems Lakshadweep Archipelago, Arabian Sea, Bulletin. India. Western Australia The seagrasses 10 109 of WESTERN AUSTRALIA D.I. coastline of Western Australia extends 12 500 The km, from Ocean Sea at 35°S temperate waters to the tropical with 12°S, at tfie Southern of tfie waters of the contiguous coastline the Northern Territory extending across to almost 300 km, offshore reefs protect sandy beaches and high foreshore sand dunes from oceanic swell, Timor producing a calmer habitat between the reefs and the the shore, suitable for seagrass growth. At Twilight Cove of Queensland. the again cliffs approach the sea and follow the coastline to just east of Israelite Bay. ECOSYSTEM DESCRIPTION The long coastline has a diversity of environments that associated with coral reefs and mangroves large temperate limestone reefs and seagrasses, in large on the west and south m in in the in shelter of to different tidal the north to less than coasts'"!, 1 m substratum types and exposure to wave energy. Although some areas of the Western Australian coast, such as Cockburn Sound, have been the subject much of research, a great deal of the rest of the marine environment 50 km offshore. From Esperance coastal geomorphology, seagrass species and habitats, Extensive considered. Western Australia 1998: Reporf and of Report''^' has been made use to these habitats/ of Environment State of the Environment The State of the Marine Environment of this review. Issues of in compiling the latter section seagrass management will also be discussed. number have they but of these discharge low relatively summer Posidonia the of ostenfeldii group occur as they can withstand swell and sediment movement. From Albany to Seagrasses occur Cape Naturaliste, limestone rocks granitic in much tor the of lagoons protected by offshore reefs, Geographe Bay, east facing Cape of Naturaliste, The underlying geology rocks in mantling the of the coast consists of granitic northwest and north. In in the the southeast of the state, the vertical limestone cliffs of the NuUarbor and sandstones Plain delimit a southern edge narrow coastal of the plain. For north is embayment. The sediment veneer (mean refracted into the relatively sheltered embayment has thickness: 1 a thin m) overlying Pleistocene an provides ideal habitat extensive meadows of estuaries, larger are found limestone'^'. to depths of It and seagrasses'", for A number 25 m. than those further east, "' submerged and their associated invertebrates. The western south and southwest, with extensive of tertiary limestone, is and the prevailing southwesterly swell aquatic plants such as Ruppia" of the coast coast. this region in sheltered inshore also afford habitat for seagrasses and other Geonnorphology rates, dry season. Offshore of seagrasses estuaries, occur. Small rivers cliffs bays along this 500-km coastline, particularly during the and their biogeography. Current uses wiU be described and current and potential threats Albany, sheltered beaches are limestone reefs and eroded flow into a overlies This chapter will provide a brief description of the to broken by granite outcrops although occasionally poorly described is or understood. uses to by the granitic islands of the Recherche Archipelago, 5- the north embayments, on the west and south coasts. These are exposed conditions (amplitudes 9 From there Esperance, beaches and seagrass beds are sheltered support seagrass, ranging from those tropical species to Walker Kalbarri, is been eroded by the action have built There is from Geographe Bay coastline, relatively straight of and continuous, as a fringe of to has winds and currents which up sand dunes and bars parallel also it to the coast. limestone reefs running -N^- WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES which are parallel to the coast systems composed Ocean swells, forming is small l<1 m), these break the Indian relatively calm, km deep) lagoons up to 10 range Pleistocene dune relict of aeolianite; wide, m shallow (i-10 in which the tidal and the waters generally of mamlandl. along Dirk Hartog the Bernier and Dome there are high composed south and limestone Shark Bay, of to the north. large a Quobba Islands and up to cliffs Island, sandstone These cliffs is an area of intense carbonate sedimentation, which is affected by wind and tidal-driven water leading to high turbidity temperatures North low relief In with also has relatively low water gently sloping beaches, has a numerous headlands and many small offshore islands. Headlands are composed of Isolated patches of very hard amplitudes and seagrasses are found in lagoons, mangrove swamps and around progressive increase latitude. in tidal tropical as well as islands""'. There is in a amplitude with decreasing Large tides affect seagrass distributions by resuspending sediments; the high turbidity limits angles the shore, to subject to large is available about the marine into offshore islands. Extensive terracing of these expanses of the zone often Intertidal results particularly Enhalus acoroides'™'. high just seagrass, in the intertidal in below the mangroves. Kimberley the of landscape extraordinary natural beauty, extending to of is coastal Its regions. With a vast land area and a small population, the Kimberley has been, unexplored by biologists. As part where at Embayments and sounds grade shorewards mangrove-covered tidal flats, and there are many uous. Coral reefs and atolls occur north of Quobba Point Inear the Tropic of Capricorn), river habitats. devoid is (drowned remote and sparsely populated, is information little more resistant to erosion than the surrounding rocks. Normal erosion processes, combined with submergence, have led to a broken, rough coastline. Mangroves become conspichematite-bearing quartzlte, which oriented faults tvluch Point, the Pllbara coastline rainfall. a typical ria creating a rugged coastline. The area winter [down to 13°C1"^ Quobba of It movement, with rock, Is system, characterized by resistant basement valley) with This 10.11. The Kimberley coast tidal 113000 km'l, shallow, semi- enclosed embayment Isee Case Study those species which as periodic freshwater inundation from the shelter to can tolerate high temperatures and desiccation, as well Point, to shallow water On broad intertidal to seagrasses are restricted clear. These lagoons are dominated by seagrasses. From Kalbarri to Steep Point Ithe most westerly point seagrass growth flats, recently, until Its isolated between Derby and Wyndham. The area from tourists, receiving is Increasing with small private boats and charter operators. activity by of the development of a marine park and reserve system in Western Australia, several areas are considered addition, is settlement along the 2 000-km stretch of growing attention being largely coastline some potential as of the marine parks. In areas have been designated as potential Aboriginal reserves. These designations have been based on severely limited data available from the few scientists and other people who have traveled the The area. organisms in only the substantial Kimberley relate to in marine on data salt water Table 10.1 crocodile populations and turtles. Ivlanne plants, fish Western Australian endemic seagrass species and invertebrates are largely unknown. Recent surveys Species Distribution Western Australia and the Northern Territory Museum, and by CSIRO (Australia's Commonwealth Scientific Amphibolis antardica Soutfiern Australian endemic and Industrial Research Organisation), have Amphibolis Soutfiern Australian endemic published, but will help provide a basis for future Tropical Western Australian research. by the West Australian Cymodoceaceae gnffithii Cymodocea angustata Ivjuseum, the University of yet to be endemic Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Southern Australian endennic | BIOGEOGRAPHY Seagrasses recorded from Western Australia Hydrocharitaceae fall Into Australian endemic two general distribution patterns. Twelve species are Posidonia angustifolia Soutfiern Australian endemic Australian coast, and are confined to temperate, clear Posidonia australis Southern Australian endemic waters (Table Posidonia conacea Western Australian endemic are found throughout the Indian Ocean and tropical Posidonia denhartogii Southern Australian endemic Pacific Ocean. Posidonia kirkmanii Western Australian endemic Posidonia ostenfeldii Western Australian endemic temperate and tropical distributions, with Shark Bay on Posidonia sinuosa Southern Australian endemic the west coast and Moreton Bay on the east coast being Halophila australis endemic Posldonlaceae to Western Australia or 10.1). Australia's to the southern Twelve species are tropical and seagrasses can be divided Into located at the center of the overlap zones. Temperate .Jy ' Western Australia have species particularly the been most studied extensively, large genera Amphibolis, JOO 200 600 Kilometers Posidonia and Zostera. but there are other species which have been little Temperate species are distributed studied. * across the southern half of the continent, Wyndhait' extending northwards on both the east and west coasts. The Rowley 4 Derby Shoals biomasses. and highest occur diversity, seagrasses highest species southwestern Australia, where in found are regional the in Montcbcllo Harrow back-reef coastal environments within the fringing limestone reef, or in I Is. , Park, • Northern Ningatoo Marine ^ Territory :{$ semi-enclosed embayments. In range, areas of northern Australia with a high visibility is tidal often poor, and conventional remote- Western Australia sensing techniques are of limited value for mapping. The Northern Territory coastline for largely unexplored is seagrass distribution, and their associated animal South Austr^la communities, especially the Northern Territory prawn fisheries, remain largely unstudied. Recent research in the Kimberley region of Western Australia has provided Perth some information. distribution Seagrasses in that litoipiiithc Bin ,. region either occur sparsely in coral reef environments or can attain high biomasses within high intertidal lagoons, where seawater tide"". (tidal ponded during the movements/turbidity/freshwater runoff in , Naturalisle the wet survival"''. Again, the significance ^ Esparance ,— y•w-- Cape Leeuwnn /.v hraeliw I Recherche ,« Archipcbgo fnw/mo,.! falling The environments are otherwise too extreme season) for seagrass of is Cape [ iBunbury ,, 110" Map E Mhwn Bo, ' / tliirhoiir -,,,.„„.„ ^,„„, HurboinnintOvslfr Uiiritoiir 120'_E _JUMl_ 10.1 Western Australia these seagrass communities for any associated fisheries species In general, is unknown. water bodies exposed our knowledge of shallow water (<10 ml temperate seagrass distributions is reasonably good, but our understanding of deep water |>20 ml seagrasses throughout Australia is rudimentary. Areas more extreme water movement, either tidal or wave induced, are also poorly studied compared with seagrasses in more protected areas. subject to The main habitats seagrasses are very for extensive shallow sedimentary environments that are Shark Bay, Cockburn Soundl, protected bays Geographe Bay, Frenchman's enclosed by fringing reefs (e.g. and Bay] extensive shallow sedimentary environments, tered from the swell of the open ocean, embayments (e.g. protected bays Bunbury Geographe Bay and Frenchman's Bayl and lagoons sheltered by fringing reefs western coast from 33° (e.g. lagoons to Kalbarri). MECHANISMS OF SEAGRASS DECLINE depth from the A5 m"", making up a major component nearshore ecosystems. The diversity genera and species (101 unequaled elsewhere in (251 of of seagrass along this coastline is the world""', mainly due to the IN WESTERN Seagrass declines have been well documented from seagrass intertidal to the AUSTRALIA Western Australian in (e.g. to 25°S|. around Australia. There are ranging shel- such as Shark Bay and Cockburn Soundl, (e.g. Seagrasses occupy approximately 20000 km' on the coast""", water embayments sheltered from oceanic swell, such as (e.g. to relatively high rates of movement. Nevertheless, Australian species also occur where there is some protection from extreme water movement and most are found in habitats with cause a variety of of of decline is the reduction of light availability. Seagrasses are rather unique plants high mechanisms most ubiquitous and pervasive loss, but the minimum light compared with other in that they have requirements plants"". for survival These high minimum overlap between tropical and temperate biogeographic light zones, and the extent of suitable habitats. hypothesized to be related to the significant portions of Large, mainly monospecific meadows of southern Australian endemic species form about one third of the habitat in the coastal regions of Australia. (500-1000 Western requirements (10-30 percent incident seagrass biomass that can be Reduction in light availability three major factors: in lightl are anoxic sediments. can occur as a result chronic increases in of dissolved These meadows have high biomasses nutrient availability leading to proliferation of light- 000 absorbing algae, either phytoplankton, macroalgae or g/m'l and high productivities (>1 g/mVyearl"^'. Southern Australian seagrasses occur in algal epiphytes on seagrass leaves and stems; chronic WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Habitat removal Coastal development Western Australia In localized Is centers of population, and takes the form of to construction of ports, nnarinas and groynes. Housing developments impact on coastal water canal estates, such as Impact on the marine environment. ments have whereas quality, Carnarvon, have greater direct In All these develop- consequences potential seagrass for habitats and associated fauna. Some developments have resulted direct in destruction of seagrass communities, by smothering or deterioration causeway in water quality, e.g. construction of the southern end of Cockburn Sound"", at the where construction destroyed ments, and resulted reduced flushing. mannas The construction due to and ports of the Perth Metropolitan area has degraded in seagrass and existing reef environ- existing loss of seagrass habitat in reef as habitats, well as fragmenting the remaining distributions. Subsequent dredging and sediment has often reduced the infill water quality and resulted further losses. in Impacts of pollution Pollution of coastal environments can result changes water to sources which quality, either can structure, especially disposal of In community marine influence Marine relation to seagrass. in major from point or diffuse sewage from the Perth Metropolitan region's three outfalls contributes excess nutrients to coastal areas'"'. shores The Kwinana disposal of the Intertidal Increases suspended sediments leading In and pulsed increases to Increased suspended in Water The reduction of light penetration for a limited time period. human to the photic 54 m"". Reductions In zone, extending up water quality can lead in direct loss of habitat. Seagrasses m, whereas In to a depth In than unpolluted areas the depth limit would The effects an In Western column, shifts In seagrass and benthic of this increase Is anthropogenic frequency, in diseases biological occurred In facilities Western the form of construction of and canal estates, results in In fish productivity. from in loss of decrease in In and waterfowl. Western Australian marine waters are generally low Development of the coastal zone, all along the vegetation""', water the in species composition'""', organisms present""' and an Increase diversity of resulting marinas, port environment low oxygen concentrations blooms''", Australia leads to Increasing pressure on the coast. Australian coastline. in Increased nutrients and seagrass Serious nutrient loading the Albany Harbours, Cockburn losses have Sound and parts of Geographe Bay. Cockburn Sound degraded marine environment Western Australia, in is the most degradation of coastline causing direct destruction of having experienced the second largest loss of seagrass seagrass communities as well as Indirect changes in hydrodynamics and sedimentation. I Cockburn of less be 11-15 m. Increasing population pressure \ to a the depth of the photic zone""', and hence Sound, for example, are limited 9 coastal duration and extent of phytoplankton and macroalgal of fiabitat Seagrasses are limited to a of nutrient enrichment from to include activities. eutrophlcatlon reduction amounts to regulate the Australian particularly sensitive to marine although now quality, especially nutrients Western sediments and/or phytoplankton that cause a dramatic Loss on relies still effluents, toxicants. Australia. turbidity; industries' under license conditions Enhalus acoroides. Leonie Island, Kimberley, Western Industrial Strip along the Cockburn Sound of in Australia (more than two thirds)'^'. The major human-induced declines of seagrass Western Australia in Western Australia are summarized suggested principal causes factors interact make to process the complex. The general hypothesis for of seagrass decline is seagrass reaching Table 10.2, with in most cases, other in all decrease that a chloroplasts loss of more these instances genera 113 Enteromorpha, Ectocarpus] which may Ulva, originate as attached epiphytes''*'. Increased epiphytic growth results shading In of seagrass leaves by up reduced photosynthesis and hence percent''", in the light densities"". reduces effective of In to 65 leaf addition, the epiphytes reduce diffusion gases and nutrients seagrass leaves. to seagrass photosynthesis. The decrease may result from increased turbidity from particulates or from the deposition of on leaf surfaces or limit in the water, or the growth of epiphytes meadows occur stems"". Seagrass between an upper desiccation or silt imposed by exposure wave energy, and to imposed a lower limit by penetration of light at an intensity sufficient for net photosynthesis. A small through the water of reduction will therefore in light penetration reduce the depth range seagrass meadows, while particulates on leaves meadows could eliminate shallower water over extensive areas of Princess Royal Harbour, Western le.g. Light penetration As photosynthetically water. scattering. Attenuation inorganic discharge or resuspension directly, by in penetrating light producers. extended periods for loss of benthic the water column from, for of fine example, sludge makes of time, of reduction water quality (adequate and hence, nutrient status periods, which is loss of benthic macrophyte biomass''". resulting from the discharge of sewage and wastes, or from agricultural activity which light In In Industrial ^". The extent phyto- cf plankton blooms associated with nutrient enrichment will be determined by water movement, and mixing will dilute nutrient concentrations. Deeper seagrass beds further from the sources of contamination macrophytes reduction Light common In penetra- light low nutrient for extended eutrophic systems, causes catchments, turn Increase phytoplankton biomass reducing penetration significantly'" density and In li.e. concentrations!'"". concentrations continued submerged aquatic vegetation occur through nutrient this of light by benthic dumping. Indirect effects on attenuation coefficients Increased primary benthic to macrophytes resulted'""'. the presence of an Indicator tion! are high"", thus Cockburn Sound, where In systems eutrophic In when phytoplankton concentrations reducing and phytoplankton] and le.g. particularly The requirement Increasing turbidity of water above seagrasses material matter, absorption both by Increased by the presence of is suspended organic matter Australial'""'. may occur active radiation passes through attenuated is It may show no Siltation Changes landuse practices often result in sediments In Larger sediment loads reduce Increased Oyster Harbour light penetration, as detailed above. Increased sedimentation can result changes in in the abundance and percentage cover of seagrass due influence of turbidity. in in runoff from land, e.g. to increased sediment deposition or scour'™. Epiphytes In Cockburn Sound, nutrient enrichment has only to led not enhanced phytoplankton growth but also enhanced growth of Toxic chennicals to In macroscopic and microscopic is algae on leaf surfaces'"'. Macroalgae dominate over seagrasses under conditions of marked eutrophlcatlon, both as epiphytes and as loose-lying species le.g. the general the Western Australian coastal environment not subjected to large-scale inflows of toxic chemicals. The 1998 Western Australian State of the Environment Report does not consider them a Awareness of toxic, threat'". human-produced chemicals and Table 10.2 Summary of major human-Induced Place declines of seagrass In Western Australia Seagrass community Extent of loss Cockburn Sound, Posidonia sinuosa 7.2 l<m^ lost Western Australia Posidonia australis two Princess Royal and Oyster Harbours, Posidonia australis 8.1 Western Australia Amptiibolis antarctica (more than Cause increased epiphytism blocking light thirds! km^ lost K6%l Decreased and drift Source: Cocl<burn Sound: Cambridge e(a/."", Silberstein e(a(,'"': Pnncess Royal and Oyster Harbours Walker e( light, increased epiphyte algal loads a;.'"-'. Wells eta(.'"'. >V"- 11A WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES million metric tons of ballast water are discharged into marine waters each region's this Currently, year. controls are only voluntary. Introduced marine species may threaten native marine flora and fauna and uses marine of Knowledge aquaculture. human and fishing been updated. The marine biodiversity to as species introduced and of their distribution has recently damage such resources is largely risk of unknown but international experience suggests that the potential for significant environmental Displacement of existing flora impact intentional or accidental, species, high'". is and fauna by introduced has been widely reported elsewhere'^". The Western 1998 Sfafe Australian the of Environment Report estimated that over 27 exotic species have been introduced to Western Australia'". Twenty-one of these are known to have been introduced into Perth Metropolitan waters, the most highly visible worm Sabelia spallanzani worm occupied up to 20 ha of being a large polychaete ISabellidae family!. This the seafloor and most of the structures in Cockburn Sound, outcompeting the native Posidonia species, but Underwater meadow reef. of Posidonia australis abutting a limestone its incidence has been declining"^'. Rottnest Island, Western Australia. ESTIMATE OF PRESENT COVERAGE their impacts on marine organisms has increased, and such industrial inflows are controlled by Licence Conditions from the Western Australia Department of may Environmental Protection. Urban runoff such chemicals, but in Western Australia the runoff Some separated from the sewage system. may groundwater influence still include coastal environment, and increasing population pressure will result in increased risk of contamination. has avoided the use foodstuffs. result in The in Western antibiotics of in potential effects of antibiotics'^' widespread changes ^*'' fish may microbial activities, in with consequences up the food web, as well as for nutrient recycling The in coastal sediments. effects of antifouling concern. Tributyltin ITBTI Western Australian compounds are levels in all major ports contamination in also a southern the coastal regions of Western Australia and some 20000 to km'. The tropical species are abundant but add a further 5000 km'. THREATS Human utilization seagrass of in Western Australia Few commercial and species are taken from seagrass habitats. According the 1998 Western Australian State of Report', human seagrass habitats direct activities in ttie are: damage caused development, by pipelines, port and communi- cation cables, mining and dredging, mostly in excessive loads of nutrients, causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering by epiphytes, from domestic and agricultural sources, industrial, Lower West Coast, Perth Metro- Perth mostly in Metropolitan marine environment'". The use of TBT has politan and South West Coast marine regions; been banned in the Perth Metropolitan and Pilbara marine regions; throughout is to Environment most affecting coastal Western Australia physical is recreational near marinas Western Australia. TBT widespread of present at various locations'"', highest is less in industrial has been recorded from and ports. TBT contamination habitat amount relatively restricted. Fortunately, the aquaculture industry Australia meadows mainly monospecific direct runoff the or is Large, Australian endemic species form about one third of the Western Australia on vessels longer than 25 m. the land-based activity industry, aquaculture associated with and farming, mostly ports, in the West Coast, Lower West Coast, Perth Metropolitan and South West Coast marine Pilbara, Central Introduction of exotic (alien) species Exotic marine organisms have been introduced Western Australia via ballast water and to hull fouling regions; direct physical damage caused commercial boating by recreational from shipping, and threaten natural distributions of and organisms, including seagrass. anchor and trawling damage, mostly It is estimated that 100 activities including in the Western Australia Kimberley. Shark Bay, Perth Metro- Pilbara. and Geographe Bay areas. Trawling nets politan of some Western remove sponges and other attached organisms introduction of exotic marine organisms from ballast water and The marine environment receives most by activities and affected catchments through which can be carried by environment the it flows. Soil discharges river is the of and nutrients coastal waters, to causing water quality deterioration. Groundwater can carry also pollution terrestrial marine the into environment. Direct discharges such as sewage and/or wastewater treated and industrial outfalls, as spills and accidental discharges such and activities, ground and surface water and the ultimate movement these waters into nearshore marine environments major human influence on the Western the Australian coast. They result in marine the and environment degradation marine of most marine environment leads to pollution of the chronic resulting Degradation habitat. reductions Protected areas All marine parks the in Western Australia contain seagrass habitats. significant particular the Shark In Bay World Heritage Property (see Case Study contains more than U 000 km' diversity'", of seagrass beds 10.11 of high as well as a population of more than 10 000 dugong, and turtles. Two marine parks in the Perth area, Marmion and Shoalwater Islands, contain about 20 percent seagrass. impacts on their the aquarium industry remains an area SEAGRASS MANAGEMENT shipping accidents, also influence coastal water quality'". These land-based via concern. the of surface water from land. The quality of this water of enrichment from the seafloor. of are Nutrient estuaries. Australian estuaries continues to be a problem. The of the The Swan River has small sections of marine park, mainly declared for their migratory bird populations but also including areas ovalis. Two Australia, Ningaloo contain of the paddleweed, Haiophlla Western coral reef areas to the north of small and Rowley Shoals Marine Parks, but relatively seagrass diverse populations'"". Three areas to be declared as marine the area of in seagrass, as well as corals and mangroves. Growing marine-based and land- development tourism Western Australia and the central- in ization of population growth will cause these impacts increase unless adequate protection and to management of the coast occurs. Fisheries innpacts Most methods fishing suggested Western Australia in coastal environments where Methods that for are have a limited effect on the shallow to may seagrasses occur'". significantly affect the environment, example dredging and pelagic drift gill-netting, are banned. Other methods, such as trawling, that alter the benthic environment are restricted to prescribed areas. many Currently, quantified'^', but sustainability of damage At to impacts these is the in total of 100 trawlers managed Western Australian around 2000. The number be the minimal. series of discrete a of suggest that practices fisheries seagrass beds cannot assessments current present there are fewer than operating within of fishing fisheries fleet these trawl licenses reduced over time. Areas available will of in to trawling within There are significant demersal gill-netting closures areas of high abundance as dugong of Pollution, loss of habitat, sedimentation from dredge spoil and agricultural runoff can impact heavily on fish stocks, primarily in parks. Jurien Bay, nearshore waters and Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste and Montebellos-Barrow Island, also have diverse seagrass ecosystems represented. The establishment vulnerable species such example, Shark Bay and Ningaloo Reefl. (for Australia. be each trawl fishery management area are also restricted. Divers airlifting sediment samples from a Posidonm sinuosa meadow. Princess Royal Harbour, Western Parks and of the West Australian Marine Reserves Authority, in which marine conservation reserves are vested, should help facilitate the development of reserves. This process a comprehensive is, however, slow, and current series of 115 116 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study SHARK 10.1 BAY, Shark Bay WESTERN AUSTRALIA: HOW SEAGRASS SHAPED AN ECOSYSTEM Although 113000 km'l. shallow l<15 ml, a large is hypersaline environment, dominated by seagrasses. significance, Situated on the West Australian coastline, at about largest 26°S. contains the it meadows largest as well as the most species-rich seagrass assemblages. Shark Bay Property, one of only world have been to seagrass reported 1 is also a World Heritage World Heritage sites 1 under listed all the in four categories outstanding examples representing the major stages ongoing processes, geological biological humans' interaction with evolution and their superlative natural and natural of cultural standing example seagrasses can of the role that the influencing in chemical and physical, marine environment. biological evolution of a DESCRIPTION OF SHARK BAY Shark Bay significant where threatened species less than water government a semi-enclosed basin, with restricted 1 plans extensive of natural animals for still aquaculture may compromise IFisheriesI conservation must form and basins. Astronomical tides are of the framework if it provides the being must be it necessary comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness marine conservation to m of water northwards out km wide. There of is a well-developed salinity gradient developed as the marine waters cross the shallow carbonate banks wilt Sill. take a Salinities in of Hamelin Pool may reach long-term commitment to fund these multidisciplinary studies. A more coherent approach environment marine agencies. some Some 15 different responsibility for managing the government to required is by government agencies have management of the Western Australian marine environment. The 1998 State of the Environment Report" recommends that the state a formal framework to government should establish coordinate environmental be effective. strong southerly winds summer, In the bay. exposing sand flats up to 2 the Western within reserves part developed federally for Australia, and see an arid in m. thus atmospheric conditions influence levels. the Faure as is exchange with the Indian Ocean, situated transport about 1-1.5 effectiveness of the Parks Authority. The development for environment. Shark Bay provides an out- their a series of inlets developments being implemented by another section to the in of beauty or exceptional survive. assessed the most impressive illustrations of by a factor of ten. There are two gulfs, the eastern or plants of outstanding universal value marine some world of the interaction between seagrasses and and western, formed by pleistocene dunes, creating most important and habitats of living of elements; Australia world's dugongs and or natural combinations of of examples most important ecosystems, areas exceptional such terrestrial phenomena, formations features, for instance outstanding issues population stable has also to dolphins, the landscape where evaporation exceeds precipitation natural environment; the home of the Earth's evolutionary history; outstanding examples representing significant the is stromatolites, the seagrasses are responsible for play for nomination: area the and management within Perth's Metropolitan marine region and between these waters and their land catchments. This should be used as Policy On an urgent basis, more detailed studies of the Western Australian marine environment are required a sound basis for management is to if be developed, both within the marine park and reserve system and outside it. There have been tew coherent, broad-based studies (both in time and space! that have researched the cumulative impact of pollution. siUation, community structure Further effort human rt~r--jj'. is activities of marine communities'^'. needed on the influence program for expansion to a other areas under pressure from domestic and rural discharges. A recent change in state government in Western Australia has seen major changes to the structure of government departments that may alleviate some of the previous problems. habitat fragmentation and introductions of invasive species on the pilot of these on the whole community, although it AUTHOR Diana Walker. Sctiool WA 6907, of Plant Biology. University of Australia. Tel: t61 1018 Western Australia. 9380 2089/22U. Fax: +61 10189380 1001. E-mail: diwalkerOcyllene.uwa.edu.au 1 Western Australia 70 psu. Strong up tidal currents, through channels the Faure in Seagrasses, banks under the seagrass, forming the Faure 8 knots, flow to well as the extensive sand Sill. particularly The build-up southern the Australian endemic species Amphibolis antarctica seagrass, and Posidonia oceanic seawater, which with high evaporation and environment, flats are dominate the subtidal australis. depths to composed about 12 m. The intertidal of of seagrass Shark Bay make it assemblages the world. Seagrass covers in than 4000 km' 1 one the more type selves. monospecific beds extensive, these large, lengthy ml seagrasses. 12 and nitrogen of million 6 some kg of growth. supplied from the oceanic inflow, so the high rates epifauna. The plants can significantly slow the rate of water movement over the bottom, and otherwise sediments. unstable Rates Only about support the seagrass to percent 10 of can this be production must be supported by tight recycling, both from decomposition stabilize in situ and from internal retranslocation. of Seagrasses in Shark Bay thus represent "an antarctica are higher than those associated with outstanding example representing significant on- coral reefs. This going geological processes, and biological evolu- is related to high rates of leaf depositing more calcareous sed'ments. had this tion", 1 Anon 2 Anon Seagrasses: A Treatise on Reference [19941. Australian National Tide Tables 1995. Australian Government Publishing [19981. Service, Canberra. 256 pp. Environment Western Australia 1998: State of Environment Report. Department Western Australia. 135 Zann LP, Kailola P [1 I. and Territones, Commonwealth [19781. 1 oi Australia. Environment, Sport A Report on Sedimentation University of Western Australia. Report to Public Walker K, Young E, Montgomery S, ttie Wilshaw changes and dependence on eoOny 6: light in Seasonal 14 Ruppia megacarpa Mason in Abundance of a seasonally variable estuary. Estuarine Coastal and Stielf Science iS: m-W. Walker - the foundations of an Dl [19891. ecosystem. In: Seagrass Kirkman in Shark Bay Larkum AWD, McComb AJ, Shepherd SA pp. In: Kuo 1996. Faculty of Science, H, Walker to ttie 15 AJ, Western Australian seagrass. Shepherd SA Itie K, In: ledsl Biology of Biology of Seagrasses witti Special Australian Region. Elsevier/North Holland, thesis. University of Hillman Walker Dl, ledsl to AJ, Larkum In: of South Cockburn Sound. Western Australia, Perth. 326 McComb Productivity and nutnent limitation. Shepherd SA ledsl Dl [1989]. Amsterdam, pp 157-181. Cambridge ML [19801. Ecological Studies on Seagrass PhD [19991. Biological Suniey of the Central Western Australia with particular reference an Australian estuary. Aquatic GA of Aquatic Dennison WC, Kirkman H [19961. Seagrass survival model. Reference 121-132. Carruthers TJB, Walker DL Kendnck Manne Seagrasses: A Treatise on Royal Society of [19791. Productivity of Ruppia: Dl [19971. Larkum AWD, McComb J, Western Australia 80: 255-262. Congdon RA, McComb AJ 29: 19-32. Western Australia, 25-29tti January seagrass system, Geographe Dl [19971. Status of a shallow Bay, south-western Australia. Journal of Botany Walker of Australia. University of Western Australia, Perth, pp 341 -344. Works J, Special Proceedings of an International Workstiop. Rottnest Island, in of Geology, 13 Cosgrove witti JJS, Phillips R, Walker Dl, Kirkman H ledsl Seagrass Biology: Department, Western Australia. 72 pp. McMahon Biology of Seagrasses Amsterdom. pp 182-210. Walker Dl, Pnnce RIT [19871. Distnbution and biogeography Committee. 159 12 515 pp. Geographe Bay. Research Project R T 2595. Department ttie Australian Region. Elsevier/North Holland, Kimberley, Western Australia. Report to the National Estates Marine Environment Report for of to ttie seagrass species on the north-west coast The Manne Environment. Summary. Department BW Marine 995]. Ttie State of ttie [19961. Ttie State of ttie Searle JD, Logan 10 pp. ledsl Australia. Technical ttie Environmental Protection, of Environment Report. Technical Annex Zann LP demonstrating how important seagrasses are throughout the world. led to the build-up of REFERENCES 9 kg accreting from calcareous epiphytes and associated Over geological time, 8 represent an enormous pool, with seagrass. 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Larkum AWD, McComb Seagrasses: A Treatise on the Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region. Elsevier/North Holland, Amsterdam, pp 635-685. AJ, 117 : 118 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 16 Dennison WC, Orth RJ, Moore KA, Stevenson JC, Carter Bergstrom PW, Batiuk RA submersed aquatic 17 Kirk JTO [1 9931. Dollar S. V, 27 and Photosynthesis in western Australia Aquatic Ecosystems. Walker Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 18 Walker McComb AJ Dl, [1992]. Seagrass degradation Cambridge ML, Chiffings AW, [1986], II. 20 The loss of seagrass Possible causes Lord DA Moore L. McComb Lukatelich RJ, McComb is 28 Water Study t,b: 22-27. in 29 McComb benthic microalgae in a 30 biomass and species composition estuary. Estuarine Coastal 24 McMahon K, Walker macroalgae of and Shetl Science Dl [19981. Fate of in a in the 31 22: 1-22. 32 embayment. Estuanne in 1 . Department of ol Walker Dl, 33 Hutchings PA. Wells FE [1991], Seagrass. sediment and 34 sediments. Seagrass biomass. productivity and contribution In: Wells FE, Walker Dl. Kirkman to H. Lethbridge R leds] Proceedings of the 3rd International Marine Biological Workst]op: The Flora and Fauna of Albany, Western Australia. Vol Australia Museum, pp 597-610. AW, McComb AJ Cockburn Sound. Western [1986]. The loss Australia. III. The f. of effect of Aquatic GA [1991], Recruitment in of coralline crusts and the Galapagos archipelago: Effect of D. Smith P [1994]. in sediments 2. Western R. Hiney M, O'Connor Kerry B, J, marine salmon farm. Aquaculture 12311-21: 31-42. under a Kerry J, Hiney M. Coyne R, Cazabon D. Nicgabhainn Frequency and distribution S, Smith P of resistance to oxytetracycline micro-organisms isolated from marine fish farm sediments Kohn AJ, Almasi KN [1993]. Imposex Marine Biology Association Sindermann CJ [1991]. in UK 73: Case histories Australian Conus. Journal 241-244. ol effects of transfers and introductions on marine resources - Introduction. Journal du Conseif 47: 377-378. and Amphibolis antarctica, Princess Royal Harbour. South-Western I. 1 Cazabon of infauna - a comparison of Posidonia australis, Posidonia sinuosa Australia 1 43-54. Western Conservation and Environment, Perth. Western Australia 50 pp. 26 phytoplankton in following therapeutic use of oxytetracycline. Aquaculture 123(1-2]: Princess Royal Harbour and Oyster Harbour on the Southern Coast Australia. Technical Series Boundaries [1981], Concentration and persistence of oxytetracycline Coyne m Bastyan G [1986]. Distnbuhon ofSeagrasses and Fauna of Western Australian Museum, pp 24: 355-371 Kendrick [1994]. Coastal and Shelf Science hb: 15-25. 25 2. Wells FE. loss. In: Proceedings of the 3rd stimulated scour, erosion and accretion. Journal of Experimental eutrophic seasonal, terrestrial nutrient inputs to a shallow seagrass dominated seagrass of ledsl Marine Biology and Ecology 147: 47-63. Changes [1991]. in filamentous turf algae of shallow southwestern Australian estuarine McComb AJ Silberstein K, Chiffings Botany AJ [19861. Distribution and abundance Lavery PS, Lukatelich RJ, R epiphytes on productivity of Posidonia austrahs Hook, a Shallow system. Marine Ecology Progress Series 27: 287-297. 23 AW, McComb AJ Chiffings seagrass in Commission. Perth. Western Australia. Lukatelich RJ, H, Lethbridge 27-38. Southwestern Australian Estuanne System. Waterways 22 Princess Royal Harbour. South- populations. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Austraha better than AJ [1989]. Seasonal Changes Macrophyte Abundance and Composition Kirkman in Consequences 635-639. AJ Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. 994]. Coastal eutrophication: Prevention [1 01. III. Posidonia austrahs, Posidonia sinuosa Albany, Western Austraha. Vol seagrass decline. Aquatic Botany 24: 269-285- of cure. The Perth Coastal 21 Briitan C, in of International Marine Biological Workshop: The Flora Australian in coastal waters Marine Pollution Bulletin 25: 191-195, 19 Hutchings PA [1991]. Seagrass, sediment and Dl, and Amphibolis antarctica vegetation. Bioscience i3: 86-9/i. [1994]. Light Wells FE, Walker infauna - a comparison Assessing water quality with 35 Chaplin G. Evans Fanworm Sabella DR [1995]. The Status spallanzanii Investigation. Technical Report of the m Western 2. Introduced Marine Australia: A Preliminary Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests, Division of Fisheries, Hobart, Tasmania. 34 pp. Regional map: Australasia b o b ^ b n o iife; 1^^ b CO ••• • *• • > • ^ , b CO 1 • ' .V^ 1 y / • 1 x^' t ^ • 2 O * b <-/ • 3 * tie o b :|' w ^^ ^ o • 1^, :i ^ 1 to «* ^^ ^ ^"'f '/• b t. s ••• » yr^ g • -1. b o :l § A WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES VI SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEMS A manatee [Tnchechus manatus], over a Halodule wrightii bed m ieixe-boi in Portugese Recife, Brazil, A sea horse. Hippocampus whitei. amongst Zostera capncorni in Sydney Harbour. Australia Mediterranean Posidonia oceanica seagrass beds with saupe ISarpa sarpa] and bream IDiplodus spp.l Snails grazing epiphytes en Zostera manna Dungeness crab in Zostera manna. Puget Sound. USA. // King helmet in blades in southern Norway Sea star in Enhalus acoroides and Thalassia hempnchii. Micronesia. Thalassia (estud/num.Turks & Caicos. Lizard fish in Amphibolis antarctica. Western Australia Eastern Australia The seagrasses 1 1 of EASTERN AUSTRALIA R. meadows Seagrass are a prominent feature of the eastern Australian coastline which extends from sheltered and estuaries L. McKenzie S. Campbell AmphihoUs is an much wider bays. Australian endemic. They possibly had a the tropics (10°S) to the cool temperate zone distribution in the early Paleocene \bh million years agol and includes the Great Barrier Reef World with rapid climatic and tectonic changes since that time (4i°Sl Heritage Area. The area includes the Gulf to the of Carpentaria north and around the coastline of Australia to Tasmania and Spencer to seagrass habitats in this There are extensive Gulf. region including tropical and their distribution restricting likely to be the result of localized extinctions these two zones occurs tropical species in Australia. Ivloreton in Bay, southern Australia are mostly found growing below mean sea in Some level'^'. Haiophila can be found to depths of species of tropical 60 diverse physical characteristics. The tropical of north monsoon influenced, muddy sediments, low human population coast and Gulf of Carpentaria are mostly with and low The tropical and most levels of disturbance. the temperate subtropical Queensland east coast sheltered by the Great Barrier Reef and is generally have lower biomass than those of are found ments temperate in seagrass, most tropical seagrasses of the intertidal or shallow subtidal environ- in Carpentaria and the central and of the Gulf of southern Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area lagoon with extension into deeper waters in the central and northern sections. The importance is effectively a the such as Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay parts. While bays have large areas m'^'. The eastern Australian coast includes areas in The genus Zostera has both temperate and The tropical meadows are highly diverse, but in water less than 10 southern Australia'". time (southern Australia and the Mediterranean], also past'". Queensland'", Both tropical and temperate species to Posidonia has a fractured distribution at the present temperate seagrass assemblages. An overlap between m Coles tural components of of seagrass meadows as struc- coastal ecosystems has resulted long lagoon. The temperate east and south coasts are in sandier and more exposed and include the large |by ecology of seagrasses and on the methods for mapping, research interest being focused on the biology and Australian standards) population centers of Brisbane, monitoring and protection of Sydney, Ivlelbourne and Adelaide with a standard suite Seagrasses of associated anthropogenic coastal disturbances. The highest species near the tip of diversity of Cape York gradual decline in east coast'". This is moving south down the thought to be a result of geo- graphic distance from a center of diversity Malaysian/Indonesian region driven by (available substrate], exposure to wave in include the east south""', temperature, topography past changes in sea level and shrimp and members of the southern half of the the genera Amphiboiis, Posidoniaaud Zosfera which are found predominately in sediments, important for providing fish food commercial importance, and of nutrient trapping and recycling"". the marine turtle, and mammal, Dugong In for eastern Australia dugon, and the green sea Chelonia mydas. feed directly on seagrasses. Both animals are used communities and ceremonial use. Both species have declined for food in and food source The extent in seagrass habitats. shelter for diverse organisms, as a nursery ground for action'". The temperate species region in the Australian current which runs roughly north to combined with changes found critical eastern Australia are coastal stabilizing the very north, with a in diversity is seagrass of by traditional number, and protection Australian of their habitat is vital. of seagrass areas and the ecosystem values of seagrasses are the basic information required for coastal zone managers development decisions that to will aid planning and minimize impacts on 119 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES seagrass habitat. general, our knowledge of intertidal In and shallow subtidal (down we good; however, 10 ml distributions is have only a basic understanding of to deepwater (>10 ml seagrasses throughout the region. It is important to document seagrass species diversity and and distribution measures before areas requiring conservation identify and species are significant areas lost. and the Carruthers et Carpentaria bay. Ha/op/7//aintertidally, large, a is open Extensive communities, mainly genera the of the gulf'". deepwater and northeast coast a/."" classified the into estuaries, river some reef habitats. All but coastal, of the reef habitats are significantly influenced by seasonal and episodic pulses of sediment-laden, nutrient-rich river resulting from seagrass Halodute and habitats summer high-volume rainfall. southern and western Along the exposed eastern coast and sparse generally are of influence turtles) this region to varying degrees. in a series of all The result is dynamic, spatially and temporally variable seagrass meadows. and Syringodiumand Cymodocea seagrasses gulf, muddy shallow, coastline subtidally, are found along the sides of the systems macrograzers (dugongs and Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait marine reef its Cyclones, severe storms and wind waves, as well as BIOGEOGRAPHY of 600-km Great Barrier Reef with seagrass flows, The Gulf 2 platforms and inshore lagoon. River estuary habitats include a wide range of or subtidal can species and intertidal be highly productive. The species mixture, growth and distri- bution of these seagrass meadows are influenced by restricted to the leeside of islands, protected reef flats, terrigenous runoff as well as temperature and salinity and estuaries and protected bays. The coastline fluctuations. Increased river flows in eastern gulf extremely shallow and is of the regularly higher sediment loads and potential light the gulf are predominately fine muds, and these are erosion and unstable sediments easily resuspended due resulting in to increased the shallow bathymetry turbidity, which seagrass distribution and growth. Reef ties are with of the communi- flat dominated by Thatassia. Meadows and sheltered bays are mostly restricts estuaries in genera Halodule, Cymodocea and Enhalus. The Torres Strait a is seasonally a seagrass growth. These shallow (mostly 10-20 long and 250-260 m extending from Cape York to Papua New Guinea. The make and river inlet environment stressful meadows in life often for have high history strategies, resilience to habitat variability, and the physical characteristics assemblages the inlet act to of and different river in inlet systems. km wide (east-west), formed by a drowned land ridge for shoot densities but low species diversity'". Differences control species km depth) body of water 100 habitats creating light, seagrass"". Associated disturbed by prevailing winds. Sediments throughout limitation summer cause reduced Coastal habitats also have extensive intertidal and subtidal seagrasses. impacted sediment by Intertidal environments are erosion, deposition, tidal shoals and reefs. fluctuations, desiccation, fluctuating and sometimes Reefs are generally aligned east-west, streamlined very high temperature, and variable salinity'"'. by the high-velocity tidal currents that pour through range can be as large as 6 m. These communities are the inter-reef channels. Seagrass communities occur affected rapidly by increased runoff with heavy rain or and subtidally cyclone events""', but a large and variable seed bank area has a large number of islands, across the open seafloor, on reef adjacent to continental islands. large reefs runs A northwards flats well-defined line of Cape from York, including the Warrior Reefs with extensive seagrass- covered reef flats. most commonly Mixed species occur on these of the flats, genera Halodule, Thalassia, Thalassodendron and Cymodocea. The large expanses of open water bottom are covered with either sparsely distributed Halophila or mixed species can facilitate recovery following disturbance"^'. Inshore seagrass communities are found varying quantity in along the eastern Queensland coastline, mostly where they are protected from the prevalent southeast winds by the Great Barrier Along Reef. protection and coastal seagrass restricted to sheltered bays, behind southern the Queensland coast, the Great Barrier Reef offers little meadows are headlands and {Halodule, Thalassia and Syringodium] communities. the lee of islands. Extensive coastal seagrass Lush occur Halophila ovalis and communities are also found spinulosa Halophila in the deep waters in north-facing bays such as Moreton Bay, Hervey Increasing distance from the coast decreases the impacts from pulsed terrigenous runoff, and in northeastern Australia for these deepwater seagrass growth. Throughout the Great approximately 40000 km^ are extensive, diverse and important for primary and Barrier Reef secondary production""'. A high diversity lagoon and inter-reef area has is in regions clear inter-reef water at depth (>15 ml allows Northeast coast habitats in meadows Bay and Shoalwater Bay |>30 m) of the southwestern Torres Strait. Tropical seagrass habitats Tidal of seagrass provided by extensive bays, estuaries, rivers most of region, at least low density (<5 percent some cover)''". of seagrass, Eastern Australia Deepwater seagrass areas are dominated by ows of seagrass occur decipiens Haiophila of Halophila or ^ / spinulosa. Halophila spp. display morphological, physiological and life history adaptations to survival In ^. Cape Von> composed mainly In Ifiis liabitat ^i low-light environ- ments. Halophila spp. can be annuals characteristic of this strategy Fniuev: Cliarhlh- Bm ^\ Carpvniana J . y^ CORAL St A V * "''-'^'" Inland &« * ^'^^^^ Barrier »C! Barrier Reef region, have rapid growth rates and are considered to be pioneering species"". An Important < i ^,_ the Great In ISO'S (46' e ;„,„.,, .v™« Large monospecific mead- ^^'''. species of Halophlla" 121 Reef World Heritage Area Townsville^w 20* Bowef^^ft S high seed production. is Nontiem Rates 70 000 seeds/m'/year have been estimated of TwTitofy Veppoon tfjC, Queensland from observations of Halophila tricostata'^". field The appears distribution deepwater of JL W~ seagrasses be mainly Influenced by water clarity and a to combination Deception Bm' AUSTRALIA Bm "'ansbanei M,.u„,„ ~ propagule dispersal, nutrient supply of llmvv ' 0,1, and current stress. High-density deepwater seaSouth grasses occur mostly on the inner shelf in narrow-shelf coast the central 30° section the of experiences a moderate tidal east range and high-ralnfall rainforest catchments. Australia S which Port New Where there A are large tidal ranges, just to the south of Mackay, no major deepwater seagrass areas occur further south in exist, but some meadows tide ^'"'^y-BolmyBm >/J/*k Adelaide i G ranges . \•, Melbourne, Mallacoota _ 4j» • -y"-*^ »•„«,„,»„,«„, y Bam Sirun » Coomng Likes moderate mon low Deepwater seagrasses are uncom- again'". PortHacldng^ north of Princess Charlotte Bay, a remote area of human population and little disturbance. This 40" may be the result of the east Australian current diverging may sand and low rainfall in of this coast and stream is also silica runoff, and It 200 400 Map is high and can be extensive and highly productive. Shallow unstable sediment and fluctuating tempera- likely to likely to Low common be nitrogen limited"". Seagrasses are more be present on reefs with vegetated cays than on younger reefs with highly mobile sand. Intermittent sources of reaches the coral cays, phosphorus nutrients arrive reef. In to reef Reef Include entrances, or runoff localized areas, particularly The Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea Thatassodendron ciliatum, the colonizing estuaries and distribution and occurrence type. I.e. of seagrasses drowned river valley, barrier estuary or coastal lagoon"". Seagrass species sediment type and with is associated mostly with differing exposure wave to energy from the open ocean. Seagrasses are generally more abundant several kilometers upstream from the entrance due to lesser tidal and wave affected high in and Tasmania, Posidonia sheltered bays adjacent to Bass Strait composition and distribution reef habitats of the Great Barrier in add In depends on the estuary estuary can Victoria Islands. amounts of environments. The more successful seabirds seagrass species rotundata, some when seasonal as they dominate In and Amphibolis are also found, mainly near estuary nutrient availa- feature of reef habitats, and seagrasses are bility is a 1 11.1 coastal lagoons'^". ture characterize these habitats. Island Eastern Australia the most a Umnv - ,.^' seagrass growth'". Reef seagrass communities support J 600 Kilometers ^^H^^II^-^^H possible that limited availability of nutrients restricts biodiversity TASMAN SEA • Freyanet - at propagules for colonization from receive not T k fori Phillip Bay' S Tasmania Princess Charlotte Bay and the far northern section southern meadows. Much b* 4/)'- °. Hervey Bay where Macquane _ South Wales adjacent to is disturbance. Seagrasses entrance by the is open In coastal lagoons may also be frequency with which the lagoon to the ocean or closed by shifting banks, changing conditions from brackish to sand saline. species Halophila ovalis, and species of the genus Agricultural development and poor catchment practices Halodule. in some regions have resulted in high sediment and nutrient loads reducing light availability and favoring New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania Ten species of seagrass (excluding Lepilaena cylindro- carpa] are recorded In this region'™. Species of the genus Zostera (Including the former Heterozostera] are species which can tolerate lower light levels. localities, reduced freshwater flows (due and agricultural extraction! have Increased In protected sites, mixed stands In other to industrial salinities. of Zostera ff ^ ^ WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Zostera tasmanica, and muelleri] capricorni Halophila avails Zostera (formerly Ruppia dominate. meadows are common In areas of input. A feature of estuarine habitats high freshwater this region is in heavy winter-spring rains with associated high followed by high salinity and low rainfall In sediments islands! summer. in areas dominated less-protected turbidity, north coast of Tasmania. Bass Strait le.g. mixed seagrass communities consist Bay of larger, undoubtedly have tropical waters where to allow an Increase likely to ocean swells to same the antarctica [Amphibolis gnffithii fills South Australia! forms patches of varying sizes than extensive monospecific meadows. in Amphibolis role in rather these areas, In nutrient inputs are low and sediments are nutrient poor. Large oceanic bays meadows of Halophila distribution is In southeast Tasmania have and Zostera species. Seagrass influenced by biogeography and geo- (turtle seagrass, in particularly of Enhalus acoroides was the northern islands and the leaf fibers were possibly used to seagrass grazer populations in Traditionally, the fruit of meadows and areas close to freshwater inputs. At the mouth of some bays and in areas dominated by sandy and exposed In biomass where climax communities can now develop. and Halophila ovalis occupying the gaps between slow-growing the likely effect is turbidities are already naturally Dramatic declines eaten the temperate and dugong! from increased hunting would be expected small, faster growing species such as Zostera tasmanica siliceous sediments modern the particularly in waters. Less easy to determine slower growing species such as Posidonia australis. with Victoria, influenced distribution of seagrasses, high. sandy by enclosed waters such as tvloreton Bay and Westernport in make make matting and to low Importance to was population European migration. Seagrasses before were used of human seagrass distribution as the very small was nets and cord. This use have been infrequent and bed mattresses for during the Second World War. They were also used for such as fertilizer, Lacepede Bay in southeastern in South Australia, where Posidonia angustifolia and wrack leaf drift harvested from the beach for still is soil conditioner and compost mixes'"'. Such activities are now many illegal in where both parts of Australia live and dead seagrasses are protected. morphology as well as wave energy. Deep, oceanic There are reports from the southern and eastern Posidonia australis and Amphibolis Australian coastline that seagrass communities have seagrass beds of antarctica are also present to depths of 22 m in clear non-polluted water. Their distributions are influenced by wave energy and geomorphology. depth, bottom type, Most seagrasses southeastern Australia are restric- in ted to depths of less than 20 m declined Sandy Zostera and in South Australia is dependent on coastal topography, bathymetry and environment''". .The most extensive expanses of meadows are found sheltered shallow water in in the large Spencer Gulf meadows abundant over cm! the Long-time residents report abundant swans! and say bird life (especially black wrack was so that the seagrass of Southi Australia Seagrass distribution capricorni intertidal banks. by light availability. the Hervey Bay and Great in Strait region describe large long-leaved l>30 fishing South gulf coast recent decades'^". Anecdotal reports of 30 in years ago from residents plentiful that was it harvested from the beaches for garden mulch. Today, much seagrass on the Intertidal banks of the region in the sparse or low-cover Zostera capricorni with is short (<10 cm! and narrow leaves. Fishing reported is have declined and black swans no longer frequent and Gulf St Vincent. These are predominantly Posidonia to and Amphibolis meadows, with Halophila and Zostera the region. Unfortunately, accurate mapping programs species. Large seagrass dominated by species southeastern coast lagoons le.g. of of meadows which are were not instigated of South Australia overstated. in coastal Lake Alexandnna and Lake Albert!. until the late In Victoria Zostera loss in there are HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES decline coincided with a Anecdotal northward movement of the continent residents during past episodes of global cooling. and diversity of seagrass seen today Is The biomass most likely to have remained relatively unchanged on a continental reports in unquantified the reduction and north Westernport Bay, prior Agriculture and coastal development started in reports of to operating in catches. fish in from and regions the eastern loss of local of seagrasses, describe "lush seagrass meadows". Similarly Inlet, Victoria, well be photographs in Corner a decline in Posidonia australis in the 1960s was followed by a reduction scale for tens of millions of years. may Westernport Bay during the 1950s. The Australia has had a relatively stable climate with the compensating 1980s so these types report are Impossible to verify and Zostera also occur along the in fishermen the region'^". Australia with the arrival of European migrants only 200 years ago and coastal Influences on seagrass before that natural. date would have been almost entirely Sediment and nutrient loads to estuaries and AN ESTII^ATE OF HISTORICAL LOSSES More than A50 km' Australian of seagrass have been coastal waters In lost recent years, from largely Eastern Australia attributed to eutrophication, natural storm events, and reductions available in development. coastal to worth noting that there is It due light increases a high is and that probability of bias tow/ards reporting decline, biomass and area are often not reported. in thousands hectares of seagrass. which were present of prior to the 1 123 980s, have been destroyed by the effacts of canal estate development. Deception Bay seagrasses have declined since 1996 what may be in were due pattern. Both cases low to light a cyclic and poor There have been several well-documented cases of seagrass loss of in eastern Australia over the past 50 Macquarie iNew South WalesI years'"'. In Port seagrass was lost human increased turbidity from km' 1986, consequence a km' to in Botany Bay, a loss in Posidona sinuosa, representing 58 percent of bays seagrass, was of the .3 resulting activity, declining fish stocks'"'. Similarly of 2.5 1 1 between 1953 and 1985 due between 19i2 and lost dredging activities and of eutrophication''*'. South Australia there has been a significant In decline seagrasses on the eastern side in of Gulf St Vincent due to sewage effluent. Approximately 60 km' of sinuosa Posidona meadows were Spencer lost and reported widespread loss meadows Amphibolis close of Recent zone. (1992-931 loss In of to the Rob Coles mixed distribution (using differential GPSI, Sfioalwater Bay, Queensland. seagrass aL.. visually estimating . :-d mapping Posidonia australis, Zostera tasmanica of and Zostera capricorni were due and desiccation caused temperatures and low by to sediment accretion exposure high to air been from the large marine bays water quality associated with urban development and of Westernport Bay, Loss from climatic events possibly agriculture"". (storms, humidity'"'". the recorded loss of seagrass has Victoria, In antarctica 1987'"'. fishermen and local residents have Gulf, intertidal Amphibolis between 1935 and and cyclones] has occurred flooding in a number of regions including Hervey Bay 11 000 km'' and 27.75 km' in separate events in the 1990sl and Westernport Townsville. Anecdotal evidence and evidence collected Bay, persistent high turbidity and poor water quality during lobster fishery surveys suggests that thousands Port Phillip Bay and Gippsland Lakes. due agricultural to resuspension sediment runoff, the early 1970s to 67 in km' to decline in Seagrass recovery has occurred (15i km' by meadows have but seagrass intertidal mud lower biomass compared to complete loss lea 31 seagrass commercial to at least 45 percent 25 years ago"". km'l in A near the Gippsland More recent estimates seagrass abundance suggest that there has been decline over the localized past 30 years'"" except for replacement by algae. Similarly, Phillip Bay, little change from 1957 176 km'l in turbidity to in some areas of some Port From 1981 to Port Phillip Bay declined 68 km""', possibly due to increased in Corio Bay and Swan Bay the west and southwest of Port Phillip, respectively. Drifting algal In in and eutrophication (early 1990sl in of little seagrass area was recorded to 1981 196 km-'l"""'. 2000, the area of seagrass from 96 km' in 1950s coincided with reduced fish catches'"™. communities have replaced hectares have been Strait due New Guinea, of seagrass area resulted from flooding and sedimentation. In In Moreton Bay, these are remote but and locations northeastern Australia, most seagrass losses been followed by example, approximately Hervey Bay were a the northwest Torres in track effectively. difficult to have lost and sedimentation from Papua to flooding lost in cyclone within on pressures 1 1 seagrasses of in 992 after two major floods and three-week a system the For recovery. significant 000 km' period from added to agricultural development and land development associated with increases in human caused by The deepwater populations"". seagrasses died, apparently from plume a persistent deprivation light of turbid water from the floods and the resuspension of sediments caused by the cyclonic seas. The heavy seas uprooted shallow- water and seagrass intertidal lat initial loss"", seagrass. Recovery of subtidal depth >5 ml began within two years after four to five years was only started to recover and did not fully recover until 1998"". The capacity appears of the but recovery of intertidal seagrasses much slower These seagrasses December seagrass vegetation. Queensland, declines of failed to recolonize the some areas seagrass meadows have of 198/1'"'. 2001)"*', and western regions and flats in north Lakes from the 1920s and inputs sediments caused seagrass of from 196 km' In to be a of tropical seagrasses consequence of to recover morphological, *- * tf^ 124 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES physiological and be life history adaptations; the plants can sediment in unstable environments. Halodule were found fairly resilient uninervis and Halophila ovalis are considered pioneer species, growing rapidly and surviving well or depositional environments'""', Halophila tricostata is to an annual, only appearing in late September through February and being sustained by a sizeable seed bank'"". Cymodocea serrutata occurs sediments and has been Case Study linl<ed to deeper in increased rates of to recolonize Queensland's east and gulf coasts have areas where seagrass meadows have expanded. 11.1 in waters deeper than 15 m in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area were surveyed between 199'1 and 1999. A real-time video camera and dredge were towed 1 ^26 sites to for four to six minutes on In sample conjunction with the camera tow, of benthos and a grab sample of Sampling included the Great Barrier Reef province from the tip of Cape York Peninsula approximately 25°S, or coastline. Sites 1 edge up 120 to km at 10°S 000 nautical miles were located from inshore out of to the THE GREAT IN from the coast. Seagrass presence, species and biomass were recorded with depth, sediment, Sechii disk depth, associations with algae and epibenthos, and proximity to reefs. seagrasses were present, Five all from the genus Halophila, in depths down to 60 m. Seagrasses were present at 33 percent of sites sampled- The species Halophila the sediment were collected. to reef record bottom-habitat characteristics and seagrasses. a sled-net Little ovalis, Halophila spinulosa. Halophila decipiens. Halophila tricostata and Halophila capncorni were found. tricostata is endemic species a Australia and Halophila capncorni the southern Indo-Pacific. broadly distributed to is Halophila northern found only in other species are All throughout the region"". Most seagrass seen in Indo-Pacific video tows was of low density |<5 percent cover] and biomass ranged from less than g to 45 g dry 1 weight/m' (the highest was recorded from a Halophila sp/nu/osa-dominant meadow Mean biomass was in 21 m). 3.26 ±0.36 g dry weight/m^ The map generalized of seagrass was generated using models incorporating Loess of smoothness was additive smoothers'"'. The degree minimized but sufficient effects to account for both spatial and spatial correlation The location of the was receded based on the proportion of distance the point was located between the coast data points the and the outer edge and the proportion from 10°5 the southern edge. The or statement of probability factors such as depth around the edge of the to model estimated that as lagoon and inter-reef area much as 40000 km^ of may have at least some seagrass'"". is make meadow This type of map necessary when impossible it even defined. With areas of very low if to plot that could be biomass and very large areas with patchy seagrass, the concept of a defined Probability of occurrence of deepwater seagrasses in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon Icontours obtained by spatial smoothing!. is known about long-term cycles in seagrass meadow size and biomass. The losses and gains being measured may fall within a natural range. In heavily grazed coastal waters with high dugong and green MAPPING DEEPWATER (15-60 M) SEAGRASSES AND EPIBENTHOS BARRIER REEF LAGOON Seagrasses meadows through vegetative growth and can therefore survive small-scale disturbances'""'. unstable in Zostera capncorni accretion'"'. meadow is not always appropriate. Using probability to estimate the likelihood of seagrass presence must be explained with care as the Eastern Australia turtle increases populations, biomass may and populations herbivore disturbance rather than meadow in and size an be indicator Primary Industries IQDPII of mapped of around the Wellesley Island Group (southern 1984"^ measure. a positive Queensland Department in changes (decreases! reflect simply 18A km" km' the eastern gulf'"' and 225 in gulf) in Using probability models and ground-truthing. AN ESTIMATE OF PRESENT COVERAGE the Torres Strait Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait seagrass habitat on reef platforms and non-reef Approximately 779 km' of of seagrass mapped Carpentaria were in the western Gulf 198^'°'. in 1986, In much '". bottoms''^ juvenile estimated is of which 13425 km- to contain is valuable habitat for commercial shrimp. outcome may be scale dependent and the outcome is "map" definitely not a used. If the sense in it Great Barrier Reef Region, the probability seagrass that in smaller unit sampling 40 ^U map drawn A unit will be 100 percent, way can be improved this ^^ of finding have a lower probability Typically will the ability of a if normally is you define the sampling unit as the entire Halophila ovalis S ^ Bi m ,,. physical factors such as light and bottom-type B location can be incorporated in the model, Halophila decipiens Halopiiils spinulosa ^ — Halophila tricostata — Halophila capricorni Seagrass present 20 "o &15 1 DEEPWATER SEAGRASSES Deepwater seagrasses were most common the in 1 11- — — 10 central narrow shelf regions which experience a Li 5 moderate rainfalt tidal range and are adjacent rainforest catchments. to Highest high- 1 between Princess Charlotte Bay and Cairns, and south of 23°S. Halophila tncostatawas occurred found only between 1 15-25 Frequency decipiens 60 of Halophila spinulosa. ovalis. and Halophila was the Halophila most commonly found species Halimeda] were found on the outer shelf north m ranges {i-6 tidal of seagrasses within each depth stratum. tidal velocities Note: Seagrass present = species combined (including all unidentified]. at depths. Dense algae beds (mainly Caulerpa and Cooktown. Where there are large occurrence (percent adjusted for of probability of capncorni] m depth. The frequency of occurrence seagrasses declined below 35 m, decipiens all 55-65 Princess Charlotte Bay and sampling frequency] to 45-55 Deptti strata (ml Seagrasses [Halophila Halophila 1 35-i5 25-35 Mackay, Other species were spread throughout. occurred 1 a IT' densities of and range], just to the south of principles comprehensiveness, adequacy, and of representativeness. This "representative program has used two processes: approach statistical and a delphic a areas" data-based expert Mackay. no major deepwater seagrass areas occur experience-based questionnaire approach. Thirty- Some seagrass eight relatively south in The ecological and algae meadows were apparent further habitats Hervey Bay where role tidal of ranges moderate. Some deepwater l<25 m) of Halophila ovalis and Halophila spinulosa are important dugong feeding Commercial uncommon in fish habitat. and crustacean species were deep water compared to catches in coastal intertidal and shallow subtidal meadows'"'. This information seagrass is one and of benthic the major community databases distribution of will be used to select areas to protect zones and to minimize the loss reef areas by the tourist of in "no-take" economic use of and fishing industries and by recreational users. The deepwater seagrass and epibenthos mapping is an excellent example seagrass maps being used directly management decisions. plan tor maintaining the biodiversity of the Great Heritage Area based on the seagrasses. algae, other benthos, sediment and habitat descriptions. This information supporting development of a multi-use marine park Barrier Reef World inter-reef bioregions have been identified based on the presence and inter-reef seagrasses not well understood. is homogeneous Source: Coles et al of soft to of support good 125 126 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Northeast coast IS difficult to It estimate the exact seagrass area from overlapping zones and The northeastern Australia coastline is either within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area with high as published information conservation values or includes coastline with sea- improves. The most accurate estimates grass supporting valuable shrimp fisheries, meadows green turtle or dugong populations. The perceived importance of seagrasses in these regions, as well as concern about the downstream effects effects of and the fishing shipping of Broad-scale surveys conducted between 198^ and 1989 mapped seagrass habitats down m 15 to depth estuaries, shallow coastal bays and inlets, on in some fringing reefs, barrier reef platforms, inner reef and Great Barrier Reef Lagoon""'. Since 1989 there have been repeated surveys scales of resolution at finer in certain localities as a result of specific issues le.g. port developments, dugong protection areas). have repeated surveys for up more to four or at a locality Some studies once or twice yearly and shallow subtidal (down intertidal From Cape York approximately equal area Species southern Victoria. It has an area of 680 km' mud flat. of which 270 km' mud Intersecting the is intertidal flats is a series of the area of seagrass is of of both species, Halophila communities is (eastern region) From 1956 84 an because its of wide range of habitats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, salt marsh and deepwater channels. It is an interincluding nationally significant coastal wetland by nomination the to acknowledged Ramsar Convention on was sites. reported the bay'"' in A number banks. effects of loads a light result of in and 1983- to and seagrass was to 72 km', it on intertidal examined the causes of habitat'"'"'"' focusing on seagrass increased sediment reduction of water column. These studies also the in much seagrass of communities as "', of studies of a decrease From 1973-7i reduction macroalgal biomass, from 251 km' the diversity there at three (Rhyll, Corinella percent 85 on high biological subtidal. and Point Leo (southwest to 1974, Stony Point) of the four clockwise direction. of and intertidal examined the increased elevation banks, of intertidal the loss of pooling and the increased exposure of seagrasses desiccation, to a consequence of increased sediment inputs from catchment sources Zostera tasmanica and Zostera capncorni. The and resuspension of sediments in the water column. Annual sediment inputs from the northeastern catchment (>86200 mVyear) were found to be six to seven times the loads of sediments into other dominant macroalga associated with seagrass is regions of the bay (13000 algae, decline in light availability Wetlands. The bay consists of seagrass meadows, subtidal meadows and macro- algal communities. Caulerpa extensive intertidal The dominant seagrasses are with which, cactoides. comprises about 16 percent of other the total marine The catchment was cleared agriculture, of to the is the in now late 1800s for subject to inputs of suspended particulates"". Change distribution examined using Westernport north of Westernport Bay vegetation and the bay nutrients and seagrass causes such as the effects mVyear)"" leading in this to Other region. of industrial effluents on invertebrate fauna and subsequent reduced grazing vegetation. aerial Bay"^'. from 1956 photography The four to 2000 was at four sites sites in m were Rhyll (southern region), Corinella (eastern region], Stony 10 between 10 and 50 percent cover South dramatic loss an area less than Halodute and Yeppoon, the seagrass communities are mostly this is in Between Bowen and Yeppoon approximately 50 percent the area of the mainly intertidal Halodule of complex channels where sediment movement is influenced by the water movement patterns in a net Westernport Bay are found shelter from the is percent cover and mostly a mixture seagrass distribution and sparse and dense cover of Cymodocea and Synngodium of 70 percent WESTERNPORT BAY encloses two large islands water southeast winds. Between Cairns and Bowen, around region). a large estuarine tidal bay in m 15 Halophita species with shallow subtidal areas where there Point is to seagrass communities to Cairns, predominantly subtidal are Case Study 11.2 Westernport Bay seagrass of depth!''"'"'. of years'""'. is being constantly updated as mapping is along the northeast coast are 5668 km' meadows of agriculture, possibility an extensive mapping program. accidents""', have led to information of epiphyte loads were examined. evidence was found factor as the cause of seagrass loss. seagrass loss on and findings fish meadows enhancing fish numbers'"'. major The effects of populations were also studied suggested seagrass No conclusive that identified a single play that an Westernport important role Bay in production and marine invertebrate 1 Eastern Australia denser, with approximately 60 percent of the area of seagrass greater seagrass areas than dominated are subtidally by Waters Great Barrier Reef World Heritage of the m have been surveyed and much as 40000 km' as likely that support seagrass populations The map lagoon''". in this is present is it may of habitat that the reef in case was based on spatial and cannot be compared with probability map drawn a from global position system points taken on the edge a region information not yet available. of is and The Victorian Department but maps Fine-scale 470 km' for large for bays seagrass. Bay Smaller include Anderson, abundance have been of bays including Gippsland Lakes, Corner and Nooramunga Port Phillip of 11:100001 detailing seagrass species composition and estimates produced this Natural Resources of inlets of Victoria that include Inlets, Westernport Bay and inlets that Mallacoota, Tamboon and Wingham Inlets. communities include sparse meadow. Hacking, Port and Environment has recently produced maps and Halophila communities. Area deeper than 15 Hawkesbury by intertidally communities and Zostera/Halodule These cover percent 50 have been mapped Shallow, Sydenham, The dominant seagrass to dense meadows of Zostera tasmanica, Zostera capncorni and Posidonia New South Estimates of Wales, Victoria and Tasmania seagrass area in New South Wales from seagrasses mapping Subsequent macroalgal habitats showed large in estuaries of 113 km-' to was km' recorded increases, 1999'™', in in the 72 km' of in Despite be a to result total area of and in six Fisheries bioregions of mapped seagrass was 845 Boags, Flinders and Freycinet bioregions have been mapped primarily from aerial photographs and These regions are closest sediments from a to inputs of nutrients rapidly catchment with extensive agricultural Management strategies are being improve water quality in increased activities. implemented the northeast region is existing sediment resuspension issues and changes to intertidal of full bank topography recovery of seagrass will limit the possibility in this region. Westernport Bay between 1975 and 2000"". This trend has reduced light availability and reduced the biomass and productivity In of seagrasses. catchment April 2000, the effects of poor practices hundreds and water quality again of hectares a flood event. of Although some recovery has occurred over the meadows in resulted seagrasses being last lost Westernport Bay would still in during seagrasses of seagrass 15 years, appear to be threatened by flooding and high turbidity even over time periods as short as days to weeks. The range of information published from papers and technical reports on Westernport Bay fails conclusively to attribute a single cause to the dramatic loss of 1999, seagrasses recovery, seagrass from 1974 in the region had to 1984. By shown some more than doubling the area present 1984. Nevertheless, there are vast regions in in West- ernport Bay that have failed to recover, or they are at their threshold of survival during to by reducing flows of freshwater and loads of nutrients northeastern waters of the in and expanding urbanized suspended sediment concen- chlorophylls and trations km^ The seagrass and sediments. These strategies are useful, but poor water quality as of Tasmania. The Aquaculture of and Westernport Bay either remain of Tasmanian mapped areas these north the poor condition or have not recovered"'"'. This likely in further increase to 154 seagrasses the northeast regions in A 1995. in 1995 in seagrass and macroalgal cover that bay had partly recovered, from an area 1983-84 and seagrass Westernport Bay in the of The Institute 1 1 In of mapping in New South Wales the Conservation New South Wales Fisheries is presently estuaries. Division were 155 km* prior to 1985 mapping exercises australi^''". high turbidity"". Distribution of estuarine habitats in Westernport Bay, Australia. 127 128 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES LANDSAT (1:100000 or greater!. The Bruny bioregion has been mapped recently head with Posidonia species being replaced with "'. No Amphibolis along the gradient. Three genera. Zostera, in the Davey, Franl<lin and detail photography with extensive ground-truthing'^- mapping has been conducted Otway bioregions, but seagrass in it is there unlikely these because of exposure to much is ocean swells of high tannin loadings in estuaries and because coast have a species gradient from entrance to of the from aerial in (i.e. Ruppia and Lepilaena, are also found where mud environment, such as the Coorong which and less than m 2 intertidal lagoons with a marine Coastal occur. flats deep, are unique in is km 100 long They this region. Port Davey and Macquarie Harbour!'^". feature an association of marine and brackish water South gulf coast of Soutfi Australia Seagrasses in South Australia cover an area with genera such as Ruppia. Zostera and Lepilaena together some marine algae'""'. of approximately 9 620 km'. Shepherd and Robertson'"' USES recognize three seagrass zones: exposed coasts, gulfs Seagrass habitats and bays, and coastal lagoons, each with importance as nursery areas for juvenile different this region are noted for their in commercial shrimp penaeid species composition. The exposed coasts are mainly the patchy Posidonia typically where islands or reefs give northeastern Australia. Coles et local protection. The two gulfs which are main feature a a(.'"' taxa of fish and 20 shrimp species and fish fishery the seagrasses in EXPANSION OF GREEN ISLAND SEAGRASS MEADOWS coral systems. The Green reef meadows on reef platforms At a time when one of the in few in seagrass biomass and been widely reported. Green Island localities in the where expansion region found the Great Barrier Reef waters"". declines distribution have is many seagrass meadows are one of of eastern Australian seagrasses has been recorded. approximately 27 is a vegetated coral cay located km northeast of Cairns. Ground- truthmg and mapping in 1992, of seagrass distribution was 1993 and Systematic 1994. mapping by transects was adopted on each occasion and vertical aerial photography 11:120001 was used captured within the same season that if ground surveys were conducted. Transects were located along A compass bearings from permanent markers. theodolite geographic was used location of to accurately determine survey sites (±1.5 ml. Estimates of above-ground seagrass biomass (three replicates of a 0.25 m^ quadrat], species composition first visible northwest into the provide still photography were used permanent records. All data to were entered onto a geographic information system. Boundaries of seagrass meadows were determined based on the geographic position of a ground-truthed site and aerial and to photograph interpretation. rectified vertical aerial map the past 11936, Digitally scanned photographs were used 1959 and 1972) seagrass distribution to the northwest of Green Island Cay. in meadow of 0.39 ±0.3 ha was 1936 as an isolated patch near the tip of the cay It appears to have expanded back-reef area northwest of Green Island in the 1950s to a small patch covering approximately ±0.3 ha 1.1 ±1.3 ha in in 1959, It increased from the 1950s to 6.5 1972, 15.31 ±2.29 ha 1993 and 22.9 ±2.4 ha found little in 1992, 22,71 ±3.3 ha in 1994. A survey 1997 in change'^^'. 1994 Halodute uninervis (average above- In ground biomass, all sites pooled, 16.61 ±1.4 g dry was the dominant species in the meadow. Cymodocea rotundata was the next most common species 13.95 ±1 .6 g dry weight/m'l, with Cymodocea serrulata and Synngodium isoetifolium occurring in weight/m'l small patches of the meadow ±0.7 (4.12 g dry weight/m'l. Halophiia ovalis (0.91 ±0.3 g dry weight/ m^l occurred beyond the intermixed with intertidal Halodule uninervis and subtidal edges of the meadow. Thalassia hemprichiiwas uncommon meadow mam in the 10.03 ±0.02 g dry weight/m'l. has long been believed that the expansion of Green Island seagrass meadows was the result of and sediment depth were collected every 20 m. Underwater video and the interpretation of aerial photographs, a high-density seagrass in Green Island conducted From of seagrass Island It and anthropogenic disturbances on the biological reef. It was first thought that the increases the dense seagrass meadows Green Island Cay were linked to to the in area of northwest of increases in tourist visitation and increased nutrients from the adjacent sewage outfall. availability This is because in recorded 134 Case Study 11.3 Seagrasses are an integral and important part for low nutrient dominates reef habitats such as Green Island and seagrasses are nitrogen limited"". Eastern Australia of Cairns Harbour. Seagrasses also provide food for dugong and green sea turtle whicfi are the subject of conservation measures. little is worm and collecting bait or no gleaning activity on seagrasses in ef sum up al."" the values of seagrass in axioms: six basic recorded losses of seagrass are Australian Ivlost loads in been difficult the Quantifying loss of seagrass has vi/ater'"'. many in locations as maps indistinguishable from common sets are not map error'"'. many organisms; provision of food and shelter for cycles is to seagrass meadows recycling of nutrients; accurately measured and tracked. enable losses will development, Coastal provision of a nursery ground tor fish. to and remains an excellent summary this \/\evj of sewage system 1972, a In for hotel buildings on Green Island was established'™'. toilets Sewerage effluent from this was discharged onto December treatment facility was the Green Island reef for 20 years, until when 1992 completed. m^ tertiary a is It estimated that approximately 70-100 sewage was discharged per of treatment sewage the effluent, to day'"". With no raw essentially unknown] being dumped loads (nutrient was it onto the western edge of the reef platform. the managed through discharge in changes addition to regional in legislative nutrient availability. Seagrass composition Green Island con- at tinues to change, with a rapid increase the area of in Synngodium isoetifolium which the island the mid-1980s. With detailed in geographic changes the in information was system first recorded (GISj at maps and formats, the future can be readily quantified and dynamics of reef island seagrass meadows better understood. was, however, unlikely that sewage provided It the major nitrogen source, as Udy in While these issues raise considerable public interest and concern they are usually closely and public marina seagrass tourist regions of Australia's east coast. our of be more to dredging developments are generic threats the uses and values of seagrass. long-term natural impossible to estimate. Improved mapping high productivity; stabilizing effect on shorelines; may be Long-term data so the extent to which loss of seagrass can be attributed stability of structure; In are often imprecise or unreliable and local change eastern Australia. Larkum THREATS probably the result of light reduction due to sediment Apart from licensed there 129 measured et al"'" values from .3 to 1.7 1 in N2 1994, and recorded Source; Udy et a(."" and Queensland Department of Primary Industnes"*'. parts per thousand suggesting that the primary nitrogen source fertilizers or September leaf tissue '^N fixation"^'. If comes from either the primary nitrogen source was from sewage, the seagrass would have had a 10 parts per leaf tissue '^N value closer to thousand"^'. could be It would have been higher sewage discharge in conservative highly nitrogen in assumed that '^N values prior to the cessation of duo to recycling internal of the seagrass. Also, the expansion of the seagrass before the raw 1992. but '^N values tend to be sewage pipe was meadow installed indicates that increased nutrient availability associated with the sewage the outfall in meadow 1972 was not a primary cause of expansion. This suggests other factors including water seepage and nutrient translocation from the cay, (agriculture availability in as well as changes regional and urban development! Great Barrier Reef water caused the observed expansion prior nutrient in to may have 1972. |S]1936 r, continued expansion of the seagrass 1972 may have been influenced meadow by the ^1972 H1959 The jcayvegytation reet.flal after sewage Seagrass distribution at Green Island in 1994, 1972, 1959, 1936. -P T ,^ X?i 130 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Although deepwater seagrasses are the least understood community, seagrass could they impacted by coastal runoff land associated reduction! and to some extent prawn/shrimp trawling although the scale "', activities" unknown and be light any impact of is largely determine. difficult to SEAGRASS PROTECTION Seagrasses habitat are crustaceans that many in juvenile for subsistence and/or basis of economically valuable commercial meadow on Thalassia hemprichii flat adjacent to Rhizophors forest, way has a sustainable Approaches processes and tfie actual areas of seagrass destroyed Coastal agriculture may add catchments and the presence sediments'" '"' is to sediment loads herbicides of in seagrass in a worrying trend, as unlike small-scale ities have regulations and policies that Approaches seagrass tend environment are many kilometers away specific. to The approach used depends changes of the Ivjurray in River catchment which extends from South Australia up Queensland thousands to central Port development and the can Influence seagrass survival management of risk and many sheltered seagrass sites are also Important port locations. The configuration lanes shipping of northeastern in Papua Australia directs large ships transiting south of New Guinea Great Barrier Reef Lagoon waters. into Shipping accidents remain a major concern for coastal habitats and, while devastating. Major to provide advice infrequent, programs can exist in the be potentially western Pacific Estuarlne seagrass communities are increasingly "'. As eastern provincial centers develop along the Queensland coast, affected in rivers and Inlets to maintain these seagrass habitats and the fisheries they support'"'. habitats are threatened development as well as the Impacts poorly managed associated with catchments, large these approach and tools common law. no International legislation, there Is Is (e.g. the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Convention on Conservation Wild Animals Diversity! of the and the need for a set of Convention and values the location of the Migratory Species of of on Biological standardized data on seagrasses. Numerous studies worldwide have presented ideas for seagrass Cappo protection. pressures on e( a/."'"' fish habitats summarized the main and seagrasses Lee Long a/."", et at""' in Australia. and Coles and Fortes"" expanded the implications for research and management, a discussion that has Australian as well as global relevance. are often highly and need careful management Coastal to a large extent British In at least state a global acceptance through International conventions Leadbltter ef on shipping-related incidents"". the most threatened of the seagrass habitats Australia" While there origin protecting to to the cultural Australia In approaches have their kilometers north. of community; the law and in with jurisdictions apply. eastern Australia In on the tools available nutrients and freshwater flows may be location specific or sheds. The Coorong Lakes seagrasses are affected by in government author- small over control large areas. Often the risk factors for the seagrass upper water- and legal documents that are not policy in readily available. Local or regional coastal developments, this has the potential to destroy In management decisionmuch of the information coastal to are complex, and making exists only are generally small. itself to seagrasses"". for the protection of Piper Reef. Queensland- manage fisheries In become a motivating factor The need fisheries. and fish parts of the world form the of by coastal runoff from particularly bays such as when Botany Bay, Moreton Bay and Hervey Bay. Protection by legislation In the eastern Australian states of without a permit"' directly South Wales defined as "a plant to, "'. Queensland, the legislation In marine plants. Marine plants are protects or adjacent Reef seagrass habitats are the least threatened New and Queensland, marine plants cannot be damaged (a tidal plant] tidal land, that usually whether grows living, on, dead, standing, or fallen", a definition which includes living washed upon seagrass community with minor damage from boating plants as well as seagrass plant material and shipping the beach. This definition recognizes the role of even activities. High tourist visitation rates and associated sewage and poor anchoring practices are identified as a threat at some localities. Acute Impacts such as ship groundings and associated spills impact heavily on reef platform seagrasses. would dead plant material in the bacterial cycle that ultimately supports fisheries productivity. The Queensland destruction or damage Fisheries of Act"" allows for seagrass only when a permit Eastern Australia has been assessed and issued. permit issue All must be taken directed by a policy that person delegated under the Act the is account by into make to the common are MPAs specific to a site protect an area identified alternative exists. states such as Queensland, fines In to important ecosystem functions. The Queensland Fisheries Act"" allows The policy requires that no reasonable decision. and designed having as establishment for the areas IFHAsI that include of fish habitat in excess of US$0.5 million are applicable for damaging seagrasses. with the possibility of associated areas of coastal seagrass. FHAs are usually small |up to restoration orders. to well Australian eastern All protections either Fisheries Acts or in have states or Ivlarine Park Acts. Australia, has approxi- fisheries protect MPAs designated specifically we should that critical to fisheries"". been has there years recent In realization areas over structure habitat considered especially important or National Park in fact, in similar several thousand hectares! growing a and identify protect instruments that directly influence representative examples of the diversity of habitats and marine plant and/or seagrass management"", not processes upon which species depend rather than just mately 'iO legislative including regulations and subsidiary legislation may management also be operationally vital to seagrass protection. An example this of would be areas where bottom limits fisheries legislation that plans that as areas identified as having characteristic'™'. typical of the chosen A some especially important representative area is an area that surrounding habitats or ecosystem scale. This is at a approach would: trawling can take place. maintain biological diversity at the ecosystem. Protection by nnarine protected areas iMPAs) allow species to evolve and function undisturbed; Overlying state and local approaches, Australia also provide has national legislation addressing international issues the human-induced and natural disasters; provide a solid ecological base from which Endangered threatened species or habitats can recover or and genetic habitat, species, population such as Species and treaties conventions International Trade Convention on including in heritage area declarations. The Great World Heritage Area protected is 40000 km' level of unique is that legislation by the in working levels which of is much as afforded a MPA. This can lead by the in possibly has as it much of seagrass'^', protection confusingly high scientist in regulation; of a to seagrass east coast tropical Queensland requires permits and margin against safety maintain ecological processes or systems. Barrier Reef world's largest MPA, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. This ecological repair themselves; Wild Fauna and Flora ICITESI and world of an levels; must meet conditions from Typical approach detailed establishing of to protecting maps and the need for very is data on species and quantitative biomass. Presently this information many of area representative a seagrasses inadequate for is our seagrass areas. Compiling a global report card and synthesis of seagrass knowledge will provide a base for future protective decisions and implementation. national and state authorities. However, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park model would the money not be appropriate in many situations as fund a large administrative authority, to support, ongoing research and long-term legislative and compliance monitoring, not is More available. REFERENCES 1 Walker Dl. Rob Coles, Len McKenzie and Stuart Campbell, Queensland Department of in Australia: Strategic In: Lee Long WJ, Mellors JE, Coles RG [1993]. seagrasses in Coles RG, Poiner seagrasses AJ, of IR, Kirkman H ledsl Biology ol 4035 0111. seagrasses Ivlarine in the and Freshwater [19991. Seagrasses. In: Maragos JE, 7|2|: 7 In: the Tropical Island Pacilic Region: and Conservation Priorities. Pacific Science Association. Larkum AWD, den Hartog C seagrasses. for In: [1989]. Evolution Larkum AWD, McComb Biology ol Seagrasses: 345-348. East-West A AJ, and biogeography Shepherd SA of ledsl Treatise on the Biology ol Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region. 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Validation A Report Long-term changes of the seagrass surveys between Cairns and Bowen - Western DPI, QFS, Cairns. CD-ROM, Coles RG, McKenzie LJ, Yoshida RL [200td). Validation and GIS of CD-ROM. Coles RG, McKenzie LJ, Yoshida RL [2001e). Validation and GIS of Coles RG, Lee Long WJ. McKenzie LJ. Roder of in the CA [edsl [20011). Dugong Protection Upstart Bay. Newry Region. Sand Bay. Ince Bay, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Cairns. of seagrass 45 Status of Seagrass Hyland SJ, Courtney AJ, Butler CT [1989). Distribution of Seagrass in the Moreton Bay Region from Coolangatta Queensland Department of to Noosa. Primary Industries Information Series QI89010. QFS, Brisbane. Ayling AM. Roelofs AJ. McKenzie LJ, Lee Long WJ 11997). Port of Cape Flattery Benthic Monitoring Baseline Survey in iPebruaryl 1996. EcoPorts Monograph Series No. 1983. Internal Report Series No. 38, Marine of of Authority. Wales 109: 51-60. - 5. Wet Season Ports Corporation of Queensland. Brisbane. [2001). Victorian Seagrass Mapping - First Ports Corporation of 1999. Final report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park coastal saline Long term changes. Proceedings Science Laboratories, Victoria. D 15. Llewellyn Bay and Clairview Region, April/May 1999 and October 46 [1983a). S. Ball Seagrass Monitoring Coles RG. McKenzie LJ, Yoshida RL [2001b). Validation and GIS of Areas northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia. Aquatic Botany May Strait, 1997. CSIRO, Cleveland. Seagrass and marine resources the 297-310. in Torres October/November 1988. DPI, QFS. Cairns. CD-ROM. Steffensen Larkum AWD. Botany Bay, Australia. Aquatic BotanyZl: 55-70. Westernport of Conservation Planning Final seagrass surveys between Water Park Point and Her^iey Bay - 9H\: 311-326, Connolly RM, Edyvane KS [2001). Large seagrass DA Strait March/April 1987. DPI, QFS, Cairns. and and beach-cast macroalgae and AJ, Bulthuis DA, Shepherd SA AJ, Seagrass Communities seagrass surveys between Bowen and Water Park Point - [1997), Ecological significance of drifting Australia, Journal ol King RJ, Hodgson Blake of Lee Long WJ. Roelofs AJ, Roder CA, Coles RG DPI. QFS, Cairns, 41 of Australia. Australia: Slate of the on the Biology ol Seagrasses with Special Reference 28 gaps within seagrass surveys between Cape York and Cairns - November 1984. Australian Region. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 346-393, Bulthuis Natural Primary Industries. Unpublished data. of EcoPorts Monograph Series No. Great Barrier Reef. Seagrass Research DA. West R 11989), Decline of seagrasses. 27 of Coles RG. McKenzie LJ. Yoshida RL [2001a]. Validation and GIS 11998). Port of Mourilyan Environment, Canberra, of the H. seagrasses 66[4): Department 39. Queenscliff. Victoria. capncorni [Aschersl seagrass meadow, October/November 1987. lagoons of Port Phillip Bay. Institute, 11999). Recovery of experimentally created and GIS Seagrasses [1997). commercial harvesting 26 MA Kirkman H Department 25 Seagrass Mapping Methods. Elsevier Science BV. Amsterdam. McComb Port Phillip Victoria. Queensland. Brisbane. seagrass of Short FT, Coles Kirkman in Dennison WC, Abal EG [1999). Moreton Bay Study A Scientific Report. fruit Environment, Technical Paper Series lEstuaries and the Seal, 24 12001). Northern Australia. Torres Marine Ecology Progress Series 185: 257-271. Australia. 23 D Ball S, Seagrass Ministry for Conservation, Victoria. seagrass surveys between Cape York and Tarrant Point - Cockle Bay. Queensland. Australia: A UdyJW, Dennison WC, Lee LongWJ, McKenzie LJ Responses 22 Blake 5. Ecology 235: 183-200. 37 44: 43-57. Research 21 981). Distribution ol Queensland. Australia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and iHydrocharitaceael. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater 20 [1 Rasheed [edsl of tropical Lee Long WJ, Coles RG [1993]. Occurrence and and seed biology 19 Natural Resources and of October/November 1986. DPI. QFS. Cairns. CD-ROM WR, mtertidal seagrasses Kuo DA 36 pp 41-50. decade Marine Habitat Database: Department Queensland Department Faculty of Sciences. University of Western Australia, Perth. 18 Bulthuis a tropical Zostera Roltnest Island Western Australia 25-29 January, 1996- Birch Institute, 35 Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop, 17 [1997). Victorian Basis for the Healthy Waterways Campaign. South East how Kirkman H of Brisbane. 246 pp. Pacific Conservation Biology i: 251-259, Lee Long WJ, Coles RG. McKenzie LJ [1996a), Deepvuater seagrasses Department Queensland Regional Water Quality Management Strategy. the recruitment behaviour of seagrass seeds: Implications for population dynamics and resource management. D R. Ball Resources and Environment. Report No Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia. Aquatic Botany 52: 3-17. 1 Roob Marine and Freshwater Resources Preen AR. Lee Long WJ. Coles RG [1995). Flood and cyclone related and Gippsland Lakes Fisheries J [1996). Plan, Gippsland Region and Fisheries. Technical Report No. 33: 273-283. Freshwater Research Malcolm J. Resources some of Strong Environment. Queenscliff, Victoria. ii: 1337-1352. Bridges KW, Phillips RC, Young PC [1982). Patterns loss, in Gippsland Lakes Seagrass Mapping. Marine and Freshwater biomass and shoot Cairns Harbour. Northern Queensland. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research U Shoot and abundance Natural Resources and Environment. October 1996, Victoria. processes and controls. Bulletin of Marine of key characteristic of a Zostera capncorni lAschers.) dominant 13 SJ, Miller CJ [2002). Management 31 McKenzie LJ in 30 north east Science. 12 Campbell 73111:33-46. 321-328. 5: Natural Resources and of Westernport estuary [south-eastern Austrahal. Aquatic Botany Queensland. Pacific Conservation in Department characteristics ol the seagrass Heterozostera tasmanica seagrass for Institute. Environment, Report No, 29. Queenscliff, Victoria. 29 Freshwater Researches-- 121-131, 10 Resources and Marine Habitat Database: Port. Marine and Freshwater 47 McKenzie LJ. Seagrasses in Lee Long WJ. Bradshaw EJ [1997). Distribution the Lizard Island Group - of A Reconnaissance Survey. Eastern Australia CRC October 1995. Reef Research Technical Report No. U. NFC. 64 48 McKenzie LJ, Roder CA, Roelofs AJ. Lee Long WJ flood Monitoring of Seagrasses in Lee Long WJ, l^cKenzie Communities Coles LJ, the Stioalwater in RG 66 Bay Region, Queensland - Spring Department an Primary Industries Information Series QI96042. 67 Lee Long WJ, McKenzie LJ, Roelofs AJ, l^akey [1 Coles RG, Roder LJ, 998], Baseline Survey of Hinchinbrook Region Seagrasses - October ISpnngI 1996. Research Publication No. 51. 68 Great Barrier the Derwent - Integrating Science and Management. Final report 71 Natural Heritage Trust. 69 pp. J, m Institute. V, Jordan A [2001], of the for 72 73 Strait. In: (edsl Biology of Larkum AWD, McComb to the Australian Region. Coles RG, Lee Long WJ, Watson RA, Derbyshire KJ [1993]. DM Small U: Freshwater Research In: RG Ministry for Conservation. Victoria. for and assessment ofanR&D Plan Michalek-Wagner K [2000al. Water 77 directions. Marine Pollution Bulletin the herbicide Diuron on photosynthesis monitoring MannePoKudoneuHetin in management. Queensland In: 78 in Westernport, A Proposal LS, Victoria. Watson GF [1993]. Final Report to Sargeant 1 Marine Sciences, (19771. in for FRDC Commercial Southern Australia. Victorian Victoria. A Review of the Extent and Environmental Effects Series Publication No. 174. Ministry for Conservation. Victoria. itV. Lee Long WJ, Coles RG. Helmke SA. Bennett RE [1989]. Seagrass Habitats of three species of tropical to in Coastal. Mid Shelf and Reef Waters from Lookout Point Barrow Point in North-eastern Queensland. QDPI Report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Queensland Department 41: 288-293. [2001]. Fisheries habitat of tropical ports - a tool for port 80 Primary Industries, Cairns. Baxter IN [19901. Green Island Information Review. Report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority - August 31 Great Proceedings of the 15th Australasian . Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville. Australasian Port and Harbour Conference, 15th- 18th September 81 Morissette N [19921. Identifying Areas of Seagrasses within the Great Barrier Reef Region Threatened by Anthropogenic Activibes. 2001. pp 89-95. Lee Long WJ, McKenzie Monitoring seagrasses Walker in of Erosion in the Westernport Catchment. Environmental Studies Coastal and Ocean Engineering Conference and the 8th Phillips RC. Hammond Edgar GJ, Fisheries of Loss of Seagrass Beds quality in the Great Dennison B [2000bl. The impact Rasheed MA. Coles RG, Thomas R Seagrass : 79 J, [1984]. Loss of Committee on the Project 88/91 Consequences CSIRO, 428-434. seagrasses. DA Further Research. 1984/85. Internal Report Series No. 72. Institute of Prange Westernport. Victoria. Australia. Journal of Bulthuis Barrier Reef World Heritage Area: Past perspectives, current new research in 76 Collmgwood. pp 116-139. P, seagrass Heterozosfera tasmanica [Martens ex : Butler A, Jernakoff P (edsl Seagrass in Australia: Ralph of the Marine Science Laboratories. [1999]. Monitoring Strategic Review and Development issues and Primary Industries. Cairns. [1983b]. Effects of in situ light reduction on density and Shapiro [1975]. Westernport Bay Environmental Study l973-7i. 193-210. M, Lavery P, Coles seagrass. of 75 Queensland. Australia. Austraban Journal of f^anne and Dl, LJ. in Rasheed MA. Coles RG tropical ports Kirkman H (edsl Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Townsville. [1996b]. and harbours. In: Kuo J, 82 Seagrass Biology: Udy JW. Dennison of three WC (19971. seagrass species Growth and physiological responses to elevated nutrients in Moreton Bay. Proceedings of an International Workshop, Rottnest Island, Australia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology Western Australia 25-29 January, 253-277. 1996. Faculty of Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, pp 345-350. Coles RG, Lee Long WJ, Squire BA, Squire LC. Bibby [1987]. Distribution of 83 JM seagrasses and associated juvenile commercial penaeid prawns in north-eastern Queensland waters. Australia Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38: 103-119. [1995]. Final Report to the Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology kl 91-103. Cairns Harbour, a tropical estuary, northern in DA Bulthuis growth prawn Distribution of seagrasses, and their fish and penaeid communities, D. ASEAN the pp. Derbyshire KJ. Willoughby SR. McColl AL, Hocroft Aschers.l den Hartog 57 Haynes in Hastie TJ, Tibshirani RJ [19901. Generalized Additive Models. Department 74 Amsterdam. D. of Queensland Fisheries Management Authority. Queensland AJ, Seagrasses: A Treatise on the Biology http;//wv™.environment.sa. gov.au (accessed July 20021. Haynes Program. GBRMPA, Townsville. 18 pp MD 11989). Seagrasses: A Resource Unknown Prawn Habitat and Recruitment Study - seagrass of 56 of An Overview Fisheries Research and Development Corporation and the (1989). Regional studies - Shepherd SA, Robertson EL Thomas Printer. Chapman and HaU. London. Tasmanian http://www.utas.edu.au/docs/tafi/TAFl_Homepage.html (accessed Elsevier, 63 Queensland Government Fortes Management. Manila. 46 South-Eastern Tasmania 84 pp. ofSeagrasses with Special Reference 62 [1994]. Region. International Center lor Living Aquatic Resources Lawler M, Halley Inshore Marine Habitats of South Australia and Bass 61 Queensland Fisheries Act the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Representative Areas Jordan AR. LawlerM. HalleyV [2001]. Estuarine Habitat Mapping Shepherd SA 60 [1998]. Fish Habitat Protection Plan No. 2; Fisheries. Brisbane, 137 pp. http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/legislation.htm July 20021. 59 NSW Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 11999]. Marine Protected Areas. Technical report 58 D A. Pollard http://chnsweb.dpi.qld.au/chri5 Aquaculture and Fisheries 55 Smith 70 Mapping Project Austraba: Strategic Review and Development of 69 Barrett N, Sanderson FRDC CSIRO, Collmgwood. pp 140-171. http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/fishing and aquaculture/bays and inlets to the 54 in R&D Plan. Reef Ivlanne Park Authority, Townsville. in 53 Williams D. Duke N [19981. A Review and - implications for research. In: Butler A. Jernakoff P Seagrass Seagrasses. (accessed July 20021. 52 D. Leadbitter D, Lee Long W. Dalmazzo P [1999]. Seagrasses and their management (edsl CA 51 Cappo M, Alongi ISeptemberl 1995 and Autumn lApnll 1996. Queensland of Seagrass Research ledsl Global No. 95/055. AIMS. Townsville. Cairns. Seagrass 11997]. RG Coles Synthesis of Australian Fisheries Habitat Research. QDPI, Brisbane. 50 65 and Fistienes Management. DPI Information Series QI00059. DPL 49 Great Sandy ttie Protecting seagrass - approaches and [2001] R. Short In: Methods. Elsevier Science BV. Amsterdam. 120001. Post- Hervey Bay and 1999: Implications for Dugong. Turtle Strait, M Coles RG. Fortes methods QDPI. Cairns. Grice AM. Loneragan NR. Dennison WC and Ecology 217: [1996]. Light intensity and the interaction between physiology, morphology and stable isotope ratios m five species of seagrass. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology m:<}]-1]0. 133 134 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSE5 The seagrasses 12 of NEW ZEALAND G.J. Inglis Zealand lAotearoal New number of New flora of two species also occurs quite Until shallow estuaries subject recently, the platform reefs exposed Zealand was thought to consist eastern Australia, and an endemic in species, Zostera novazelandica. ITwo species of Ruppia - Ruppia polycarpa and Ruppia megacarpa brackish and freshwater wetlands considered not are but in further - also New occur Zealand'", here.l Zostera novazelandica was originally described by Setchell 1933 on the basis of morphological variation within variation there patches that range natural stands of Zostera in in many This variation populations'^"'. considerable uncertainty identification over the past in " extent'*' occur "'. urban muelleri, Zostera marina molecular phytogeny recent Zostera the of ". A Zostera group, however, demonstrated that Zostera capricorni and Zostera novazelandica are, there likely is to in fact, conspecific and that be only a single species Zealand, hereafter referred to in New as Zostera capricorni''". m" to 15 m'' such centers, Despite the Zostera capricorni its few Inlet New in capricorni in the of studies is of its extent, may many New Zealand estuaries. absent occurs New in of Part of the reason for this small areas within, have been mapped Harbour, and estuaries Zealand, there have been published relative scarcity in Zostera to relatively wide geographic distribution demography or ecology be with Parengarenga as Whanganui Spit, relatively in appear waters that are situated away from major turbid estuaries nana, embayments estuaries and in clear, tidal New Zealand and Zostera tasmanica"'-^ 1 largest persistent stands The relatively Zostera a of and which exhibit large interannual fluctuations century, and workers have variously referred to the Zostera as of eastern Coromandel Peninsula. has caused and on of in New In large, mosaic Farewell Zealand and reproductive structures occur infrequently wind from less than size in '". fetch, ' location'^ oceanic waves, stands in quite large morphological is to to biomass and extent, in Zostera capricorni typically consist vegetative characters, using a relatively limited sample of plants'". In tact, Stands vary the lie Zostera: Zostera capricorni, which of '". depending upon their in smaller islands whicfi Ocean. Pacific seagrass in assemblages'^ stability, southern of an isolated archi- is pelago, consisting of two main islands and a from, many or of in the shallow, Zealand. Seagrass habitats New only 22 of Zealand's 300- plus estuaries (Table 12.11. The areas that have been mapped typically represent less than 3 percent of the total intertidal area of tidally Inlet each estuary. Exceptions include dominated embayments, such as Whanganui and Whangamata, where seagrass meadows cover up to 31 percent and 18 percent of the intertidal New DISTRIBUTION area, respectively. Just over half (5^ percent] of Zostera capricorni occurs throughout the mainland Zealand's estuaries are unsuitable for seagrass growth coast of New Zealand, from Parengarenga Harbour the north to Stewart Island 12.2). It is in in the south (Tables 12.1 and found predominantly between mid and low tidal levels in estuaries and sheltered harbors'"". On the eastern the two coastline of they are in around the mouths likely to many of rivers"", so be a relatively Zostera capricorni uncommon benthic habitat is in estuarine environments. main islands, patchy stands of Zostera capricorni also occur on the tops of siltstone platform reefs as they are shallow, barrier-formed estuaries, built open coastal areas, where interspersed with algal beds and assemblages more characteristic of rocky, biotic intertidal ECOSYSTEM DESCRIPTION Zostera capricorni stands elsewhere in assemblage in New Zealand, like those the world, support a diverse and abundant of invertebrates that is often richer than s E New Zealand The composition unvegetated habitats nearby" Piliviifitjii'ufid thirhi'lir llouhora Ifafhutir of the invertebrate assemblages varies with the size and stability the seagrass stand and of relative to other habitats"", V position its Auckland (_ -^ ^Ujiuikati lliirlxmi branch gastropods are distinctive r AS,HAS of the epibenthic fauna''". Small crustaceans and polychaetes, SEA Kinvliia Wuimcti godwit. pied and royal spoonbill: and stilt I'liiii iiik:ii Harhom llurNni hilcl larcwcll Spir Wlum^umii \ hilt I v.; such as the South island pied oystercatcher. bar- tailed nf oniiUHlcl PcmnMil; f Whangamata I ID'S which are particularly abundant within seagrass meadows, are important sources of food for wading birds, .tfhdttfiiini llmhitlir Koipulti lliirhnir Builomorph and proso- components 135 Te Angiangi Marine Ressrve for Puniiliiliiiniii \ IiiIl'I Okonli) Lii^oiMi fishes such as and stargazers mullet, Seagrass fragments are also flatfish""'. juvenile common a ' Kailiiun. ^ boutn Island 15- • riittiii liiiy food of garfish (family Hemirhamphidael, which are Wailuiia and stutchburyi, other seagrass habitats" exclusively restricted more abundant have authors and also between the distribution association beds is A is New cycle of the Pecten exist in ' 200 300 Kdometets Olii^o lUirhiiir hyuniti lltii 180' 170'^E Map 12.1 New Zealand determine how their distribution and extent have changed over time. Seagrass meadows undoubtedly supported elements of the economies of pre-European and early European given life Zostera to in New capricorni Zealand. The by New name Zealand's areas where Zostera survey of more than 25 harbors in Zealand suggests that seagrasses may newly settled nursery habitats for important be Pecten scallop, • not present'™'. recent northern life seagrasses of not dependent on seagrass habitats and commercial stocks capricorni Zealand However, the '''. novazelandiae" novazelandiae New the of are often but them as juveniles. Several drawn a strong historical Mnnd 165' E in these species are not seagrasses, to within common are bivalves 100 *• Sicw-jn "'^". l^^lany of ^ Lagoon small cockles, Austrovenus of ^^^ ZEALAND Ihrhmr popular with recreational fishermen'"'. Large densities IVTiin.Mil.1 Table 12.1 Area of seagrass in habitats have been New Zealand estuaries where benttiic | mapped snapper [Pagrus auratus, family Sparidael'"'. Snapper is New arguably fish and is Zealand's most sought-after marine recreational fishery. Adult snapper spawn but juveniles are found predominantly and shallow estuaries during their they move in first in large bays, sheltered bays summer, before Zostera capricorni Ikm'l Mahurangi Harbour"*' Pahurehure (Manukau Harbour of few other coastal New River Estuary"" sandy reaches of estuaries, the seagrass growth. Juveniles in are fishes areas most favorable to of other estuarine and abundant also clear-water, in in seagrass meadows"''. The presence of platform reefs allows Zostera capricorni on siltstone some estuarine species to inhabit Manaia Estuary'^" where it Zostera capricorni on siltstone feeds on seagrass Macrophthalamus hirtipes is and detritus mud associated invertebrates'^^'. On estuarine flats, more widespread and not Harbour™ 1.25 Wharekawa Estuary'™' Estuary'™' Otahu Estuary'™' Kouma Estuary'™' Thames"" Tauranga Harbour'"' it 0.50 0.002 0.052 0.30 29,33 Ohiwa Estuary"" 1.07 Waimea 0.28 Estuary"^' 0.009 Havelock"" Inlet'™' Avon-Heathcote Estuary"" HISTORICAL CHANGES IN DISTRIBUTION The lack of detailed mapping and long-term study difficult seagrass habitats in New Zealand makes 0.05 0.51 Whanganui necessarily restricted to seagrasses. 0.27 Whangamata Firth of in 0.94 Tairua Harbour'"' endemic burrowing crab Macrophthalamus occurs exclusively g Kaipara Harbour"" Whitianga Te hirtipes 0.33 ,71 Matal<ana Harbour"" these open coastal environments. For example, the reefs, Inlet Arm habitats and appear to occur mostly 0.03 Whangateau Harbour"" to deeper coastal waters'™'. Snapper under one year old have been found coastal Total area of Estuary large commercial and the subject of a 8.59 0.137 Kaikorai Estuary"" of to Harwood, Otago Harbour'"' 0.82 1 xl/ 136 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES indigenous Maori - rimurehia - suggests have recognized the value food underground rhizome. Rimu is tinat of may they described Zostera as "extremely square yards the general term for plant I'"'. Seagrass leaves were also as occasionally used by Maori to adorn items of clothing. Hamilton 1901 described in made from Historical accounts by early meadows were suggest that them as in "common areas 1869 described Oliver "very plentiful" and occurring "many places in Island'''"'. many sheltered of mud and as covering "extensive flats between the tides""". meadows Zostera 1923 described extensive in Golden Stewart Bay, "masses Leonard Cocl<ayne I1855-193i) the lagoons and estuaries which of coast"'"', of Parengarenga Harbour, Tauranga Harbour and in the colony" from the top of the North Island to Stewart in occur along the quite widespread at the in upholstered This suggestion does not appear to have "'. been acted upon. Other accounts describe Zostera as seagrass'"'. European naturalists end of the 19th century. Colenso and mattresses for stuffing a furniture"' widows wearing mourning caps [potae taua] that had veils two authors London, where dried Zostera fetched between £7 10s and £10 per ton usually algael with tutu berries, the fruit of a wetland [Conana spp many seagrass was least at for export to it shallow in floor... for at a time"'"*". At that time, proposed harvesting stew that was made by boiling marine plants Imore common muddy "covers the it apparently so abundant that or sea plant and rehia v^as a type of jelly-lil<e seaweed where estuaries" starchy its Island'"'. According him, to Zostera" were occasionally torn of up by Table 12.2 List of locations where seagrasses have been recorded New Zealand in Description Location Parengarenga Harbour"" Extensive tidal sand flats 142 km'l mostly covered and Muriwhenua Wetlands""' in seagrass. Important feeding grounds for large fish bird populations Includes Houhora (10.5 km'l and Rangaunu Harbours 174 km'l. Extensive tidal sand flats mostly covered dense beds in of seagrass, supporting abundant mollusks, polychaeles, anemones, asteroids and crustaceans. Important feeding grounds Some Whangapoua Wetlands'"' Seagrass present on Waitemata Harbour'"' Seagrass meadows much reduced since 1960s, now Tairua Estuary'™' Around 1.25 km'' in Whangamata Around 0.51 km' Around 0.50 km' Wharekawa Estuary'™' Estuary'™' Extensive Kaipara Harbour'"' Manul<au Harbour'"' ""' mud until late 1960s. flats leal 4% of the area]. Significant site for shellfish in small abundance 1995, covering ca 23% of in 1995, covering ca 18% of the tidal flats in 1 covenng ca 32% of the tidal flats and sand flats Extensive intertidal 995. mud flats, bird populations recent recovery Lush seagrass beds present mud and for large fish Whangarei Harbour'"-"' in a gathenng range of locations the tidal flats but limited area of seagrass flats with large beds of seagrass in the 1960s. Current stands are patchy and temporally variable Firth of Internationally important feeding area for waterfowl Thames'"' tidal flats of ca Seagrass beds often present on Kawhia Harbour'"' Tauranga Harbour'"' ''' Around 29.3 km' of Mal(etu-Waihi Estuaries'"' Intertidal Ohiwa Harbour'"™"' About 23.8 km' flats tidal sand and mud Sitel. Around 0.3 km' of seagrass on flats seagrass remaining 119961. Decline meadows. Important mud IRamsar 85 km' Traditional food gathenng area. Important local fishenes for snapper and flounder shellfishery, and sand flats 34% of spawning and nursery areas have local areas of intertidal flats with 1.1 km' of of overall from 1959 and for manne 90% in subtidal fishes seagrass seagrass. Outstanding importance as an area for traditional shellfish collection Ahurin Estuary and Wetlands'^ Patches of seagrass in the marine reaches of the estuary, along with Ruppia and green algae. Important nursery for fish. High diversity and abundance of invertebrates, especially cockles Te Angiangi Manne Reserve-East Te Tapuwae Pauatahanui Rongokako Inlet'^" Patches of seagrass on coastal reefs. Marine reserve Patches of seagrass on coastal reefs. Marine resen/e Large areas of Zostera capricorni on the banks of the inlet near deltas Pauatahanui streams Farewell Spit'"'*" Extensive areas of sand and mud Hats. Large areas of seagrass. Internationally important area lor waterfowl IRamsar sitel of Horokiwi and New Zealand storms and washed onto beaches or swept out sea to grounds in the nnajor South Island In "covered to In city. mud Chnstchurch, lining the sand banks of "lush paddocks" of seagrass that grew disappearance and stuttering recovery of Zostera By 1929, the "lush paddocks" had been reduced to sparse, meadows was small patches'"'. Loss tidal flats, but areas'"'. the estuary and in Location Description Whanganuilnlet'^'"' Large seagrass beds fishes. Extensive bar-built estuary. Around. 0.28 Zostera capricorni on Large Inlet'"' mud flats Charlotte]'"' Wairau Lagoons"'-'" Patches of the inlet. km^ of seagrass deposits on the rock platform and on manne and Extensive areas of algae, Ruppia ''^^ northern part mud flats freshwater fishes manne and megacarpa and some Zostera. Nursery freshwater fishes Zostera capricorni present on coastal siltstone reefs at Wairepo flats and l^ludstone Bay Karamea Estuary'^" Mud Saltwater Lagoon'^" Bare or sparsely vegetated OkantoLagoon'^''"' Middle reaches of lagoon dominated by Zostera. upper reaches charactenzed by dense beds Avon-Heathcote Estuary, Chnstchurch'^''"' flats Akaroa Harbour"" with extensive areas of seagrass and large densities of invertebrates tidal mud flats of Ruppia, Lepidena and Nitella Patches seagrass grow between low and mid of abundant pnor gathenng in Zostera capricorni present of habitat for Kaikoura Peninsula'*' 1999, with extensive beds of Zostera capncorni and shellfish. Important nursery for Waikawa Bay (Queen in Marine reserve Parapara Moutere same year in many show a total the in Seagrass losses have also been reported manne silt to 1929. Nationally South Island sites for tide close to the important area for waterfowl. Maon in Avon Channel. Seagrass more Among the most important food pre-European times Extensive areas of seagrass on tidal flats at Duvaechelle and Takamatua Bays Purau Bay, Lyttieton Harbour"" Patches Brooklands Lagoon'""' Scattered, large circular patches of Zostera capricorni prior to 1978, Otago Harbour'""' Around 0.8 km' New of seagrass of seagrass on tidal flats at None recorded in 1991 Harwood Extensive mud flats with seagrass. Important source of iiaimoana. Nationally important wildlife area Awarua Bay"" Extensive mud flats with seagrass. Important source of kaimoana. Nationally important wildlife area Toetoes Harbour"" Mud River Estuary"" flats with extensive areas of seagrass and large densities of invertebrates. Nationally important wildlife area Mud Freshwater"" Paterson Inlet. flats beyond the river mouth support seagrass Stewart Island"" seagrass on coastal reefs Moeraki Beach"" Patches Mahurangi Harbour"" Around 0.03 km' in 1999 Whangateau Harbour"" Around 0.33 km' in 1999 consisting Whitianga Harbour""' Around Manaia Harbour""' Around 0.27 km' in 1995, covering ca 7.5% of the estuanne flats Around 0.05 km' in 1995, covering ca Te Kouma Harbour"™ Otahu Estuary""' of 0.5 km' in Around 0.002 km' in a single meadow. of 1995, occupying ca in In consolidated patches'"". Waimea Inlet'"'" Inlet'"' these disappeared later The most recent surveys, 18.6 km'l, especially in the Important nursery for abundance. By 1970 area of around 0.137 km' that comprises around eight associated with the decline of small shrimp and periwinkles the with almost complete defoliation occurring "severe and rapid degradation" of feeding a in in Since then, River'"". 1981, small patches covered around 1A percent of the the of as "shrimp grass""". By to patches have waxed and waned the in estuary. shrimp their living harvesting Zostera had almost completely disappeared'^"". the in made northern channel of the Avon the main deep channels"". Later records document the rapid caused hunted with only a few, very small patches remaining channels'""' and accounts described seeing eels fisheries for were which 1952, the seagrass had disappeared almost completely, great expanses of eelgrass IZosferaj" prior show dense meadows in birds, from what they referred European settlement"". Early photographs clearly feeding wading ten families had Avon-Heathcote Estuary were reportedly flats of the for extensively at the time for food and sport''"'". At least these areas. two main beds 0.6% 2% of the in the southern estuary area of the tidal flats 1995, covenng ca 0,4% of the tidal flats arm other 137 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 138 parts of the country. Zostera abundant Zealand's largest New of Auckland (population ca city, Hobson Bay and Stanley Bay, but by 1931. '". but disappeared'™ had it all Powell'^" associated this loss with marked reductions catches in snapper and other of carnivorous fishes. At the time, he speculated that respect depletion to may factor than either over-fishing more important or assumed harbour be a has been given greater This hypothesis pollution". "in harbour fishing grounds of generally [loss of seagrass] weight by research that suggests an important nursery seagrasses role of Tamaki Estuary, the in Howick Beach, Okahu Bay, Kawakawa Bay, Torpedo Bay and Cheltenham in the Auckland district that were present during the early 1960s disappeared by the 980s'" "^ Well-developed stands of seagrass also 1 occurred on Te Tau Banks and along the northern flats Manukau Harbour of Descriptions fields of the a in the time referred at Manukau Harbour... Most mile across""". the to "splendid Zostera places up to these areas had also of disappeared or were severely reduced size by the in flats in In 1 km' (about a 5 affected, 1996'"'. in Subtidal km' 0.A6 with just km' present of the i.79 a third of the total area between 1959 and meadows were most remaining out the early in Tauranga Harbour. Park recorded decline of around seagrassl mud seagrass on Whangarei Harbour disappeared 1960s'"'". of of 1959 la 90 of these declines are unclear They have variously been attributed human of different generally range to a and natural events. activities In Avon-Heathcote Estuary, the loss was linked began practice of "river sweeping" which in to 1925 and plant growth that had accumulated clear silt two rivers which feed quantities of sediment the into estuary'"'. sediment layer in the estuary up to discharged growing into the city 25 cm estuary of at this In time and fine in the Large muddy deep. may have to waterfront sediments from surrounding land develop- ment'^"'. In Whangarei Harbour, a major cement works for the Subsequent collections and 1930s'""'. symptoms of were present throughout both the North and die-off South infamous North Atlantic Zostera in observations showed that the mold and Other studies have reported sporadic Islands'^". outbreaks in some populations'* ''^'". Curiously, the seagrass meadows of in first New Zealand, from Waitemata Harbour and the Avon- Heathcote Estuary, occurred at much same time the as the northern hemisphere epidemic and corresponded reports of the with Zostera South in large-scale disappearance of Australia'"'. PRESENT THREATS There has been no recent assessment New of Zealand's estuaries contemporary threats Zealand of of New lea 3.8 million 268021 km') so that. have settlements estuaries its therefore, habitats. populated a total land area of most of the condition and, seagrass to relatively sparsely is in although nearby, only six are located within urban environments more than 80 000 contain that people'"'. Estuarine habitats have, however, been progressively modified since the times of Polynesian (ca 800 years agol and European 200 (ca years agol Land settlement. clearance, shoreline reclamation, harbor development, works and discharge of pollutants have had direct impacts. Less than 23 percent of the land now remains area of the country percent! or plantation forestry Sedimentation New Zealand's in native forest with Its mass rivers carry a suspended sediments as a and relatively high rural land of New annual at Zealand in a with slopes steeper than 28 particularly high load of result of the steep terrain rainfall'"'. to is country, hilly Deforestation and management have exacerbated suspended sediments New (6 percent]'"'. the most widespread problem estuaries. nearly half of the land degrees. the delivery many coastal areas and Zealand's larger estuaries are very turbid of (light attenuation coefficients up to 0.75/m'l, with comparatively high rates of sediment accretion. In some northern estuaries, this has meant that the area intertidal habitat in Losses surrounding waters. The is predominantly mountainous and discharged around 106000 metric tons of limestone discharge significantly reduced water clarity and has V during the washings each year into the pathogen responsible 151 construction, channelization of tidal streams and runoff of zosterae""', the of the resembled Labyrinthula populations that wasting disease epidemic to Waitemata Harbour, the seagrass was attributed mold from some 196^, she isolated a slime the Christchurch were also of contributed to the decline"". disappearance In affected of Zealand during the 1960s"". significant areas converted to agricultural production Untreated sewerage effluent and industrial waste from rapidly New the were released during the 25 years that the sweeper operated, producing a the Armiger reported the widespread die-back flood mitigation percent reduction]. The causes the disappearance of extensive areas seagrass throughout people early 1980s'"'. Further north, "lush beds" in '". tidal 1960s"". early some in seagrass'" recorded disappearance for juvenile snapper'^''. meadows Extensive been implicated of 1 Before 1921. seagrass dominated large areas millionl. of was reputedly once very Waitemata Harbour, the location in the area of of of has slowly been reduced by increases mangroves and supratidal salt marsh. seagrass habitat have been attributed increased sedimentation and turbidity in a number to of New Zealand U. 22. a. estuaries challenge 52, 561 and remains it restoration for of biggest for aquatic occasionally rip up rhizomes and roots leading to the formation Large areas production into expected now coming of plantation forest are New in to occur areas regional in (Northland, Coromandel. East Cape, southern North Island!, and some of the grass (e.g. most It will authorities to of likely damage, but Bay, and blooms problem In in Avon-Heathcote Estuary instance, runoff. No Nevertheless, improvements decades of Information meadows Is outside the major urban centers. The most widespread New likely to be associated with effluent and runoff from nitrates entering agricultural production"". It is greatly In some the first of the types large versus (e.g. to there of transmission the of another are signs positive lost. In to that some areas Whangarei Harbour, water quality over the past two led to the re-establishment limestone washings of of the into harbor improvements in increased water quality"". This pattern has in seagrasses areas, recreational activities have had other estuaries as point sources in the past 20-30 years. Regrowth the Avon-Heathcote Estuary attributable, in part, to that have been Otago Harbour, of have been removed or have been better managed over unclear what impacts "'. In particular, understanding 1983 and, since then, in pollution these diffuse sources have had on seagrass habitats. localized Impacts on seagrasses'^^ in activities. In areas from which they had disappeared. been repeated Zealand rivers are of required to understand sewerage wastewater and other discharges have available on nutrient loads to estuaries sources In Discharges ceased the past'''"'". Less in in have seagrasses seagrass growth, although both estuaries have had seagrass method from which they had been the effects of nutrient loading from these sources on significant meadow wasting seagrass Zealand seagrass meadows are slowly returning have been been done an pathogen from one location a wastewater discharge direct studies have is is'"'. of patchy, persistent versus ephemeral! to outbreaks of estuaries. Recurrent Christchurch New human requires this resilience of different Tauranga Harbour and the in this outbreaks In they are exacerbated by the disease and the attributed to nutrient loads from and urban if additional impacts on the some urban macroalgae of likely populations. Further study these estuaries. is how widespread recurrent the epidemiology of these outbreaks and, nutrient runoff Nutrient enrichment from land-based sources significant unclear is it has flats cause trench formation and lasting to appear disease be Important for industry and regional manage sediment and one areal across the seagrass shown Occasional, Island include areas bordering to in also been significant remaining areas of sea- this activity to avoid ecology Hawkes ten passes more Parengarenga, Houhora and Coromandel Harbours]. from North the of bare patches that can take longer of large than one year to regrow. Heavy trampling (more than Zealand and harvests are double within the next ten years to than 600 km' per year The largest increases are to example, horse riding and four-wheel drive bikes the submerged vegetation. 139 improvements in Is of no doubt water quality made through upgrading treatment of Figure 12.1 An example of changes Moncks Bay in the Avon-Heathcote Estuary, Chnstchurch at low tide in the historical distribution of seagrasses in in New 1885 considerably since 1885 and the once extensive intertidal sand banks have clearly as dark bands preceded the loss of lining the sand banks in seagrass or resulted from (left! all 1885, are no longer present. it, Zealand as the root and rhizomes It of and 2003 (nght!. The channel morphology has changed but disappeared. Seagrass is meadows, which can be seen unclear whether the change seagrass meadows in channel morphology trap and hold soft sediments in place. 0^, H WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 140 wastewater and urban runoff and ending disturbance Non-point sources river habitat'""'. stormwater, urban problems many for remain however, of and of pollution significant development the regional coastal plans. Wetlands RMA that when decisions are importance" account estuaries. of the in resource use. Because MANAGEMENT POLICY AND m New specifically protected by legislation Zealand, but man- are provided for under a variety of resource for the protection Is Responsibility legislation. and management among split several of coastal habitats and national regional authorities. The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMAI overarching piece most of legislation that and natural New fisheries! In an is governs the use resources physical of (excluding managing strict development controls. such estuarme as resource use Development the within activities these In coastal local authorities under the RMA and must be provisions of the coastal plan. consistent with the Priorities for coastal management were Minister of Conservation in New the set by the Zealand Coastal Statement and these serve as a guide Policy Case Study for damaging activities An unusual seagrass the small endemic [scapba] (see drawing, to New in became the species Zealand Notoacmea helmsi right). This species appears Lottia to the which alveus. Regional authorities helmsi [scapha] long X 1.75 alveus. Lottia wide) that fits are also its history, it is unclear it their impact on the in New ed In the Act, It guide the utilization and abundance. The absence its of fisheries resources. These management". Provisions allow causes study the of extinction In marine environments and what Impact (If for the pro- to rarity other species that live and feed seagrass meadows. : ^ mm ™ M^ 4nim was - y Notoacmea helmsi [scapha]. larger i i 1 i of the New Zealand seagrass limpet Notoacmea helmsi helmsF''°\ The New Zealand limpet provides a unique and determine study also the and any) loss of the North Atlantic limpet may have had on Morphology and habit estuarine limpet fisheries tection of specific areas that are Important for local simply of not specifically mention- is distribution of detailed morphological variant Zealand and support them. the "protection of habitat of particular significance for means that there is some uncertainty about whether Notoacmea helmsi [scapha] is a true species or a New include the "maintenance of biological diversity" and Zealand""', there no contemporary information on in that establishes environmental principles to as specialized as it for managing the current and habitats Although marine vegetation perfectly onto the is and the "utilization of fisheries resources while ensuring epidemic North American counterpart and, although reportedly once widespread IS it for RMA water quality. The New Zealand Fisheries Act 1996 provides of Zostera"'". so responsible regulate land-based activities that can detrimentally affect Notoacmea Unfortunately, there have been no studies of Its life exclude from sensitive environments. North a small, elongate limpet (ca A is mm narrow leaves Lll<e measures to reputedly extinct during the wasting disease 1930s'^". Is limpet, occupy an almost identical niche Atlantic of specialist instances, maintaining coastal water quality under the opportunity to 12.1 A SEAGRASS SPECIALIST zones protection potential production of fisheries decisions about to relatively some In and existing in regional authorities have used regulatory sustainabillty". This includes from the I value" proposed coastal plans, and are subject prepare regional coastal plans as the strategic basis marine area require approval ("resource consent") tf many freshwater and the use of coastal environments and are required to areas. Into made about being of this, conservation significant Zealand. Under the RMA, regional authorities have principal responsibility for for guiding national of must be taken estuarlne wetlands are specifically listed as "areas of Seagrasses and other aquatic macrophytes are not agement and conservation "matter are specifically Identified as a Source: Redrawn from Morton and Miller''" in New Zealand Ui customary fisheries Uaiapure], traditional fishing and [mataitai] for the protection of specific stocl<s or their habitat. Legal protection of coastal waters administered by the Department mostly is Conservation under of the Marine Reserves Act 1971. Marine reserves contain the highest level environments in protection of New Zealand; marine natural for species and habitats all are protected from exploitation. There are currently 16 in New Zealand that encompass km^ However, only two of these contain marine reserves around 7633.5 Whanganui (WesthavenI significant areas of seagrass. Inlet contains around 8.59 km' of seagrass'"' which are protected through a combination of a marine reserve and a wildlife area of 26.^8 east coast management reserve that cover a total km^ Te Angiangi Marine Reserve, on the of the North also Island, extensive stands of seagrass on reefs"". The exact area known, but in this seagrass of encompasses platform intertidal in the reserve open coast environment it is not is likely to be highly variable'". The Pliotograpliers negotiating the tidal cfiannels near Wildlife Act 1953 and Reserves Act 1977, also administered by the Department been used protect to of intertidal Conservation, have habitats the Avon-Heathcote Estuary banl(s are clearly vegetated in New Brighton in the early 1900s. The elevated intertidal vi/ith extensive stands of Zostera. some in estuaries where there are important wildlife, scenic, has had similarly dramatic effects on the distribution scientific, recreational or natural values. and abundance wetlands Five in New Zealand are registered under the Ramsar Convention as to wading birds'^". Three marine environments that include areas Farewell Spit, importance of special these contain coastal or of on the northwest of seagrass. South Island, of the contains an extensive area of intertidal sand and flats with Zostera caphcorni meadows'"'. mud has been It protected as a Nature Reserve since 1938 and significant area for a variety of wading waterfowl. In particular, molting congregation atratus. it is a and birds the site of the major is of the native black swan, Cygnus More than 13000 swans have been recorded in invertebrates, of fishes and other estuarine wildlife that depend upon them, including some species of commercial many New Zealand turbidity of combination of significance. The high estuaries - caused by a natural topography and changes use - means that restoration efforts are likely to term and broad based, necessitating changes in land be long in land and catchment management. Immediate conservation therefore, best focused on the relatively few areas IS, where there are large, persistent however, promising signs a number of estuaries seagrass habitats in of and some meadows. There are, improving water quality in recent expansion of of the areas. the area, at densities of up to 1000 birds per km'""". During these congregations, Zostera capricorni largest Ramsar component of their diet. sites are in the Firth of Island and Waituna Lagoon the is The two other coastal Thames at the in the North southern the tip of South Island. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Preparation are CONCLUSION due to assembled Pndmore of historical this in and contemporary information seagrass habitats were once New the suggests review strongly much more widespread Zealand's estuaries. Their demise appears result of activities that a that combination of disease and have reduced the quality of to in be historical information in New suggests that loss of review; and attendance at the Participatory Global Seagrass Programme grant Diane Gardiner Megan Linwood [Ministry of Science and and Rick [National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltdl lor facilitating this. Valuable information from, and discussions with, Mark Morrison, Anne-Maree Schwarz [NIWAj, Institute], Research, IMinistry for the Environment! Paul Gillespie [Cawthron Stephanie Turner [Environment Waikatol and [University of Connecticut] improved the content of the Don Les manuscnpt. human estuarine waters. Despite relatively limited information on the ecological functions of these habitats the from the International Science and Technology Linkages Fund. Thanks Technology), The collage of Workshop was supported by a Technical Zealand, seagrass AUTHOR Graeme Ltd, Inglis, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research RO. Box 8602, Christchurch, New Zealand. Tel: +64 [0]3 348 8987. Fax: +64 [0]3 348 5548. E-maiL g.inglisOniwa.cn.nz \/ \ J WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 142 REFERENCES 23 1 Mason R 2 Setchell 3 Morton i Armiger LC [1 967], The species Ruppia of m New New Zealand- North-west Nelson. Department A prelinninary survey of ttie species of Zostera. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences 19: 810-817. 119331. Miller J, M New Zealand Sea The 11968]. An occurrence New Zealand Journal Ramage DL [1995]. Ttie Patcfi Labynnthula of in New New Canterbury, 6 Ramage 26 Dynamics and Dennograpfiy OR of the Reproduction Zostera novazelandica on intertidal platforms in Cheeseman TF 8 Oliver Government New WRB Printer. Wellington, Marine [1923]. New Zealand Flora. Manual olthe [1925]. New littoral New 29 Botany 10 Webb Johnson P, Sykes B [1990]. flowering Plants of New New 12 New Conservation, Napier, Schwarz A-M, Hawes Kuo In: Zostera of the Avon-Heathcole Estuary. Unpublished Department, Canterbury University, thesis. Zoology Crossland AC [19931. i [1996]. Patch J, Walker Dl, I'l at Avon-Heathcote Estuary and Birdlife of the August 1993. Department 6, and Reed Books, Auckland, Armiger LC 33 Kirkman H dynamics three sites ledsl in Fisheries. 119651. A Contribution Atmosphere 911]: 7. Woods CMC, Schiel New Zealand. the Aulecology of Zostera. to of Auckland, M [2001]. 25-harbour DR [1997]. Use Morrison M, Francis Conservation. of Fishes: Identification. Natural History of New Zealand. suney. Water & fish seagrass Zostera New Ocypodidael on rocky intertidal platforms Funnell G [1999]. Seagrass patches and landscapes: 35 Hemes New Zealand's on macrofaunal seagrass Environment. Ministry Environment and GP Publications, Wellington, Museum ColensoW Kirk T [1878] Ethnological Project. Anderson B, Drury J 12000). Morrison M, Shankar Hartill B, U, Drury J (20001. 38 Mahurangi 39 Morrison M, Manukau Harbour No. Shankar Hartill B, U, Drury J [20001. [edl, Zealand Institute, New Zealand Institute V. 231 Notice of the occurrence of a variety of Zostera nana, in New Zealand. Transactions & Proceedings of the Royal New Zealand Institute X: 392-393. Cockayne L [1967] New Zealand Plants and their Story. 4th edn. RE Owen Government Publisher, Wellington, New Zealand. Smith JA [18781. On two indigenous productions - manganese and & Proceedings made fair articles of of the Royal export. New Zealand Institute X: 568-569 10. Pahurehure Inlet, 40 Thompson GM [1909] A New Zealand Naturalist's Calendar Notes by the Wayside. RJ Stark & Company, Dunedin, and New Zealand. 12. 18 Cawthron 19 Shankar Unpublished data. Institute [19991. U, Morrison M, Hartill B, 41 Drury J [2000], Matakana Harbour habitat map. NIWA Information Series No. 20 Turner SJ, Riddle B Vegetation - [in Management Cromarty Scott DA [1996]. New Zealand. Department of A Directory New [Zostera spp.l in the Abundance Tauranga Harbour from Report 99/30, Environment Bay of Plenty, 1 of Seagrass 959-96. Environmental Tauranga, Findlay RH, Knox GA, Kilner AR New New 44 in Hills of Chnstchurch. AH & AW Reed, Post-1847 changes a tidal estuary. in the Avon- of the effect of urban New Zealand Journal of [19731. The Ecology of the Avon-Heathcote Estuary. Report to the Chnstchurch Drainage Board, Christchurch, Zealand. Park SG [1999]. Changes The Port New Zealand. Kirk RM [1988]. Marine and Freshwater Research 22:101-127. of Wetlands in Conservation, Wellington, [19781. development around Issues and Monitoring Priorities. 43 P, G Heathcote Estuary, Christchurch: A study and Zealand. Ogilvie Christchurch, 42 11. review]. Estuarine Sedimentation Environment Waikato Internal Series 2001/05, Hamilton, Zealand. New 118691. Transactions of the Transactions map. NIWA Information Series habitat The A Zealand. Zealand. Zostera marina - which might be 13. Whangateau Harbour habitat map. NIWA information Series No. Art. New Roth, In: Zealand. Harbour habitat map. NIWA Information Series No. New 37 pp 7.1-7.28. Morrison M, Shankar U, Hartill Hamilton A [1901]. Maori 36 for the New New Beattie J [19201. Traditional Lifeways of the Southern Wellington, wind-wave dynamics and hierarchical Ministry for the Environment [1997], The state of our waters. The State of southern 49-65. 34 1994. University of Otago Press, Dunedin, of spatial structure in Zealand. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 2]i: Seagrass Turner SJ, Hewitt JE, Wilkinson MR, Morrisey DJ, Thrush SF, of New and their Margins. Canterbury Conservancy Technical 31 for Zealand. communities. Estuaries22: 1016-1032- i in Maori: The Otago arrangements 22 Seasonal Changes and Demography [1997]. pp 21-31. The influence 21 A Unpublished MSc thesis. University Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia. Cummmgs VJ, 17 of eight soft Manukau Harbour New Zealand crab Macrophlhalmus hirtipes [Heller, 18621 IBrachyura: VJ, seagrass Zostera novazelandica New Canterbury, Cummmgs University of 16 the in New Zealand Biology: Scientific Discussion from an International Workshop. 15 Zealand. novazelandica [Setchell, 19331 as habitat and food by the Zealand. 14 New Turner SJ, Thrush SF, Morrisey DJ, Wilkinson MR, Hewitt JE, of the 13 of Zoology, University of Paul L [2000] 32 of the Southern Hawkes Bay Coast. Unpublished report prepared of Sandy Beach IHowickl Auckland, Quantitative Study of the Macrofauna of 30 Zealand. Cresswell PD, Warren EJ [19901. The Flora and Fauna Department Ball Report Series No. of Zealand. J Sys n-.m-kik C, Zealand. Caxton Press, Chnstchurch, 11 New Australia and in Department Rivers, Les DH, Moody ML, Jacobs 5WL, Bayer RJ [2002]. Systematics seagrasses [Zosteraceael A [1969]. of a of Zealand. in Zealand Instituted. ktb-'ilA. 9 Zealand. Henriques PR [19801. Faunal community structure MSc Zealand. of the Royal An Ecological Study novazelandica Setchell 2nd edn. plant and animal communities & Proceedings Zealand. Transactions Thompson DJB New Journal of Ecology2: 97-103. 28 Zealand. Marine Biology 130: 479-489. 7 Otago, southern in 14: 15-26. shore, intertidal habitats New southern [19621. 2, Ismael N. Hurd CL, Probert K [1999]. A, Zealand. the seagrass in Wood DH pro|ecl. thesis, University of 27 [1998]. Inlet, Zostera novazelandica Setchell. Unpublished BSc IhonoursI of Zealand. DL, Schiel Whanganui of Conservation, Unpublished MSc thesis. University Zealand Zostera novazelandica Setcliell on the Intertidal Platforms MSc Chong Israel SA, J, Ceocarto International ol Botany!: 3-9. Kaikoura Peninsula. Unpublished Fyle Mapping marine habitats 25 Zostera. 5 24 Shore. Collins, London. 11964]. of Nelson/Marlborough Conservancy Occasional Publication No. Zealand Journal of Botanyb: 519-531 WA Davidson RJ [19901. A Report on the Ecology New Zealand. Deely J [19921. Owen SJ ledl The last 150 years - the effects of urbanisation. In: The Estuary - Where Our Rivers Meet the Sea. Christchurch s Avon-Heathcote Estuary and Brooklands Lagoon. Parks Unit, Christchurch City Council, Christchurch, pp 108-121. New Zealand, New Zealand 45 Thompson EF [1930], An Introduction Natural History of the to the 58 Heathcote Estuary and Brighton Beach, Unpublished MSc thesis, Canterbury College, Christchurch, 46 47 W de Their [1976], Sumner Zealand. Technology Series No. basin: The Ecology the Avon-Heathcote Estuary, Report of Bruce A [1953], Report on Waters and Canterbury Regional Council, a Biological and Chemical Investigation Christchurch Drainage Board Report, Christchurch. Cameron J [1970], Biological New River, Christchurch. Zealand, and Freshwater Research 50 Hounsetl WK aspects 4: Zealand. 61 of Marine in Powell Auckland 62 New Zealand 64: Animal communities [1937], of the sea-bottom 52 New Zealand b6: Dromgoole Fl, Foster BA 63 354-401, [1983], to the marine biota of the 64 Auckland Harbour, Tane29: 79-96, 53 marine slime mold producing the symptoms of sp,, Botany 55 70: in 65 New Glasby Healy WB [1980]. I the 66 sediment to Information Series 141. New The Ecology of , Inlet, Westshore [1977]. Report on the Ecology Mass. Estuarine. Coastal and An Environmental Study D5IR Zealand Department New of Golden Bay Estuarine Research Unit Report No, Estuarine Research Unit, University of Canterbury, Davis SF [1987], Wetlands ol National Importance Stephenson RL Knox GA New to Fisheries. [1977]. 119831. New Zealand. Waikawa Bay IQueen Charlotte Sound): An Survey Estuarine Research Unit Report No An Ecological Survey of the New 9. Zealand. Wairau River Estuary. 67 ol Scientific and Zealand. New Zealand. Knox GA, Fenwick GD, Sagar P [1976] A Preliminary Investigation 5. 68 Inlet: 978]. Estuarine Research Unit, University of Canterbury, University of Canterbury, -m-ni Pauatahanui [1 Knox GA, Bolton LA, Hackwell K of Okarito [1985]. Input of river-derived Industrial Research. Wellington. 57 in Zostera marina. Canadian Journal of Zealand continental shelf: Shelf Science 2] 56 GP New Estuarine Research Unil Report No. 27. Estuarine Research Unit. 2081 -2088 Griffiths GA, the of eelgrass, Collins, Auckland, Estuarine Research Unit, University of Canterbury, a wasting disease Muehltstein LK [1992], The host-pathogen interaction wasting disease 15. Interlidal Biological Muehllstein LK, Porter D, Short FT [1988], Labyrinthula eelgrass, Zostera marina. /Marine Biology 99: 465-472, 54 New Zealand l^ollusca. Freshwater Fisheries Centre. MAFFish. Christchurch. Changes an ocean Zealand, in Auckland and l^anukau Harbours, Transactions of the Royal Society of in Zealand. the Parapara 1 1 AWB [1978] Knox GA. Bolton LA, Sagar P New of the Royal Society of marine invertebrate eelgrass Impel Lottia alveus. Biological 180: 72-80. AWB Report No. 257-274, 51 Powell extinction of a of the Lagoon. Ahuriri Estuary, Hawkes Bay Estuarine Research Unit Heathcote New Zealand Journal The demise Zealand. 431-444. [1935], Hydrographical observations Harbour Transactions New of pollution in the first historical SuHedn 60 Estuary of the Avon and Heathcote Rivers, of the Review of the Carlton JT, Vermeij GJ, Lindberg OR, Carlton DA, Dudley EC [1991]. The of the 49 59 Knox GA [1992], [1995]. Swan ICygnus alratusl. NIWA Science and 25, NIWA Christchurch. Ecological Role of Black Pegasus Press, Christchurch, New Zealand for the Christchurch City Council 48 New Ferrymead: A Christchurch History to Sagar PM, Schwarz A-M, Howard-Williams C 1A3 Lagoon. Weslland. Estuarine Research Unit Report No. Estuarine Research Unit. University of Canterbury, Inglis G. New Zealand. Personal observations. Knox GA, Bolton LA and Fauna of [1978]. The Ecology of the Benthic Macroflora Brooklands Lagoon, Waimakariri River Estuary. Estuarine Research Unit Report No. University of Canterbury. New 16. Estuarine Research Unit. Zealand. Miller S [1998]. Effects of Disturbance on Eelgrass. Zostera novazelandica, and the Associated Benthic Macrofauna at Harwood, Otago Harbour, of Otago, New New Zealand. Unpublished MSc thesis. University Zealand. Cfy 144 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 13 of THAILAND C. Lewmanomont K. coastline of Thailand The Thailand fish of in many locations along the Thai The occurrence, community structure and shoreline. seagrasses have been studied biomass of locations in at different 19 provinces along the coastal areas of the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman species of seagrasses found avails populations and associated nearshore fisheries. Seagrasses occur grow in different habitats. the largest species, than in the major in the located from the both intertidal area to 5 Distribution and habitat Thailand summarized is Andaman m in depth depending on of the 12 in seagrass species in Table 13.1, Seven species both the Gulf of Thailand and the in Sea. Enhalus acoroides occurs water canals down to the in brackish lower intertidal and subtidal zones on mud, muddy sand and sandy coral substrates; hemprichii Thalassia grows muddy sand on fragmented dead coral substrates in zone or coral sand substrate in intertidal Halophila decipiens thought only to occur been found in in waters 9-36 various substrates such as mud, coral fragments in pinifolia sand or sand with in mainly distributed along the is m in is in the previously depth but has it is exposed found growing on muddy sand and dead the upper littoral to subtidal areas; and Halodule uninervis both grow in in subtidal areas on fine sediment. total of 68.5 km' along the coast covered be to measurements Sea than in is Thailand of seagrasses, by much 11 of in Seagrass distribution greater given the lack of the 2U locations more extensive in in Table 13.1. the Andaman the Gulf of Thailand. The four most important seagrass beds province on the southern coast of the just north of Malaysia, also Trang in is actual but Thailand are Head Chao Mai National Park, in Kung province, in Trang Andaman Sea and Ko Talibong ITalibong Krabane Chanthaburi province on the eastern coast Island). Bay, in of the Gulf of Thailand near to Cambodia, and Ko Samui (Samui Island], Sural Thani in southern coast province, and part of the of the Gulf of Thailand. The seagrass beds areas; muddy sand was the intertidal areas where during low tides; Halophila ovalis Haiodule subtidal or estuarine and coastal areas in zone; or the upper littoral mud Halophila beccarii grows on substrates but fine the intertidal zone, occurs in and Syringodium isoetifolium which occurs densely seagrass species, chemical and physical factors. are widespread regions coverage must be beds are multispecies beds enclosed or semi-enclosed embayments in coral rubble substrates A known the Gulf of Thailand. the seagrass of which grows on muddy sand, area or sandy bottom mixed with dead coral fragments in BIOGEOGRAPHY Most areas or brackish water ponds. Cymodocea serrulata, its the 12 Hatophila seagrass areas. Seagrasses are more abundant Andaman Sea littoral Two species occur only in the Gulf of Thailand: Halophila m/norwhich grows on muddy sand in the intertidal zone and Ruppia maritima in mangrove to subtidal areas. Enhalus acoroides, Among common also is sandy or muddy sand substrates from the upper Andaman Sea coastline. Two species are found in the Andaman Sea and not the Gulf: Cymodocea rotundata, which occupies the lower littoral zone on muddy sand Sea. Thailand, in the most widely distributed, because of is ability to 2583 km along the Gulf abundant support habitats commercial is and the Andaman Sea, and coastal of Supanwanid at Haad Chao Mai National Park, Trang province are the largest of these seagrass beds and cover 18 km^ with the highest species diversity for a single area a in Thailand"". The beds cover small area around a peninsula called Khao Bae Na and a larger area between the islands Laem Yong Lum on species this in hemprichii, Halodule area; the Ko Muk and Enhalus acoroides, Hatophila decipiens, pinifolia, of mainland. There are nine Thalassia Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Cymodocea Thailand Cymodocea serrulata and Synngodium rotundata, isoetifoiium"" a Halophiia decipiens . deepwater seagrass species occurs this species Is considered be to Rayong However Thailand, in " the intertidal zone at Khao Bae in Na and pure stands A4YANMAR i therefore exposed during low tide 5 m" '". down depths to the Until recently the only available information the seagrass beds at Haad Chao Mai National Park ,»Chanthaburi • decipiens are Halophila of Kiiiti; KruhiJiii- •, 'Prachuab '>.' Ba\ ,Tral Khm Khan of on was J,/ III • Chumphon qualitative and restricted to the intertidal zone, but in 2000 the distribution and biomass m) l<2 of seagrasses over along all the Ranong i^ was bed intertidal The biomass was highest investigated"^'. depths and subtidal entire the t* Halophila ovalis and Thalassia hemprichii. Halophila ovalis and Thalassia hemprichii were lhanvnarat' _^ Both ^1 Trang J Haad Chao Mai upper the at monospecific patches seagrasses sand dunes and above-ground Average respectively. area and formed intertidal in pools tide biomass of was 1.5 the intertidal area (15 g/m'l in times greater than the biomass of subtidal the subtidal and lower intertidal in The sedimentation zones'"'. hemprichii and because of the plants"^'. It shape and Halophila beds ovalis Enhalus acoroides size of the has been suggested that distribution seagrass beds in this area is of primarily controlled by the physical conditions of the local environment, principally the roughness of weather during the monsoon season and the amount of locations"". This also true for the seagrass beds at is shelter available at different Ko Talibong. The strong southwest waves during the monsoon season (May-Octoberl induces sediments bottom and high facing offshore waters"". only flourish At the in 7.0 km^ preventing the area directly Consequently seagrasses areas sheltered by the offshore islands. muddy southern end in of of nine flat of Ko Talibong. 15 the Haad Chao t^ai km from the National Park bed, seagrass species are distributed along the northern, eastern and southeastern coasts of this island. This bed is very important as a feeding ground dugong IDugong dugonf"'. One hundred and twenty-three dugongs were found in Haad Chao Mai for the National Park and Ko Talibong seagrass beds with the largest herd size being 53 dugongs in in to by siUation seagrasses grow transparency of in from the Trang is River. substrates. As a result the • Uilibong 100 ^ 150 Kilometers Map 13.1 Thailand IS limited to 2.5 m"". At the eastern end of the island, seagrasses grow on muddy air during low Enhalus acoroides, and are exposed m Cymodocea Halodule Halodule Cymodocea serrulata rotundata, pinifolia, and Syringodium isoetifolium"". Enhalus acoroides and Halophila ovaliswere the dominant species Halophila ovalis flats while was widely in intertidal distributed in the subtidal area to the southeast of the island. the Gulf of Thailand, two major seagrass beds In are located in the almost enclosed Kung Krabane Bay Chanthaburi province and Ko Samui in Surat Thani province" '*". Kung Krabane Bay has a small narrow in opening which is to the sea and an area species Five acoroides, of approximately seagrasses grow Halophila Halophila ovalis and 7.0 of 5 km' km'" "'". Halodule The deepest part Enhalus here: pinifolia, of this and cover bay does not were the two dominant species among the Ko Samui is minor, Halophila decipiens, exceed 6 m. Enhalus acoroides and Halodule of the 1 surrounded by mangroves and shrimp ponds. pinifolia five'". the largest island on the west coast Gulf of Thailand and a major destination for grow in beds that almost completely surround the island: highly Halodule uninervis, Halophila minor, Halophila Halophila decipiens and Enhalus acoroides cover a mud and muddy sand maximum depth of seagrass on to the Halophila Thalassia hemprichii, beccarii, Halophila ovalis, uninervis, flats Nine seagrass species were found: tide. These a highly turbid environment with a about 1-2 Pattani foreign tourists. Five species of seagrasses the seagrass bed at Haad Chao Mai National Park, the seagrass bed at Ko Talibong affected 50 2001. the Ko Talibong seagrass bed'"". Compared Ko instability of turbidity seagrass settlement and growth Nalional Park Libony Island Enhalus rate inside the acoroides beds was greater than those inside the Thalassia ,PI ,* seagrass beds (10 g/m'l. Enhalus acoroides was the most dominant species ThailuuJ (ialf uf Enhalus coastline. acoroides was the most abundant species, followed by dominant Samui Kii shallower at total area of 7.7 km' and grow corals, mainly coral, scattered in ovalis, association with Acropora spp. and massive species around the island. Most of the of seagrass 145 1A6 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Table 13.1 Occurrence seagrass species of ir Tliailand Se agrass species Province/major seagrass area Ea Chop / Buri Hb Th Hd Hm Ho / / / / / / Rayong Makampom Bay Hp Cs Cr Si Rm species / 6 id 5 Id / / / / / Chanthaburi / Kung Krabane Bay / Trat / / / / / / / / / / Khan / / / Chumphon Surat Thani / Ko Samui / Nakhon Si Thammarat / / Krabi / Phuket / Trang / / 5 / / i id / h Id / 5 / Ko Talibong / / Satun / / / / / / / / 4.2 / 7 1.2 / 10 4.0 / 9 10,0 / 10 4.7 • / J / / / / / / / / / / / / / 10 27.1 / / / / 9 18.0 / / 9 7.0 / / / / / / / / / / Phatthalung / Narathiwat / / 7.7 / / Haad Chao Mai National Park id / / / Id / / / Id 1 / / / Id 7 / Phangnga 1 2 / Pattani / Id / Songkhla / 7.0 7 / / Ranong id 5 / / Khiri 2.5 6 Phetchaburi Prachuab Ikm'l 1 / / Area No. of Hu / / 5 / 0.06 2 / id 0.04 2 Notes Ea Enhalus acoroides, Th Th alassia hen pnchii. Hb Halophil 3 becca r//; Hd Haiop hita di cipiens Hnr Halophila minor. Ho Halophila Hp Hatodule pmihiia. Hu Hatoduk uninen/is, Cr Cymodocea rot mdala. Cs Cymodo cea Si rrulala Si Synngodium isoetifolium, Rm ovalis, Roppia maritima. id insufficient data. Source: Various sources'"". areas were formed outside on reef area tfie flats inside tfie coral reef. of living corals or Enhalus acoroides Lewmanomont reported the occurrence of seagrasses belonging to Halophila, Enhalus and grows on coarse substrates ranging from medium and mangrove coarse sand two seagrass species to coral Halodule uninen/is, rubbles at a deptfi of 0.5-1.0 m. l-lalophila ovalis, Halophila minor and Halophila decipiens are distributed on medium sand at 2.5-7.0 m in fine to ovalis was made and Halodule when Halophila decipiens was also described as a new species. There were no further reports until 1970 when uninen/is in Thai water den Hartog found rotundata, five Thalassia Halophila ovata and species in in Thailand: hemprichii, species were Cymodocea the in Christensen and Anderson found province'". After this, Surin Island in recorded in many Koh Kram in 1977"". Two Chon Buri in reports were published on the occurrence, community structure, biomass and area depth.'" HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES The first report of Halophila areas'"'. 1902 Cymodocea Halophila Halophila decipien^"'. In ovalis, 1976, of seagrasses. Many studies on the ecology and biology of seagrasses have been initiated under the ASEAN- Australia Ivlarine Science project since 1988" For Thai seagrasses habitats for is people, the main their role as fishing "^*'. importance of grounds and as many commercially important species and endangered marine mammals, but the value of seagrasses to provincial and national economies has not been quantified. Indirect uses of seagrasses in Thailand Thailand include their role coastal protection and as in nursery grounds for marine species. 1999 there was no information on the Before importance Thailand. of seagrasses Then studies hydrological factors coastal in on protection water the seagrass beds in in beds movement seagrass in lower depths was less than that at the upper at monsoon during the Mai National Park, 30 families recorded abundance of Enhatus the acoroides beds was 15 cm/s on the seafloor and 25 m depth. This in was slower movement a of water than inside the other seagrass beds, and over bare sand where currents speeds were 22.5 cm/s and 35 cm/s on the seafloor and at 0.5 The width and length among greatest of m depth, respectively. Enhatus acoroides blades is the the seagrass species of Thailand, and important seagrass action was higher than 1217 individuals/1 000 found larvae fish have been at 2 06^ open sandy in ml Economically area this in The bed. seagrass bed, of fish larvae in the areas, with inside of fish larvae nearshore the in wave and other marine animals. At Haad Chao which Enhatus acoroides beds retard the intensity at 0.5 of nursery ground for Thai seagrass beds are a juvenile fishes individuals/1 000 m', cm/s terms season"^'. depths. This study demonstrated the effectiveness with water motion: current speed in coastline from the adverse effects of high and flow Haad Chao Mai at National Park were conducted. The studies showed that the Intensity of bottom water maintain a unique physical environment water motion and sedimentation which protects the were Carangidae, Nemlpteridae, Engraulidae, MuUldae and Haad Chao Mai National Park of the Malabar grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus, were collected by small fish Callionymidae'"'. At seagrass bed, juveniles traps and cultured seagrass bed'"'. were reported in net cages in the canals near the Twenty-two species in of juvenile fishes Kung Krabane the seagrass bed at Among the blades not only greatly reduce the rate of water flow Bay, Chanthaburi province. under and over the meadow but also induce are the most abundant and are also the most important sedimentation rate as a result. beds In this a higher way, the seagrass Haad Chao Mai National Park create and at Case Study 13.1 species for fisheries. A FLAGSHIP seagrass species were found SPECIES of dugongs Halodute know Thailand, most fishermen and local people that seagrass an important food is iDugong dugon]. The dugong endangered species and Fishery Act dugongs for the Thailand an is dugong aerial survey for first first survey was announced that this Thailand'^''. However, dugongs may eastern coast the last herd of still of the Gulf of Thailand'^". in 1993, in Trang Department Forestry Royal the in knew what dugongs and Thais dugongs were found near the seagrass bed and dugong in in the stomach content Trang province. The species included pinifotia, Halodute uninervis, Enhatus acoroided'^^\ The dugongs in the Andaman Sea Fishermen in of More dugong feeding the value and importance trails on Thai time. that Sea appreciate the Importance seagrasses'^". in l-lalophila ovatis people believed In 1998, the study on Halophita ovatis beds Park was carried 100 m out. at In that It dugong grazing on Haad Chao Mai National was reported that quadrat, one dugong could feeding trails 15.1 in a 100 x produce U.9 mVdayl. The estimated grazing rate of l-lalophita ovatis by a dugong was 1.1 kg dry of the than 60 percent of the people along the dugongs preferred feeding on small seagrass species. a seagrass ecosystem. Recent surveys have shown that more their Haad Chao Mai National Park were reported At are ship with seagrasses and they are further evidence feeding trails on small seagrass species'^". 1996"^'. Hatophila Cymodocea rotundata. Cymodocea serrutata. Synngodium isoetifolium, Thatassia hempnchii and on the exist Rayong province have seen dugongs and at December, to Serranldae species ovatis, protected under the Thai seagrasses were. During the Province of flagship species based on their specialized relation- many not is in 19-17. Before the 1992, From October fishermen collect juveniles weight, 13.0 kg wet weight/day'^". Recently, other THEDUGONG In these, Serranldae Dugongs and seagrass on a Thai stamp. of the Andaman dugongs and H7 148 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES lapproximately 2.5 cm length] in scoop nets, and culture them grow to marketable more than 0.8-1.5 the morning using in net cages until they In when each size, Individual weighs It very difficult to estimate the seagrass loss is Thailand are very important in in Thailand because there are no reports on historical coverage or kg''*'. Seagrass beds HISTORICAL LOSSES Most loss. on seagrasses of the studies in Thailand were conducted recently and over very short areas for fisheries, over and above their role as nursery periods of one to two years. There has been no long- areas, with both demersal and highly mobile species of term monitoring fish being harvested from seagrass areas throughout the country. At 318 species representing 51 least families have been identified countries. They have lower in in ASEAN economic value mainly as food and aquarium specimens"". is seagrass beds in Thailand the diversity In seagrass beds 38 species of fishes from 29 families have been recorded from six seagrass Andaman Sea (where 78 beds'"""'! species than the in fishes from i6 of However there seagrass bed Even the present country. evidence showing that a small is Khao Bae Na at Haad Chao Mai in National Park has been covered by sand. Khao Bae Na of fish the Gulf of Thailand (where in the in seagrass coverage cannot be completely estimated. which had a is small embayment over approximately 30000 ground a feeding sand of flat dense HalophUa ovalis meadow extending a dugongs were m'' and served the past as in dugongs. The feeding for seen during low clearly trails of Some tide. families have been recorded from the seagrass beds at Cymodocea rotundata, l-1alophila decipiens and small Haad Chao Mai National Park]. Many species are very important in terms of economic value such as patches Enhalus acoroides occurred Tidal level of the of meadow was about 1 In m .8 this area. above mean Epinephelus malabancus, orange-spotted grouper lower low water"". Since the monsoon season {Epinephetus coioides], great barracuda [Sphyraena this barracuda], squaretail mullet [Liza vaigiensis], brown- sediment. Only small patches stripe red snapper {Lutjanus vitta], Russell's snapper Cymodocea distributions argentimacutatus], oriental sweetlips [Plectorhmchus sedimentation orientabs], silver sillago and Indian [Sittago sihama] addition to the fishes in the seagrass area, crabs and sea cucumbers are also important to fisheries. Since collecting sea 1998, local fishermen have been cucumbers from many seagrass beds summer, during low After tide. cucumbers, the fishermen drying the in sea them to Malaysian cucumber have sell buyers. At present, three species of sea been harvested, namely, Holothuria scabra. Holothuria cucumber atra and Bohadschia marmorata. Fresh sea costs is It their feeding kg'"'. Eighty percent of the crabs exported from Thailand are portunids, mainly Portunus pelagicus, coming mostly from seagrass areas. Direct use of seagrass is less apparent in '^" and their by the high limited thought that the dugongs have grounds Ko Muk and Talibong to On 20 January 2002. damage to the seagrasses at Baan Pak Krok in Phuket by the use of mechanized push seines was reported affected was not in the press, but the area estimated. The Natural Resource Conservation Group of Baan Pak Krok requested the government strengthen law enforcement. There to other anecdotal evidence of in Thailand but damage to would be impossible it is seagrass areas to determine the actual loss. Thai fishermen. They believe that chance to eat the seeds of Thailand However, they do not Enhalus acoroides necessary collect to some areas in for like to will a be of the time enough seeds. Local people in Thailand use dry seagrass leaves and many of diarrhea. At present, species are being screened for biological properties. For example Seagrasses a group of research- Thailand in on these extracts. toxicity The push seines. Before 1992, the local fishermen in five villages near Haad Chao Mai National Park used mechanized push seines that decreased the number animals and seagrass area. of marine Paradoxically the fishermen's Income also decreased while the use of gears increased. They started to these fish by Illegal fishing using dynamite and cyanide the occurrence of dugong and mining. such as small-mesh beach seines and mechanized seagrass extracts and conducting bioassays [anti- a caused by fishing gear is After 1992. the Royal Forestry five by and fishing practices, especially activities, destruction of seagrass beds ers from Kasetsart University has been testing crude bacterial, antifungal, cytotoxicity, antialgal threatened are of illegal fisheries and land-based harvest the fruits of because food rhizomes for the treatment extracts from someone who has Enhalus acoroides THREATS combination although the seeds of Enhaius acoroides are eaten by tests) Halophila ovalis and survived US$12-15 (500-600 Bahtl per kg while the dried ones cost US$25 per lucky. rate. level of Island seagrass beds. mackerel iRastrelliger kanagurta]'"'. In moved been have iLutjanus russeliil. mangrove red snapper [Lutjanus of have rotundata 2000, in seagrass bed has been covered with a high Park, and a awareness in in the seagrass bed. Department announced Haad Chao Mai National mass media campaign helped of to spread dugong and seagrass conservation in Thailand Thailand. Local organizations implemented dugong and seagrass conservation fishermen projects persuade local to beach and push seines stop using to seagrass areas. They can now only use traps One year the seagrass bed at later, National Park had increased in Haad Chao Mai and the fishermen's size income had increased because in for fishing. catches from of larger within the protected seagrass areas. However, the Royal Forestry Department found mechanized push seine still other seagrass areas"". trails in Thailand, In Phangnga mining tin Ranong and for are Phuket seagrass beds in Phuket and construction on reduced water upland in landfill, clarity to seagrasses in in many areas resulting from development clearing, such as land open topsoil on roads slopes"". hill threat have now most areas, but the seagrasses in development resulting A major activities by other activities, affected still been has in tin and Phangnga provinces. Mining decreased drastically Phuket, in It mining suggested that sediments from cause chronic problems centered is provinces. along Thailand is Dugong feeding trails on Halophila ovalis at Haad Chao Mai National Park. and rivers destruction of mangrove forests. LEGAL AND POLICY INITIATIVES In Thailand, there are only two seagrass protected Haad Chao Mai National Park and areas. These are Libong Non-hunting Area. Haad Chao Mai Island National Park administered by the Royal Forestry is Department under the auspices of the Marine National Park Division. Haad Chao Mai National Park was established percent 1981 and in the area of encompasses 230.9 km' - 59 an aquatic zone. Hunting and forbidden since this are collecting is is seagrass bed with the highest diversity the in largest Thailand. Libong Island Non-Hunting Area IKo Talibong Non- Hunting Area) was established restricted here is seagrass bed distributed feeding ground for of 960. 1 The only activity in this area serves as a more than 53 dugongs. Most officers of Libong Island people in hunting. Seven square kilometers of of the Non-hunting Area are the local the island. They not only protect the area from hunting but also help other local people understand the importance of seagrasses to the There have been several other policy designed, in part, to conserve seagrasses. In initiatives 1972, the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives declared that all mechanized 3000 meters 1993, of fishing gears the coastline were prohibited within in all coastal provinces. In Trang Provincial Notification was empowered under Fisheries Act Section 32'^' to B.E. 2/.90 (Fisheries Act gill nets were prohibited Haad Chao Mai National Park seagrass bed and Talibong. In 19i7| declare that trawlers, mechanized push seines, beach seines and Seeds of Enhalus acoroides. marine environment. at in Ko 1997, the Ministry of Agriculture and Co- operatives declared the prohibition of trawlers, mechanized push seines, purse-seines and nets area along Phangnga and Krabi In in the Phangnga Bay which includes Phuket, coastlines. 1998, the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning proposed policies for the management of seagrass resources including: accelerated management and control of water pollution; increasing efficiency in management of conservation through landuse planning; seagrass 149 1 150 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES support for studies on seagrass research and governmental organization conservation; Association, review and adjustment of laws, regulations and knowledge and enabling them importance and usefulness of seagrass beds. At this stage, seagrass and dugong conservation are mostly concentrated in the enforcement concerning seagrasses so that they Andaman campaigns seagrasses, at work more and heighten to improve importance aw/areness of the all levels of public conserving of the community; understand ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We seagrass beds, with the cooperation their great of central local people"". seagrass monitoring, restoration and far in successful the in has Thailand conservation alone has not led been not term because long funding and a suitable methodology. are of Law enforcement necessary to involve local is It A non- people through information and education. REFERENCES Ecology of K, Deethae Seagrass Bun. Thailand, Bangkok of Some marine (1980). 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Advanced Training Course/Workshop on Seagrass Resources Wilkinson CR, Ming CL ledsl Third ASEAN-Australia Research and Management, 8-26 January 1990, Quezon Symposium on Living Coastal Resources, 16-20 Department Marine Science. Chulalongkorn University. Bangkok. Naleekanjanalarp Gulf of Thailand. Symposium on Sudara S, In: Alcala Living Chidonnirat S, of coral reef AC City, Resources W [1991]. Observation and seagrass beds in the Proceedings ol the Regional ledl in Quezon City, Philippines, Pitaksintorn 35 Supanwanid C [1995]. Identification Seagrass Bed at Some Janekitkarn S [1995]. MSc H pp at S, ledsl Recovery dugong. of the Kuo In: J, seagrass Halophila ovalis Phillips RC, viith S. Bangkok (in in S. Chindon»/iv»at on Living Resources In-. in [in W [1991]. community of S, Satumanaptan S S. fauna S, Kisviiara 37 of Department Marine Science, Chulalongkorn University. May 19%. K, Suzuki in Western Australia. T, Matsumasa M, Nakaoka M. Toyohara T [1999]. Dugong Haad Chao Mai National Park, Trang How many dugongs can survive' In: Koike I led] and Disturbance by Dugongs and Turtles on K, Poovachiranon stomach contents of submitted 39 S, Natakuathung P lo off the the [2001]. dugongs [Dugong dugon] from 54(21: 129-137 [in Thai]. Mines E [2000]. Population and Habitat Assessment (Dugong dugoni In: Ming CL ledsl Third ASEAN-Australia Living Coastal Resources, 16-20 Bangkok, pp 251-257. Adulyanukosol Analysis 38 fisheries. Island, Tropical Seagrass Ecosystem. University of Tokyo. Tokyo. W, ASEAN seagrass Kirkman pp 239-254. in Symposium on of C, Trang Province. F/stery Gazette Fortes MD, Sudara Wilkinson CR. Sudara Supanwanid Effects of Grazing Coastal Areas. University of the Philippines. [1994]. Status oi S, Province, Thailand: T, Manila. Philippines, pp 347-352. Poovachiranon Lewmanomont H, Aioi K, grazing on Halophila beds Thai]. Survey Mukai Nojima the Aow Khung Krabane. Proceedings ol the Regional Symposium the seagrass Chantabun. Thailand. Bangkok Thamrongnawasawat Dl, 315-318. 36 Thai). Walker Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an tnternahonal University of Western Australia, Nedlands. Western Australia, pp in Haad Chao Mai National Park. Changwat Trang. Naleekanjanalarp Satumanatpan associated Larvae of Fish Ecological Aspects of Fishes thesis, Kasetsart University. Sudara [1996]. after grazing by Haad Chao Mai National Park, Changwat Trang. thesis, Kasetsart University. Seagrass Bed and Distribution 199i. Personal communication. 5. Workshop, 25-29 January 1996, Rottnest Duangdee T May pp 515-525. 363-366. MSc of 34 Coastal Areas. Marine Science Institute. University of the Philippines, 29 S. S, O'Sullivan P [1993]. on the spatial distribution 28 ASEAN pp 301-306. Philippines. 27 Naleekanjanalarp S [1992]. S, the Gulf of Thailand. in ledsl Third Gulf of Thailand. Final report of ASEAN-Australia Coastal Living in 26 CR 31 Environmental Board. 68 pp. 25 Wilkinson fauna and National Science and Technology Board, Singapore, ASEAN-Australia National Environmental Board. 34 pp. 24 Satumanatpan fish Living Coastal Resources. National University of Singapore Coastal Living Resources Project, submitted to Office of the 23 S, Seagrass Week Conference Proceedings. 1-15. 22 Sudara Andaman Coast of the Dugong of Thailand. Final report Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hong Kong. Satumanatpan S. Sudara seagrass beds in Thailand. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 7121: 417-420. S. Navanugraha C [2000]. Slate of the 151 152 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 14 of MALAYSIA Bujang J.S. M.H. Zakaria Malaysia's coastline is around 4800 km and Sarawak, bounding much part of the South China Sea. coastline three are mangroves, southern to this major coastal ecosystems reefs coral of the and adjacent In long, Sabah stretching along the Malay Peninsula, and, less known, well seagrasses. Corals are found on the outer edge of the mangroves are on the inner edge. In general, coastal areas between mangroves and corals, coastal zone while from low-tide level to the coral reef fringe, habitats for seagrasses in form the Malaysia. Seagrasses are also found around offshore islands with fringing corals. Here they are usually found in the outer region between the corals and the semi-open sea. The earliest account of seagrasses in Peninsular of the shallow bays Malaysia Information on seagrasses a number books, of monographs'''"'"'. nature and list all is 1924'". to scattered and appears in and publications scientific These have been largely taxonomic in habitats of at least seven species of seagrasses: Enhalus acoroides (then referred to as Enhalus koenigii by Ridley and HolttumI, Halophiia ovalis, of mangroves by the National Mangrove Committee''"' and corals under the Fisheries Act 1985. However the importance of seagrasses and from the standpoint at local levels, There are no specific reserves or far less attention. for seagrasses. legislation and national conservation, has received of Given the importance of seagrass as fisheries habitat, nursery and feeding grounds Malaysia, in this neglected and relatively known resource must be afforded the same priority and be as well managed as mangroves and lesser corals provide to future for and education utilization, renewable resource and science training, research, conservation and protection. around the coast back dates and management policies governing the conservation Halophiia minor (referred to as Halophiia ovata ECOSYSTEM DESCRIPTION The majority of seagrasses sheltered situations in in Malaysia are restricted to the shallow intertidal associated ecosystem, semi-enclosed lagoons and also zones. In in subtidal these areas they sometimes form diverse extensive communities. The overview of the seagrass and description distribution in this section given is separately for Peninsular and East Malaysia (Sabahl. by Henderson!. Halophiia spinulosa, Halodule uninervis We (then referred to as Diplanthera uninervis], Thalassia seagrass bed found include specific examples to illustrate the types of in Malaysia. hempnchii and Ruppia mantima. In recent years out on seagrasses now a number in more research has been carried Malaysia. Consequently there are of reports in the literature that the extent and richness of flora'" ^" describe and fauna'" """' in Malaysian seagrass beds. Unlike other terrestrial communities that can be lived in, managed or exploited, seagrasses offer only a few direct uses. The ecological role and importance understood. quantifying of seagrasses has not been fully Much more effort has been spent on and managing mangroves and corals. Mangrove reserves have been established and coral reefs are protected and conserved in marine parks and marine protected areas. There are guidelines and -T^^ Peninsular Malaysia Along the west coast, patches of mixed species seagrass communities usually occur on substrates from the sandy mud to sand-covered corals extreme northern region along the coast Island, Kedah, to of in the Langkawi the central region of Port Dickson. Negri Sembilan"^', extending as far as Pulau Serimbun. Malacca"^'. The Port Dickson area, at Teluk the only area intertidal in Kemang, seagrass on reef platform. In the southern region, around the Sungai Pulai area, Johore, species seagrass beds exist at depths of 2-3 sandy is mainland Peninsular Malaysia that has mud banks of the mangrove m mixed on both estuary'"' and Malaysia w^ i04T 20 40 60 80 100 Kilometers Si) i' Til I lll\.l Pengkalan Nangka • ii A Uak-Uak I Pulau Pertientian , d Tanjung Putau Redang ^' 153 Mengayau 7°N SULU St.i ,u„ga, ,a,u, Mef Chang Paka •^ •" PENINSULAR MALAYSIA •7u„^„ Abdul Rahman , - Kemasik iiOUTII Pulau CHINA ^^^ Gaya • I Turtle Islands Marine Pari,s .:>T ^ Sungai Mengkabong Sandakan . Sepangar Bay Telaga Simpul • Pulau Tiga Kemaman Sabah MALAYSIA Labuan Island Sirail LahadDatu Pulau Tabawan uf —• " Putau Liohay • Kuata Lumpur Pulau Maganling'^ Pulau Ttnjyih / Dulang {3 PuUu Tioniun lAPort Dickson Teluk ^^ ^ Kemang Pubu Bcsar-- -Malacca Kalimantan Piii.iu Tiinj^;. Tanjung PuIju Pulau Sipndan INDONESIA "PiiijuSibii AdangDaral Scnmbur Mirramhong. SINGAPORE I .^vX INDONESIA Tanjung; (Sumatra) A dung Laul Map U.2 Sabati Biion 100 50 islands with fringing coral reefs such as Pulau Sibu, 150 Kilometers Pulau Tengah, Pulau Besar and Pulau Tinggi"^ '^', Pulau Redang and Pulau Perhentian''" and Pulau Tioman"". Seagrasses are usually found in the outer region Map U.1 Peninsular Malaysia between the corals and the semi-open sea. calcareous mud sandy shoals subtidal of Merambong"^', Tanjung Adang Darat"" and Tanjung East Malaysia Adang The west and southeastern coasts Laut''"'. These subtidal shoals, depths at of m, support nine species [Enhalus acoroides, 2-2.7 Halophiia ovalis. Halophila minor. Halophila spinulosa, Cymodocea serrulata, Haloduie Haloduie uninervis, Synngodium isoetifolium] mixed species seagrass beds down to depth a 2.5 of substrates ranging from sand and pinifolia, rubble. of seagrasses. the highest species nunnber for any locality Peninsular in km in width according to bed is in to coral intertidal mixed associations of seagrass and coral reef along the west coast at Bak-Bak, Tanjung Mengayau, Sungai Salut, Sungai Mengkabong, Sepangar Bay and Pulau Gaya. The four isolated offshore islands Pulau Tabawan, of Pulau Maganting, Bohay Dulang and Pulau Pulau therefore probably the largest single seagrass Sipadan along the southeastern coast have subtidal Peninsular Malaysia. The south has a greater seagrasses growing on coral rubble'""""'^'. diversity of just muddy sand of m year by low tides. in a areas six Malaysia'"'. length and 100-200 in estimates based on the visible portion exposed several times This East or t^^alaysia These beds measure 1-1.2 are Sabah harbor m. Seagrasses grow on Thalassia hemprichii. There of the intertidal zone in three serrulata seagrasses than the northern region with species [Halophila and Haloduie Pantai Penarak Intertidal in uninervis] ovalis, in Cymodocea Tanjung Rhu and of the Sarawak, other than records of of herbarium Halophila beccarii, collected by Beccari in and Halophila decipiens collected at Sungai Bintulu" "", Pulau Talang Talang, Semantan"''', nothing the north. areas In specimens eastern coastline are devoid of seagrasses. Beds of two species, Halophila known about the seagrass much habitats, distribution is and species composition. beccarii and Haloduie pinifolia, inhabit the fine sand substrate of the shallow inland coastal lagoons from Pengkalan Nangka, Kelantan, to Paka, Terengganu, while Haloduie pinifolia and Halophila ovalis inhabit a similar substrate type at Gong Batu and Merchang. BIOGEOGRAPHY Peninsular Malaysia The distribution of has been detailed seagrasses in in Peninsular Malaysia various publications""''^ '*""'. A Monospecific beds of Haloduie pinifolia were found at very broad distinction Kemasik, Terengganu, and pure stands seagrass distribution of Halophila grew on the mud flat of the mangroves in Kemaman, Terengganu. Monospecific beds of Haloduie beccarii pinifolia, Halophila seagrass beds occur decipiens and in mixed species the waters of the offshore Differences in the can of be made between the west available the and east coasts. habitats and prevailing environmental characteristics along the east and west coasts probably explain these distributions. On the west coast seagrasses occur in the sandy mud sediments of y^ir 154 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES shallow coastal waters while on the east coast the coastline is fringed with sandy to rocky areas which are not suitable for the growth of seagrasses. coast seagrasses inhabit sandy the sand ridges mud On the east lagoons, behind areas sheltered from the open sea. in many indicated extensive seagrass beds, the west le.g. coast been have Sabahl Malaysia, of the habitats Peninsular Malaysia, of exploited or East have deteriorated to a greater or lesser extent as a result of coastal development, especially in the last 15 years"''*'. offshore eastern islands with fringing reefs such as Such phenomena would explain the present seagrass distribution, which is no longer extensive, and its patchy Pulau Redang, Pulau Perhentian, Pulau Tengah, Pulau distribution along the Malaysian coastline'""""". Seagrasses are also found around relatively calm and Pulau Besan The west coast Sibu, Pulau Tinggi Known uses of seagrasses were few. Burkill'" in A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the of Peninsular Malaysia does not generally experience his book, strong wave action, whereas the east coast Malay Peninsula, mentioned exposed is monsoon from November annually to the northeast to January'"'. water and Clarity of a significant role in sufficient light irradiance play depth distribution the the of seagrasses. Coastal waters are often turbid or high suspended solids in which most that limit the depth at 1924 that the leaves Ridley recorded that Enhalus acoroides were one of in of the chief foods of the dugong, Dugong dugon, which was then common in Malaysia. Later the dugong became rare because was hunted for meat and hide'". it Presently dugongs are found in areas with abundant seagrasses such as Pulau Sibu, Pulau Tengah, Pulau seagrasses grow, more so on the western coast of Besar and Pulau Tinggi on the east coast and around Peninsular Malaysia than the east. This in Merambong, Tanjung Adang Darat and Tanjung Adang is reflected seagrass communities along the west coast which are Laut shoals of Sungai Pulai, Johore. Enhalus acoroides generally found inhabiting the shallow waters at depths fruits are of less than A.O m. deeper areas, 5.0-7.0 m. Seagrasses ever, extend to will colonize of greater depth comparison, depth Seagrasses on the east coast, how- if the water is clear By way the clear water of the east coast the in Hatophila decipiens ranged from 6 limit for 24 m of Pulau Redang, Terengganu, respectively"" while in the Sungai Redang Estuary and Cagar Hutang the turbid water of the west coast, at Teluk Port Dickson, grows it to Kemang, at 1.5-3.1 m'"'. along and west the of Sabah was described by in the Tunku Abdul Rahman Marine Parks IPulau Gaya, Pulau Mamutik, Pulau Manukan and Pulau Sulug, Pulau in 1997"'^'. Johore, sumption. them collect for acoroides form fibers that are made Ruppia maritima plants are used con- Enhalus the softer parts of addition In still into fishing nets. in fish ponds to aid in the aeration of the water, and the milk fish [Chanos on feeds spp.l This It. functional mentioned, has not been observed Malaysia, and is role, though Peninsular in probably based on observations made in the fishponds of Java, Indonesia'^'. Ruppia maritima is rare Peninsular Malaysia"*'. In areas for utilization include using |La(es fish calcarifer and seagrass Epinephelus sexfasciatus] cage farming, for example at Pengkalan Nangka, Kelantan, and Gong Batu, Terengganu, which started 1991, in farming as oyster [Saccostrea cacullata] or Merchang from 1998"". Seagrass areas at seagrasses are associated with Pengkalan Nangka, Kelantan. Paka shoal, Terengganu, reef, although a few are associated and Tanjung Adang Laut shoal, Johore, are used as with mangroves and habitats fishing by explosive. There damaged through illegal were no broad differences collection and gleaning sites for food including fishes, gastropods [Lambis lambis, Strombus canarium], regionally with respect to species distribution and bivalves {Gafrarium sp., Meretrixsp., Modiolus sp.\ composition. echlnoderms Isea cucumber gularis, Peninsular Malaysia seagrasses [Enhalus acoroides, Halophila avails] were apparently locally common ^ low tlde"^ of seagrass species ' ". Historical accounts of the distribution at three places in Sabah, Labuan Island, Sandakan and Lahad Datu, were given by den Hartog in 1970"°'. Information on their abundance areas widespread coral reefs In is Sabah, East Malaysia. was no information is the loss 1993. Since the early reports, which the form of historical maps seagrass beds over time. The losses of the various seagrass sites. Peninsular Sabah, in reported here have been observed during repeated visits to In with or aerial photographs that can be used to determine not given. Ismail"" described seagrass habitats that East Malaysia, intercedens]. Gleaning for food associated ESTIMATE OF HISTORICAL LOSSES There were already degraded by human activities In in and Pentacta quadran- e.g. all around the coast on muddy shores and areas exposed at Mensamaria seagrass HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES In at all Almost degraded coral Sapil by Josephine the coastal communities of edible""" and Pulai, Other forms of Sabah, East Malaysia Seagrass distribution southeastern coasts Ismail In 1993"" and in Sungai depletion Malaysia, of at seagrass Port On the west coast Dickson, (narrow-leaved of localized Halodule Malaysia Enhatus acoroides] began uninervis and 199A. In representing about 50 percent of the area originally present. This area was heavily utilized as a Kemang recreational area. At Teluk sand mining Intensive mangrove swamps as reclamation activities for part of the construction of a condominium. This caused the and Halodule in loss of Halophila ovalis seagrass bed pinifoiia In the subtldal Teluk Kemang. Suspended particles of the water in settled on the leaves of the seagrasses, blocking light for photosynthesis and causing considerable stress and mortality through burial. The presence and frequent refinery, intense shipping activity In an of oil oil spills the adjacent waters have also been suggested as potential causes for the decline or loss of seagrasses along the coastline of Port Dickson. Tar balls of oil spills. In Laut petrogenic addition, detected and water the in Teluk Kemang''". and Tanjung Adang Darat were respectively, yet by 1998 they development are were only discovered extensive, and and diverse 1991 and 199A In at risk from port involving dredging of shallow passage- ways and land reclamation causing an Increase In for new both facilities, the suspended solids the in water column. Localized losses were observed with the death sand-smothered HalophUa of visible. In addition Gracilaria dense overgrowth In ovalis clearly macroalgae of the Amphiroa fragiiissima coronopifolia and caused the seagrasses the area to die However, recovery occurred with regrowth grasses and the disappearance washed ashore, were significant quantities, frequently evidence in at The Sungal Pulai seagrass beds Tanjung Adang public 1997 there was in were hydrocarbons sediments 155 On the east coast the decline was at back. sea- of macroalgae. of the Pengkalan Nangka, Kelantan, the result of human activities such as Case Study U.I THE SEAGRASS MACROALGAE COMMUNITY OF TELUK KEMANG At Teluk Kemang, Port Dickson, Negri Sembilan, the intertidal community consists patches mixed seagrasses and macroalgae on a of coral reef platform 1.0-1.5 in m non-uniform of deep. Seagrasses grow various substrates, from sand-covered coral to a combination coarse sand and coral rubbles of silt, Isee photograph!. Halophila ovalis is ovalis occur at depths of 3.2 to 3.5 differences are observed in m. Ivlorphological Halophila ovalis in these two communities. Subtldal Halophila ovalis plants much possess veins'^" bigger leaf blades and than plants of the same more cross- species growing in the Intertidal zone. Another conspicuous seagrass dominant and is Halophila widespread, interspersed with Thalassia hemprichii, decipiens \Nh]ch occurs at shallow depths of 1.5-3.0 Cymodocea m'-"'. Halodule serrulata. Enhalus Synngodium pinifolia. species here, occurs in acoroides and isoetifolium, a rare patches the sand-tilled in Halophila decipiens was previously thought to be a deepwater species growing at depths between 10mand30m"°-"-'". spaces amongst coral rubble areas, Macroalgae coexist with these seagrasses. The most common, and seasonal, macroalgae species are IChlorophytael Caulerpa sertularioides, Caulerpa Caulerpa racemosa, Caulerpa prolifera, lentillifera: IPhaeophytae) Sargassum polycystum. Sargassum cnstaefolium, Sargassum and Laurencia corymbosa and dichotoma"''\ This intertidal ilicifolium (Rhodophytae) Padina tetrastomatica: and Jama decussato- community extends the subtldal zone to depths of 3.5 m into with a clear zonatlon of seagrass species that are confined to mud and sandy silty substrates. Pure stands of Halophila ovalis and Halodule pmifolia with isolated individuals of 1.5 Enhalus acoroides occur m. Halophila decipiens grows a depth of 1.5-2.0 ovalis 3,0 m and Halodule m, in in depth of small patches at at a association with Halophila pinifolia. Slightly deeper, Halophila decipiens forms a meadow. Occasionally patches of pure at 2.0- continuous Halophila The Telul< Kemang seagrass macroalgae community on reef platform, Seagrasses occupy the sand-filled spaces coral reef platform, and macroalgae dominated by coral of the Sargassum spp inhabit the boulders and coral rubbles. ferr 156 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES the dredging of sand for landfills removed two shoals of fiave totally wfiicfi Halophila beccarii and Halodule representing 30 percent of the total seagrass pinlfolia, area. At of Merchang and Kemasik. Terengganu, the effect wind and resulting wave action on lagoon seagrass reduced by the sheltering presence the sand ridges. of 50-70 percent Despite this protection, is of Halodule and Halophila ovalis seagrass beds were pinifolia damaged severely waves and winds, intense by sediment movement during the northeast monsoon storms October 1998 of to January 1999. No recovery of sand at Telaga Simpul, Terengganu, for the shoreline stabilization Kemaman village, solids the in resulted March 1997, and to Kuala sedimentation smothered the dense Halophila beccarii bed bed was transformed of high total suspended in column water in and protection there. The sparse and scattered patches Case Study U.2 THE SUBTIDAL SHOAL SEAGRASS COMMUNITY OF TANJUNG ADANG LAUT The subtidal shoal Tanjung Adang Laut of Sungai Pulai estuary, Johore, mean sea level and is is and their feeding The shoal tides. is one dugongs around Sungai for is trails the in m below vegetated with seagrasses Isee photograph]"". This shoal grounds 1.5-2.7 feeding of the Pulai, Johore, can be seen clearly made up low at calcareous sandy of mud substrate and supports a mixed species community dominated by Enhalus acoroides. Halophila ovalis rigida, Amphiroa Ulva spp. Cymodocea Syringodium isoetifolium and inhabit the deeper, serrulata, Halodule uninervis narrow edge zones (1.8-2.1 ml The edge zone is bare others isolated patches of some places, while at Cymodocea rotundata, at Halophila spinulosa, Halophila minor or Halodule pinifolia occur. In deeper zone (2.1-2.7 ml the coronopifolia] and drift (e.g. seagrass bed is November, the in overgrown with them. The waters around Tanjung Adang Laut as well of Tanjung Adang Darat and Merambong support of species fishes of the which fisheries coastal communities. inhabitants (including the feed the Seventy-six Indian anchovy Stolephorus indlcus, barramundi Lates calcarifer and Spanish which remain unexposed. amongst the seagrasses. Gracilaria seasonally, from April to July and shoals tides. Amphiroa Hypnea esperi and Amphiroa fragilissima] form important components of this shoal community and macroalgae the middle zone 11.5-1.8 ml and extreme low spring spicifera, fragilissima, loosely lie Attached leg. as those exposed during Acanthophora algae, such as and Halophila spinulosa. This association occupies is snapper Lutjanus carponotatus] flag and others including prawn (e.g. Penaeus indicus] and crabs [Portunus pelagicus and Scylla serrata] have been reported in the area"'"'^°'. The locals also used the shoal as a gleaning site for collection of sparse, isolated patches of Enhalus acoroides and gastropods such as Strombus canarium and Lambis Halophila ovalis are found. Enhalus acoroides and lambis and bivalves such as Gafranum spp. and Halophila ovalis occur at depths of 1.5-1.8 m, and Modiolus spp. are also exposed during low spring tides, but are able to withstand short periods conditions. Cymodocea serrulata and Syringodium isoetifolium are less resistant occur in desiccating of and therefore tend to the unexposed edge zone 11.8-2.1 ml. This seagrass bed also supports a total of 25 species of macroalgae. macroalgae Rhizophytic ;,v^?^^B such as Avrainvillea erecta, Udotea occidentalis are set mud Caulerpa spp. and into the sandy or sandy substrates whereas epiphytes such as Bryopsis plumosa. Ceramium affine. Chaetomorpha Cladophora spatentiramea, Cladophora spiralis, fascicularis, Cladophora fuliginosa, Dictyota dichtoma, Hypnea cervicornis. Gracilaria coronopifolia, Gracilaria salicornia fisherii and directly to morpha calthrata and Gracilaria textorii attach to are attached seagrasses. Species such as Entero- mollusk shells or polycheate tubes. ^^ Gracilaria Drift macro- to the original areal extent has been observed yet. Mining mi ^m~M.'1 K*»^iV i Tanjung Adang Laut subtidal shoal witti mixed species seagrass community. Nine species of seagrass inhabit the calcareous sandy mud substrate of the shoal. Malaysia and Hatophita beccani has been largely replaced by the more aggressive Halodule pinifolia which now forms monospecific bed. Standing biomass Halophila of beccaril has been dramatically reduced from g dry weight/m'' Ishoot density of the mining in 1996 a CSV-ASA 2078-6 798/m'| before welght/m^ Ishoot to 0.58-0.59 g dry the east coast common a is shoreline stabilization carried out pinifolia of Increased sedimentation and More bed removal biomass and shoot density dredging is pinifolia fluctuated from 10.1 to 56.6 g dry weight/m' and 2 1A5.3 to Halodule Telaga SImpul. This dredging will lead inevitably to grasses. Halodule and being is Pengkalan Nangka, Paka shoal and density of 758-1 386/m'l from April 1997 until January 1999. Dredging Halophila beccarii and the in beds activity for landfill projects. demand 89A6/m' respectively during that period. to smothering will sea- of eventually occur If be continued to supply the increasing for sand. Small-scale destructive fishing by pull net at Sabah, no Information on decline or loss of Pengkalan seagrasses has been reported. However, symptoms of Terengganu, dislodges the seagrasses and reduces the In were a declining seagrass bed The middle Sepangar Bay. visible at Halodule unmervis and sublittoral belt of Cymodocea rotundata was eroded by wave Edge action. Nangka, Kelantan, seagrass cover Harvesting and Paka shoal, of bivalves, Hiatula solida, Meretrix meretrix and Geloina coaxans at Pengkalan Nangka, been has Kelantan, shown to cause plants have exposed rhizomes and roots. Sediment mechanical damage, reduce seagrass cover and retard erosion and instability appear to be Implicated the progressive decline of these seagrasses In the In the shallow spread and colonization ing and swimming PRESENT COVERAGE and as avenues Information on the total area, extent or size of seagrass narrow channels Incomplete. The individual and total Sungai estimated areas presented (Table U.ll are for the Johore. in Malaysia Is known seagrass areas In Peninsular Malaysia. This an underestimate as seagrass areas are Islands not ranging size In from 10 m In Although Included. reported that seagrass beds In to 150 m has Ismail"" in Is the offshore Sabah occur seagrasses. Other in common transportation for In it In Sabah would be many times that known seagrass areas in Peninsular Malaysia. of Pulal-Merambong-Tanjung Is being subjected to a high resource exploitation as well as pollution. Seagrass beds grow in shallow, coastal zone waters renders them susceptible of gleaning and collection for food resources. Uncontrolled collection of flora such as Table U.I Estimate of known seagrass areas In Peninsular Malaysia State and location Area to unplanned and 27.0 20.0 Terengganu Sungai | Kemaman 17.0 assessment procedures Sungai Paka Lagoon for developments and lack awareness about the Importance even In at present, of seagrasses. losses of of the In seagrass the coastal areas of Malaysia caused either by natural causes or human Chukai, Kemaman 1.5 Merchang 3.0 5.0 Gong Batu Negri Sembllan and Malacca are undertaking land reclamation and Teluk Johore facilities. intention Is occurring for the development of new port With more expansion planned, the future is to seagrass beds completely reclaim the stretch of of Merambong-Tanjung Adang shoals, U 43.0 River bank of Sungai Paka activities generally expansion programs. Land reclamation and expansion 3.3 28.0 Sungai Paka shoal pass unnoticed or unrecorded. States such as Kedah in 40.0 Pantal Baru Lagoon Telaga Simpul communities Ihal Sungai Tanjung unmanaged urban and industrial development. These problems are compounded by a lack of environmental and shoals, Kampung Baru Nelayan-Kampung The Malaysian coastal zone past, Adang Sabah, seagrass and coral reef associated In ecosystems are areas Pengkalan Nangka Lagoon this the Kelantan PRESENT THREATS and in Sabah. An approximate estimate for in of such as the Paka Lagoon, Terengganu, and patches seagrass areas degree fish- Port Dickson. Negri Sembllan, in diameter, no is known that, compared with Peninsular Malaysia, seagrasses are further data are available, though the of threats include the increasing public use of natural seagrass areas, such as for recreational boating, water. beds 157 | Kemang 11.0 Jofiore Tanjung Adang Laut shoal 40.0 Tanjung Adang Darat shoal 42.0 Merambong shoal Total estimated area In 30.0 Peninsular Malaysia 315.5 the feeding ground of dugongs. Sourcing for sand on ferf- 158 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study U.3 COASTAL LAGOON SEAGRASS COMMUNITY AT PENGKALAN NANGKA, KELANTAN The intertidal area and two shoals the lagoon in all and Halophila faeccar/V community. Hatodule pinifolia grows in pure harbor a mixed Hatodule pinifolia and extensive subtidal meadows on substrates at depths of grows faeccan/ 1.5 m 1.6 shallower parts, in at Haloptiita depths monospecific and very dense in muddy soft m. 2.0 to of 0.9 to meadows on sandy substrates. The two species are able withstand a wide fluctuation of salinity from psu. The meadow bivalves (e.g. a is fishing. caused of lot collection of solida and Geloina coaxans] l-liatula and artisanal a for the site to to 18 Digging damage has bivalves for meadow the to (see photograph). Since 1991 the lagoon has also been used cage farming for fish Lates calcanfer and of Epineplielus sexfasciatus. Seasonally, from June to migrant wader. Egretta garzetta, used the July, the shoals as a feeding ground on its migrations until two shoals were completely destroyed dredging in by sand early 1999. explosives are bivalves, among meadow a harvesting site for Hialula solida is to the bed. Caulerpa spp. and fauna such as sea cucumbers, gastropods and Halophila beccani and Geloina coaxans. Digging has caused damage and with fishing illegal the major causes of damage to particular regard endangered flora species to such area or part thereof where such lite in not only cause loss of flora and fauna but also create an has been depleted; imbalance within the ecosystem from which seagrass (cl beds are unlikely respect of such area or part thereof; recover quickly. promote In it was mentioned seagrass beds are the least protected ecosystems recommended research productivity of such area or part thereof; the earlier part of this chapter, marine study and scientific in Malaysia. of the three is It that main strongly life in preserve and enhance the pristine state and Id] POLICY RESPONSES or allow for the natural regeneration of aquatic Ibl coral reefs and associated seagrasses. Such activities to rare of and fauna; and regulate recreational and other activities |e) such area or part thereof damage to its to in avoid irreversible environment." seagrass beds, especially those that around offshore islands that have been gazetted as marine parks (Pulau Redang; Pulau Perhentian, Furthermore: The "(21 limits of any area or part of an area Terengganu; Pulau Tioman. Phang; Pulau Tengah; established as a marine park or marine reserve Pulau Besar; Pulau Sibu; Pulau Tinggi. Johorel be given under subsection HI may be altered by the Minister by order in the Gazette and such order protection as marine parks or reserves under the Fisheries Act 1985. Under Part of the Fisheries Act may order in IX. Section Al(ll and 1985 the Minister of may to also provide for the area or part of the area cease to be a marine park or marine reserve." the Gazette the establishment of any area or part of an area in Malaysian fisheries waters as a marine park or marine reserve and fauna protect, in order of such area or part thereof and preserve and manage the breeding grounds and habitat of aquatic The question of affording comprehensive protection to marine ecosystems gazetted under the to: special protection to the aquatic flora "(a| afford -7^,'^ |2l Agriculture to natural life, with present Fisheries Act 1985 has been the subject of intense scrutiny by marine officials scientists, and conservationists. The bone has been the separation of the government of contention land on islands Malaysia 159 gazetted as marine parks and reserves from the waters surrounding the islands. Under these circumstances, while the authorities vested with the powers to manage and enforce the marine park laws can do so have no jurisdiction whatsoever over what at sea, they happens on land. could This be based resolved on practices adopted by Sabah Parks and the present trend of promulgating state parks enactment for the protection of ecosystems. At present, Sabah Parks has under its auspices three marine protected areas: Tunku Abdul Rahman Marine Islands Parks, Pulau Tiga Parks and Turtle Parks. gazetted as harbor seagrasses All parks state under the and were Parks State Enactment 1984. Marine areas gazetted as state parks Sabah are afforded more comprehensive protection in under the enactment than marine parks or reserves Peninsular Malaysia. These parks are protected entirety without separating the marine and in in their terrestrial components. Boat unable Several states Peninsular in promulgated enactments for the gazettement Enactment 1991. Terengganu has a Terengganu State Parks Enactment. Can the above management of policies Malaysia? The answer gazettement of be applied lies in for encouraging concurrent marine protected areas under both federal and state legislation using the Fisheries Act 1985 gazette to the protection from the Support waters the of Kingdom Department United IDflDI is gratefully international for acknowledged, the Peninsular in Enhalus acoroides bed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Development marine protected areas of thick of state parks. Johore has gazetted the National Parks (Johorel Corporation move because to have Malaysia AUTHORS Japar Sidik Bujang, Department of Biology. Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies, Universili Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia, Tel: +603 10189/16 6626, Fax: +603 1018656 7454. E-mail: laparldfsas, upm.edu, my surrounding the islands as marine parks or reserves, and state park enactments component to gazette the terrestrial the marine protected areas as state of parks. Muta Harah Zakaria, Faculty 1 10 The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Monocotyledons- A, Asher & Amsterdam and Co., Reeve and L, Beccari [1904], Co,, 11 Wanderings A in the Great Forests ol Borneo. Dictionary of the Malay Peninsula. Ministry New of Agriculture MR [1954]. 90's. and Co-operatives, Kuala Malayan Wild Flowers: Monocotyledon. The 5 Holttum RE [1954], Plant Tvi/eedie MWR Harnson Life in Malaya. Jl [1954], Longman, London, Malayan Animal Life. Sinclair J [1956], Additions to the flora of Singapore Hsuan Keng [1 969], II, Gardens of A, Vickmeswary S Research Priorities for Society of Manne Science and Marine Sciences Mohd Rajuddin MK Seagrasses 14 Endll, IPotamogetonaceaeL Blumea the sea-grass 12: 19-312. Lumpur pp ledsl m Ismail N in Institute for Lumpur pp [19921. the R, 269-278. Audery Ml In: Proceedings 12th the 90's. Malaysian Advanced Studies, 191-211. The Areas and Species Distribution Peninsular Malaysia. Paper presented National of in The Sungai Pulai IJohorel: A unique mangrove estuary. UKM,KotaKinabalu, Sabah. genus Halodule (edsl Institute for Leh MU, Chong VC, D'Cruz dicotyledons and monocotyledons. Singapore University Press, taxonomy Vickmeswary S Marine Science and Synopsis of orders and families of Malayan gymnosperms, to the A, Universili Malaya, Kuala A, Charles Universili Malaya, Kuala 13 Orders and Families of Malayan Seed Plants. den Hartog C [1964], An approach - a neglected natural resource in Annual Seminar of the Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences. Longman, Singapore, 9 Sasekumar Phang SM, Sasekumar Bulletin Singapore 15: 22-30. 8 Seagrasses Phang SM, Sasekumar Malaysian Society [1989]. London, 7 989], Advanced Studies, Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur 6 In: Marine Sciences. Research Priorities for Marine Sciences York. 12 Henderson Amsterdam. [1 Proceedings 12th Annual Seminar of the Malaysian Society of Economic Products of the Lumpur 4 Phang SM Malaysia. Oxford University Press, Oxford and Burkill IH [1935]. den Hartog C [1970]. Seagrasses of the World North-Holland Publishing, Vol. IV, Brook, near Ashford, UK, 3 Agncultural Sciences and Food, Universili Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia. REFERENCES Ridley HN 11924], 2 of Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, Jalan Nyabau, RO. Box 396, 97008 Symposium on Natural Resources, 23-26 [1993], Preliminary study of seagrass of at the First July 1992, FSSA, flora of Sabah, Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science 16I2I- 111-118. fe?rr l6o WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 15 JaparSidik B [1994], Status Wilkinson CR, Sudara Symposium on Australia 1. 16 S, of seagrass resources Chou LM In: 28 Japar Sidik [1996]- Arshad B, A, Seagrass and macroalgal communities Dl. Kirkman H an international workshop, Rottnest In; Kuo Island, 29 from Western Australia. Muhamad Saini 5, Fazrullati Rizally AR [1997]. Muta Harah A, Joseptiine G. Japar Sidik Muta Harafi B, Fazrullah Rizally Journal AR 30 JaparSidik Z. Lamri in Mohd Pauzi A. Suleika M New Z, observations on Halophila spinulosa IR. Kamin B Br| Aschers. Neumayer, Malaysia. Biotogia Marina Mediterranea Japar Sidik B, Muta Harah 31 Z, Misri K, Hishamuddin 7121: Kemang, Negeri Sembilan: An update. In: Gopinath N, Ibrahim HM. Nik Mustapha Management Shariff M, Yusoff RA 32 FM, 33 Seagrass communities A, of the Straits of Mohd Z, A Pauzi Malacca. In: 34 12001). Japar Sidik Straits of Malacca. Current Research and Reviews. Malacca Straits Research and Ganesan M The Distribution Phytobenthos along the Coastal Water The Centre of L, (1994). Abstract: of 36 Water Aquaculture in Malaysia. Malaysian National Mangrove Committee for Scientific Research and Development, Seagrasses of Malaysia. (20001. Monographs No. Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur A, Charles A Survey of the Living Universiti Malaya, Biological Sciences, 2. Institute of Audery ML, Sasekumar Zelina Zl, Arshad A, Leh MU, Chong VC, Rebecca D Aquatic Resources of the Sungai Pulai Lee SC, Japar Sidik Maged Mahmoud M Sheppard C ledl B, in Law AT, Nik Mustapha [2000]. East coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Seas at the Millennium. Vol. 2. Pergamon, Biodiversity, Distribution Tunku Abdul Rahman Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Final for of A, Tan SG, feature Journal 5213, pp 99-1 41: Japar Sidik B, Hishamuddin and seeding of [19991. Flowering, Japar Sidik B, Law of Biologia Manna Mediterranea CR In: Japar Sidik B, Arshad ledsl Aquatic Straits of Malacca: 7121: in of ledsl Third Conference Proceedings, Resources. Department of fish in Chou LM, Technology Week Marine Science: Living Coastal of Zoology, [1998]. Seagrass Communities BSc Department thesis, National University of Japar Sidik B, Arshad A, Hishamuddin seagrass for Malaysia. Aquatic Botany 39 and size In: CN in the Coastal Waters of of Biology, Universiti Putra 0, Shamsul Bahar A Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld IHydrocharitaceael: (20001. 99-102. ASEAN Science and Vol. 6, 38 Peninsular Malaysia. Peninsular Malaysia. Lee Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang. Malaysia, Serdang. Hishamuddin [19921. Species composition seagrass communities Wilkinson AT, Halophila teccanV Aschers. Seeding Mohd Raiuddm MK [2001]. 10. Port Dickson. Halophila beccan/ Aschers. IHydrocharitaceael from Malaysia. Aquatic Botany bi. 199-207. Z, Noro T reef area at Teluk Daud SK, Jambari HA, Sugiyama S Development Centre IMASDECI, Sipadan, Sabah, 37 Muta Harah B, Resource and Environmental Studies of the 223-235. Z, Japar Sidik degraded coral Current Research and Reviews. Malacca Straits Research and of Pulai A preliminary survey Malayan Muta Harah 0, in Kemang, Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan. Benthic Organisms. Extension and Continuing Education, Universiti Anisah A, Zulfigar Y 119981. Seagrass Malaysia: Lim LH, Hishamuddin Seaweed community Pulau Pertanian Malaysia. -^--cp^^ for Brackish to the year thesis, Universiti Kolej Terengganu, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Abdul Razak Z, Conference on Applied Ecology and Biology 27 Phang SM and Biomass Besar, Johore, Malaysia. Presented at The International 26 National Mangrove Committee [1989]. Guidelines on the Use of the In: Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang. Mashoor M, Yassin fruiting Research and Amsterdam, pp 345-359. 35 Josephine G [1997], A Study on Seagrass pp 81-98. 25 Tan SG, Daud Straits RA, B, Tan SG, Daud SK, Jambari HA, Sugiyama S ledsl Aquatic Resource and Environmental Studies of the 24 A, Estuary, Johore. Kanamoto Development Centre IMASDECI, Arshad Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang. (19891. Malaysia, Serdang. pp 233-238. Z, [2001]. Fishes associated B, Research and Reviews. Malacca Botanical of the Straits of Malacca. Malacca Straits Japar Sidik B, Muta Harah Japar Sidik In: Lumpur The Towards ledsl Muta Harah Z B, Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment, Kuala Research and Development Centre IMASDECI, Universiti Putra Arshad 337-348. and the National Council in 75-78. 120001, Bangkok. Development Centre IMASDECI, The Working Group [2000]. seagrass, Halophila decipiens IHydrocharitaceael from Teluk Sustainable 2: Mangrove Ecosystem Fazrullah Rizally AR, University, pp 151-162. 119991. Botany 65: 33-46. Japar Sidik B, Muta Harah Wilkinson Environmental Studies of the Straits of Malacca: Current Sabah, Malaysia. Sabah Parks Nature Z, S, ASEAN Australia Symposium Marine Science, Chulalongkorn University. Bangkok of Japar Sidik A, Sudara In: SK, Jambari HA, Sugiyama S ledsl Aquatic Resource and A, Francis L, Joseptiine G. 119991. Halophila spinulosa IR. Br| Aschers.: Muta Harah B, Arshad seagrass and non in shoal Johore. Proceedings Third ledsl Research Papers Halophila 2: 1-9. variation. Aquatic 23 LM Department Z. Halodute species from Malaysia - distribution and morphological 22 Merambong in with seagrass habitat. An unreported seagrass 21 on the invertebrate fauna seagrass beds on Living Coastal Resources, Chulalongkorn A. Sandakania'): 67-75. 20 Sarah MY, Japar Sidik B [19941. A comparative A, Siti qualitative survey pp3-12, decipiens IHydroctiaritaceael. a nevn seagrass for Sabafi. 19 Arshad CR, Chou Mansoruddin 18 Environment, of University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia. Japar Sidik B, Lamri seagrass UNEP: EAS-35: ledl pp 48-79. Walker J, Scientific discussion Seagrass Biology: ledsl [19951. Inventory for Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Kuala Lumpur, Misni S Z. Sungai Pulai of Law AT A, Japar Sidik B In: Seagrasses and Coral Reefs. Department Muta Harah 0. Arshad B, Malaysia. in Malaysian Inventory of Coastal Watersheds, Coastal Wetlands, Living Coastal Resources. Status Reviews Hishamuddin Japar Sidik beds Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, pp 283-290. estuary, soutti-west Jotiore, Peninsular Malaysia. 17 Malaysia. in Proceedings Third ASEAN ledsl Muta Harah Z, Sujak S [2002, Japar Sidik in of 52: 151-154. B, Fazrullah Rizally press]. Occurrence [1995]. A new record AR, Mansoruddin A, and systematic account seagrasses from Pulau Redang, Terengganu, Malaysia. of In: Proceedings National Symposium on Marine Park and Islands of Terengganu: Towards Sustainable Usage and Management of Islands, Grand Continental Hotel, Kuala Terengganu. Department Singapore and National Science and Technology Board, Singapore, of Fisheries Malaysia, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia, pp 309-313. Lumpur. Kuala The western Pacific islands The seagrasses 15 of THE WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS R. Coles L. McKenzie S. Campbell M. Fortes F. western The countries and island Pacific island includes the region states Micronesia, of Melanesia and Polynesia. These countries are located the tropical Pacific Ocean; almost in islands are a zone spanning the equator from the in Tropic of Cancer In in the north to the Tropic of Capricorn environmental damage. While these issues are recognized and are being addressed Guinea and many Papua New of are small by continental standards Fiji, deep ocean waters. of no easy task estimating even the number Islands of the western Pacific region. For example in there are of the islands. This dilemma excess in 2 of 000 islands Micronesia In some of which may not be permanent and can swamped by high tides. There are two main types Our best estimate as In In that 13 of these are found dium, Thalassia and Thalassodendron. that new species remain to Pacific, as collections from western Pacific equatorial counter-current Majuro and sphere and the equatorial current the rest of the world, most the coastal in Papua New Guinea are there large the of easterly is possible this region are believed to be Influenced by the is hemisphere'", with the with It Seagrass species distribution across the Papua New as in be described from the and the low the cities and towns are located region. Only Is Fiji, Islands and coral reef atolls such Kiribati. In the Pacific, seagrasses, including Islands, such as Solomon for seagrass. of Cymodocea, Enhatus, Halodule, Halophlla, Syringo- relatively few. of the In may western Pacific islands. These include the genera western Guinea and most land tenure Ruppia'", found throughout the tropical Indo-Paclflc'^'. be of islands - the high islands of by planning impossible be an obstacle to the environment planning needed to ensure a sustainable habitat alone, of difficult or Is There are 24 species and are separated by expanses Is enforcement legislation, the south. Most islands, with the exception It the all to Short in number distance. the of northern in hemi- the southern species declining The reduced bottom area available and the effect of past changes in sea level towns located away from the coast. There has been a would also reduce species numbers along an easterly marked change away from mostly subsistence gradient'^'. As consequence a Human living. islanders are no longer and urban growth totally rural, growth. Pacific is outstripping total populations are increasing throughout the region and can be as high as 23 000 people per km^ le.g. the Pacific in list human waste disposal as a significant issue and this affect is likely to seagrass meadows. Only larger towns have sewage systems, but most Into the sea'". latrines, systems the to of the effluent discharges eventual nutrient loads of sewage inshore and reef platform seagrasses of in in Papua New Guinea'", and the easternmost islands; only one species known from is Tahiti'". Seagrasses across the region are also often complex interactions, to mangrove communities and coral reef systems. Dense seagrass communities of Enhalus and Cymodocea are often present on the intertidal banks adjacent to mangroves and fringing reefs. Along with septic systems and village may be significant. Custom ownership of land (inherited ownership least closely linked, with Marshall Islands!'". Most countries The numbers are greatest near the biggest land mass, with 13 species land and nearshore regions by indigenous villages or families) gives the owners the right to do as they wish with the land even if that leads BIOGEOGRAPHY Western Pacific fringing reefs, in seagrass communities grow on protected bays and on the protected side of barrier reefs and islands. Habitats to tropical most suited seagrasses are reef platforms and lagoons with mainly fine sand or muddy sediments enclosed 161 162 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES by outer coral reefs. These habitats are influenced by pulses sediment-laden, nutrient-rich freshwater, of summer from seasonally high resulting influence seagrass distribution to varying degrees. and lagoons the presence in of On water pooling at low tide prevents drying out and enables seagrass Enhalus acoroides pollen releases reproducing This sexually. slow-growing, a resistance where IS is it the is species that only when feature restricts its suggesting that areas found are quite stable over time. Cymodocea an intermediate genus that can survive a moderate and Hatoduie are level of disturbance, while Haiophlla described as being ephemeral genera with turnover and high seed set. well adapted rapid high levels to unusual in New exposed to wave often found on is because uncommon is It action, protected woody stem and strong difficult to locate and Guinea and Vanuatu'"". It is being restricted almost exclusively to rocky or reef substrates. edges reef from damage by root system. its can be It exposed reef edge habit of its records from most Pacific island in countries. Generally low nutrient availability"" It poor species with a persistent the subspecies Thalassodendron ciliatum has been recorded from Palau. Papua flexible and shallow subtidal areas. perturbation"", to temperatures. the surface of the water to distribution to intertidal is summer to survive tropical in Fiji is Halophila ovalis bullosa identified by den Hartog'" rainfall. Cyclones and severe storms or wind waves also reef platforms only Halophila species present determining factor across in western the frequently grow where they can flats utilize communities in a likely Seagrasses islands. Pacific more abundantly on mud platforms and is seagrass extent on reef habitats adjacent to populated areas the available nutrients. Seagrass the western must islands Pacific and extreme temperatures, tolerate fluctuating reef intertidal fluc- tuating salinity during rainfall seasons, and exposure to of disturbance'*'. the dominant seagrass storm-driven waves and erosion. Often the sediments found throughout Micronesia and Ivlelanesia, although are unstable and their depth on the reef platforms can Thalassia hemprichii It hemprichii common with is It sediment pools at low hemprichii cover. can also be found It where water substrates, particularly Thalassia commonly the climax seagrass species. Cymodocea and Syringodium may be found in dense meadows associated of Haiodule, times also with reefs and on reef platforms. Enhalus acoroides Cymodocea rolundata and are widespread also throughout the region but absent from Polynesia and Haiodule Fiji. uninervis abundant is Melanesia and Polynesia, but is throughout only found Guam and in Cymodocea serrulata and Cymodocea rotundata were recorded in intertidal Patau Papua in New Guinea, eastern Micronesia and Vanuatu'"". Syringodium isoetifolium has only been recorded the most westerly islands of Micronesia and distribution. Yap), in New Guinea, Tonga and Samoa and in Vanuatu and in Polynesia, Fiji in Syringodium isoetifolium occurs as a Palau (e.g. Papua in Melanesia. In Fiji widespread and dominant seagrass species. islands with Micronesia islands. the In exception of the eastern is found in intertidal habitat mixed with larger seagrass species acoroides in Palau or Halophila ovalis at the offshore irv is also edge of m the western Pacific are deep. There a is complex substrate and shelter for seagrass growth controlled is by the topography of coral reef communities which often protect the seagrass habitats from location of the depth or location tent or by the wave The action. seaward edge may be determined by the at edge which coral cover becomes consisof a platform that drops rapidly into deeper water This distribution and the topographic features controlling differ it from many temperate regions where availability of light for photosynthesis controls the depth penetration of seagrasses. Exposure at low wave tide, action and low salinity from freshwater Inflow determine seagrass species survival at the shallow edge. Seagrasses survive zone especially at sites action or where there entrapment is tide (e.g. reef platforms and seagrasses from exposure at low the tide. At of Ito suitable the of water low at tide pools! protecting the excessive heat or drying) the deeper edge, availability in sheltered from wave Intertidal light, wave action and bottom substrate limit distribution. the western islands of the west- ern Pacific. Halophila ovalis in waters less than 10 in depth range for seagrasses as the availability of bottom The stresses and limitations Halophila species are widespread through the Pacific Most tropical species found Micronesia. Both in regions of Micronesia'" and in be very shallow, restricting seagrass growth and may form dense it tide. In the Indo-Pacific region. is is able to grow on hard coral substrates muddy colonizing Thalassia Fiji. often associated with coral reefs and is little Species and Polynesia on reef platforms where meadows. at from absent IS is like Thalassia hemprichii commonly found in Enhalus in Yap. deep water mixed seagrass meadows. The to seagrasses tropics are generally different from those In In the temperate or subarctic regions. They include thermal Impacts from high water temperatures; desiccation from overexposure to warm air; osmotic impacts from hypersallnlty due to evaporation or hyposallnlty from wet season rain; radiation impacts from high irradlance and UV exposure. Both Halophila ovalis and Thalassia S . The western Pacific islands ' Nomwin * Vap . Pikclol Wolcai J Chuuk Po Impel (Truk) Launpik * Salawan FEDERATED STATES MICRONESIA OF OCEAN PA CIF/C 100 200 300400 500 Kilometers q <s^Kavieng f: ji y , « jMni-iMCcia PAPUA NEW GUINEA y-a AMKI tlSM.tHCK SEA "=«'' (WeslPap'ua) - SOLOM0.\ ii.l in. '<)/ AKM-VR.I '%, ^' Giilfoffiiptiii SICA Port 140- Sk'.i >*5. i • / ^• E MofesbX^.,_,_ -- % , -t-^^ MllnrBay 10" SUA (OII.IL S 150° E "i, N A '(^\s°'-°"™'^^''°s '"s '^ii. ^ , Santa Cmz Is. PACIFIC OCEAN ^H VANUATU •^-. SAMOA <v AMERICAN 20- ^ •v SAMOA i. FIJI *». Nukubiit.1 Reef , V NEW CALEDONIA . . » •* 400 200 160- Maps 600 800 1000 Kilometers E 170°E 15.1 Western hemprichii were found Micronesia'"', salinity allow Cymodocea in and Western Pacific islands least! intertidal regions where tolerance species present in to these species Yap, serrulata. in Yap, iO°C temperatures Other to colonize. Syringodium isoetifolium and were restricted to deeper water Reef platform seagrass of mollusks, The available role of community may not Munro"^' interactions presented for reef necessarily lists fish, literature meadows support a wide holothurians and decapods. does not focus on the ecological seagrasses and information on complex refer to New Guinea and Fiji in the Solomon from mangroves, flats. Islands, reefs, species Papua seagrass Other mollusks such as the trochus shell [Trochus nlloticus] found meadows flat areas with seagrass. species of mollusks collected by 75 subsistence gleaners meadows and sand by these conditions. range 170'W 180* and 15.2 Pacific islands IwestI (topi and low TONGA • in seagrass are collected as a source of cash income. Similarly the holothurians have been a valuable source of cash income, although now heavily overfished"". We 163 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 164 Seagrasses are also food have found lower value species such as Holothuria atra to be common still in seagrass meadows parts of in region, Micronesia. Pyle"^' lists at least 3 the Pacific islands but It 392 reef and shore Is from fish not possible to distinguish green turtle for the IChetonia mydas], found throughout the Pacific island and dugong [Dugong dugon], found for the small numbers feeding on seagrasses Solomon Islands - Palau, Vanuatu and the in the western In Islands. which species are from seagrass meadows. Klumpp ef 15^ species of tropical invertebrates and a/."" refer to fish that feed directly list and on seagrasses and Coles et and 20 shrimp species classify 134 taxa of fish tropical Australian seagrass found In some Indication of the likely at.'"' use meadows of tropical and are related development and population growth. Some The Federated States of Micronesia four states: Kosrae. Pohnpei, is Chuuk and made up Yap. of Kosrae IS the easternmost state and consists of two islands: a large mountainous Island approximately 20 km wide, and a smaller 70 ha island. 1 km off the northeast coast of Kosrae reef 1989 learned out by the US Army assessment detailed of in Infrastructure, most do not available but Cymodocea of Engineers. Coastal Engineering Research mapped approximately 3.5 km' of seagrass meadows around the islands. Seagrass meadows were restricted to reef tops. Large dense meadows were mapped adjacent to Okat and Lelu Harbours. Center! rotundata. decades there has last three to four been considerable coastal construction the islands to build modern on activity transportation and the seagrass meadows and facilities, reef flats at those locations have been severely impacted. Two aircraft runways and associated causeways have been constructed on the only available island - the reef Kosrae Corps maps Thaiassia hemprichii and environments transport to Species of seagrass found were Enhatus acoroides, 15.1 Lelu, approximately meadows War period Islands have seagrass km island seagrass the post-Second World tourist Over the A in giving KOSRAE long and 12 In Pacific have occurred mostly Pacific seagrass meadows. Case Study HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES The major changes The shallow the between Kosrae and Lelu Islands and 1960s reported area on the runway was constructed on the first flat late flat flat. in Maragos"" causeway connecting the that 1970s. early this to runway construction had adverse effects on Lelu Harbour The original causeway blocks the water and circulation KOSRVE KOSRVE ISLAND ISLAND runs fish into inner Lelu Harbour. Fish runs Iblockedl ', Water currents Road causeway „.^. '-^^ <^ y- ' ) Mangroves, __ \, ,, , SeagrassT /^"meadaws — - .__^ - Lelu Island '. / Reduced environrnental quality 1.0 > ^•'-A- Sewer 10 _j Kilometers Kilometers Lelu Harbour ca 1900. \ Lelu Harbour 1975. -. The western Pacific islands hiave information to identify recorded with the precision required any historical change. information exists but, where it for that some reports and is likely unpublished in environmental assessments development It areas subject exists, this Information to not Is tourist population growth and the need to provide accommodation have coastal areas to led new provide to filling some In Certainly land. port developments and small boat marinas have been constructed In locations without talking the presence of meadows seagrass Into leading to a decline in account"". Nutrient seagrasses and and increased pollution problems. lation, fish yields, Inputs fish catches Fill for runway expansion further reduced water the in in offshore reef maps rate new airport and dock were Okat Harbour on the north of Kosrae Construction burled a large area of the Island. flat seagrass meadows (see sketch belowl. Also, during dredging activities, the of slurry discharged into a retention basin exceeded the basins capacity, causing the slurry to overflow and burying an adjacent 10 ha of seagrass and coral habitat under 0.25-0.5 m of fine mud. The construction also changed the water circulation, In general, though, there and the strong currents is not sufficient histor- information from which to draw direct written conclusions on historic trends. Munro""" does report New Guinea mollusk shell middens have the essentially indirectly that the habitats, including in suggesting seagrass habitats and their faunal communities, are stable and any changes occurring are either short term or the result of localized Impacts. have reduced Okat reefs fish harvest to half that of pre-constructlon levels. The unintended environmental effects of these constructions are continuing with shore erosion and by revetment Harbour and adjacent airport. While It is easy to still occurring at villages to criticize a decision to build infrastructure on top of coral reef platforms, hard to either inhabited or hoped that if island. Flat effects It would be these projects or similar were under- management sys- place would at least reduce the unintended and slurry overflow that occurred. Source: Maragos"". .-^- Reef line currents Stronger I J^^^^r^ X--\-'-i Kilometers Okat Harbour and Reef 1978, is areas available are mangrove covered. taken today, better environment In it suggest a feasible land-based solution on such a mountainous tems Lelu near the new caused shoreline erosion. These impacts are reported to Papua same species composition as present-day harvests, restoration the mid-1980s, a constructed ical circu- water quality and seagrasses the harbor In Increased the blomass of seagrass on nearby reef platforms. that 2000-year-old readily available. Human from expanding coastal urban development may have Kilometers Okat Harbour and Reef 1988. 165 166 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES AN ESTIMATE OF PRESENT COVERAGE Species are available lists the western for region'" but they are not available for individual Coles and islands. Kuo"°' Pacific many list the of seagrass species from 26 islands (including the Hawaiian Islands and Papua New examination Guinea] based on published records, herbarium specimens and/or of Vanuatu to a single numbers In site visits numbers ranged from by the authors. Species species In on 11 the Marshall Islands. The Coles and Kuo"°' are conservative some in cases because they do not include unpublished reports or records. Maps of seagrass are not readily available or are of relatively poor quality and/or reliability. estimation likelihood of almost all shallow l<2 m below mean sea having at least a sparse seagrass cover, level! reef flats but no numerical estimation of seagrass cover western Some might be possible based on the high Pacific has been made in the to date. Geographic Information system IGIS) initiatives in the Federated States of Micronesia by the South Pacific Banded sea snake swimming over Syringodium Halodule uninervis meadow, Nukubuco Reef, isoetifoiium map Regional Environment Program should improve and coverage. Simple GIS Fiji, maps are already available for Kosrae although they are based on earlier aerial mapping and would not be precise enough AN ESTIMATE OF HISTORICAL LOSSES In the western Pacific, local coastal developments for tourism or transport infrastructure are the major cause of seagrass Kosrae and other toss. In Federated States members Micronesia the development of of the of local airports has contributed to a loss of seagrass on reef platforms. The Kosrae airport, for instance. Is placed on landfill covering a reef platform and seagrasses"". Patau, the building of causevi/ays without although their Pacific islands likely to Industrial Milne Bay Province seen In Fiji, eutrophicatlon and coastal development are the primary causes of seagrass on the loss but in Papua New Guinea. Seagrass was 103 locations out of a total was found at Cover was up habitat, but Including of mainly coral reef flat seagrasses and mangroves. In the Federated States of Micronesia from construction activities associated with plantations, transportation, military to 95 percent activity, urban development, serruiata, Halodule isoetifolium'^'". To the best of New broadscate surveys have been conducted for Papua Guinea outside individual published site descriptions. aquaculture USES AND THREATS many hectares Syringodium our knowledge no other Traditional uses of seagrass by the dredging of some Cymodocea and uninervis construction around the Islands of Pohnpel and Kosrae of seagrass habitat. of Seagrass these areas. The In development and resort development. Coastal road Losses 126. dominant species were Thalassia hemprichii. Enhalus acoroides and Halophila ovatis with Maragos""details the loss and mangrove 1 mostly on shallow areas adjacent to the larger islands be small and again associated with transport in of several areas throughout the province, such as the Trobnand, Woodlark and Sudest Islands. Infrastructures. resulted and Papua New Guinea, In away from major population centers losses are likely to Scientific loss. Little Information is available seagrass habitats of at Commonwealth (Australia's flow has caused seagrass loss"". and Research Organisation! has recently surveyed consideration of the need for culverts to maintain water localized validity is uncertain be variable. CSIRO In sufficient tor detailed management purposes. Project assistance to update and validate these maps would accelerate the process of providing a publicly available set of maps for these islands. Partial maps are available for other western seagrasses such as these are likely to communities the in western Pacific Include manufacture of baskets; burning for salt, soda or warmth; bedding; roof thatch; upholstery and packing material; sound and fertilizer; temperature; fiber be widespread across the Pacific islands as there has insulation been substitutes; piles to build dikes; and for cigars and little attention paid to protecting seagrasses. Modern mapping and monitoring techniques should the near future enable total w some in baseline estimation of the areas of the seagrass resources of the region. for children's toys'^". Enhalus acoroides fiber reported to be used on Yap, construction of nets'"'. Micronesia, Enhalus acoroides is also the in fruit Is Regional map: The Pacific < 03 I O 2 — (c ffi uj s < (0 S; <? I i»J o »; U o u § h• w •--. k, ^ O ^ M fP cS < -^ u. a. \v • V ^o: (0 £q uS. ii2 •- o 1 5 ® g s ® I (f . ^ •f xz. >l ,. §o VII VIII WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES SEAGRASSES AND PEOPLE Recreational fisher standing in a seagrass bed. Food Bali. Indonesia. IbivalvesI collected Beach seme is Irom seagrass beds, Mozamoique pulled over a seagrass meadow in the Philippines to catch sardines or anchovies that pass Hj: ,^^:,.-i^ dbalone from Phytlospadix spp, ca 1914, Pacific coasi of USA Snorkeler over a long-bladed Zostera Trap fisherman Anibal fish trap n^ 1/ Amade in Harvesting Zosters manna by. for transplanting, Maine, USA. manna bed in New Hampshire, UbA fvlontepuez bay, fvtozambique, with a and holding a seagrass parrotfish Leptoscarus vaigiensis. marema A fisher family on Quirimba Island, Ivlozambique with the catch from a trap fishing trip in the seagrass beds. The western Pacific islands eaten in some in some Australian traditional communities and parts of the western Pacific. development, Coastal Causeway development small. to seagrass the in regions but areas lost are generally tropical tourist Palau" without in culverts to allow water flow has led to large seagrass may add catchments Papua New Guinea and in management sediment loads to in Shipping Fiji. influences seagrass survival adjacent to 13 other international conventions and treaties which could bearing on seagrass is some have management although in reality it hard to measure any quantifiable outcomes that protect seagrasses whether the programs are ratified or not. losses as water stagnates and sediment builds up. Coastal agriculture some their control. There are manna and dredging developments are generic threats are bound to protect the marine environments under At regional a level, laws relating assessment and town planning have an seagrass from to protect loss. In Fiji the impact Town Planning environmental impact assessments. deals with Act to indirect ability shipping lanes and port locations. Climate change and associated increase water temperature and/or sea-level activity, damage seagrasses the potential to in storm in have rise the region and to influence their distribution causing widespread Reef platform seagrasses are already exposed temperatures crease at loss. water low tide greater than 40°C and an temperature may in to restrict the growth in- of the inner shallow edge of reef platform seagrass. Sea-level rise and associated increased storm to large activity could lead seagrass losses through increased water move- ment over seagrass beds and erosion possible that with a rise of sediments. It is sea level areas that are now in seagrass habitat may be colonized by coral. SEAGRASS PROTECTION Many western Pacific complex and at island communities times unwritten approaches have to land ownership, custom rights and coastal sea rights. These are partially overlaid by arrangements put powers during and colonizing after the War, leaving the nature and strength arrangements open arrangements protective will for debate""'. In for in protective of implementing any seagrasses the challenge be to develop an approach that will suit and that will respect traditional must also be achieved least in the sense Europe, absent is it We are designed not will able protect ownership all parties rights. This an area where enforcement, used in and more of protect find to seagrasses. indirectly protect Programme South are reserves, lists Pacific islands. in the Some, such as the Okat trochus sanc- some Under the Law in level of indirect protection. of the and Department administered by the Ministry is Mineral Resources Lands and Surveys. of land presumably also seagrasses] application is If is a through the mangrove area be recldimed, the referred to the Department of Town and Country Planning for comment, recommendation and suggested conditions. Department submitted of It may also be referred to the Fisheries and the Native Fisheries to the Department of Environment and Conservation for approval'". Palau's conservation laws are cited in the Palau National Code Annotated and are Sea Treaty, coastal nations in an easy-to-understand form. Two trends in 232 established protected Kosrae and the Ngerul<ewid Islands reserve Palau, provide Land described by the Palau Conservation Society'"' Environment areas and community-based conservation areas in to Action Strategy for Nature Conservation the Pacific Islands region Land below high water for Act requires a plan for a development project to be Existing Regional the western Pacitic. in or seagrass meadows. Pacific commonly found specifically any legislation that Halophita ovabs. a species Commission for arbitration of compensation'". In Papua New Guinea the Environmental Planning mangroves or marine animals such as trochus may The tuary a be required. however, often include seagrasses and legislation shell at North America and ineffective systems reserve to is or consensus approach protective in place by Second World One is are emerging from the Pacific islands. the recognition of the need for sanctuaries and protected areas and the other the concept of traditional or community management of these areas'"'. The role played by non-governmental organizations, being focused on conservation and environment protection integrated with traditional leadership and government 167 168 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 15.2 Challenges survival. A WESTERN PACIFIC PILOT STUDY SEAGRASSNET - seagrasses to numerous and. Pacific are the western in similar to those human parts of the world, range from in most population increase, fisheries practices, pollution and onshore SeagrassNet program a global monitoring is investigates and documents status of seagrass ttie and resources worldwide that threats the this to development climate change and sea-level to global The combination rise. remoteness many of these factors and the of complex set locations provide a circumstances that challenges our important ecosystem. Seagrasses, which grow at of the interface of the land margin and the world's ability to monitor seagrass habitat and oceans, are threatened by numerous anthropogenic diversity of a lack of information on the status impacts. There is and health seagrasses, particularly impacts. The western Pacific habitat region includes underdeveloped countries that have the less extensive seagrass habitat linked economically developed countries. SeagrassNet's economic activities efforts to of in monitor known seagrass areas and and record uncharted seagrasses to map the western in understanding Pacific are important first steps in such as relatively small number western Pacific have Europe and parts monitoring these ecosystems will reveal natural fluctuations in SeagrassNet was developed with two components. methods monitoring Research-oriented are based on recently compiled seagrass research techniques global for community-based seagrass monitoring modeled after Seagrass-Watch'^^' - IS effort is an Australian which are western suitable. were established based monitoring so of the An important part strategy for SeagrassNet Quarterly monitoring designated sites the of is communication an interactive system reef data in a format was established in Okat Harbour on the is on an intertidal mangroves landward and the edge seaward. Seagrass meadows cover much the fringing inshore, which reef an where coral changes to a absent. is acoroides Enhalus hemprichii and Thatassia is It meadow meadow dominated by Cymodocea rotundata seaward. The Fisheries Development Division monitoring the information sharing. research. each country. Sites chosen were fringing reef horded by ranging from plant species distribution to SeagrassNet both acquires and provides monitoring the of being conducted at a trochus sanctuary adjacent to predominately of localized die-offs. Patau. Scientists each location. in display and retrieval of seagrass habitat-monitoring for in now is Fiji. to take part in the aspect Kosrae. a monitoring site of animal abundance and records as representative of the dominant seagrass habitat established on a website, with data entry, archiving. data, each location north of Kosrae Island. The site resulting data are possible. identified Pohnpei, Guinea! and monitoring field In comparisons were Kosrae, in New identified at direct existing that Pacific islands, mid-2001. long-term monitoring sites In Kavieng (Papua monitoring program (citizen! in With funding assistance from the David and conducted simultaneously with research- seagrass community that while application'^', common kind Australian coast. Lucile Packard Foundation, eight locations, five of were coastal environments throughout the world. the of US and of the the in date precluded extensive surveys and monitoring human impacts and tourism and seagrass scientists of to Synchronous and repeated global sampling of selected environment and plant parameters is critical to comprehending seagrass status and both important to fishing, sports diving. The constraints of resources and the and maintaining seagrass resources worldwide. trends; scientific to test the site with some is assistance from the Kosrae Development Review Commission On the A PILOT STUDY Before the program can pilot study is applicable become fully established, a being conducted to develop a globally monitoring seagrass protocol, to compare science-based with community-based monitoring efforts and usefulness of this retrieval network. for the pilot to test the feasibility publicly The western because it available Pacific and database was chosen has extensive and diverse seagrass habitats and a myriad of coastal issues with the potential to threaten seagrass growth and Ir^ and location island of Pohnpei, the largest island of the capital of the Micronesia, a monitoring site relatively remote fringing reef point of the mam disturbance by flat Federal States was established on at the of a southernmost island in an area free from physical human activity where water pools at low The tide, site is and is on a reef similar to the site monitored on Kosrae, including the species Enhalus Scientists acoroides and Thatassia from the College monitoring the site. of hemprichii. Micronesia are The western Pacific islands was the Republic of Palau a monitoring site In Community monitoring were established on sites established on a fringing reef at the edge of the intertidal shipping channel on Koror. The nneadow extends government and non-governmental organizations are across the intertidal reef from the mangrove- flat meadow lined shore to the reef crest. Inshore, the is predominately Enhatus acoroides, becoming inter- providing support. and reefs fringing 169 The program local is scientists, using the existing Australian Seagrass-Watch program"^' protocols and data entry systems. spersed with Thaiassia hemprichii, which increases presence along with in Halodule uninervis and Halophiia ovalis seaward. The site adjacent to is coastal development and receives stormwater and agricultural Palau Inter- Scientists of the runoff. national Coral Reef Centre and Coral Reef Research Foundation are monitoring this New Papua In site. Guinea, seagrass monitoring was conducted near Kavieng island province in in New leader a monitoring site of the village an Ireland, the northeast. With the permission was estab- lished on the fringing reef flat of a small island. Nusa The Lik. site mixture of intertidal with a is Halodule uninervis, Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea hempnchii, ovalis. The outer edge mined by the edge Thaiassia serrulata and of the Halophiia seagrass was deter- of the coral reef. Staff attached to the Fisheries Research Laboratory and local fish- Thaiassia hempnchii and intertidal fnnging Cymodocea rotundata meadow on Kosrae, Federated States reef, of Micronesia. eries college are monitoring the site. Fiji has environmental issues similar other western island Pacific deforestation, soil erosion monitoring in was site and sewage established on Laucala Bay This monitoring sites at other localities, as suitable fringing reef it is effluent. A Nukubuco Reef from site is different on a barrier similar sites the to such as countries, participating countries could be found. reef. other to The No site was ENCOURAGING RESULTS Preliminary results from the scientific monitoring indicate that the sampling protocols appear from time to time as the program develops. Data entry via the website lwww.seagrassnet.org) was successful, although access to the Internet in some suitable, may occur although adjustments and refinements countries. is limited and control Quality data chosen because the seagrass distribution and abundance of Nukubuco Reef have been mapped as validation are being part of a University of the South Pacific postgraduate Photographic collections are being cataloged and project and the was site The monitoring site is northwestern edge with pinifolia the of the reef. cay, It is an intertidal site Halodule uninervis. mixture of a from Suva. easily accessible adjacent to a sand cay at the Halodule and Halophiia ovalis subsp. bullosa close becoming to monospecific Syringodium a New completed at the University of Hampshire's Jackson Estuarine Laboratory. archived by the Queensland Department of Primary Herbarium Industry Marine Plant Ecology Group. samples were also verified at the University of Hampshire and sent Herbarium to the International the at Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. isoetifolium meadow seaward. The outer edge of the meadow was determined by the edge of the channel. encouraged Scientists from the University of the South Pacific managers are monitoring the Australia and North America to participate. site. The community-based seagrass monitoring program that forms the second stage was initiated in the 2002 in New Ireland, western mostly school Pacific islands Papua New Guinea. July 2002 local citizens also Kosrae, Palau and of the project Fiji. and in sites in participants local April June and began monitoring Community students In were villagers. New Seagrass The IS to success initial in Africa, the of and scientists study has pilot resource coastal South America, Asia, Europe, expand SeagrassNet to other areas The goal of the globe and, ultimately, to establish a network of monitoring sites linked through the Internet by an interactive database. The seagrass ultimate ecosystem aim by is to preserve the increasing knowledge and public awareness of this scientific threatened coastal resource. 'Vr/v-^ 170 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES agencies, suggests that conservation measures and acceptance the enforcement of continue will to There is change as well as vital to the health of the direct human impacts. There is clearly the Pacific island nations to quantify the risks in seagrass management present of reserves and present by the afforded Australia legislative marine/coastal biodiversity in Fred in the tropical Pacific. Maragos In: priorities- Workshop proceedings. leds) [2001). Global Mukai H [1 993). Biogeography seagrasses in (he [1999). Seagrasses. In; Maragos in Population, development 16 in In: Maragos HF ledsl Maragos JE, Peterson In; [edsl and conservation priorities. priorities. JE, the Tropical Island in development and conservation Workshop proceedings. Pacific Science Association. Klumpp DW, Howard RK, McComb Workshop Pollard Shepherd SA AJ, DA Trophodynamics and [1989). seagrass communities. ledsl Biology of In: on the biology of seagrasses with special reference Honolulu, pp 21-46. Australian region. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 394-457. MD 17 (1998). Indo-West Pacific affinities of Philippine Distribution of seagrasses, their fish and penaid den Hartog C [1970), The Seagrasses of the World. North Holland communities 8 Walker Dl, Dennison WC, Edgar G [1999), Status seagrass research and knowledge. Seagrass plan. in of Butler A, Jernakoff P [edsl In; Australia: Strategic review and development R&D of an Micronesia and the Ryukyu Islands, Gataxea MNA, Eldredge Seagrasses. J [19951. In: Maragos LG, Bardach JE, Takeuchi Coastal Biodiversity in HF Workshop proceedings. 9; J, Manuntun R, [edsl Pacific Science Association, nutnent redistribution in tide loss Bndges KW. McMillan C [19861. The 22 Munro JL Falanruw [1999]. Utilization of coastal and its MC Seagrasses; A resource unknown ICLARM Education (19921. Palau Conservation Society (19961. Society, 24 In; in Management Series No. ; in 235-269. the ASEAN Project, Management, 6. 46 pp. (3641: Koror 19 Federated States 2i: the Maragos A Guide to the Conservation of the Republic of Palau. Palau Consen/ation pp. of Micronesia [2001). Preliminary Report to the of the Convention on Biological Diversity 24 pp. of Botany molluscan resources impacts on biodiversity in 21 Seagrass nets. Atoll Research Bulletin Laws and Regulations and seagrasses on coral reefs Management 1-12. 25 McKenzie Manual tropical insular Pacific [1990), Manila, Philippines, 403-407. 13 MD Conference of the Parties Yap, Micronesia, with relation to tide conditions. Aquatic Coastal International Center for Living Aquatic Resources V. exposure during daylight. distribution of (19931. Impact of coastal construction affiliated Pacific islands. Fortes East-West Biomass US Skewes. Personal communication. Marine Ecology Progress Series 148; 251-262. 12 Management and Community Coastal the Asia Pacific Region. Final report to the 21 an Indonesian Thalassia hempnchii seagrass bed following seasonal low in 20 23 (19971 Maragos JE the Marine and management priorities. Hemminga MA (19961. Coastal region. United Slates Coastal Resources Center, Honolulu, pp 39-57. Stapel 19 JE, Peterson the Tropical Island Pacific Region: Vol Species systematics and information RG Resource Planning of the 77-93. Coles RG, Kuo Coles Churchill Fellowship Foundation. 51 pp. floristics, phytogeography, seasonal aspects and assemblage patterns 11 18 CSIRO. Collingwood, Australia, pp 1-24, flora in prawn Cairns Harbour, a tropical estuary, northern Freshwater Research U: 193-210. Australian Tsuda RT, Kamura S [1990), Comparative review on the seagrass in Queensland, Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Amsterdam, Publishing, the to Coles RG, Lee Long WJ, Watson RA. Derbyshire KJ (1993). 7 10 Larkum AWD, Seagrasses: A treatise proceedings. Pacific Science Association, East-West Center, Fortes Workshop Peterson MNA, Eldredge LG, Bardach JE, Takeuchi seagrasses, Botanica Marina 21: 237-242, 9 Marine and the Tropical Island Pacific Region: Vol 2: Marine and Coastal Biodiversity nutritional ecology of the Tropical Island Pacific Region: Vol 2: and conservation Sea cucumbers. East-West Center, Honolulu, pp 157-176. JE, Peterson MNA, Eldredge LG, Bardach JE, Takeuchi HF leds) Marine and Coastal Biodiversity East-West Pyle RL[1999). Patterns of Pacific reef and shore fish biodiversity priorities. WJ LG, Pacific Region: Vol 2: Population, a-. 1-17. Research (edsl Island Pacific Honolulu, pp 145-156 15 western Pacific Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Coles RG, Lee Long New proceedings. Pacific Science Association, Easl-West Center, Seagrass Research Seagrass Research of the tropical in the Tropical Pacific Science Association, Population, development Short FT, Coles RG, Pergent-Martini C [2001), Global seagrass RG HF LG, Bardach JE, Takeuchi Bardach JE, Takeuchi HF Coastal Biodiversity Methods. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam. 6 [1999). Honolulu, pp 215-235. Methods. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam, pp 5-30. 5 Richmond RH MNA. Eldredge ledsl Global of Center, Honolulu, pp 127-144. 14 Workshop Resources. University States. MNA, Eldredge proceedings. Pacific Science Association, East-West Center, RG f^atural of Region: Vol 2: Population, development and conservation priorities. JE. the Tropical Island Pacific Region: Vol 2: distribution. In; Short FT. Coles 4 Department Short. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity human settlements on and conservation Population, development Philippines, Hampshire, Jacl<son Estuanne Laboratory, 85 Adams Point Road, Peterson MNA. Eldredge LG, Bardach JE. Takeuchi HF ledsl Marine and Coastal Biodiversity ttie Diliman, Ouezon City 1101, Philippines. JE, Peterson Bryant-Tol<alalu JJ (1999). The impact of Short FT, Coles DPIQ, 4035 4664. E-mail: 1017 f^iguel Fortes. Ivjanne Science Institute CS, University of REFERENCES 3 4035 0111. Fax: +61 (017 Campbell, Stuart rob.colesl3dpi.qld gov.au Durham, NH 03824, United approach. 2 Tel: +61 and Box 5396, Cairns, Queensland 4870, P.O. practices and to quantify the extent and value of seagrass protection 1 McKenzie Len Coles, and that they are threatened by climate reef environment to community a growing understanding that types such as seagrasses are need Rob Northern Fisheries Centre, improve. a AUTHORS LJ, for community Campbell SJ. Roder CA (2001). Seagrass-Watch: mapping & monitoring seagrass resources by IcitizenI volunteers. Australia. 94 pp. Northern Fisheries Sen/ice, Cairns, Indonesia The seagrasses 16 of INDONESIA Kuriandewa T.E. W. Kiswara Hutomo M. S. seagrasses cover Although least 30 at 000 km" throughout the Indonesian Archipelago, from only Pulau Weh been studied information Aceh in importance, and ecology archipelago coasts of The among Indonesia, is in Strait to other countries and 12 species Halophila spinuiosa and in just in a few locations: Sumbawa and the have Halophila monospecific specimens at the seagrasses meadows Thalassia Aru, Kotania Ruppia maritima, are and have not recently been found Indonesian in Jakarta Bay. Two further species, Halophila beccarii and species. in seagrasses of Halophila deciplens. and Riau, and Halophila decipiens only through in form dense or mixed stands of up to eight Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea serrulata and Thalassodendron ciliatum usually grow in monospecific beds'", and muddy substrates on the high of mangroves biomass. Mixed-species often have meadows meadows occur in of the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zones, growing best in well-sheltered, sandy (not muddy), stable and low- relief sediments'". These beds are typically dominated by pioneer species such as Halophila ovalis, rotundata and Halodule ciliatum dominates species can grow the in silt example, and favor the pioneer species. Seagrasses growing more influenced terrigenous sediment are turbidity, in by the seasonality, fluctuating nutrient and salinity concentrations, and subsequent light limitation, of land runoff than those in reef-derived carbonate sediments with less variable seasonal dynamics. Monospecific beds Thalassia hemprichii are of the most widespread throughout Indonesia and occur down to the lower subtidal zone'". Halophila ovalis also has a wide vertical range, from the intertidal zone down to more than 20 m depth, and grows especially well on disturbed sediments such as the invertebrates. in too, sediment types, from variety of different sand, mounds Enhalus acoroides, areas subtidal or localities bioturbation. Halodule uninervis is of burrowing grows in a silt to coarse with heavy a pioneer species, usually forming monospecific beds on the inner reef flat or on steep sediment slopes in both the intertidal and subtidal zones. ECOLOGY field. either hemprichii, by, for decrease seagrass density to Bogor Herbarium the Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, seaward edges burrowing shrimps tends over a large vertical range from the intertidal zone is Sorong IPapual, Lombok, East Java, Sunda Bay, Lembata, known Indonesia in Indonesian waters'""'. Two species, in been recorded be studied, however the world and Indonesian sea- comparable region. Seven genera currently occur to south and west the marine habitats diversity of Indonesian of recent years'". Vast areas Kalimantan] are yet the highest spinuiosa biology in the of sand and coral rubble. High bioturbation the north coast of Papua, the (e.g. coast of grass diversity understanding increased seagrasses has developed southw/est small areas and therefore rather limited. Nonetheless an is encouraging and of the Merauke, Papua, they have to relatively in Soemodihardjo Cymodocea The majority seagrasses estimate is of ecosystems'". produced by Indonesian detritus of believed to settle within the beds, with an only Most 10 of percent the exported nutrients to lost other by leaf fragmentation through decomposition or harvesting by alpheid shrimps are translocated to the sediment and about 80 percent of the nitrogen content is there'". This retention of nutrients within the explain why seagrass beds in level of productivity despite denitrified beds may Indonesia maintain a high low nutrient availability. Detailed studies of the nutrient concentrations at six different locations in the Spermonde Archipelago of Thalassodendron South Sulawesi have indicated that there are structural lower subtidal zone - this and functional differences between coastal beds pinifolia. as well as in medium-to-coarse growing on the sand and mud deposited by rivers, and 171 172 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Table 16.1 Average biomass of seagrasses Ig Species dry weight/m'l at various locations throughout Indonesia Sunda Banten Jakarta Flores Strait Bay Bay Sea Lombok 1976 353-560 250-663 155-546 393-2 479 Cymodocea rotundata 37-106 139 18-23 34-113 39-243 Cymodocea 48-104 15-35 240 45-174 111 - 29-126 47 64 13-516 29-128 Enhatus acoroides serrulata Halodule pinifolia 10-36 Halodule uninenis 2-4 8 1-8 1-3 4-46 74 102-372 25-90 33-127 85-262 87-193 120-257 90-278 115-322 53-263 - 231-444 Halophila ovalis Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii 6-80 Thalassodendron ciliatum Source: Kiswara'". Table 16.2 Average density seagrasses (shoots/m'l of Species various locations throughout the Indonesi an Archipelago Sunda Banten Jakarta Flores Strait Bay Bay Sea 160 40-80 36-96 60-146 50-90 690 26-1 136 220-1 800 253-1 400 48-1 120 60-190 1056 Cymodocea rotundata Halodule pinifolia 362 7 120 10-335 40-1 160 604 360-5 600 80-160 Halophila ovalis 15-240 820 18-115 100-2160 400-1 855 630 124-3 920 144-536 360-3 740 1160-2 520 30-315 220-464 68-560 160-1 820 200-865 400-840 - Thalassia hemprichii Thalassodendron ciliatum and those growing therefore of terrestrial origin, offshore on secjiments Concentrations ammonium and water column dissolved of from coral derived nitrate-t-nitrite at all sites, often considerably higher in reactive reefs. cover lower, factors attributed to the less severe environmental fluctuations of offshore beds'". phosphate, were low (<2 |.iM| in below detectable the limits, sediment porewater"". Biomass The below-ground acoroides is six biomass rhizome to ten Enfialus of times larger than that of above- Porewater phosphate concentrations 13-13 nM) were comparable between the two sediment types, but ground biomass'*'. Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea exchangeable phosphorus contents were two ground biomass when growing times higher gl than in to five carbonate sediment (18.2-23.6 in phosphorus/100 g versus ^.^-10. 9 mg mg phosphorus/100 terrigenous sediments. Carbonate sediments were extremely low organic matter compared with in terrigenous sediments. is attributed to a of coastal seagrasses higher level of nutrients sediment than offshore. Leaf size is significantly larger in serrulata and l-falodule uninervis have higher below- vegetation beds than of in the Enhalus acoroides coastal than offshore beds'", biomass and shoot densities are higher and epiphyte in in established mixed monospecific pioneer beds'". In general, species characteristic of climax Indonesian seagrass meadows [Thalassia hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides and Thalassodendron ciliatum] invest two to four times The more vigorous growth ^' 115-1600 430-2 260 Halodule unmen/is Syringodium isoetifolium but Lombok 38-756 Enhalus acoroides Cymodocea serrulata at more energy into below-ground biomass growth than the colonizing species {Halodule uninervis, Cymodocea rotundata and Cymodocea serrulata]""'. Biomass values show high variability (Table 16.11 due to habitat differences, species composition, plant densities between locations and sampling techniques""'. Indonesia 173 Map U.I Indonesia density also between locations (Table 16.21. Seagrass considerably varies Kiswara found that (normal sfioots or shoots). thin In thie Table 14.3 seagrass species phenotype Average shoot density of Gerupuk Bay, monospecific seagrass meadows density of Haloduie uninervis depends on tfie in in mixed and the Flores Sea southern Lombok, Haloduie uninervis densities ranged from 870 normal shoots/m' within the same seagrass 560 thin shoots/m' to 6 Mixed seagrass Monospecific seagrass meadow (number meadow (number Species Nienhuis reported that bed'". Haloduie uninervis had the highest density of all seagrass species in mixed as well as in monospecific Cymodocea rotundata 32i (2761 seagrass beds where Cymodocea serrvlala 696 (767) seagrass beds (Table density of of In Enhalus acoroides 54 (861 seagrasses frequently depends on the Haloduie uninen/i5 2847(56891 species composition age 16.31. more than 70 percent of substrate, the foliage covers of the the seagrasses. community and the In some Thalassia hemprichii, biomass of is species, frequently a function shoot density and total leaf area per Seasonal studies densities in of relative such as leaf cluster"". of of shoots/m'^l shoots/m^) 533 (543) 136 1581 14762(6 0761 69(1171 Halophila ovalis Syringodium isoetilolium 2504 (1 7361 1459(811) 754 (748) Thalassia hempnchii 692 (2721 Jhalassodendron cilialum seagrass biomass and shoot Indonesian waters significant seasonal fluctuations scarce are are known but to occur"". Note: In all sampling locations foliage cover i5>70 percent, except for Jhalassodendron ciliatum (>50 percent 1 (SO in parenthesesl. Productivity Growth studies have been carried out using several techniques in Indonesia Using the oxygen evolution (photosynthesis) technique, Lindeboom and Sea vary between 60 mg carbon/mVday and 060 1 carbon/mVday which, assuming the same rates mg of Sandee"'' demonstrated that gross primary production production throughout the year as during the study rates of various seagrass communities period (October), translates to a Sea vary from 1230 in mg carbon/mVday to the Flores 4700 mg carbon/mVday. Seagrass respiration consumption rates were between 860 mg carbon/mVday and 3 900 mg carbon/mVday. They concluded that net primary production rates of seagrass communities in the Flores maximum annual net about 387 g carbon/ml Epiphyte production alone accounted for a maximum annual net primary production primary production surface area'"', of of about 8A or 36 mg carbon/m' percent of the net of leaf primary production rate of the seagrass communities studied. AS^i WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 174 A comparative study of two different seagrass in tfie Spermonde Arcfiipelago obtained environments very similar results using same tfie carbon/mVday the Interestingly, mg 4^00 to mg carbon/m7day. technique used bell-jar Spermonde Archipelago did not reveal in the any significant seagrass production rates between and reef environments. Net primary difference coastal in production was negative slightly number a in mg and was generally below 500 carbon/m/day. Low net primary rates were attributed to high community oxygen consumption rates. Higher primary production rates were obtained from no difference rate carbon/mVday, equivalent to maximum to a mg mg 1.9 of in of significantly higher in of was coastal and Sulawesi, the leaf growth Enhalus muddy acoroides was coastal habitats than in offshore reef habitats (1.6 mm/dayl. Similar results for Thalassia hemprichii. were obtained ASSOCIATED BIOTA Seagrass-associated flora and fauna remain one 69A of the exciting fields of research for Indonesian most open and Recent studies have focused on establishing scientists. various carbon/mVday Table ]b.A. primary production rates mm/dayl 13.1 combined seagrass and epiphyte net production rates mg in offshore seagrass beds species 1.5 in Erftemeijer'" demonstrated that, while there monospecific stands of Thatassia hemprlchii, where reached summarized of stations net studies are tectiniques'"'^ Gross primary production rates ranged from VOO Production rates obtained from these Archipelago"". lists and measuring abundance and biomass seagrass-associated exceptions'" "' the With taxa. of few a majority of seagrass-associated faunal studies have dealt with infauna, macrofauna, motile epifauna and epibenthic fauna (Table 16.5). carbon/mVyear Nienhuis has suggested that Indonesian seagrass communities are self-sustaining systems and export very little their photosynthetically fixed of carbon to adjacent ecosystems such as coral reefs'". The results from obtained to and Sea Flores the seem Archipelago Spermonde support this general hypothesis. Algae Fishermen at Benoa, Bali and West Lombok have recorded seven economically important species Erftemeijer points out that hemprichii and Thalassodendron ciUatum"'\ (58 percent of his study Sulawesi 117 species than many seagrass communities sites) seem to use more energy actually produced by the autotrophic seagrass is community This suggests that, while recycling of nutri- ents and organic carbon be self-sustaining. is high, seagrass beds may not and Filter suspension-feeding of seaweeds growing in the mixed seagrass meadow of Cymodocea serrutata, Halodute uninervis, Thalassia with of composed seagrasses, In South macroalgae are associated 50 of species of Chlorophyta, 17 species of Phaeophyta and 50 species of Rhodophyta. Thirteen species were exclusively associated with seagrass vegetation"'. macroinvertebrates constitute a significant consumer component of the production"" in seagrass meadows at measure to leaf Taka Bone Rate The meiofauna associated with monospecific Enhalus acoroides seagrass beds on the south coast of Lombok Atoir, Kepulauan Seribu'"'", Banten Bay"" and, most consisted of nematodes, foraminiferans, cumaceans, Spermonde copepods. ostracods, turbelarians and polychaetes'^"'. recently, Table Lombok"" in and the U.i Average growth rates Imm/dayl of Species seagrass leaves using leaf-marking tecfiniques West Java Spermonde Sea Archipelago - Cymodocea rotundala Cymodocea serrulata 5.0(0.61 Enhalus acoroides 7.3 13.61 Synngodium 4.1 16.81 isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii 4.9(1.51 Notes: Production rales * In mg in parentfieses - Lombok Flores Sea 5.5(6.81 - - 2.4(2.3*1 6.5(1.51 - - 1.6(3.51 3.8(8.11 2.7 (4.71 Thalassodendron ciliatum m Meiofauna Indonesian seagrass community Marking methods have been used (g dry weight/m'/dayl. ash-free dry weight/m'/day Indonesia U.5 Table Indonesian se agrass-associated flora and fauna Banten Bay Taxon number of species Lombok Jakarta Bay Ambon Bay Kotania Bay Meiofauna 6 MoUusks 15 Crustaceans 25 Echmoderms 32 117 groups 55 143 (hermit crabsl 84 30 45 3 78 180 Fishes South Sulawesi 34 37 Algae 10 85 Fish larvae 205 168 53 Source: Various sources'^''"'. many were wfiich of abundance component indicative of Benthic foraminifera are an enrichment. A emergent. actively nematodes was of higti nutrient important Indonesian seagrass communities, but of have received only rudimentary attention"". the In apparently collected from coral rubble areas adjacent seagrass meadows. One to the Tozeuma shrimp there, hipollitid has special morphological adaptations spp., seagrass meadows. to live specifically in lancelet Its body shape and coloration, green mottled with small Kepulauan Seribu patch reef complex, seagrass beds white spots, provides almost perfect camouflage are abundant and frequently dominated by associations it of Enhalus acoroides and Benthic foraminifera the suborders abundant Thalassia hemprichiP". location are were Ammonia Calcarina dominated by and Rotaliina"". The most Miliolina rotaliinids umbonata, in this beccarii, Elpldlum calcar, bradyi. The genus Ammonia in of is Elpidium spp. is of euryhaline group, The species'^"'. Other stomatopods, such as Odontodactylus scyllarus, seagrass interesting, since this is an obligate seagrass-associated leave the reefs to forage for mollusks indicative of coral reef habitats. euryhaline, shallow-water species Indonesian seagrass beds with Pseudosquilla in ciliata, Ammonia shallow-water tropical environments, and Calcarina calcar abundance a is found when seagrass leaves. Hany stomatopods are to advenum, Elpidium crispum, Elpidium craticulatum and Rosalina common adheres beds'^^'. in Rahayu collected 30 species adjacent of hermit crabs from Kotania Bay seagrass bed. Three were species of Diogenes, one four were was a species of undescribed species. crustaceans much more It Pagurus and believed is that the seagrass beds of Kotania Bay are in diverse than those of other locations. extremely tolerant low salinities and can be found far up estuaries. The Mollusks miliolinids are represented by Adolesina semistnata, The mollusks are one Milionella sublineata, Quinqueloculina granulocostata, seagrass-associated macroinvertebrates and perhaps Quinqueloculma Spiroloculina Triloculina parkery. communis, Both tncarinata. sp., the most overexploited. cilindrica and gastropods and Quinquiloculina and meadows Banten Quinqueloculina SpiroUna TrilocuUna are characteristic of shallow tropical waters. in Crustaceans are a key component Cymodocea Lombok"*' demonstrated that crustaceans are the ovalis, for seagrass-associated fish. crustaceans in Banten Bay seagrass of The beds. tanaidacean Apseudes chill<ensis and an unknown species of melitidae amphipod are the most abundant crustaceans Grenyang in Bay'"'. Enhalus acoroides Gerupuk in Moosa and Aswandy'™ recorded 70 crustacean species from seagrass and meadows Bays but meadows in Kuta many specimens were recorded 11 seagrass the This rather impoverished in mixed beds of Enhalus acoroides, of mixed beds dominant food source al. serrulata and Syringodium isoetifolium, and seagrass food Aswandy and Hutomo'^" recorded 28 species Bay'^", et from Cymodocea webs. Recent gut analyses from the south coast of of I^udjiono bivalves mollusk fauna was collected from monospecific Enhalus acoroides beds, Crustaceans four the best-known groups of of Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea rotundata, serrulata, Syringodium l-lalodule hemprichii. The entire bay two gastropods were is Halophila uninervis, isoetifolium and Thalassia heavily exploited common and only to all locations, Pyrene versicolor and Cerithium tenellum. Just four juvenile (35 mm diameter] Seventy disturbed Trochus niloticuswere species sites in were Lombok''"', collected'^". collected many of from less which are economically valuable. Gastropod families included Bullidae. Conidae, Castellariidae, Cypraeidae, Olividae, Pyrenidae, Strombidae, Trochidae and Volutidae; 175 176 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES were Arcidae, Cardiidae, GlycymeriLucinidae, Mesodesnatidae, bivalve families dae. Isognomonidae, Mytilidae, Pinnidae, Pteridae, Tellinidae Pyrene Strombus versicolor, and Veneridae. Strombus labiatus, where seagrass meadows formerly Island, Moluccas, supported a high abundance holothuroids. in In economically important of 1V83, the extensive seagrass meadows Kotania Bay supported high population densities (i.e. luhuanus and Cymbiola verspertilio were the nnost 1-2 individuals/m'l of nine economically important sea abundant gastropod species and Anadara scapha, cucumber Trachycardium subrugosum, Trachycardium flavum, Peryglypta crispata, Mactra spp. and Pinna bicolorwere the most common bivalve species"". A number Conus of species were found. A high l-lolotliuria nobitis, impatiens, from ^3 been reported from seagrass beds in cm significant echinoderm species which Protoreaster nodosus, and the surface The decline feeds in Case Study 16.1 BANTEN BAY, in Holottiuria of Tripneustes whose population has declined sharply during the ten years is and gratilla, Fish In 1977 one fish In of the first studies of lagoonal patch reefs harbors several Halophila Halophila ovalis, is Pulau continuous along the coast beach Domas, Soge, Kemayung, Banten, to the reef fish'^" which feed either m or found along the mainland brates'"', including in the western part of the bay, on the reef coral Panjang, IPulau Islands Pulau length'"' in are Banten Bay, from the tor 165 species of on algae and directly seagrass-associated seagrass the minor. edge. Pelabuhan, Wadas, Baros and Ciujung discharge of of They are nursery grounds Panjang; the other islands are small and uninhabi- is Kepulauan Syringodium isoetifolium and Thalassia hemprichii. coral islands. The biggest inhabited island bay Seagrass meadows amongst Pari Island, in the Seribu complex"". Only six (Apogonldae, Atherinidae, uninervis, WEST JAVA in Beds between 25 and 300 rivers seagrass-associated Indonesia collected 78 species from Thalassia hemprichii and Enhalus acoroides km^ and past the edible sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla. the echinoderm populations in Banten Bay covers 120 flat than supply the lucrative teripang {beche de mer] trade. have been reported from Kotania Bay on west Ceram Java coast to less Another heavily overexploited echinoderm species abundance'^"'. Similar depletions into the 1983 stock and size are seagrass been recorded Actinopyga, and the sea urchin The in on Kuta and Gerupuk Bays. Several of economically important species ted. cm of the a sea star, broken seagrass leaves. of have Crinoidae seagrass beds have declined 1993. on juveniles six of inverte- grouper [Epinephelus bleekeri, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, Epinephelus merra. Epinephelus septemfasciatus, Plectropomus Tarahan, Pulau Lima, Pulau Kambing and Pulau Epinephelus coioides and Pamujan Besar) and on submerged coral Dugongs also occur here"". The cultivation of seaweeds in Banten Bay has Increased enormously the intertidal area down area of seagrass beds at to a depth of 6 Banten Bay is reefs m. The in total about 330 ha, in recent years along the coastline of all spp.'"'). the islands, consisting of 168 ha on the mainland and 162 ha on on the coral reef and the coral islands. area. Approximately 35 ha, including 25 ha or 10 The depth salinity varies is to season found at is not more than sand'"' '*', 10 m. Its and the between 28.23 and 35.34 psu™. The from November Grenyang of in to March. Mangrove the eastern part of the bay up in the west part, and In the Pulau Panjang. Eight species seagrasses occur here: Cymodocea is mud and of Tanjung Pontang southern part bay of the sediment consists rainy a cucum- is Forty-five species of Echinodea, Holothuridae, Ophiur- and in same attributed to Intensive collections by local people to Echinodernris oidae of the cucumbers were recorded within distance of 500 m. The average body size of sea 15 detritus Thelenota ananas and 1993 Inventory a In bers decreased from around 22 Kotania Bay''". The most vagabunda, Holothuria edulis, l-iotothuria area, only three sea IMetriaiytal scabra, l-loiothuria i-loiothuria Actinopyga miliaris. diversity of mollusks, 1^2 species families, has also namely Boinadschia marmorata, species, Bohadschia argus, Cymodocea of rotundata, serrulata. Enhalus acoroides, Halodule percent of the reef coral reef flat, are lately also outside the reef flat area and 10 ha outside the flat now used for the cultivation of seaweeds and have been cleared Transplantation were conducted studies in using Banten Bay rhizomes transplanted to and prawns"" seagrass'"'. in 1998"". Only muddy substrate survived these new seagrass beds more than five months now used by local fishermen are of Enhalus acoroides to collect fishes Indonesia many economically Labridae, Gerridae, SIganidae and Monacanthidael of grounds the families recorded, however, could be considered as Beds with higher densities important seagrass residents. The Pari Island study higher abundance was followed seagrass meadows supported fish assemblages Banten Bay, southwest Java Sea. Thaiassia hemprichii. 1985 by a long-term study in in The results from the Banten Bay permanently reside in study'"' numbers earlier views that only small of supported species of fish seagrass beds. However, was it also reconfirmed that seagrass beds act as nursery pebbles, fine sand and mud the river mouth, in where Enhalus acoroides grows. The about 2 m, tidal velocity tidal range in and direction are cm/mm and 315°-350° at high tide and -1.5cm/mm and 270°-310° at low tide. During the higher fish dominated by Siganidae of commonly such as Siganus seagrass detritus wash up of the east dendron ciliatum monsoon. Interestingly Thalasso- Kuta Bay at grow on able to is volcanic stone. During low tide the local community cucumbers, octopus, collects milkfish, sea shellfish, sea urchins and seaweeds [Caulerpa spp., Gracilaria and Hypnea cervicornis] from the seagrass spp. beds. The commercial alga, from 1980s'^"°"'. late and accumulate on the beach during the strong 10.0 to April, salinity varies Indonesia have been the [rabbitfishesi, 2.8-10.8 wet season, December in since abundance than Indonesian seagrass fish communities are winds Kuta and Gerupuk Bays are covered by gravel, small seagrass supported and Enhalus acoroides fish, increasing Large amounts KUTA AND GERUPUK BAYS. LOMBOK is of valuable fish species. of Studies on seagrass fish gradually Case Study 16.2 the bays for 177 IS Kappaphycum alvarezi, cultivated here. 28 to 29 psu and surface water temperature from 18 May to November, these measurements are approximately 3A psu and 27°C The most diverse seagrass beds in Indonesia Associated flora and fauna of the seagrass bed of occur here, with Algae to 2^°C. In the dry season, 11 the 12 species present of in Gerupuk [Cymodocea rotundata. Cymodocea serrulata, Enhalus acoroides, Halodule uninervis, Halophila Halophiia spinulosa, minor, Halodule pinifolia. Halophila Synngodium ovalis, isoetifolium, Thalassia hemprichii, Thalassodendron ciliatum]. IHalophila spinulosa acoroides and Gerupuk in rotundata, in both bays, Bay. tvlixed Cymodocea Halodule uninervis. ovalis, absent from Kuta. Enhalus of species 37 Meiofauna""' 6 (higher taxal Mollusk"" 55 Echinoderm™ 45 Crustacean""' 71 Fisti'™ 85 Fisti larvae 53 Thalassodendron ciliatum form monospecific beds spinulosa is Number Taxon group Lombok and Halophila beds Source: Various sources - see references by groups. Cymodocea of serrulata. Halodule pinifolia. Halophila minor, Halophila Syringodium isoetifolium and Thalassia Only four the of Syngnathoides biaculeatus. cal Coverage area in algal beds. in The dominance biaculeatus and Cheilio enermis Coverage area Kuta Bay Entialus acoroides Thalassodendron ciliatum more commonly, Ihal Gerupuk Bay 10.50 Halophila spinulosa mam The id 11.07 Gerupuk Bays seagrass but also Syngnathoides of is unusual because, characterized by abundant Siganus canaliculatus. threat to the seagrass of Kuta and is the intensive collecting of intertidal organisms during low Habitat types typi- the fish populations of Indonesian beds are seagrass rabbitfish, especially 7.68 - seagrass fishes. Halichoeres argus and Cheilio enermis are abundant not only Kuta and Gerupul< Bays here Novaculichthys spp., Pervagor spp. and Centrogenys valgiensis - are hemprichii occur at both locations. of habitat types at found fish tide, often involving digging 96.37 76.86 with sharp iron sticks which disturb the substrate, Sandy bar 12.03 42.97 cut Lagoon 55.19 Dead coral 70.97 Live coral 38.08 Mixed vegetation Volcanic stone 2.93 the leaves rhizomes. 27.36 of Future seagrasses and uproot their threats may include hotel construction and operation as the area has been earmarked for development by the local government. m 178 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 16.3 monospecific beds KOTANIA BAY of hempnchii. Thalassia Kotania Ceram Bay. contains Island, Tatumbu and islands: Buntal. Burung, Marsegu, Only Osi has freshwater and two villages at Pelita deeper than that very narrow south (50 Jaya Ceram ml (^0 mouth in of the bay, except in small creek density of between Osi and Wai Tosu, The sediment at the deep and muddy, and is is mangroves. Underneath layer of coral rock. On mud, sand a thin layer of is and coral rubble about the east and the north. of a highest of the bay, called of substrates. coverage! while there is 250 m). Seagrasses are found along the to whole coast area The the area in covered only by Enhalus acoroides 110-20 percent is northern part of Kotania Bay 10 ml but wider |4 to has two kinds Kotania village (20 ml. The at intertidal area in the Pelita found is Burung. The eastern part Osi. inhabited, along with Jaya and Kotania on The water around Island. is seagrass small five Enhalus acoroides. Mixtures of mud, sand and coral rubble are usually covered by 100 m in front this thin substrate the of is a hard Cymod- Thalassia hemprichii, ocea rotundata, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis Buntal and Osi Islands the sediment trapped by and Enhalus acoroides grow sporadically here these seagrass beds has, over time, created less than 35 percent coverage. Local people have set "cliffs" which have served as substrate for the development and seaward expansion of area 11.2 of distribution km^ The pattern depends on the type Muddy substrate is In intertidal total southern the zone mangrove area of substrate. mostly dominated is very part flat Kotania of and almost all is Bay the exposed is mixed mud and sand dominated Coverage Ihal Cover l%l in Indonesia 2 00-300 50-150 <2 5-150 2-5 0,5-18 336 20-80 30 1 73 36 20-80 15-80 12-25 10-15 5-15 5-15 25-i5 30-70 15-50 5-10 30-70 20-50 9 8 5 7 8 9 8 10 5 9 10 11 C A R R R C VA VA - - VR - - VR C R Recorded species jnumberl Hydrocharitaceae Entialus acoroides Haloptiila deapiens Halophila minor Halopliila ovalis R R R Haloptiila spinulosa hempncfm R R VA R - - - - R R - - R R R R R R R R - - - - - R VA VA R R VA VA C VA C R Cymodocea rotundata R C R VR R R R R R R R R Cymodocea serrulata R R - - VR VR VR R - R R R Halodule R R - VR R R - R - R R R Halodule uninervis R R - - R R R R R R R R Synngodium R C VR VR R R R R - R R R - - - C - A - R C R Tlialassia R R Cymodoceaceae pinifolia isoetifolium Ttialassodendron ciliatum Notes: C common; A abundant; R C rare; VA very abundant; VR very by Thalassia hemprichii and Enhalus acoroides. Along by Table 16.6 Present coverage of seagrasses a during the lowest tides. The substrate near to the seagrass of built large cage to rear sea cucumbers. The seagrass beds have been mapped using remote-sensing techniques which estimated a around the seagrass area and a fish trap mangrove communities. to rare. Indonesia Distribution of seagrass in Kotania % Bay cover Substrate type Depth (ml PJ TL 01 BRI BTI Tl Ml Cymodocea rotundata 10-40 Sand tO.2-2.0 / / / / / / / Cymodocea serrulata <5 Sand 0.5-2.0 / 20-60 Mud, sand 0.5-2.5 Halodule pimtolia <5 Sand +0.2-1.5 Halodule uninervis <5 Sand 0.5-2.0 40-100 Coral rubble <5 Sand Species of seagrass Enhalus acoroides Habphila decipiens Halophila ovalis / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / • / / J +0.2-1.5 Habphila minor / / <5 Mud, sand 0.5-2.0 / / / Thalassia hemprichii <5 Mud, sand +0.2-2.5 / / / Notes: PJ Pelila Jaya; TL Tanjung Lalansoi 01 Osi Island. BF the southiern part of in tfie bay up Syringodium isoetifolium. Coverage (hal Cover l%l is a mixture of common there are Thalassia hempnchii. Burung 1 Island; BTI Buntat Island, Tl Tanjung Lalansoi to the deeper areas and coral rubble. The most data, / / / Syringodium isoetifolium the substrate / / lata, sand Halodule seag passes IS Tatumbu pinifolia. Island, Ml / Marsegu Island. Halodule uninervis, Halophila and Enhalus acoroides The sea grass density ovalis Cymodocea rotunCymodocea serru- / quite high and varies seasonally. Percent coverage ranges from 40 always close to 70 percent with the to the h ighest values mangrove areas. 10-50 0.3-1 4-5 212 25-75 10-1000 5-50 10-1 00 25-75 100-1000 5-50 10-100 30-60 5-20 15-30 30-80 30-60 50-99 30-70 -50 30-60 50-99 30-70 30-50 9 7 8 10 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 R A VA A VA VA A VA VA R ~ ~ R Recorded species Inumberj 1 Hydrocharitaceae fntelus acoroides VA VA R Halophila decipiens - - Halophila minor R VR : R Halophila ovalis R R R R R R R R R R Halophila spinulosa - - - - - - - - - - - VA C R VA VA R VA VA R VA VA Cymodocea rotundata R C R R R R R R Cymodocea R - R R R R R R R VR VR R VR R R R Halodule uninen/is R R R R R R R R Syringodium isoetifolium R - R R R R R R Thalassia hemprichii VA Cymodoceaceae Halodule serrulata pinifolia Thalassodendron ciliatum Notes: C common; A abundant; R rare; VA very abundant. VR very rare. | | 179 180 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES canaliculatus Case Study Jakarta Bay'^", except In classified into four principal species Lombok In Indonesian seagrass 16.21. lives in cycle but life beds (e.g. of their chequered the (e.g. reported, and this disappearance the is thought have to from species this of Indonesia. 1 Ancol Oceanorium 5 years the two male dugongs in Jakarta kept them with feeding captivity, In seagrasses [Syringodium isoetifolium and Halodule uninervis] harvested from Banten Bay Unfortunately they died In Acreichlhys hajam, Hemiglyphidodon plagio- metopon, Syngnathoides biaculeatus], temporary residents which occur beds only during their juvenile stage Scarus Lethrinus spp., Monacanthus (e.g. Siganus flavolineatus. Abudefduf spp., Mulloidiclitliys cliinensis. Upeneus Relates quadnlineatus, tragula]; occasional residents or transients that seagrass beds to dugong since November 1991"™. There visit one female is Surabaya Zoo, which has been In 1985. food Its Is captivity In harvested from Celengan- Muncar, East Java, about 340 seagrass in canaliculatus, Siganus virgatus, Siganus punc- U Jakarta has destroyed the Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus, Stephanoiepis hispidus, tatus, of Ancol, the only place that Ruppia in Hatichoeres argus, Atherinomorus Genres macrosoma, spp., caused For seagrass throughout their live in which spawn outside the seagrass duodecimalis, 3 mangrove swamp Apogon margaritophorus]; residents which 2 beds seagrass cardlnalflsh. The development location. mantima had been assemblages: permanent residents which spend most 1 (see have been fish km from Surabaya. It feeds mostly on Syringodium isoetifolium, which forms dugongs dietary Intake. The condugong Is approximately 30 95 percent of the sumption rate of the captive kg wet weight/day"". Recently Sea World of Indonesia In Ancol-Jakarta has acquired two male dugongs. One of them was caught seine nets In and the other one was trapped in in the seagrass bed at MIskam Bay The degradation seek shelter or food. of Banten Bay 1998 In a sero (fish trap) on 2001. In seagrass beds Indonesian In waters has been poorly documented from only limited areas. The decline of seagrass beds at Banten Bay caused by converting agricultural areas and Into an Industrial estate, with a The decline of been caused by reclamation was than the reclamation in was ponds about 116 total loss of ha or 26 percent of seagrass mainly of the bay'"'. fish the western part other seagrass beds has activities. Less damaging the uprooting of seagrasses by fishing boats using seine nets to catch shrimp and Kuta and Gerupuk the decline of seagrass fish'"'. In caused by people collecting dead coral material was for building the seagrass beds. In PRESENT COVERAGE It Measuring tfie primary productivity of Sulawesi using enclosures equipped seagrass meadows wilfi in oxygen electrodes. coverage study on first seagrass fish larvae and of Indonesian seagrass, observations on seagrass ecosystems considerably and object The present accurate Information about the Is difficult to present in method duration, location, of study, and many places not been studied yet. Table 16.6 In since Indonesia vary in of sampling Indonesia have summarizes existing knowledge about the present coverage In species belonging mainly to four families: Channldae, Based on to the best of Ambassidae. Engraulidae and Gobiidae. High numbers our knowledge, juveniles took of place In Kuta Bay and recorded 53 species and Individuals were found areas full of In broken seagrass leaves, and In this available Information, 30000 unvegetated least the Entialus Archipelago. acoroides beds. we estimate that seagrass covers at km^ Seagrasses In and Indonesia. throughout the Indonesian Indonesia are presently threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Herbarium collections of seagrasses from Indonesian waters were made by Zollenger in 1847 and Kostermans In 1962 and include both Ruppia maritima M cutting and coral reef damage, and by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based sources, and by overexploltation of living marine resources such as fish, mollusks and sea cucumbers. The alarming amount from Ancol-Jakarta Bay and Pasir Putlh, East Java, and land reclamation one specimen habitat loss of Halophila beccarii from an unknown In is an increasing cause Indonesia. of of seagrass Indonesia POLICY No specific regulation relating to management available and so general regulations seagrass is currently implemented through is pertaining marine to affairs, environmental protection and management resources. Of primary importance Republic Indonesia of conservation of the No. 5 1990, concerning the (Rl) No. 5 1994 on the ratification of the Rl Convention on Biodiversity and Act of the management 1997 concerning the 23 living the Act of the is resources and their ecosystems, of living together with Act of Rl the of No. living environment. Apart from acts and statutes, there are three other types of regulation which are hierarchically lower than the former: they are government regulation, presidential decree and ministerial decree. proper management system have a To for coastal ecosystems, appropriate laws and regulations must be established. The Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) has therefore prepared a draft Seagrass and Action Plan to seagrass ecosystem in Policy, Strategy ment of the an integral part of the activities guide the manageIndonesia. It forms South China Sea of the UNEP-GEF (the Programme section Project, financed by United Nations Environment of Environment and seeks Facility], management issues concerning the The scheduled draft, expected become to formulation of of be completed to the Global address the main to seagrasses. in 2004, reference document a in is the regulations by the government. official REFERENCES 1 Kiswara Enhalus acoroides growing among Wilkinson CR, Sudara In: S, Chou LM Resources. Volume Centre for Oceanography Jalan Pasir Putih seagrasses. 3 4 In: (19891. Evolution Larkum AWD, McComb 11 12 (0121 68 1948. In: An Ecosystem Littoral (edsl Handbook Perspective. Garland Brouns JJWM, Heijs FML west McRoy CP Pacific. In: (1991). Marine Ecosystems [1981]. lUCN/WWF of Indonesia: A 13 Indonesia Programme, (19851. Seagrass, its Nienhuis PH, Coosen J, Kiswara of W (1989], habitat and seagrass and macrofauna in 14 the Flores [1 9851. A Erftemeijer preliminary study of the seagrass PLA II 15 PhD thesis, Dynamics Nijmegen Catholic in and Production of 45-64. MH PLA in Indonesian Seagrass In: (1988al. Pertumbuhan dan produksi lamun, Thatassia di rataan terumbu Pulau Pari, Kepulauan Moosa MK, Praseno DP, Sukarno (edsl fe/uA Jakarta, dan Kondisi Perairan. Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 60-66. MH [1988b]. Pertumbuhan dan produksi lamun, Enhalus Moro OS In: Moosa MK, Praseno DP, Sukarno [1988]. (edsl Teluk Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 55-59. Pertumbuhan dan Produksi Jems Lamun Azkab MH, Kiswara Teluk Kuta, M University, Nijmegen, [19931. Distribution of of bell Azkab di Pulau Selatan. Pertumbuhan dan produksi lamun In: Komunitas Biologi Padang Lamun Lombok dan 17 Kiswara W di Kiswara WK, Moosa MK, Hutomo Kondisi Lingkungannya. di Pantai Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 33-41. seagrasses and South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea 38: W [19941. Lombok (edsl Struktur selatan associated macroalgae measured with Jakarta. 16 Netherlands. Verheij E, Erftemeijer 24. Panjang, Teluk Banten. Master's thesis, Universitas Nasional, Expedition. Aquatic Botany 23(31: 249-260. (1993]. Factors Limiting Growrth Tropical Seagrasses: Nutrient Beds. Azkab acoroides. Thalassodendron ciliatum from eastern Indonesia: Biological results of the Snellius the tntertidal Ecosystems. Ecosystems ol the World. Volume Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan JJWM York. in Jakarta, Biologi, Budidaya, Geology, dan Kondisi Perairan. 214. Brouns STPM, New Mathieson AC, IMienhuis PH ledsl Biologi, Budidaya, Geology, Community structure Methods Seagrass and micro-electrodes, Netherlands Journal olSea Research Seribu, M indo- Amsterdam, pp 371-390. Lindeboom HJ, Sandee AJJ (1989). Production and consumption hemprichii lEhrenb.l pp. Kiswara W, Hutomo ol Seagrasses ecosystem 23(21: 181-190, N E-mail: (19801. Productivity in seagrasses: Phillips RC, jars Soegiarto A, Polunin (LIPII, 21 90, Indonesia. Tel: +62 den Hartog C (1970). The Seagrasses of (he WorW. North-Holland, Sea, Indonesia. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 23(31: 197- 9 +62 1 Amsterdam. and biomass distribution 8 Ancoi Timur, Jakarta Utara Fax: Soemodihard|0, Research Elsevier, geographical distnbution. OseanaXilh 21-30. 7 S. Indonesian Institute of Sciences tropical seagrass fields in eastern Indonesia Bogor 254 6 rates. tropical of (edsl - Biology of Seagrasses. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 112-156, Basis for Conservation. Report 5 Shepherd SA AJ. , 3850. Biology: (edsl and biogeography 1 Zieman JC, Wetzel RG and and Larkum AWD, den Hartog C National seagrassOcentnn.net.id 281. 2 68 (0121 Culalongkorn University, Bangkok, pp 259- 1. Kuriandewa, W. Kiswara, M. Hutomo, T.E. 10 Proceedings Third ASEAN-Austratia Symposium on Living Coastal Komodo AUTHORS W [1994]. A review: Seagrass ecosystem studies in Indonesian waters. living coral in Park. Indonesia. (20021. Tehnik transplantasi tunas tunggal dengan perbedaan panjang rimpang Enhalus acoroides LF Royle di Teluk 181 182 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Banten. Makalah disampaikan pada Seminar Nasional Biologi XVI Padang, 22-24 18 M Suhartati Pan |1994], Benthic foraminifera Island, Seribu Island, Jakarta. Chou LM in S, on Living Coastal Resources, Bangkok. Volume lamun Enhalus acoroides Padang Llamun Biologi di M Pantai Selatan Lombok dan Hutomo H di Teluk Banten, In: l^oosa Kondisi l«1K, Atmadja. Personal communication. 34 Penstiwadi T [1994a]. Makanan ikan-ikan utama W [1991]. Sebaranjenis, kerapatan 35 36 llmiah dan Kongres Nasional Biologi Bogor, 24-26 September X, rataan terumbu Pulau Pan, Pulau-pulau Senbu, Jakarta Oseanologi Aswandy Kiswara V^ [1992]. Studies I, on the seagrass beds Wilkinson CR ledsl Third 6, In: 39 W Kiswara of seagrasses fvling CL Community [1992bl. Banten Bay. West Java-Indonesia. at In: Wilkinson Proceedings ol the Third ASEAN Science ledsl Technology Week, C, fvludjiono, Kastoro W, Kiswara seagrass beds ledsl Third of Proceedings, [1992]. In: Azis A Douven WJAM, Buurman 43 Lamun di pantai Pantai selatan Lombok dan Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan 28 Lombok ledsl Struktur Chou CL, Wilkinson CR Selatan. In: pantai Lombok ledsl Struktur Lombok dan Selatan. In: Komunitas Biologi Padang Lamun Hutomo M, Panno Selatan. In: [1994]. di di M pantai Selatan Pantai selatan di M di 46 [1994]. WK, Moosa MK, Hutomo M Padang Lamun di Pantai selatan Makarim H, preparation]. Spatial Tiwi DA, Garno YS, Mukaryanti, Anyuta, BPP Teknologi and Netherlands Organization, 1995, Jakarta, pp 93-107. of of Fishes the in Banten Bay. Mangrove and Seagrass Fisheries K, some Promising of Eda H [1986], Survey on Collection Fish for Floating of Natural Net-Cage Culture in Scientific Report. Hendrokusumo in Feasibility S, Sumitro S, Tas' Indonesian waters. In: an [19791. The distribution Marsh H led] of the The Dugong. Douven WJAM ledsl Struktur Pantai selatan In: di Kiswara Komunitas Biologi Lombok dan Kondisi May 1979, 11999], North Queensland Australia, pp 5-10. Human Pressure on Manne Ecosystems in the Teluk Banten Coastal Zone: Recent Situation and Future Prospects. Teluk Banten Research Program. Report Senes No. Indonesia, Krustasea dari padang lamun kondisi lingkunggannya. of Proceedings of the Workshop on Marine and Research INOWI 1-i May University 8-13 47 Lombok dan Lingkungannya. Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 42-51. D, Seeds IHE-Oelft, I Lindeboom HJ, JC, Sugama dugong Lombok ledsl Struktur Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Lombok dan [In management: The example Kiswara W, Genisa AS, Purnomo LH [1991]. Preliminary Study: Banten Bay. Jakarta, pp 96-110. Moosa MK, Aswandy W Proceedings of a Seminar/Workshop held at James Cook Kiswara WK, Moosa MK, Hutomo Kondisi Lingkungannya. Kiswara Connection Workshop, 26-30 August 1991, Ipoh-Perak, Malaysia. 45 Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Fauna ikan padang lamun Komunitas Biologi Padang Lamun 30 ledsl Seagrass Beds Kondisi Lingkungannya. Kiswara WK, Moosa MK, Hutomo Kondisi Lingkungannya. J, Species Composition, Abundance and Distribution Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 64-70. lamun Heun Coastal Research, Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 52-63. 29 In: Nugroho S Kiswara WK, P Osi dan Banten Bay, Indonesia in Burhannuddin, Praseno 44 R Banten Bay, West Java-Indonesia: Problems and research pnonties. Komunitas Biologi Padang Azis A, Soegiarto H [1994]. Fauna ekhninodermata padang padang lamun communication. 11993). Personal for Scientific di di Kiswara W, Djamali A [19951. Seagrass community and associated biota in of Marine Science: Living Coastal Resources, 21- Moosa MK, Hutomo M Komunitas Ikan Pada Padang Perairan Teluk Banten. Thesis communication. 42 1992. National University of Singapore, Singapore, pada padang lamun Senbu in 35-52. T. [1991]. Personal seagrass beds [1994]. Aktivitas "grazing" bulu babi|enis Tripneutes gratilla Islands, Struktur komunitas. Perairan Maluku 1. Hernowo pp 241-250. 27 Penstiwady T [1994bl. Ikan-ikan 41 Science and Technology Week Conference Vol. 6, di tools to support coastal research and Molluscan community Banten Bay, West Java. ASEAN 23 September W [1985]. Telaah Ekologik Widodo & Resources, Singapore 2t-23 September 1992. ppU]-2bO. 26 seagrass abundance Marine Research ISeagrass, Anthophytal 40 Marine Science: Living Coastal Vol. 6. in of Burung Island (Pan ]7:K7-m. Hutomo M dan Sekitarnya. of structure and biomass distribution The fishes 11997]. side of Marsegu, Seram Barat: Marine Science: Living Coastal Singapore, Singapore, pp 21-23. 25 Padang Lamun Doktor, Fakultas Pasca Sarjana, InstituI Pertanian Bogor, Bogor. Chou CL, Science and Technology Week Resources, 21-23 September 1992 National University di Maluku dan Sekirtarnya. Barat. Perairan and their vanation Lamun crustacean communities Banten Bay, West Java. of ASEAN Conference Proceedings, Vol of ledsl Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Komunitas Moluska [1995]. Seram Hutomo M, Martosewojo S Indonesia 38 25:31-49. living HAW Cappenberg Islandl Indonesia di M Pantai selatan di Tomascik. Personal observation. community on the west di Lamun pp 19-26. 37 1991. Kiswara W/ [1992a]. Vegetasi lamun Iseagrassl padang lamun Balitbang Sumberdaya Laut, Puslitbang Oseanologi -LlPl Ambon, dan biomas lamun Teluk Lampung. Makalah disampaikan pada Seminar di di Kiswara WK, Moosa MK, Hutomo Kondisi Lingkungannya. Teluk Kotania, Iseagrassl In: Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 111-125. pp 45-47. Kiswara Selatan. Lombok dan Praseno ledsl Perairan Indonesia: Biologi, Budidaya. Kualitas Sukarno in Marine in the Philippines, pp 353-362. 33 Komunitas fauna benthic pada [1988]. led] Sciences. Australian Institute of Marine Science and University of Selatan. Komunitas ledsl Struktur AC Alcala In: Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Living Resources Airdan Oseanografi. Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Indonesia. 24 the southern part of Seribu Islands. Struktur Komunitas Biologi Padang I, Pantai selatan seagrass community structure and [1991], Study on in pp 79-95. JP, 23 MH Lombok Aswandy di Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Kondisi Lingkungannya. Lingkungannya. Lembaga llmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Jakarta, padang lamun Iseagrassl 22 Azkab biomass antara di Lombok pantai Kuta. di M Kiswara WK, Moosa MK, Hutomo In: Coastal Areas. ASEAN-Australia Cooperative Program Kiswara W/K, Moosa MK, Hutomo In: 32 Culalongkorn 2. Susetiono [1993]. Struktur dan kelimpahan meiofauna vegetasi 21 Wilkinson CR, Bangkok, pp 323-329. University, 20 Lombok dan Selatan. Komunitas Biologi Padang Lamun Indonesia, Jakarta, pp 71-78. the seagrass beds of Sudara In: Lombok ledsl Struktur Proceedings Third ASEAN-Australian Symposium ledsl Mudjiono, Sudjoko B [1994], Fauna moluska padang lamun dan pantai McRoy CP [1990]. Leaf production. In; Phillips RC, Seagrass Research Methods. UNESCO, Pans, pp 77-79. ledsl 19 WC Dennison 31 Juli 2002. 48 WOTRO. Zainudin [20021. Personal communication. 3. . Regional map: Asia 85° 115° 100° ',-1 N f • '"'A .-' 145° 130° ^ - . 5) 40" ' * - • " ^ 40° * SEA Of JAPAN •• ^ •*' YELLOW V $ ' SEA •i^f* • >' • '- ^JT" • EAST CHINA ,?^ • 25° SEA 25° •' '' y^ rir • , •I PACIFIC OCEAN I- ,' \ ; \ ^ V ^ > ^ r Gulf >:'- ^ CHINA . 10° t, > .V .^ » ' . SEA , SOUTH •^ PHILIPPINE Wm% - \ i 10° . ^ •: • . . ' A 'Thailand V ^ • .i • -.'-,— • ^ • • ^^ ' - CELEBES « ^. .^ _. ' ^ » \ei^ ' . - 4 . " ' ; ' \ 5° 5° J^ VA SEA k .. ^-:3r^.^ "^ "TT ^ • »'• " • s. » INDL^Af OCEAN •• -• X-^v ..^ ar-.fl • • ARAFURA --••, SEA -J. J 300 100° 4 .' 600 900 1200 1500 km 115° 130° fi'. /t IX WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES THE SEX LIFE OF SEAGRASSES Halophita rfec/p/ens female Posidonia oceanicj inflorescence with Enhalus acoroides in fvlalaysia fruits, western f^editerranean. [rigtitl and male llefti flowers, fvlalaysia and Indonesia: female flowers labovel; pollen on tlie water surface Irigfit, iopl. fruit Spadix Inght, Posidonia australis !K // fruit meadow. Western of eelgrass, Zostera flowers releasing pollen middlel, seed dispersal Ingtit. bottomi Australia. Jhatassia hempnchii fruit. manna, with male The Philippines and Viet Nam The seagrasses of Nam The Philippines and Viet Seagrasses are found extensively throughout the Philippine Archipelago. There are documented beds offshore from western, north- sizeable western and southern islands covering 978 km' at catch the Philippines. in 55 species from 25 five seagrass species has been mapped sometimes remainder using a combination of detail in remote sensing and survey techniques. The field estimated. With is surveyed tor seagrasses, the likely to be many times The Philippines seagrass"". other areas not seagrass area is maritima and Ruppia to new variety of Calumpong and Menez™ consider lists a Halophila Halophila 384 individuals and 1 were identified describe two Mefiez'*' from mixed Synngodium lor Cymodocea and Halodule one associations, Thalassia] with of growing primarily on sandy sediment, the other of Enhalus and muddy Thalassia spp. on Monospecific seagrass beds are less mixed populations reported to have 15 species of Halophiia beccarii, Fortes minor''". is greater addition In many total spp., total of sites'". Calumpong and 96 well-studied sites. Approximately one third of this area A fish families substrates. common than the Philippines and tend to occur in under certain conditions: Enhalus acoroides colonizes turbid, quiet, estuaries and stands protected the tidepools of the in such as bays and areas Thalassia hemprichii occurs as pure most northerly islands in beccariHo have been extirpated from Philippine waters, the Philippines"". Halophila decipiens grows primarily because the only specimens at from of now tvlanila Bay'", to be collected were in 1912 heavily impacted by the growth metropolitan Manila. Fortes disagrees, believing this species still occurs Manila in and Bay'^' be to common in Lingayen Gulf, northwestern Philippines. Many beds of plants and animals the live of physical structures and the commercial Major predators. protecting immediately adjacent to seagrass diversity from juveniles fisheries beds""'. occur Fish and shrimp are the most important elements of the commercial fishery, although coastal villages derive their sustenance from other components beds. The major invertebrates found in of the grass the beds are shrimps, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, crabs, scallops, mussels and snails. turtles reported in turtle, In Some endangered species of sea seagrass beds include the green sea the olive Ridley, the loggerhead and the flatback. the Philippines and Viet dugon], which seagrass, is Is Nam the sea cow [Dugong almost completely dependent on an endangered species. Coral reefs and their associated potentially supply but only more than 20 percent of the fish deep, clear water'^'. Cuyo Island and food shallow waters in the Pacific'^'. seagrasses as nursery grounds vital role of for fish the northernmost limit of is Thalassodendron ciliatum The in conditions of low turbidity on coarse or rocky in and invertebrates has been appreciated some for Siganus canaliculatus, is a in the Philippines time"". The rabbitfish, voracious herbivore and particularly important as a food species. In Bais Bay, Negros a population the Oriental, canaliculatus consumes of Siganus 0.64 metric tons per day from 52-ha Enhalus acoroides meadow"^'. However, this represents less than 1 percent of the daily organic production of Enhalus acoroides. Rabbitfish are often caught seagrass in beds using bamboo traps'", representing a direct link between seagrass habitat and human subsistence. Seagrass beds by eutrophication, in hectares of the Philippines are threatened siltation, unsustainable fishing seagrasses in Thalassodendron ciliatum also grows Nam, supporting fisheries with their rich nutrient pool 11-23 m'". Thalassodendron ciliatum and of substrates'". the seagrass in Philippines and Viet depths Halophila spinulosa are found pollution, seagrass have been reclamation for dredging and methods. Many thousands housing, lost of as a result of land airports and shipping 183 1 184 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES SeagrassNet team has clearly shown the impacts of eutrophication at the site adjacent to a coastal town. Seagrass-Watch now is established in Puerto Galera. This community-based seagrass monitoring program is coordinating with SeagrassNet to provide a second members. data stream, generated by volunteer VIET NAM There are species of seagrass 1 1 Nam Viet in distributed along the coastline but mostly from the middle to the southern sections. Their status Nam general the Viet impacted and sedimentation by unknown though is in coastal zone has been heavily Nam agricultural pollution. Viet has and domestic at least HO km' of seagrasses determined from remote sensing and Nam ground-truth surveys. Viet at is the overlap of temperate and tropical seagrass species with Zostera japonica growing intertidally Spear-fisher over a seagrass bed in composition the Philippines. Some attempts have been made facilities'". damaged rehabilitating beds seagrass at using transplanting techniques"". Manila, of the is of site one the of at of the seagrass habitat has been conducted from students Philippines. Even in University the the of the early stages of monitoring the Menez EG, Phillips RC, Calumpong HP [1983]. Philippines. Smithsonian Contributions to the 21. Miguel Fortes. Marine Science 1012 Manne Sciences No. Menez EG, Fortes MD HP (1983). Calumpong HP Thalassodendron ciliatum-. 18: An [1990], Seagrass resources in 10 1 [1986]. dissertation. University of the Philippines, Diliman, 245 pp. #^ Bureau of of Pnnting, Manila. 490 pp. [1988]. Seagrasses. Manne the to 5. Smithsonian Sciences No. 34. 104 pp. RC Phillips [1986], Seagrasses in MIL A survey on [19911. in the fish and crustacean fauna of the North Bais Bay, Negros Oriental, Philippines. 13 Leptein Quezon MV Third [1992]. ASEAN Proceedings Quezon City, of In: in the Philippines Marine Science pp 367-377. The gut passage of the rabbitfish rate and daily food Siganus canaliculatus [Park]. In: Science and Technology Week Conference Vol. 6. National University of Singapore and National Science Technology Board, Singapore, pp. 327-336. RG ledsl [2001] Global 14 Seagrass Research Fortes 8 Calumpong HP. Menez EG [1989]. ICLARM Education Series 5. in the ASEAN Guide MNR Phillips RC, Meriez EG, Estacion JS, de (19931. Performance Island, central Philippines and to the Common of its degraded shallow coastal areas. 46 pp. [1997]. Field Calumpong HP, Alava Seagrasses: A Resource unknown 7 Region. Dolar consumption Methods. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. MD Menez EG Calumpong HP, Menez EG, Institute, Seagrasses. City. Short FT. Coles Phillips RC, Coastal Areas. University In: ASEAMS Symposium on and Environmental Protection. UNEP PhD Number Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Living Resources East Asia: Research of Philippine 03824, USA. Mernll ED [1912], A Flora of Manila. Philippine Islands Bureau seagrass beds and management perspectives. Taxonomy and Ecology NH 148-154. 12 Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 116. pp 135-144. MD Hampshire, Jackson Estuanne Laboratory, Batanes Province, northern Philippines. S/i//manJourna/ 33(1-41: 103-111. Proceedings of First Southeast Asian Marine New Durham, Point Road, Science Publication An [19851. Halophila decipiens: status, environmental issues Fortes Adams Contributions Meiiez EG, Calumpong A5EAMS/UNEP 6 Consen/ation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon CB3 DDL, UK. Fred Short, University of 85 Biological Society of Washington 98111: 232-236. 5 UNEP World Road, Cambridge pp 1-40, unreported seagrass from the Philippines. Proceedings olthe 4 Institute CS, University of the Philippines, 9247678. E-mail: mdfortesl38(ayahoo,com Ed Green, Seagrasses from the unreported seagrass from the Philippines. Micronesia 3 AUTHORS 9 REFERENCES 2 similar to the Philippines and Malaysia. is reference and impacted seagrass sites monitored by graduate 1 the south the species first SeagrassNet global monitoring locations. Quarterly sampling in Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Tel: + 63 1012 7205301. Fax: +63 Puerto Galera, a quiet ecotourist destination south the north and mixing in with Halophila ovalis, while Leon ROD, seagrass transplants implications In: in in Proceedings of the 2nd RP- USA Phycology Symposium/Workshop. Philippine Council for Mangroves, Seagrasses and Algae of the Philippines. Bookmark, Aguatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Barios, Makati Laguna, pp 295-313. City, Philippines, 197 pp. Negros mitigating Japan The seagrasses 17 of JAPAN K. Aioi M. Sixteen seagrass species, including seven temper- (Zosteraceael ate species and nine tropical species IHydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), occur on the coasts total number of Species diversity 17.1). Japan, about a quarter of the of seagrass species is in the world (Table high not only for seagrasses but also for algal flora, w/ith about 1 500 species of algae occurring around Japan. Such a high species diversity in Japanese marine flora is probably related to complex hydrodynamic properties around the Japanese coasts that are affected by several major ocean warm Among the families to Cymodoceaceae and are found tropical in tropical species be regarded as a "hotspot" of seagrass floral diversity hemisphere. Most distribution islands) Halophila ovalis. except for the western Pacific main island areas, except which also occurs seagrass flora in in for equatorial Japan, is restricted Amami In summer Zosteraceae restricted is temperature by of determined by the tropical seagrass seawater of 15°C'^'. Along the temperate coasts in process reflect the speciation possible ancestral origins its who in Korean Japan in in the late 19th and few seagrass studies were centuries, until 1970s. This the early endemic species is Zosteraceae of which information on distribution and ecology was available occurrence in until coasts recently, Zostera marina, commonly found in due partly to their deep water Isee below). Eelgrass, species the northern hemisphere'". marina occurs numerous in cosmopolitan a is temperate in coastlines of the main islands, to localities i.e. subarctic Japan, Zostera In along the Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku'". The northernmost population Zostera marina in Japan is of found near Soya Cape, Hokkaido (45°30'N1'" and the southernmost population in of China, the described these species 20th especially true for the not between the winter the may regions''"'. conducted for high seawater temperature of 28°C around Kyushu, while the distribution species is along the northern part these species with the exception of Zostera marina. limited is coasts of the main islands. The southern limit of the of of contrast, subtropical southwestern islands and the temperate temperate species have limited After pioneer studies by Tomitaro Makino and Shigeru Miki Zostera japonica differ distinctly northern the of species Despite the high species diversity of Japanese the Ryukyu Islands. Thus, the Japan localities Zosteraceae from of early distribution of all the species of Zosteraceae to the some in waters these of Japan (see below). The hemispheric distributions of Indo-West southwestern islands IRyukyu and the temperate the within commonly of the Pacific region'". In Japan, their distribution to in Hydrocharitaceae and and subtropical areas Phyilospadix iwatensis and Phyltospadix japonicud^''\ The region can seagrasses, there are relatively few ecological studies currents. the 16 species of seagrasses belong nine Zostera caespitosa, asiatica, Zostera caulescens, Zostera japonica, currents such as the Oyashio cold current, and the Kuroshio and Tsushima namely Zostera waters), Nakaoka Satsuma Peninsula, Kyushu eelgrass populations in (31°10'N)'". Most Japan are perennial and extend both propagation clonal Peninsula and the islands of Japan, species diversity of their Zosteraceae rhizomes and by seed production, although an annual is high. In addition to Zostera marina, a cosmopolitan species widespread hemisphere in in the northern both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, six species of the family Zosteraceae are present that are form distribution of Zostera marina by is found in some localities of such as Hamana-ko, Okayama and Kagoshima'"". Zostera japonica is a small considered to be endemic to the northwestern Pacific generally inhabits intertidal and [Japanese, Korean, Chinese and southeast Russian bottoms along the coast of East Asia, seagrass that shallow subtidal from Viet Nam to 185 186 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Sakhalin and Kamchatka. Russia" japonica Bay in found in '"'. Japan, Zostera In various localities, such as Notsuke the Sea of Japan"'"'", Sagami Bay on the Pacific coast of central Honshu"^' and the Ryukyu Islands, in Zostera asiatica was originally recorded by Miki from southern Sakhalin iRussial, the northeastern and Honshu Hokkaido, of Sea facing the of central part In Japan, populations Zostera asiatica are currently known Hamanaka and Akkeshi the stranded dead collected at several beaches Toyama Bay" in in east of the Korean Peninsula"". Populations of this plants Notsuke Bay Hokkaido"""', Mutsu Bay, northern in Yamada Bay and Otsuchi Bay. northeastern Honshu''" "', and Toyama Bay, in the Sea of Japan"". Two Ptiyilospadix species. Phyllospadix iwatensis Honshu'", and Phyllospadix japonicus, inhabit the intertidal and in Distribution have been Hokkaido and one of the site in Hokkaido to Phyllospadix iwatensis ranges from of the northern part of Honshu. Phyllospadix japonicus occurs of the central part of the Pacific coast in Honshu and the western Honshu'^', northeastern Honshu'^""', Among limited Honshu of Korean Peninsula when Some Sea part of the Japan of belonging to the nine seagrass tropical species Hydrocharitaceae families the Cymodoceaceae, Halophila ovalis and has the widest from the Yaeyama Islands recent distribution, occurring Mutsu Chiba Prefecture lOdawa Bayl and to Toyama Bay, on along the Sanriku coast, the Sea of Japan"". The distribution of the other eight described this species'"-'". northern occur to Honshu and on the the northern half of in coast of Honshu'^"'. papers report the existence Bay, Zostera caespitosa was reported Hokkaido, and Honshu'"'. of along the central to northern coast first and subtidal rocky bottoms of temperate regions of Japan. '". and the southern coast Miki "', in Zostera caulescens was known from localities Honshu'"^" Bay, on the Sea of Japan"^'. only Hokkaido'^', Bay, Funakoshi Bay, on the northeastern coast Additionally, of Japan, and on the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula"". of the in Toyama species were recently reported from Notoro Lake and the southwestern part of Japan"'"'*'. southern parts Bay, on the Pacific coast of central in Toyama the northeastern part of Hokkaido"", in Bay is in of populations in Tokyo Bay and Sagami species is Amami and Ryukyu restricted to the to Islands (Table 17.11. Detailed information on island-by-island distribution of each species has been given'"' "^". Geographical Table 17.1 Seagrasses recorded in distribution commonly observed both Species regions of Japan. Distribution a single bed in in the temperate and tropical Hokkaido, three species coexist In in Zostera asiatica and Enhalus acoroides Ryul(yu Islands [Zostera marina, Thalassia hempnchii Ryukyu Islands iwatensis]. In Haloptiila decipiens Ryukyu Islands in Habphiia From Ryukyu Zostera caulescens and Islands to in Notoro-ko [Zostera marina, Zostera japonica and Zostera caespitosa] and Hydrocharitaceae ovalis species these of overlaps widely, with multispecific seagrass habitats Japan Akkeshi Bay Phyllospadix Honshu, four seagrass species co-occur Odawa Bay [Zostera marina. Zostera Halophila japonica, ovalis]'""' and in Bay IZostera marina, Zostera caespitosa, Zostera caulescens and Phyllospadix iwatensis], and three species co-occur in Funakoshi Bay IZosfera Otsuchi central Honsfiu Cymodoceaceae Cymodocea rotundata Ryukyu Islands marina. Zostera asiatica and Zostera caulescens] and Cymodocea Ryukyu Islands in Ryukyu Islands Zostera caespitosa]. Haioduie uninervis Ryukyu Islands species were found Syringodium isoetifolium Ryukyu Islands Island Halodule serrulata pinifolia lida Bay [Zostera marina, Zostera japonica and In Ryukyu Islands, nine the a single seagrass bed [Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea Halophila ovalis, serrulata, Zosteraceae in Halodule in Iriomote Thalassia hemprichii, rotundata, Cymodocea Halodule pinifolia. uninervis, Phyllospadix malensis North Honshu and Hokkaido Syringodium isoetifolium and Zostera japonica]"^'; eight species were found in some beds at Ishigaki Island, Miyako Island and Okinawa Island'" "'". Phyllospadix laponicus South Honshu Zostera asiatica Hokkaido and north Honshu Zostera caespitosa Hokkaido and north Honshu Zostera caulescens Central and north Honshu BIOGEOGRAPHY Zostera japonica From Ryukyu Islands The depth range to some Hokkaido Zostera marina From Kyushu to Hokkaido of seagrasses in Japan multispecific seagrass beds species coexist species in in a single the mixed beds is reported for where two or more bed'^". shows Generally, each a different depth < Japan distribution, forming some specific patterns of zonation ^^O'E Among Zostera spp. uppermost parts intertidal flats. as of tfie bed, always found is mam its Zostera marina occurs but some down places •l^' and 1 5 m to maJu Buy YELLOW SEA m. of 5 i REP OFt T KOREA/ * \faizuniBaY than Zostera marina: Zostera caespitosa. between and 20 m, and Zostera caulescens, between In most 3 and 1 'K ci.1, i„ r'Shikoku 1 m. 7 EAST CHINA mixed seagrass beds, the plants' depth of the ranges overlap to Depth zonation in some degree JAPAN Toltyo, multispecific seagrass beds Okiruw;] hhrul dominant Ttialassia hemprichii are Map the in Ryukyu the intertidal to in upper subtidal zone, while Cymodocea serruiata and Entialus acoroides are zone'^'-'^'. more abundant The observed depth the deeper in distribution of these species generally agrees with those reported other parts of the tropical Indo-West Pacific in region'''^ '". Quantitative studies on biomass, shoot density, shoot size and productivity have been conducted about 30 seagrass beds Biomass, shoot Japan''"'. in in populations. Within populations, biomass, shoot density and shoot size have sometimes more than varied generally observed biomass greater with twofold, in ••Yaeyama 200 4O0 600 Kilomelers Is 17.1 Japan Peninsula shallower parts of seagrass Ithe Sea of Japan coast)"". For Zostera asiatica at Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, biomass 1427 g dry weight/m'l was twice that of Zostera marina, whereas the shoot density 1134 shoots/m^l was about half of Zostera marina when comparing monospecific stands at the same depth, reflecting the larger shoot size of the former'"'. The above-ground net production Zostera asiatica was estimated to be 3-5 g of dry weight/mVday density and shoot size of Zostera marina vary greatly within Is. Cymodocea rotundata and Islands, Haloduie pinifolia. among and PACIFIC OCLA\' J Amami • Is. Zostera asiatica. Zostera caespitosa these species do not generally co-occur subtidal namana-ko Kyushu Sclu Inland Sea Kagoshima'^ •• • Ryukyu ^ a Ben .Sa^uiniBtn \ SEA with Zostera marina. and Zostera caulescens cannot be described since In Buy Honshu *J„-Vr'' deeper habitats in Bin Mulsu Buy Oisuchi Ba\ ^ "^OJinx Two other species generally occur * ]'ltJit'shi uniikoshi deep, 10 m. Zostera asiatica occurs between the intertidal zone and a depth • ^-^ r0— is ,. , ^, Mamanato in habitat >. Hokkaido the shallowest in parts of subtidal beds, mostly between in s.^idrv temperate muUispecific in seagrass meadows, Zostera japonica tfie ^r-^ RUSSIAN FEDERATION along depth gradients. Information on the flowering and fruiting seasons Zostera marina and other Zostera species of available from some localities in Japan"". In is Zostera marina, seasons for flowering and fruiting vary by 2-4 months across the region, with early flowering and Biomass as high as 500 g dry weight/m^ was recorded in some areas such as Notsuke Bay, Otsuchi Bay, Ushimado and Maizuru Bay, whereas maximum fruiting biomass was less than 200 for northern populations. For other Zostera species, Bay and Toyama flowering and fruiting seasons have been reported only beds''''"'. populations Bay''"'. Odawa in Bay, dry weight/m'' g Yanai Estimates for above-ground net production were available for several Zostera varied between less than at different sites, variation 1 of observed at lower latitudes. Seed germination Zostera marina was generally observed during the winter from in southern populations and during spring limited localities, and vary greatly in among marina populations, and g to 13 g dry weight/mVday depths and seasons. Between-site these parameters did not appear to be in 187 correlated with variations in > latitude or geographical / distances. Quantitative productivity and for the Biomass a is of information tropical in July and a from December side of seagrass species, Zostera japonica maximum biomass recorded central to of \/ar\es greatly January in Japan. with season; 270 g dry weight/m' was minimum at of ~' V !4K;: _.\U 'm^^ ' 30 g dry weight/m^ Mikawa Bay, the Pacific Honshu"". For Zostera caespitosa. maximum above-ground biomass was recorded abundance and on very sparse for other species of Zostera, for the of population 60 g dry weight/m^ in lida Bay, Nolo Meadow of Zostera caespitosa at Yamada Bay, Japan. W 188 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES localities. For Zostera asiatica and Zostera caulescens, the flowering and fruiting seasons are generally the same as those of coexisting Zostera marina, whereas Zostera caespitosa flowers and fruits about one month the historical distribution of seagrass beds. Bay, an old chart issued of Zostera marina and Zostera japonica 20th approximately 3-5 km' earlier than sympatric Zostera marina"'''. waters (<3 ml HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES utilized coastal areas, very by. little Japanese people information to, and such as Yokohama, localities living in available about is seagrass beds were destroyed (filling and hardening of the shorelinel projects Traditional uses of seagrasses Traditional uses of seagrasses in Japan Besides those 17.21. (e.g. cushions Japanese, which means Species Locality moshiogusa Rope Phyllospadix iwatensis Hol(l<aido might have been used for gill net horse produce to IMiyagi Pre.l ESTIMATES OF HISTORICAL LOSS AND PRESENT Sannku COVERAGE llwate Pre.l The area Zostera manna Tokyo Bay area of Zostera manna Seto Inland Sea these Algae and Miura Peninsula developed Zostera marina IKanagawa surveyed the status Algae and Zostera Hamana-ko most manna IShizuoka Pre.l 1991, of seagrass beds, especially those consisting eelgrass Zostera marina, has declined since the 1960s, mainly because of land reclamation. Agricultural compost compost Agncullural compost Agricultural compost Agncullural compost manna rapidly. of the coastal the of algal and seagrass beds along areas of Japan in 1978 and again from which the loss during The this total area Mikawa Bay estimated (Table seagrass beds together was 3262 km' jOkayama 3 159 Zostera marina and Nakaumi freshwater plants IShimane Pre.l km' in During Japanese economy has The Environment Agency of Japan decades, last Seto Inland Sea Zostera marina Zostera Pre.l and salt. Phyllospadix malensis seats Tatami mats named salt grass, Sannku and Zostera marina for train well be further manna Zostera saddles Fishermen's skirts in may there listed, For example, eelgrass was Traditional use Agricultural during Japan include in use as fiber for rope or padding traditional uses. Cushions these and tatami matsi or use as agricultural compost (Table Table 17.2 for all reclamation land in industrialization in the mid-20th century. direct Cushions of shallow in Tokyo, Funabashi and Chiba'"'. Unfortunately, Although seagrasses have been very familiar traditionally some in area were located in the early in meadows seagrass Extensive century. Tokyo In 1V08 shows the distribution in 17.31. was algal and of 1978 and in 1991. For seagrass beds, the total area declined from 515 km' to 495 km' during the period, Pre.l about 4 percent of Japan's total seagrass resource lost in 13 years. In particular, in localities Ariake Bay, Kagoshima Bay and Hyuga-nada during this period'". In i.e. was more than 30 percent Zostera marina beds disappeared Note: Pre, = Prefecture, in period the Seto Inland Sea, in of such as Kyushu more than 70 percent of Zostera marina beds have been lost since 1977, Table 17.3 Estimates of total areas of algal and seagrass beds Japan in in a which has seriously affected coastal For regionally endemic species 1978 and 1991. and the percent area lost during situation the period loss fisheries""'. may be more because populations are now known Area of macrophyte beds Ikml 1978 Algal beds* Seagrass beds Total Area lost Ikm^l % lost few localities around Japan. Zostera caulescens are stagel 1991 in of Zostera, the serious than for Zostera marina, In fact, to exist in only a Zostera asiatica and now ranked as VU (vulnerable the Red Data Book of threatened Japanese species"". Among tropical seagrass species, 2748 2664 83 3,0 plant 515 495 21 4,0 Enhalus acoroides and Halophila decipiens are found 3263 3159 104 3.2 only in limited localities in the are also listed as VU in the Ryukyu Islands, and they Red Data Book. Note: * Algal beds consisted of Utva. Enteromorpha, PRESENT THREATS Sargassum. Laminana, Eisenia and Gelidium.. As Source: As reported by the Japanese Environment Agency in 1994, described above, disappearing rapidly due seagrasses to industrial have been development in the coastal regions of Japan. Major threats for further w Japan Case Study 189 17.1 AKKESHI, EASTERN HOKKAIDO Hokkaido, the northernmost In some Akkeshi U2°50'N, Ui°50'El, Bay. In Zostera dominant seagrass Akkeshi-ko, the minor amounts A large-scale study was coastal in Akkeshi to ecosystems"". is Zostera of recently initiated examine the interactions between to and brackish lagoonl adjacent with eastern in meadows occur manna japonica. here la Japan, of remain. At located Hokkaido, extensive seagrass Akkeshi-ko island manna beds healthy Zostera terrestrial was found It that considerable amounts of nutrients of terrestrial origin flow into this lagoon for the productivity of and these are important Zostera manna and associated communities. Studies on food web dynamics Zostera manna consumer Zostera of the in bed have revealed that the major manna was the [Cygnus cygnus] which overwinters whooper swan the lagoon, in and that mysids are the most dominant herbivores grazing on epiphytic algae on eelgrass"'™. Both the biomass and the diversity of supports high this mysids are high, and productivity and of commercially species such epifaunal shrimps and several species of fish'™'. important decline fish present seagrass coverage in quality, due and reduced water and water level rise in to global land include water temperature ongoing or damaged by In activities modernization. rapid The natural and lagoons were greatly northern limit of global distribution marine mammal. Nevertheless, is of this in offshore runway for the would almost certainly be directly destroy general survey of the of distribution and abundance but also on the species composition of the seagrass beds. In Odawa Bay near the Tokyo metropolitan area, for example, reduced light caused land build an a decrease in areas Zostera marina of Zostera caulescens to expand its shallower depths"^'. However, due by-species data in past literature, populations to lack of it is determine whether Zostera caulescens fatal to the lagoon ecosystem in to make a northernmost dugongs and their in shallow habitats, but possibly favored the deeper-living Such construction Japan decided human have effects not only on overall seagrass condition due to eutrophication over the past 20 years seagrass habitats for dugongs. The Environment Agency meadows, to the threatened to environmental conditions due in air base. US seagrass beds. the the center of the seagrass beds (Henoko coral lagoonl in in large-scale a now planned these areas, is beds inhabit several seagrass In habitats by fish the case of multispecific seagrass where large economic investments have been the in of trawling are major causes of decline land changes reclamation project have been declining rapidly areas where no major land reclamation has occurred, such as the Seto Inland Sea. northeastern coast of Okinawa Island, which and in water pollution and disturbance of coral reefs non- these surveys to save the dugongs and Some seagrass beds even Ryukyu Dugongs in and Scientists Japan must support and planning stage, and will impacted, especially along the coasts of Okinawa Island. collaborate in land reclamation projects reclamation and port construction made toward 2002. Many For example, the coastline has been ecosystems February in at the probably further accelerate the loss of seagrass beds. Islands habitats leaves coated with epipfiytes conserve their habitats. mostly attributed is manna governmental organizations loss of seagrass vegetation over the last two to land reclamation"". still Zostera warming. decades along the Japanese coast are as environmental deterioration such as reclamation, The shellfish into species- not possible to truly increased recent years. Long-term field surveys of seagrass beds using a unified approach are necessary monitor future changes changes in in seagrasses in in order to relation to environmental conditions. Il 190 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 17.2 RIAS COAST IN Five IWATE PREFECTURE, NORTHEASTERN HONSHU temperate seagrass species. Zostera manna, Zostera caulescens, Zostera caespitosa, Zostera japonica and Phyllospadix iwatensis, occur bays three along northeastern the Rias Coast namely Pacific, Funakoshi Bay and Otsuchi Bay, in in facing Yamada is the bed in Funakoshi Bay of is Zostera caulescens with Zostera depth Zostera caulescens. Zostera marina and Zostera beds to coexist m several seagrass Bay survey Otsuchi A large-scale census of these seagrass beds has been undertaken using an acoustic sounding canopy height in of in from 2 of the m. 17 to Zostera caulescens by depth was also analyzed from the echo-trace sounder The same technique has been of the utilized to estimate the abundance of Zostera caespitosa in Yamada Bay and to monitor long-term changes in patch dynamics of a seagrass bed at a river mouth on Otsuchi Bay In the seagrass bed at Funakoshi Bay, Zostera caulescens develops a high canopy deeper at the parts of the bed l>10 ml by extending long flowering shoots. in extending distribution Variation asiatica occurring at the shallower part of the bed. caespitosa are found The seagrass bed was approximately 0.5 km' with the the seagrass Zostera marina and and distribution the Bay, most abundant, with Zostera manna co- small patches overall seagrasses'^". of Funakoshi Bay has shown that the areal extent Iwate Prefecture. in estimate to abundance the The species composition of seagrasses vanes among the bays. In Yamada Bay, Zostera caespitosa occurring. The dominant species technique recorded A maximum shoot height of 6.8 m was in 1998, known as the world's record among longest seagrasses'^''. In July 2000, an all even longer shoot Studies site. at the same dynamics and production of the ml was found (7.8 of the Zostera caulescens population revealed that most of emerge the flowering shoots winter and grow in reaching an average height of rapidly, m 5 in late summer'^". Annual above-ground net production per area was estimated be ^26 g dry weight/m7year, to similar to estimates for other Zostera species that live in and shallow subtidal beds intertidal (<1 m deepl. Thus, the productivity of Zostera caulescens is quite high despite 6 poor ml with its distribution light in conditions. deep water li- Comparative morphological and phenological studies Zostera of caulescens between Iwate and Sangami Bay Inear Tokyol showed that the large differences in shoot height and seasonal dynamics are probably related to differences in environmental factors such as temperature'"'. In these seagrass beds, the abundance and dynamics of investigated epifauna'*", infauna'"'. associated for mobile communities have been epiphytic The dynamics of greatly influenced by spatial in and sessile benthic these organisms are and temporal variations seagrass abundance. Most interestingly, a species of tanaid on algae'^^', epifauna'"'*^'"' crustacean [Zeuxo spl was found to feed predispersal seeds of Zostera marina and Zostera caulescens'^"'. The crustacean consumes up to Tfie world's longest deep 'AW in seagrass, Zostera caulescens. at 10 Funakoshi Bay m 30 percent of the seeds, which negative may have impact on the seed abundance seagrasses. a large of the 1 Japan The global circulation ocean of currents is important not only for land vegetation but also for marine plants, as distributions temperate and of seawater tropical seagrass species are restricted by temperature summer and in warmed from 2°C ologists believe that the seas have 5°C over the past 50 years due warming Global 3°C of 2 or to to global warming. in seagrass beds in thank Tanaka and M. Watanabe Y. photographs of for providing information and Japanese seagrasses, and N. Kouchi and F.T Short for reviewing the manuscript. AUTHORS Keiko Aoyama Gakuin Women's Junior Aioi, College, Shibuya 4-4-25, Shibuya, Tokyo 150-8366, Japan. Tel/fax: +81 1013 3313 1296, E-mail: aioi357(agalaxy ocn.ne.jp Japan. A further warming the seawater temperature in to predicted to affect the photosynthetic is marine plants We winter, respectively, along the Japanese archipelago. Most physicists and meteor- activities of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS may prove fatal shallower areas'"'. Shallow water Masahiro Nakaoka, Graduate School Science and Technology, Chiba of University, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan. vegetation such as seagrass and algae along the coasts of Japan also at risk of accelerated loss due to water is caused by global warming. level rise REFERENCES 1 14 Publishing, 2 Nozawa R lin 3 [19741. Aquatic plants in the sea. The Heredityli: 43-49 15 endemic Y [19931. Zosteraceous species ^'\: 19-25 On the red 114: 7-12 (in Japanese with English abstract!. Kuo [19971. Australian K Aioi Bull Water Plant of Soc Japan Omon [in Y [19921. Geographical variation 17 Museum 40: 69-74 |in the four species of Scientific 18 of Japan Environment Survey The Report of the Algal and Seagrass Beds. 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Quantitative estimation of the of seagrasses at 53 Aioi K L.l in Odawa of H Matsumasa M in 54 the standing crop of eelgrass Bay, central Japan. Aquatic Botany Temporal and spatial Zostera marina Phillips RC, L. at Walker Dl. S: Otsuchi Bay. northern Japan. Kirkman H (edsl In: Kuo 55 J. Kouchi N, Nakaoka M [20001. Distribution of encrusting bryozoa on Zostera caulescens in Funakoshi Bay. Japan: Effects Western Australia, 25-29 January [al. Bull Western 56 Sci Fish 15: 567-572 (in Yamada history of Zostera seagrass in lida 57 marina Linne and some other species Bay of the with English abstract!. 30: 111-112 (in 7: Aioi K (19991. Population traits of phytal gastropod in dynamics seagrass bed PSZN Marine in EcologylO: 273- life T. Nakaoka M. Tsuchida E history traits of of Japanese in (20011. Population dynamics Siphonacmea oblongata (Yokoyama! on Otsushi Bay, north-eastern Japan No|ima S [19961. Biodiversity and stabilization mechanisms in seagrass communities. Japanese Journal of Ecology 46: 327-337 life Nolo Peninsula on the Honshu. Japan Sea coast. Bull Jap Sea Reg Fish Res tab seagrass (Siphonariidae. Pulumonata!. Venus 60: 27-36. Japanese Y (19791. Vertical distribution and natural Nakaoka M, seagrass leaves marina and with English abstract!. Taniguchi K. Tohoyara and Jap Soc of Marina Mediterranea 289. 1996. Faculty of Science. 9501. Studies on the ecology of Zostera T. Otsuchi Bay. north-eastern Japan. Australia, pp 143-148. [1 Toyohara and reproductive Seagrass Biology: University of Western Australia. Nedlands, Perth. Zosfera nana in a PSZN Marine 247-250. variability of leaf production Proceedings of an International Workshop, Rottenest Island, Arasaki S Seasonal and mobile epifaunal community vertical structure on epifauna. Biologia [19961. [20011. 7: Ecology 22: 319-3%. in 343-354. lizumi T. multispecific seagrass bed of Otsuchi Bay. Japan. 22: 10-22. Seasonal change (19801. Nakaoka M. Toyohara between-substrate variation Haad Chao Mai National of it 103-106. and biomass In: Seagrass Research Methods maintain high canopy structure? Biologia Marina Mediterranea [Zostera marina 42 Mcneely Progress Series]'}]: 121-126. Nakaoka M, Spanwanid C [in Akkeshi estuarme system between stable and unstable Zostera caulescens Miki Weil A. Beer S [19991. Photosynthetic tolerances to Research Bulletin 41 T. Otsuchi Marine Research Center Report 21 Marine Ecology Park, Trang province, Thailand. Kasetsart University Fishery 40 Kawamichi desiccation of tropical intertidal seagrasses. Marine Ecology distribution 39 Japan: Wildlife of eelgrass beds at Akkeshi-ko Lagoon. Hokkaido, northern Japan. Progress Series 174: 247-256. Bjbrk M, Uku the in Okayama Warming and Japanese seagrasses. Biologia Marina Mediterranea CM Fortes MD. Duarte J, composition and plant performance 38 (20001. species composition, and distribution of mysids The Second Report. Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo. Tokyo, Bach SS, Borum abstract!. Zostera bed area Threatened (20001. Tsukiji-Shokan Publishing Elsevier. 50 in Tropical pp 18-27. 37 Japan of A. Iwatsuki K, Short FT, Coles [ed] Community Studies on Dynamics of the Biological Seagrass Ecosystems in edn. Japan Wildlife Research Center, Tokyo assessing the grazing effects S, distribution in Loloata seagrass bed. 36 Omori Y conditions. 49 Science 26: 7-22. 35 Japanese with English (in Long term changes t^ukai H. Iizumi H. Kishi to [2001]. Ecology of 156-159. T. the studies on Japanese Zostera beds. Gland, Switzerland, pp 57-60. Ishigaki Island, Okinawa. Otsuchi Japanese waters: A review. Otsuchi Marine in Aioi K. Life. 28-39 26: 9971. Environment Agency Domoto abstract!. Nagura Bay, 516-523 22\6]: (1 in Japanese!. Z [2001]. Spatial distributions of seagrass and their in Komatsu T Red Data Book. 2nd Japanese seagrasses. Plant and Seagrasses of A daybreak (20001. Akkeshi, northern Japan. in Prefecture. Oceanologica Acta 20: 209-216. and morphology. - distribution thesis. Faculty of Science, University of Japanese with English [in seasonal change 34 45 15(131: 15-19 lin Japanese!. MSc K Growth and productivity [20001. Seto Inland Sea (Japan!, especially along the coast of the Japanese with English abstract]. [19811. Distribution of Regulating Factors. Tokyo 33 (in Aioi Aquabiotogy and branctiing pattern H Ivlukai Zostera asiatica and Zostera marina Biologia Marina Mediterranea Japanese!. Tanaka Y [19991. Distribution Its 32- IZosteraceae], Otsuchi Marine Research l^iki Aquabiotogy 22: 524-532 31 of 44 Center Report 22: 49-55 30 : Japanese], Watanabe M, Nakaoka M. (in 58 Japanese!. Nakaoka M (20021. Predation on seeds of seagrasses Zostera marina and Zostera caulescens by a tanaid crustacean Zeuxo 4!;uat/ceo(any 72: 99-106. sp. The Republic The seagrasses 18 Korea of of THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA K.-S. Lee S.Y. The Korean Eurasian peninsula, located at the eastern end of the i3°N. The total coastline including the between 33°N and continent, lies coastlines 17000km. About 3^00 of of the the peninsula, reaches islands, islands are distributed along the coasts of the Republic of Korea. Since each coast shows very seagrass characteristics, distinct habitat Sea connected is the to Tsushima current, a branch East China Sea Lee and the Kuroshio, flows towards of the East Sea through the South Sea. The coastline of the South Sea is also heavily indented. Tidal ranges on m the south coast vary from about 1.0 of the coast to Sea is about 4.0 m in the east part the west part. The East in deeper than the Yellow Sea or the South Sea, and properties also vary. The west and the south coasts the eastern coastline have highly complex and indented coastlines, while the range is is very simple and linear Tidal usually less than 0.3 m. east coast has a simple and linear one. Sand dunes are well developed, and several lagoons are formed on the east coast of the peninsula. Tidal flats are located at several places on the south coast. Tidal range is 1-4 on the south coast and higher along the west part About 2000 islands are distributed coastline. western part of the m of the the in south coast. Although the linear distance of the west coast length of the coastline is is some 650 km, the actual about 4700 km. Tidal range is extremely high on the west coast of the Korean maximum peninsula; tidal range coast. Very large tidal flats are flat sea bottom and high is about 10 m on formed because this of the PRESENT SEAGRASS DISTRIBUTION Eight temperate seagrass species are distributed on the coasts of the Korean peninsula. Zostera marina throughout seagrasses are of the Korean peninsula" relatively of language. these reports were written In this paper, ". Although abundant, few studies have reported on their physiology and ecology and most we In in this area the Korean review the status, habitat characteristics and ecology of seagrasses on the coasts Republic of Korea. of the The Korean peninsula Sea Ito asiatica enclosed by the Yellow the west of Korea], the South Sea and the East is in relatively mostly distributed the cold and temperate coasts of northeastern Asia. In the Republic of Korea Zostera asiatica occurs on the east coast; the distribution of this species on the west and the south coasts clear of the Korean peninsula is not Zostera caespitosa, Zostera caulescens and Korea's coasts (Table all the Republic of 18.2]. Two Phyllospadix species, Phyltospadix iwatensis and Phyllospadix japonicus, are found on Korean coasts'^'. Phyllospadix japonicus occurs on all coasts of the peninsula, while Phyllospadix iwatensis occurs on the and east west coasts. On the Phyllospadix iwatensis usually appears parts of the coast, while distributed is coastal areas (Table 18.2] in two Phyilospadix and Ruppia maritima, are distributed on the coasts all meadows. Zostera large Zostera japonica are found on tidal range. Eight temperate seagrass species, five Zostera, is the most abundant seagrass species, widely distributed maritima in in In east coast, the northern Phyllospadix japonicus is the southern parts. Distribution of Ruppia the Republic of Korea has been reported from limited areas on the west and south coasts"*'. Sea, which have considerably different characteristics The coastline of the Yellow Sea Ithe west shows a heavily indented coast with maximum (Table 18.11. coast] tidal range of about 10 m. The hydrographic properties and circulation characteristics of the Yellow Sea are strongly Influenced by climatic conditions. The South BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION Seagrasses are distributed In numerous locations along the coast of the Korean peninsula with habitat types varying among the different coasts (Table 18.31. Seagrasses are widely distributed throughout the south 193 194 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Table 18.1 Physical characteristics of seagrass beds on the west, south and east coasts of the Republic of Korea Characteristics West coast South coast Wave energy Low Low High Sediment Muddy sand Muddy sand Sand Tidal range Iml 3-10 1-4 0.1-1 Coastline Heavily indented Heavily indented Simple linear Seagrass habitat Bays, islands Bays, islands Lagoons, bays coast, wtiile on the east coast, distribution the high, where the wave energy seagrasses of is limited mainly distributed is IS to islands. lagoons, ports and barrier reefs. On the west coast, seagrasses are mainly distributed in East coast the intertidal and in the intertidal zone around Both Phyllospadix species, Pt)yiiospadix iwatensis and Ptiyllospadix japonicus, occur mainly on Seagrasses usually form rocky substrata along the east coast of the Korean small patches on the east coast, while large seagrass peninsula. Although Phyllospadix spec'tes are observed meadows in subtidal zones of islands. occasionally occur on the west and the south coasts of the Republic Zostera marina appears subtidal zones, at the where the water depth in in in maritima has been reported from a few estuaries on the west and the south coasts. However, the Ruppia maritima habitats recently, is in marina. Zostera caespitosa occurs on mixed sediments caulescens is of is usually occurs is usually all coasts in sand its of the limited to a few areas with and gravel. distributed on both sandy and bottoms. As a result of severely disturbed Zostera marina and Zostera japonica occur on the west in deeper water 13-8 ml than Zostera Korean peninsula, but been should be investigated. Although a few mixed beds with distributed sandy sediments along the east coast. distributed have so the present distribution of this species relatively is coast, different seagrass species do not usually coexist in the Republic of Korea. The vegetative shoot height Zostera caespitosa also usually forms small patches and in Ruppia and muddy and sandy forms small patches. Zostera asiatica observed of bays or along open shores, and sediments'". Zostera asiatica deep water 19-15 ml both Distribution usually less intertidal is than 5 m, and forms relatively targe meadows. Zostera marina can be observed both sheltered and open shores, they usually grow high-energy environments. Korea. of Zostera muddy height, Zostera caulescens deep water 16-12 ml. Zostera japonica of Zostera marina the Republic of Korea ranges from 30 (Table 18. Al, and varies significantly cm to among 210 in cm habitats. Reproductive shoots, which are usually taller than vegetative shoots, range from 50 width of Zostera cm to 350 cm. The leaf marina also shows significant Some plants from variation according to environment. eelgrass beds on the east and the south coasts have Table 18.2 Seagrass species distributed on the coasts of the Republic of Species Korea Distribution West coast South coast / / / East coast Genus Zostera Zostera marina \ Zostera asiatica ? ? J Zostera caespitosa / / / Zostera caulescens / / / Zostera japonica / / / • • Genus Phyllospadix / Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus / Genus Ruppia Ruppia maritima Ti^fclJ. ? N 6 The Republic mm|. Zostera marina very wide leaves (about 15 Republic of Korea has 5-1 The shoot heights of in the Zostera asiatica are 50-90 cm 38" shoots and 60-80 for vegetative cm 60 30 DEMOCRATIC PEOPLFS REPUBUC OF KOREA leaf veins. 1 of N mm, and the (SEA relatively cm to 170 cm. Zostera caespitosa mm wide], and narrow leaves (5-8 5 leaf veins. Zostera caulescens species; the height of its is a very tall REPUBLIC usually leaf veins. seagrass Zostera japonica is The leaf width of Phyllospadix mm) cm tall, with 3 Zostera Japonica is -2 mm. Kwangycmg Bay leaf 1 and iwatensis t^tA^» Pliyllospadix >,"' to 100 cm. Phyllospadix iwatensis has the lower portion of the leaf, in 1.5 leaf mm mm, while the width iwatensis ranges from 2.0 of Tsushima (JAPAN) >:sW ^^'^JAPAN Cheju Do A width of Phyllospadix japonicus ranges from to 2.5 ' SOUTH SEA the apical portion'^'. Phyllospadix japonicus has 3 leaf veins. The "> 41^ Korew^' Strati 5 veins in but only 3 veins '• V/..*3'jU 34' shoot heights of both Phyllospadix species range from cm i • 36' japonicus show several morphological differences. The 20 OF KOREA !,>- a very small seagrass species, usually less than 30 veins. YELLOW reproductive shoot reaches 7-8 m. Zostera caulescens has wide leaves (10-16 and 9-11 01- JAfANl Zostera caespitosa tor both vegetative and reproductive has 90 Kitometefs EAST SEA leaves have V-11 veins (Table 18.^1. The shoot height of shoots ranges from 50 195 -X~ for reproductive shoots. Leaf widths range from 11 to 15 Korea Phyllospadix Map mm to A.5 mm. 126" E 130" E 18.1 Republic of Korea Table 18.3 (Habitat characteristics of seagrass species in the Republic of Korea Wave energy Water depth (ml Low 0-5 Intermediate 9-15 Gravelly Low 3-8 Zostera caulescens Muddy, sandy Low 6-12 Zostera japonica Muddy, sandy Low Intertidal Ptiyltospadix iwatensis Rocky High 0-3 Open shore Phyllospadix japonicus Rocl(y High 0-3 Open shore Ruppia maritima Muddy, sandy Low 0-2 Estuary Species Sediment type Zostera marina Muddy, sandy Zostera asiatica Sandy Zostera caespitosa Location Bay, lagoon Bay, open shore Bay Bay zone Bay 1 Table 18.i Morphological characteristics of seagrasses distributed Species in the Republic of Korea Leaf width (mm) Shoot height cml Vegetative Number of leaf veins Reproductive Zostera marina 30-210 50-350 5-15 5-11 Zostera asiatica 50-90 60-80 11-15 9-11 Zostera caespitosa 50-170 50-170 5-8 5-7 Zostera caulescens 90-200 150-800 10-1 9-11 Zostera japonica 15-40 10-20 1-2 3 Phyllospadix iwatensis 20-100 - 2-4.5 5 Phyllospadix japonicus 20-100 - 1.5-2.5 3 ^ m 196 WORLD ATLAS OF 5EAGRASSES Case Study 18.1 University], Dr Oh (Kyungsang National University! RECENT RESEARCH ON SEAGRASSES and Drs Choi and Lee (Hanyang University! are Few examine the phylogeny conducting taxonomic studies. Drs Choi and Lee have conducted a molecular phylogenetic study to and ecological studies have been biological Zostera species of the conducted on seagrasses of the Korean peninsula. Republic of Korea. The sequences Government of the Republic transcribed Recently, the began importance seagrasses of ecosystems. There to effort preserve to disturbed restore destroyed habitats. Since there basic and ecology biology management and efficient for restoration of seagrass habitats on the Korean coast. spacer DNA the Republic of in except for taxonomic has been studies, regions IITSI have been was japonica in for five the Republic of Korea. most the Zostera species. distinctive Dr Hong llnha University! benthos in investigating is seagrass beds on the south and west Huh IPukyung (Chonnam National coasts of the Korean peninsula, Dr National University) and Dr Kim studying are in and populations fish phytoplankton communities seagrass beds. Dr Lee jPusan National University) is K. conducting basic conducted during the past few years. Current physiological and ecological studies on seagrass the Republic of Korea, and research into carbon and Dr University), Few on studies ISoonchunhyang Shin seagrass ecology have been reported from the Korean peninsula. Therefore, few nutrient dynamics in juveniles of big fish species. Fish species abundant seagrass beds include Sgnattiynus sp., Acanthogobius flavimanu^"'". Juveniles biomass and productivity change seagrasses of environmental conditions significantly with Pseudoblennius cottoides, Sebastes inermis and cally valuable fish species and Platycephalus nutrient concentration. Since water temperature along Acanttiopagrus sclilegeli and Korean peninsula shows obvious grow in indicus seagrass beds, in Limanda yoifoiiamae, Lateolabrax japonicus seagrass beds on the south Acanthopagrus schlegeli were not observed seasonal variation, being less than 10°C during winter coast, and about 25°C during summer, seagrass biomass and during winter and spring. However, productivity also show The shoot density shoots/m' of significant seasonal variations. Zostera marina varies from about 300 to depending shoots/m'' environmental conditions. Shoot densities caulescens and Zostera japonica are of on Zostera about 120 shoots/m' and about 8000 shoots/m', respectively, summer months during the Biomass of both Zostera on the south coast'". marina caulescens on the south coast weight/m^ during japonica has productivity is is summer months, about 200 g dry and while Zostera weight/m^ Leaf about 2 g dry weight/mVday for Zostera marina and Zostera caulescens. and about weight/mVday Zostera about 500 g dry for Zostera japonica during 5 g dry summer months. The small seagrass species Zostera japonica has higher leaf productivity because of its much higher shoot density. juveniles Hess than 3 cm schlegeli were found infrequently in body length) in July; in fish species can be observed in the Republic of Korea; fish collected seagrass beds are primarily small fish species or many of small-size Acanthopagrus then they were seen October when their body length reaches about 6 cm""'. Sebastes inermis. which valuable fish species migrates 2 in seagrass beds when into cm and spends its a is juvenile stage its in body size seagrass meadows. A peak of of the in fish fish is species populations The peaks are probably caused by increased Seasonal is in abundance occurs during spring, with a secondary peak during the composition about seagrass beds. There are seasonal variations composition and abundance recruitment. very the Republic of Korea, also variation in fish fall'^'. larval species closely related to standing crops of seagrasses"". A peak of shrimp abundance occurs winter and spring"^'. Shrimp species More than 60 seagrass beds economi- of such as Sebastes inermis, such as water temperature, underwater irradiance and the coasts of the in Ptiolis sclilegeli, The density, in seagrass beds. data exist concerning seagrass biomass or productivity. in nuclear in determined seagrass research projects are as follows: Or Choi (Ajou 50 the From the study, Zostera manna and Zostera caespitosa were the most closely related species, and Zostera Zostera species University! Most seagrass research Korea, ribosomal the in on seagrass research necessary is and physiological is little and ecological information on seagrasses Republic of Korea, Korea coastal and estuarine in now an is seagrass habitats and of and economic ecological the realize to in of the internal were most diverse during the diverse during the late fall. late in In the late seagrass beds summer, and Crab species in least seagrass beds were most abundant during summer, and most The Republic summer"". The dominant diverse during spring and group benthic macrofauna of seagrass beds was in fishermen. Most large seagrass beds Korea were located on seagrass leaf tissues have been of seagrass beds in Champla fall and winter Epiphyte biomass of the and Lomentaria hakodatensis account for approximately 15 to lowest during is Epiphytic algae 20 percent seagrass beds in of total plant Kwangyang Bay"^'. Numerous former tidal flats directly or indirectly Republic of Korea. Seagrasses have been reclaimed for factory sites, residential districts or agricultural land. Large areas of seagrass have been lost due reclamation, particularly from the west and to south coasts. For example, a large Zostera marina bed However, reclamation considered as useless weeds around ports and boat early 1990s. off in now fishermen and the Government the realize ecological and economical importance of seagrasses for fisheries Korea. We Many shallow fishing grounds; fishermen cut seagrasses to have a better waterway. However, and coastal ecosystems Island, on the south trawling ecosystems. The coasts disappeared mud after during flats the seaweed farms are located oyster and maintenance are trying to use seagrass for conservation of coastal bed adjacent the of in Lots of exist. seagrass beds were destroyed by the construction and Republic and restoration Kaduk shallow coastal waters, where seagrasses the Republic of in eelgrass this been channels and and seagrass habitats on coast of the Republic of Korea, until the late 1980s"'. Seagrasses are rarely used either the is the south and west coasts of the Republic of Korea have 113.6 km') existed in front of USES OF SEAGRASSES in Many these bay areas are now urbanized, so bay water seagrass has disappeared from these eutrophic bays. summer, and spring summer, and highest during winter standing crop the Republic of CallophyUis rhynchocarpa and Polysiphonia japonica and during in the bays of the south coast. highly over-enriched by anthropogenic nutrients. Most during sp. in the Republic of Korea. The dominant species are epiphyte 197 observation and verbal information obtained from polychaete worms"". About 15 epiphytic algae species reported from Korea of these farms. Seagrass areas of Korea also have been of and clamming. boat lost to the in traffic, From the estimates of of the Korean peninsula have been highly disturbed and polluted as a consequence of industrial development Table 18.5 since the 1970s. Additionally, an expanse of tidal flats Ihe estimated areas and seagrass habitats has been reclaimed of the These coastal or residential districts. sites bances have for factory led to a reduction in consequently led decreases to fish, coastal in seagrasses distributed on the coasts distur- spawning grounds and nursery areas for economically valuable of Republic of Korea Species Area Ikm'l and Zostera marina 50-60 fish Zostera asiatica <1.0 production. Concrete constructs have been added to Zostera caespitosa 1.0 coastal waters Zostera caulescens 1.0-5.0 the Republic of Korea for in Most fish-breeding reefs. constructed deep water, so few types reefs fish artificial artificial were Zostera japonica 1.0 seaweed can Ptiyllospadix iwatensis <1.0 grow on the construct, and the construct provides Phyllospadix japonicus 1.0-2.0 habitat for only adult fish. However, seagrass beds can Ruppia maritima provide a good fish spawning ground and nursery area Total in for juvenile so fish, we are now of trying to restore seagrass habitats on Korean coasts. Seagrasses also be used as a nutrient especially red tide, which filter to will reduce algal blooms, damage coastal fisheries in the Republic of Korea almost every year Seagrass collected which is in used up on the beach is make compost, coastal areas to in for their the coastal zones sweet seagrass potential Most is of beds account There are no studies peninsula of Korea. Therefore, and present we must seagrass the Republic estimate historical losses coverage using personal of lost since the in the beginning of the seagrass area in the Republic of located on the south coast, and Zostera marina coverage in we development during the 1970s. industrial Korea seagrass areas seagrass present more than 50 percent land maybe as much Republic of Korea has been ESTIMATES OF HISTORICAL LOSSES AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION of and as 70 or 80 percent) of the seagrass area chewed seagrass taste. area coverage, and verbal information from fishermen, believe that for fertilizing agricultural land. In earlier times, children rhizomes leaf detritus piled some <1.0 55-70 for about 90 percent seagrass of total the Republic of Korea. Our estimated area in Zostera marina on the coasts is about 50 to of the Korean 60 km' (Table 18.5). The estimated area for Zostera caulescens is 1 to 5 km'. Most Zostera asiatica and Ptiyllospadix iwatensis beds J,^i 198 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES are found on the east coast; the estimated area tor both species less than IS km'. Most Phyltospadix japonicus 1 beds are also found on the east coast, and the bed area is estimated at Zostera caespitosa and Zostera japonica (Table There 18,51. Ruppia maritima about km' 1 the Republic of Korea, but in probably less than is no information on the area is POLICY no policy which directly serves of There is seagrasses it kml 1 Korean seagrasses. km'. The estimated area for 2 to 1 seaweed farming, and fishing activities such as clamming and trawling, are also serious threats to is in areas coastal are Seagrasses in the Republic of Korea have been severely impacted by coastal eutrophication, land reclamation, aquaculture and fishing and these threats activities, Estuaries and coastal ecosystems exist. still in the Republic of Korea are receiving extraordinary amounts of as nutrients consequence a as well as through loading, anthropogenic of industrial pollutants. over-enrichment and pollutant discharge Nutrient widely affect estuarine and coastal ecosystems and damage seagrass On the west and south habitats. Management to loss of more than 62 km' 1945, Many flats have been by the constructed being Oyster and Republic of Korea. the of REFERENCES 1 2 estuarine and coastal ecosystems [19851. Distributional crop of the hydrophytes in Conservation 49: 37-42 lin dumping, reclaimed for industrial Kun-Seop Lee and Sang Yong in Choi of HK Nadong River Nature 11 Koreanl. Taxonomy and distnbution of & University, Seoul, 165 pp [in in Korea. PhD thesis, manna] bed of Zostera CI (20001, 13 Institute manna and Z Sediment characteristics from the asiatica. (in Lee K-S, Lee SY [20011. Status and restoration of the 14 Korean Journal of Ichthyology 168-175 of seagrass habitat 15 Korean peninsula. Nature Conservation ]0: of fishes in Huh SH, Kwak SN and seasonal variations [in Bay Korean Journal southern coast 439-U7 lin of Korean!, in in the eelgrass beds in Korea. Journal of the Korean Koreanl. Seasonal variation [19971. of shrimp [Crustacea: the eelgrass [Zostera manna] bed in Bay, Korea, Journal of the Korean Fishenes Society 20: 532-542 Koreanl, [in Huh SH, An Y-R Seasonal vanation (19981, in of crab (Crustacea: the eelgrass ]Zostera manna] bed m Kwangyang Bay, Korea. Journal of the Korean Fishenes Society 2h. 535-544 Koreanl. [in Yun SG, Huh SH, Kwak SN (19971. Species composition and of benthic bed. Journal of the Huh SH, Kwak SN, Nam manna] and KW macrofauna in eelgrass, Zostera Korean Fisheries Soc/ety 30: 744-752. [19981. Seasonal variations of eelgrass epiphytic algae and seasonal eelgrass [Zostera marina] bed of Ichthyology'): 202-220 (in 16 in eelgrass beds in Koreanl. Koh C-H ledl (20011. The Korean Tidal and Human. Seoul National Koreanl. [19971. Species composition in Acanthopagrus Kwangyang Bay Kwangyang ]Zostera in eelgrass meadows. Bulletin of the Korean Fisheries Society 19: 509-517 variations of fishes [in in Kwangyang Bay Journal of the Korean Fisheries Soc/e(y31: 56-62 [19861. Species composition abundance Huh SH, An Y-R manna, Koreanl. 116: 15-20 (in Koreanl, Huh SH of the seasonal variations Journal of Natural Science Technology, Hangyang University!: 25-29 Pusan Biology, Lee TW, Moon HT, Hwang HB, Huh SH, Kim DJ [20001, Seasonal Decapodal community Korea Research of [19981. Feeding habits of juvenile schlegeli\n the eelgrass {Zostera Decapodal community Koreanl, (20001. Aquatic Vascular Plants. on the south coast 9 Huh SH, Kwak SN Fisheries Society 22: 12 Zostera Bioscience and Biotechnology. beds 8 Department Lee, 2255. Fax: +82 10151 581 2962. E-mail: kleeiahyowon.cc.pusan.ac.l^r eastern Asia, with special reference to Korea. Lee SY, Kv»on CJ, Choi the Republic of in National University, Pusan 609-735, Republic of Korea, Tel: +82 10151 510 Lee SY [20011, A Study on the Ecological and Taxonomical Hanyang 7 facilities Angol Bay [19981. priority over AUTHORS abundance and standing the estuary of the Characteristics of Zostera [Zosteraceael 6 not effective. Additionally, Korea based on economic considerations. Aquatic Botany bO: i9-tli. 5 is economic advantages are usually given variation in species composition of fishes HK or illegal very weak, so protection of Korean coastal seagrasses: Morphology and distribution of the genus Phyltospadix Shin H, Choi of the protected in activities Shin H, Choi HK, Oh YS 119931. Taxonomic examination of Korean (Zosteraceael 4 is fishing illegal ecosystems by the law IZosleraceael. Korean Journal of Plant Taxononny 22: 189-199. 3 such as protection the Republic of in Korea. Punishment for illegal activities areas, 10 Chung YH, Choi HK management and plan for effective designated management no long-term decades. last the ecological and economical values of tidal flats and Government estuaries and of is many seagrass beds have land reclamation projects, which did not consider still management protected areas. There Therefore, even protected areas can be developed or tidal reclamation over the seagrass beds, are with the seagrass habitats. Since of adjacent seagrass beds, and to the in protected areas. There are critical problems associated ecological conservation or environmental preservation. is reclaimed"". Reclamation of tidal flats caused loss of disappeared due are located a coasts of the Korean peninsula land reclamation major contributor many seagrass beds Areas, and protect Environmental as protected Conservation Areas or Special Coastal PRESENT THREATS to the Republic of Korea. However, several [in in Kwangyang Koreanl. Flat: Environment, Biology University Press, Seoul. The Pacific coast The seagrasses 19 North America of 199 of THE PACIFIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA WyUle-Echeverria S. Ackerman J.D. along The extending from region the Pacific coast of North America the Alaska through Peninsula Baja includes wide a Mexico in variety ecosystems ranging from subtropical through of arctic in contrast, soft-bottom habitats In and the subtidal in zones and estuaries are more commonly intertidal associated with plants in the genus Zostera, which can form large monotypic stands the Northeast Pacific in and mixed stand populations a northerly transect. Given the nature of the leading estuaries, edge coast and the resultant paucity marina and Zostera japonica, and sometimes Ruppia where of large regions sediments can accumulate, one would soft expect a rather limited diversity of marine angiosperms number or seagrasses. However, a reasonably large species exist related in of number of reasons, members of the genus this region for a in part to the ability of Phyllospadix to colonize rocky shores. Eight seagrass species are recognized: Halodule wnghtii, Ruppia maritima, Canada, in estuaries from southern British Columbia, Coos Bay, Oregon"". Zostera marina provides important habitat wading and Zostera japonica birds"', Four and Phyllospadix Whereas them. Zostera of have probably been growing commonly eaten is the use of Zostera marina as substrate for the laying of harengus Pacific herring [Clupea ''. is by resident and migratory waterfowl'"". Noteworthy also used by humans'". torreyi' migrating waterfowl, for juvenile salmon, resident forage fish, invertebrates and maritima, Zostera marina, Zostera japonica, Zostera marina, Phyllospadix scouieri, Phyllospadix serrulatus Zostera to asiatica, Phyllospadix scouieri, Phyllospadix serrulatus and Phyllospadix of little is pallasi] roe; the roe known about the is primary production rates for Zostera japonica, Zostera marina in productivity can be quite high on an annual basis (84- the region since the Pliocene'"; one, Zostera japonica, 480 g carbon/m'/yearl and standing stocks may cover many hectares of seafloor'" '". For example, the large is torreyi, a recent addition to the northeast Pacific flora, being introduced as a programs'"; and geographic history asiatica, In result little is of oyster enhancement known about the phyto- other species [Zostera of the three Ruppia maritima and Halodule terms of ecosystems, Phyllospadix Ithe surfgrasses] subtidal and intertidal zones, rhizomes allow them three species in wrightii]. members genus dominate the rocky where to colonize of the their condensed hard substrates. The the genus Phyllospadix [Phyllospadix serrulatus, Phyllospadix scouieri and torreyi] are endemic to the Northeast Phyllospadix Pacific'''. Both populations Izembek Lagoon, Alaska, United States at Laguna Ojo de 1160 hal and (Mexico (175 grounds for hal, Zostera marina and cultural and food number of First its contact'". For example the flowers of children of the Peninsula plant in of Makah people who Washington were woven into state, live on the Olympic and leaves of the same pouches by the coastal Chumash the Channel Islands of California. In In British Columbia a Nations people (Nuu-chah-nulth. Haida and Kwakwaka'wakwJ ate fresh rhizomes and leaf bases or dried them into California Phyllospadix torreyi were sucked for sweetness by world'"^"'. ecosystems as valuable resources. widely used European be the largest the in addition, pre-contact First Nations peoples recognized Moreover, the Seri Indians the region by indigenous people before may migratory waterfowl, Zostera marina ecosystems Phyllospadix torreyi and Phyllospadix scouieri were in Liebre, Baja California, which are the primary staging seeds to in cakes for winter food"". living on the Gulf of Sonora, Mexico, used the Zostera marina make flour"". Ruppia maritima grows in many of the water coastal lagoons from Alaska south Interestingly, to brackish Mexico"'". Ruppia maritima was recognized as a separate species (from Zostera marina] by the Seri elders but was not used by them"". 1)4 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The two species, namely Zostera asiatica last and Hatodute wrightii, biogeographic have rarely been the focus Investigation within Zostera asiatica was found recently In southern regional California'^' no studies autecoiogy of aside BIOGEOGRAPHY Zostera marina lor eelgrassl terms presence discuss these plants the In value habitat Is the dominant species blomass and habitats on the of North America, where some it grows In: the Gulf of California ISea of CortezI; of lagoons coastal California, Mexico, or San such as Quintin, Baja and Izembek Lagoon, Alaska""; estuaries formed by tectonic processes like San the Northeast Pacific Francisco Bay; region. Case Study 19.1 THE LINK BETWEEN SEAGRASS AND MIGRATING BLACK BRANT ALONG THE PACIFIC FLYWAY the most of the population moves on Black brant lor sea goose, Branta bernicta nigricans] left). forage on seagrass flats Iprlmarily Zostera marina] non-stop, three-day transoceanic flight to marina and Ruppia maritima beds in from Alaska young in the to Mexico. In late August, after raising Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta 161°N, 165°Wl, flocks gather at graze on one Zostera marina Izembek Lagoon |55°N, 163°W1 of in the largest intertldal to stands of at In fall, a Zostera Baja California Bahia San Quintin 130°N, 116°W; see photograph below right), Laguna Ojo de Liebre 127°N, U°Wl 1 and Laguna San Ignacio (26°N, 113°W). Spring the world Isee photograph below maximum light migration coincides midday with low water events, which allow brant day- opportunities to graze on the seagrass resources growing on the Morro Bay and extensive flats tide at Humboldt Bay, locations like California; South Slough and Yaqulna Bay, Oregon; Bay and Willapa Boundary Bay, International States, Padllla British Bay, Washington; and Columbia, Canada. conservation efforts by the United Canada and Mexico are under way at wintering and migration stopover sites along the eastern Pacific Flyway to protect seagrass habitats in In coastal embayments and collaboration with David and Dr Silvia estuaries. Ward lUS Geological Survey, Anchorage! Ibarra-Obando ICentro de Investigaciones Cientifica y de Educacion Superior de Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico). Black brant grazing on the Zosters Lagoon, United States. •;# manna bed in Izembek In Pacific coast of the shallow waters of the continental shelf; the Gulf of California'", there are in that the region. three sites at leaving documenting studies Halodule wrightii and, this of Black brant on the Zostera Bahia San Quintin, Mexico. manna and Ruppia mantima beds in The Pacific coast coastal similar fjords North America Sound. Puget to of Washington™. found along the coast is It of Columbia British Charlotte Islands iHaida Gwaiil \ Queen including the coasts of Vancouver Island and USA sheltered bays and in The species also extends well Alaskan waters into Arctic Circle'"'. In the intertidal zone Zostera co-mingle with Zostera japonica and Ruppia maritima Whereas in in the Pacific Northwest Gulf of Oregon. United States] each seeds year appearance which 100 percent in been have branched of I a V h a (e.g. Mexico; Yaquina Bay. from The reported"'". reproductive the of generative shoots that recruit population are A marina Zostera of California. of Alaska Ik' marina can populations are perennial, annual populations Bahia Kino. Gulf '^ to the Baja California"'". majority the ^X\/ hembck Laguun coves including Bamfield Harbour and Sooke Basin'". shoots, a dimorphic expression quite distinct from the ribbon- shaped leaves Northeast begins to occur of the vegetative shoots, warm as water temperatures in the spring. the In reproductive shoots are visible Pacific, in Olympic Peninsula- -.^ February at Mexico and southern California; April in -Boundary Bay •:; southern sites such as Baja California. Willapu Bin' March or early in late Puget Sound, Washington; and as late as June , • Puget Sound )ikjum(i Bit, in •' Coo.sBu\ northern sites phenology Izembek Lagoon. Alaska. Flowering like protogynous and is emergence the Luiiiiiia Sail Ifpiatio I'.lCll- stigmas and then anthers effect the release, transport and capture which rotate of pollen, stigmas"". Zostera marina release of pollen and in time is in IC OCEAN the shear around monoecious; however the stigmatic capture its Oregon , of is Sun /•'ivnii.'ico separated Ba\- --^ lO-^ Monterey 'ca|,f„n„a promote an outcrossing breeding system'""'. to ; a In region-wide analysis population of Islands structure"". Alberto and colleagues found that: there was marina populations gene flow in San Diego f among Zostera high genetic diversity MoiTO Bay Channel the region; San Quintin • restriction existed for populations that were near each other; intertidal plants in disturbed environments were less diverse genetically than those in Ltijiuna (}jo 30- —' Jc Lk'hre UiimbuUl undisturbed Ben- Gulfof Catifonm . sites. 200 400 600 800 a California, subsequent study, focused on San Diego. Map and Baja The Davis discovered California. Mexico, Williams that transplanted and ' , -.^J^-- '. 1000 Kilomelefs 120- In -^ W Baja California ^ 19.1 Pacific coast of North America Zostera marina populations were less diverse genetically than naturally the early part of the 1900s'". At several sites from occurring populations'™'. southern Although Zostera japonica than Zostera marina, is typically smaller can be confused with the it marina Ivan intertidal growing typica]"". However Zostera japonica commonly grows higher the in opposed habit intertidal to tubular! subgenus leaf Zosteretla"''. region coming by way It of Zostera zone and has an open (as sheath characteristic is of its a possible invader to the of the oyster trade with Japan in Columbia. British Canada, to southern Oregon. Zostera japonica co-mingles with Zostera marina (and occasionally Ruppia intertidal region of is restricted in its many Tsawwassen, where zones in the northerly extent to the region near the city of Vancouver including intertidal maritima''"] estuaries'". Zostera japonica in it is Boundary Bay and found primarily muddy unconfirmed reports also in the upper or silty areas'". Some exist of the species further \|;' WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 19.2 THE LINK BETWEEN THE SEAGRASS ZOSTERA MARINA [T5 ATS'AYEM\ AND THE KWAKWAKA'WAKW NATION. VANCOUVER ISLAND, CANADA Chief Adam Dick iKwaxsistala) and Kim Recalma- lOqwiloGwal Clutesi Vancouver Island, members are Kwakwaka'wakw Nation on of tfie the northeast coast of Columbia, Canada, Both British are keenly aware of the value of Zostera manna or ts'ats'ayem from oral tradition of their nation. They Grassy Point or wawasalth. recall that at ts'ats'ayem collected with a is k'elpawi thai long thin pole or stuck into the substrate, rotated is entwine the leaves of ts'ats'ayem, to and pulled from the bottom to reveal leaves, rhizomes and roots. On removal the plants are peeled exposing the tender soft tissue of the leaf base. The leaves are then wrapped around the rhizome, dipped in klina leulachon IThaieichthys pacificus] grease! and eaten as a ceremonial food. Whereas Grassy Point has both cultural and ecological value, Chief Dick, and others Kim Recalma-Clutesi Kwakwaka'wakw Nation have the of concern about regional and global practices that threaten the survival of ts'ats'ayem. Chief Adam dipping in Dick twisting the seagrass IZos(era manna] for [Tbaleiclitliys paaficus] grease. Plants eulachon were Adam collaboration with Chief Dick and Kim Recalma-Clutesi |Kwakwaka'wal<w Nation! and Dr Nancy 28 July 2002. Victoria, Victona, north the in present in Canada, Strait Large stands are Georgia'". of Boundary Bay. southern and and Bay Padilla British Columbia, Willapa Bay, Washington""'. The sediments and fauna within Zostera japonica beds were found to be largely similar found some in Zostera marina beds differences in to those Oregon, although sediment grain size and organic in constituents were observed'"'. Zostera japonica has been shown to waterfowl Boundary in be important to resident and migratory Bay""', epibenthic crustaceans and is used as habitat by Padilla Bay. To the best of our in and serrulatus grovjs mean lower low in the upper intertidal zone 1+1.5 Columbia, British distribution scouleri, Graham and Oregon. confused with Phyilospadix which inhabits the lower It can be although it is exposed parts genus Phyilospadix are tide pools in the intertidal rhizome allows them of the five species on the west coast of the surf zone and in hard substrates. Three scouleri, but North America. Turner and Lucas'^^' is Phyilospadix torreyi grows at of the coast Phyilospadix Phyilospadix North Pacific genus are found a distribution reported to be more abundant north of sandy bottoms, which are two zone where their condensed to attach to in this in and shallow common, as on and has Island (Haida Gwaii!"', Its that extends from southeast Alaska to Baja California, generally of the intertidal locally quite ". The three species to Washington often is subtidal zone. m water! on the outer coasts of Alaska, greater depths and found on exposed rocky coasts of and Menez'"' describe the habitat and Phillips japonica to secondary consumers either as a food or North America. Turner jUniversity regional distribution of the three species. Phyilospadix Monterey, California" in J. Canada!. knowledge, there are no other studies linking Zostera habitat .:// In harvested at Deep Bay on the east coast of Vancouver Island on California. may be it is in tidal nearly The distribution of information related to the difficulty of on of Phyilospadix overlaps more abundant south The lack the pools with typically devoid of the other species. torreyi more abundant on and even of its Monterey, distribution making collections in The Pacific coast energetic habitats where Phytlospadix torreyi Whereas known about little Is have studies species, autecology and various sizes surfaces to found often is the in in and can be of a single documented the studies have sex due to the rhizome mats habitat value of Surfgrass wrack, Phyllospadix torreyi. southern and central benthic In in In habitat in deep-sea for to found in is experimental treatments number a variable plant with a varieties with characteristic features, and is both freshwater and marine habitats. Ruppia Alaska Including the Alaska Peninsula, Columbia and California'". Varieties in The '". tvjexico" Cove sheltered a is located Shaw In British longipes and embayment on Island, which the San Juan Archipelago in l-ialodule wrightii occurs the In Gulf mainland Mexico" in life m subtropical species that California three subtldal regions tall'". the is It Zostera marina contains a km^ japonica. '^^' and is necessary Is of to elucidate the these species HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Potential changes the standing crop and areal In extent of Zostera marina have in concerned natural the Northeast Pacific for "'. This concern ecosystems created by these plants. Changes attention. This species is an exotic valuable waterfowl habitat'"". Given that but this, prompts some to argue for inventories. Information about IN PICNIC the Pacific in meadow of a very small patch of Zostera middens a Resources' Project, the site of a long-term monitoring Washington State Department and Submerged Is the Vegetation location of of Natural Monitoring quadrat-based The San Juan Archipelago with insert of Picnic investigations by S. Wyllie-Echeverria, University of Island, Washington. States. provides and the fact to Impact the indigenous Zostera marina, negatively the European contact, Picnic Cove became now Is the In Zostera japonica has not yet been shown favorite picnic spot. It more primarily a Is function of the habitat value provided by the large Indicate historical use by coastal Salish people. station for in this region. on the low bank at the head of the cove, which After to central California, in and habitat value centrally addition to multi-layered shell in coast of known forms underwater forests It More work history traits off and Zostera asiatica ', United States, where ca 3 a is of Northwest (see photograph; i8°35N 122°57W|. ca 0.05 leaves, eaten by resident of this plant are detailed changes in Case Study 19.3 Picnic many and migratory waterfowl. THE LINK BETWEEN SEAGRASSES AND HUMANS ISLAND, WASHINGTON, UNITED STATES southeast corner of at Washington, Oregon, in distribution of Zostera japonica have received less maritima var spiralis occurs along the southern coast of water northern rhizomes and seeds than two decades" were attracted Ruppia mantima named and California southern California found that containing Phytlospadix torreyi. of Further south Ruppia maritima occurs resource managers their larval pelagic stage, spiny lobsters. Panutirus interruptus, Columbia Including the Haida sites influenced by saline commercially important of and estuaries coastal lagoons in British the decomposing California'"'. This terms species, researchers in submarine canyons, In provides food and fauna''^'. as identified has also been found Phyllospadix torreyi. macrophyte detritus layers known Phyllospadix scouleri and of Gwaii'"'. occur region. In this mantima occur throughout more protected Phyllospadix; however. Infaunal polychaetes are vegetation rocky the genus Phytlospadix are In dioecious nature of the genus to live In the their of the surf zones, except Phyllospadix In environments'''. Plants Few . Phytlospadix spp. form patches of serrulatus. which largely clonal, aspects revealed cling to '"'. intertldal zone'"'^ found history such as the adaptations of life seeds and roots is the biogeography of these North America of Cove on Shaw Washington, United COVE, SHAW resource the local or 203 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 204 However, there anecdotal information is Zostera marina and Zostera japonica basal area cover in United States - Puget Sound and San Francisco Bay'"' Area Ikm'l Country Region USA Port Clarence, AK''»"' USA USA USA Kinzarof Lagoon, AK"°' USA East Prince William Sound, AK"' Canada Roberts Bank, BC"^' - and we suspect well. Widespread losses have occurred at other sites as Safety Lagoon. AK''»"' 9.1 and regional losses continue lzembel( Lagoon, AK'^°' 159.5 Boundary Bay, BC'"" USA Puget Sound, WA''" "' Willapa Bay, WA'"' Netarts Bay, OR'"' USA Yaquina Bay, USA TiUamool( USA Coos Bay, OR'" comprehensive resource inventories WA marginally possible and 47.3 is personal knowledge 159' approximately is based on studies cited in mapped. of sites not yet 3.4 OR"" 0.9" THREATS Bay OR"" 3.6 The following discussion of the o.or threats to seagrasses based on some information documented by is present and potential San Francisco Bay'"' 1.9 unpublished observation and conjecture. USA San Diego Bay'"' Mexico Bahia San Quintin'™' Mexico Laguna Ojo de Mexico Laguna San Ignacio""' 12.2 and studies therein, as well as a degree Includes both Zostera the form of ferry terminals, commercial docks, and 175 smaller residential docks and floats threaten the survival of species that could be may of regional abundance of the other seagrass species in for food, the Northeast Pacific was into the littoral mercial and and/or coastline and involves the weaving in of small Case Study Isee potential use of Zostera marina as a desert ecosystems during the of is any projects difficult to losses due to 19.21. Agriculture of the cultivar in coastal 1980s, but we are expansion since the beginning exist changes. Any attempt to and population of the 20th century, prior to as the onset of these do so would be conjecture. in of light of etc. I may upland soils resulting in Moreover, modifications alter changes to in to the longshore current water clarity. jet skis, soft-bottom environments the fragmentation of populations and the subsequent loss of wildlife habitat. vessels (ferries, freighters, tankers, into com- development may smother may scar seagrasses the and/or of industrial, Recreational watercraft (powerboats, Whereas larger etc. I rarely venture shallow waters, accelerated currents associated with propeller to further this goal. ascertain the extent of seagrass coastal development no baseline data The United investigated projection patterns resulting personal baskets and the collection of Zostera marina plants for green mulch or the protection of culturally residential outside activity zone as a result seagrass. kill rare a is the Northeast Pacific, but resuspension sediment associated with use now Phytlospadix spp. as a decorative element in seagrass zone may reduce transmission widespread before European contact"'"". However, quite localized either soft- wave energy, of reflected bury plant populations. The deposition the Northeast Pacific remains largely unknown'"'. in in also displace seagrasses. The direct removal of occurrence technology and medicine shaded zones. Shoreline armoring, seagrasses through maintenance dredging Source: Various sources - see individual references by regions. humans littoral which can alter the trajectory Zostera japonica. Direct use of seagrasses by in 20 53 manna and of Coastal modifications and overwater structures 4.4 Liebre'^"' and Wyllie-Echeverria Phillips"", USA It 000 km' 1 Table 19.1 and our Thorn''" unaware is not is it possible for the other seven species. The conservative 3.9 sites cover Zostera manna, estimate for Zostera marina bottom or rocky ;:/ seagrass the of for Humboldt Bay, CA'"" Department other of the SEAGRASS COVERAGE Whereas an estimate 200 Tomales Bay"" States fvlore 4' 56" USA significant this local if the 21st century, in USA is map determine to develop a programmatic response seven seagrass species"". 2 USA to for 32' USA needed i.i King County'^^' Grays Harbor, WA'°' IS 8.7 Padilla Bay'"' USA effort in monitor and to should help species Sites within Puget Sound, v; efforts this region 4.2 Canada * the two in largest estuaries on the west coast of the continental the Northeast Pacific Note: suggest that to losses of Zostera marina have occurred Table 19.1 wash connected with landing and getting under way may displace seagrasses and affect current The swing of anchor chains, and chains and lines connected to flow during pollen and seed release. permanent buoys, can uproot plants permanent scars in populations. and leave The Pacific coast Rack and commercial in rope techniques culture culture s^lellfisl^ may used localized areas. the sliade bottom and alter nutrient regimes and current which may result flow, the loss of seagrass cover in Human North America of in trampling associated with the harvest of market-sized oysters from stakes used to grow oyster spat can also set and seagrass cover. in removal reductions in clam meters of recreational can shovels using result Moreover, destroy seagrass cover. associated Spills offshore with from production oil platforms such as those located on the oil continental shelf southern of California or the transport by oceanic tankers from Alaska to southern ports in Washington and California may result death of seagrasses the intensity and duration of the offshore oil development Episodic events such as potential to Proposals for spill. in ENSO this regard. (El Small net bag or PhyUospadix dated 1 1 flexible torreyi 00- 1 500 in . basket woven from the leaves of found at Santa Rosa Island, California, and the Common Era. Nino Southern and interdecadinal variation have the alter regimes, which ocean temperature and may affect local populations operate on the regional scale. also the Canada, the United States in and Mexico are most problematic Oscillation] in the littoral zone depending on in preliminary investigation in rainfall and may However, a Puget Sound found that both biomass and productivity of a subtidal Zostera marina population increased during an El Nino year demonstrating the need for time-series (1991-921 data collection to evaluate the status and trend of seagrass ecosystems. Subduction associated with the nearshore plate tectonic and size the seagrass cover, as in may activity of the littoral zone, alter the shape reducing or eliminating the case of the 196^ Alaska earthquake. The fragmentation of populations caused by natural or anthropogenic disturbance can also provide habitat for introduced species such as the mussel, Musculista senhousia, which can regrowth into more widespread decline POLICY OPTIONS It is turn prevent in to a seagrass cover. AND SEAGRASS PROTECTION not clear that federal, provincial or state, or local administrative eight laws and ordinances recognize the seagrass species However, protection in is in Northeast Pacific. the afforded to Zostera manna because commercially and recreationally important species such as Pacific salmon [Oncorhynchus spp.l. Pacific herring [Clupea harengus pallasi] and black brant Zostera japonica is Island in central Puget Sound. Praine density is influenced by both the overwater structure and ferry propwash. the this plant are valuable habitat [Branta bernicla nigricans]"". Zostera marina prairie adjacent to the ferry terminal on Whidbey Canada and Mexico, the United States, ecosystems provided by for in fragmented areas, potentially leading In Washington state, AUTHORS Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria, School University Tel: +1 of Washington, of Marine Seattle, WA, 360 468 4619; 293 0939. Fax: +1 Affairs, USA, 206 543 Box 355685, 98105-6715. 1417. E-mail: zmseedOu.washington.edu also protected, but to the best of our knowledge no other seagrasses are protected by Josef Daniel Ackerman, administrative code Northern Bntish Columbia, Prince George, BC, Canada, V2N 4Z9. in the Northeast Pacific. Physical Ecology Laboratory, University of 205 1 206 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES mtertidal Phyllospadix scouleri and Phyllospadix torreyi REFERENCES Aguilar-Rosas 1 Lopez-Ruelas R, J 119851. IPotamogetonales; Cymodoceael Cienc/as Mannas Menez EG Phillips RC, 2 to the Contributions Pacific Coast of Brayshaw TC 4 26 34. North America. 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Marine Siofogy 123131: 583-593. 19 Morton airborne remote sensing techniques of Commercial 38 in a 50: Director Columbia River Estuary Study Taskforce [CREST], 750 the Gulf of California: in 37 MH Botany Resources. King County. Washington. Evolution 222: 167-185. 18 McRoy to Shilsole and evolutionary perspectives. Plant Systematics and functional, a North Puget King County Nearshore Habitat Mapping Data Report: Picnic Point distribution and biogeography of Zostera 6511-41:59-69. 17 35 seasonality and reproductive effort. Aquatic Botany in in Resources, Olympia. Washington. People of the Desert and Sea: Ethno- Meling-Lopez AE, Ibarra-Obando SE [19991. Annual L. seagrasses Habitat Program. Washington State Department of Natural [eelgrass] in Alaska. Pacific Science 22: 507-513. two Zostera marina eelgrass using underwater videography. Aquatic Botany 58: 269-287. indians. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AR. The of Padilla Bay, Washington, USA. Aquatic (19971. Estimating basal area coverage of subtidal stability of Science Publishers, Philadelphia. MB and other features the coast of Alaska. Journal of the [1995]. Distribution of Tibbitts TL, Use Science southern Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. Aquatic Botany 58: 229-240. Felger RS, Moser Ward DH. response (1997]. Leaf 58121: 99-112. 8o(any 39: Anchorage, Alaska. indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use. Gordon and Breach 14 DA Bulthuis William Sound- Report Columbia Marine Ecology Progress of a Zostera distributional limit. Aquatic Alberte RS. suitability for San Francisco Bay. Aquatic Botany [19701. Standing stocks manipulation dynamics and production S. environmental Ciencias Marinas. seagrass habitat by M in manna] populations on seagrass distribution 103: 119-127, Ward DH, Markon McRoy CP press]. use by dabbling ducks and its Ibarra-Obando SE, Boudouresgue CF, Roux 12 30 the Pacific in OR ISSNERRI. Personal communication the exotic Zostera japomca, and 1 Meadows FWS/OBS-84/24. Baldwin JR, Loworn JR [19941. Expansion Senes Zostera marina of of 99-105. for Rumrill S [2001]. South Slough National Estuanne Research Reserve, Charleston, 10 Eelgrass of Assessment [1991]. Sound estuary: seagrass conservation. Biologia Marina Mediterranealll]-. 421-424. 8 Managing Seagrass Systems Fisheries Board of Canada 21: 1811-1821. to the Pacific Cox PA [20001. Cultural saliency as a tool S, [1994]. RC, Reguzzoni JR. Wyllie-Echeverria MN [Zostera of the North America. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Wyllie-Echeverria Thom RM S, in 186: 137-148. 353-366. Sc/ences 39: 1642-1648. 7 Zimmerman growth for late Tertiary 28 Harrison PG, Bigley enrichment by macrophyte megafaunal populations of Western North America: Research Gaps and Needs. Alaska Sea Josselyn 250 pp. 25:352-362. 6 27 the North Pacific Ocean. Systematic Zoology in [19991. Organic Grant Program Report No. 94-01. their Relatives of Columbia Museum, Wyllie-Echeverria in 44121: 130-134. Pondweeds. Bur-reeds and PK abundance patterns submarine canyons. Marine Ecology Progress Senes Smithsonian 119881. Seagrasses. Marine Sciences No. [20001. Velter EW, Dayton detritus and British Columbia. Royal British 5 25 Wyllie-Echeverna S [19901. Zostera asiatica Miki on the Phillips RC, 3 Topolobampo Sinaloa, Mexico. in 87-91. 11 121: Baja in Marine Ecology Progress Series 173: 13-23. California (Mexico!. Ha/odule wnghti/ Aschers, Command. Survey 5WDIV Naval City. CA. pp 65-69. Facilities Port of San Diego. San Diego Bay. The western North Atlantic The seagrasses 20 of THE WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC Short F.T. C.A. Short [Zostera marina] Eelgrass dominant seagrass in western North of the Is the overwhelmingly coastal and estuarine areas Atlantic, a region considered here as the Atlantic coast from Quebec (Canada! at New at approximately 60°N 39°N" to Jersey (United States) meadows Eelgrass ". provide a wide array of dramatic declines in eelgrass populations have been documented"^''". Despite some laws habitat value of eelgrass, there seagrasses Canada or the United in Canada, eelgrass In and subtidal areas. Eelgrass estuarine and coastal ecosystems'", creating essential Bay, in and forming primary production that a basis of and economically important ecologically species the region""". The importance of eelgrass to in was estuarine and coastal productivity 1930s, when highlighted in the and of the Atlantic due wasting disease"'. to The wasting disease has since been shown to be caused by a pathogenic slime mold, Labynnthula zosterae'" and has been reported disease resulted in in several species of Zostera''"". The the loss of over 90 percent of the found meadows in of Nova Bay line of the of Fundy. In Ivlaine, US the northernmost coast, extensive eelgrass eelgrass habitat conditions. highest tidal ranges well as tidal rivers. In in Imore than 8 ml, protected bays and harbors, as mid-coast Maine, eelgrass instance the disappearance of the scallop [Argopecten irradians] distribution in southern fishery and drastic reduction in brant [Branta bernicla] areas eelgrass years, largely some areas it has not regained its A second seagrass found grass [Ruppia maritima]; in low-salinity, brackish pools and some it in previous distribution'''. the region large tidal rivers. Relatively little is is much less common known widgeon grass; in than eelgrass. of only 27 Despite fluctuations in some areas episodes of wasting disease and recovery, the trend over the past 30 years has been a steady decrease in eelgrass distribution and abundance due to anthropogenic impacts. habitat In the few areas of this region change analysis has been carried out, for Eelgrass geomorphology which to the coastal marshes; widgeon grass salt km, and a is found is in tidepools. Hampshire, south Bays"". Eelgrass of Maine, has a coastline drowned river valley estuary meadows occur at the mouth Portsmouth Harbor (see Case Study river in in New Jersey. Casco Bays. consisting of the Piscataqua River and Great and Little intertidally eelgrass are found from Canada also Maine ranges from sheltered marsh ponds and New channels, to recent where salt Throughout the western North Atlantic region, of due dominated by many is islands, exposed coasts, but eelgrass occurs less frequently, widgeon and freshwater areas, marsh of to meadows through due it is occurs sporadically, mainly about the distribution and ecology most areas in Penobscot and in range of full northern Maine, with the In the world in eelgrass occurs mostly state on the east beds occupy the catastrophic effect on estuarine productivity including After 30-40 much though absent from the northern coast- Scotia, found on exposed coasts and around recovered from the 1930s' wasting disease, although Hudson the Northumberland Strait off North Atlantic eelgrass population, and this loss had a populations"". in Prince Edward Island. Eelgrass beds circumscribe a large-scale die-off of eelgrass occurred on both sides is the harbors of Newfoundland's rocky shoreline large in occupies vast inter- it tidal habitat of States. found on the east coast is south of the Arctic Circle, where ecological functions important for maintaining healthy supports that recognize the no direct protection is and to a depth of 1 2 m below mean sea small patches along the sides sparsely in Little of the 20.1), of the deeper Bay and a in both level, river large monospecific expanse within Great Bay Along the rest of the New Hampshire coastline, eelgrass deep meadows along the exposed coast and patches occurs in is in found in smaller sheltered areas and harbors. Widgeon grass in salt marsh ponds and, to a limited extent, in upper Great Bay"^'". Further south, the state of 207 208 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Massachusetts has extensive eelgrass meadows and along islands shoreline. its sewage discharge. South of Cape Cod. Buzzards Bay and in Sound, eelgrass Vineyard due disappearing is occurs Massachusetts or further south. Widgeon in grass occurs some in Rhode Island marshes and brackish ponds. salt is the smallest state States, with a long shoreline for in the United Heavily develop- its size. ed Narragansett Bay. a water body dominating the state. Case Study 20.1 PORTSMOUTH HARBOR, NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE The western North Atlantic exhibits range a of environmental conditions supporting eelgrass. from and from pristine to highly developed summer scour while of ice heat can desiccate intertidal Portsmouth Harbor, the mouth eelgrass. Hampshire, many typifies of New these conditions. Within large intertidal in often exposed for several hours around low flats, submerged by over tide and, at high tide, water Eelgrass plants on these 3 channel long. Across the water about 3 exceptionally long-leaved level, grows in a protected area behind a in bed pier; the is m of are small and flats cm mean thin bladed, typically with leaves less than sea the of Great Bay Estuary on the border of Maine and the harbor, eelgrass flourishes (2 impacts, eelgrass forms a lush green expanse only rarely disturbed by lobster pots or fishing activity The mix intertidal to deep subtidal. Cold winters produce conditions 30 m ml eelgrass US Coast Guard subject to frequent boat activity and habitats of Portsmouth Harbor Upstream from the Coast Guard North Atlantic. North in tidal meadows South deliver clear dumped beds, dredge spoil illegally in to back barrier lagoons or eelgrass habitats many the of heavily developed areas upstream to is rarely found meadows in ponds. However, the human impacts and its distribution restoration efforts, ^ the km' 1.96 NEW HAMPSHIRE t a shallow OULFOF ; V . these *M/N£ .. MASSACHU^fm ^ 1 3.0 1.5W0 Above sea utile % , Boy . beds tidal fluctuation. North Atlantic, including the Piscataqua . level NEW HAMPSHIRE 1.5 3.0 4.5 Below sea 11 level MAINE V. Great Boy 1980s in vast inter- and ongoing wasting disease episodes. River eelgrass has been transplanted as mitigation for port expansion, replacing in large tidal variation, temperature extremes, ice, both significant recovery. In less in salt throughout the western virtually eliminated its in of the Portsmouth Harbor capture in across the channel the hardened shoreline of the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard has extreme conditions affecting subtidal zone buries former eelgrass habitat, while eelgrass and the possibility of of but often forms shallow intertidally, sewage discharge for the tidal volumes ocean water However, adjacent areas in Portsmouth Harbor, eelgrass of Portsmouth, because high of many Portsmouth Harbor, of Maine and Canada, eelgrass may grow commercial harbor, some eelgrass thrives despite the nearby city station which eelgrass grows in representative of is eelgrass habitats found throughout the western mooring impacts. highly developed V lost in the early an outbreak of wasting disease'"'. Some of the transplants expanded into beds which continue to 1996 ^ thrive eight years after transplanting; others died 1000 soon after transplanting due primarily to bation'^". Further up-estuary, the Piscataqua River to Little Bay and then Great Bay with extensive intertidal eelgrass At the the open in mouth of level. ,«•<:- '' Portsmouth .y^f.r, Harbor Eelgrass distribution by depth Estuary, on the border of in Portsmouth Harbor, Great Bay New Hampshire and Maine, United States. meadows. coast, eelgrass beds thrive the clear Gulf of Maine waters to a depth of 12 mean sea its Portsmouth Harbor and along New Hampshire ";,;,-? iaX]2GG0Meten biotur- connects Here, at depths below most m human to anthropogenic impacts"*'. No known intertidal eelgrass improved to installation of an offshore from clarity Cape Cod. of eelgrass beds are slowly recovering due water the southern striated glacially Boston Harbor, north In in Cape Cod, the offshore physically protected areas of Notes: Depths plotted as of 2 7 mean low water, from image analysis and ground-truthing the with an average tidal range meters Data from 1996; eelgrass polygons were determined C-CAP protocol'"'. USCG Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, of aenal photography using United States Coast Guard station; PNS N The western North Atlantic 209 has only a few remaining small eelgrass beds. More extensive eelgrass occurs sheltered coastal ponds be- in Rhode hind barrier beaches on the south shore of grass found is in intrusion and in the salt ponds groundwater of ponds. Connecticut, on Long Island Sound, has eelgrass some areas in some freshwater Island Widgeon but losses are occurring (see Case Study 20.21. subtidal habitats of in protected bays, with offshore beds Fishers Island. All eelgrass beds in the shelter of Connecticut occur in in the eastern third of the coastline due to poor water quality the western in Widgeon grass occurs in Long Island Sound. part of some salt New marshes. York State has eelgrass only around Long Island with no known beds on north the shore of the island, but iiulloj some bays and in inlets of the east Lawrence River St New wew and south shores, including the Peconic Estuary. Widgeon grass is V>— '^^^tl X^Vnrxe HdwanJ Island Sl.Lmrrmr meadows substantial found Brunswick southernmost salt state in New marshes. Jersey, the Penobscot . Ma^milBay—^^ in the southern bays with Barnegat Bay having the best-documented populations. New In Jersey, eelgrass widgeon grass occurs in in , /P> ^ j^ ' Siraii .•'^ Nova S*' ^°"^ >,y' ^„ n Forlstmnitlt Iwrhvr ^ —< 'T "4>i>- Cape Cod '\ k" . ~ "' predominantly found is ^ the region, has extensive eelgrass Baiton Htirbor~~^.^ beds \y "^^^""'^^ NortiuimherUmJ •^' '\ Mt y Sin'^^^^^ ' V \ some bays and j: *- ' Bav ofFundv the upper brackish portions of in ' _v \ Wiiifuail \ i. Buy Sarrufianscll Bin' \ shallow, open lagoons, while i . - 'ATLANTIC Niiti^ni P1U1J 'A^Bamixol Bay brackish water areas. i ji Within the western North Atlantic region, eelgrass 40- OCEAN LiHi^ hluikl Sounil if 400 200 600 1000 Kiiomelere 600 restoration has been undertaken sporadically; consider- able research has taken place on both transplanting and seed planting. New transplanting methods have been Map 20.1 The western Nortti Atlantic developed which simplify the transplanting process and increase up level of success; projects its hectares to 2.62 of eelgrass'^'. have transplanted These relatively small and expensive projects also demonstrate that preservation of seagrass is and less vastly preferable to, low of 0.7 to a high of 19.1 g dry southern end of its weight/mVday At the western North Atlantic range, eelgrass distribution is limited temperatures, the relatively small summer high by tidal range, and the costly than, restoring lost habitat. generally low-organic, sandy sediments of the back BIOGEOGRAPHY grows most commonly Cape Cod, eelgrass barrier island lagoons. North of In the western North Atlantic, eelgrass intertidal -12 m mean water clarity sea level'^'. found Depth distribution and the large Atlantic coastline. the is and subtidal areas, from a depth protected tidal of is in +2 along temperatures, higher to limited by range along the North (5 psul waters of inner estuaries and coastal ponds to high-energy locations fully exposed to the Gulf of Maine and the North Atlantic with salinity of 36 psu. Eelgrass inhabits a range of sediment conditions from coarse sand and partial of organic muds to comparative study eelgrass populations from Maine to North Carolina, some general patterns of variation with latitude were found'*'. In (1 soft, highly cobble'^'. In a 275 to summary, eelgrass shoot density decreases 339 shoots/m'') with increasing latitude (south to north], while leaf biomass (from 106 weight/m^l and plant size (35 cm to 1 25 249 g dry average leaf to cm the coast where the cooler water ranges, and fine-grained tidal sediments create conditions that support organic larger plants and greater biomass. Eelgrass distribution ranges from low-salinity open both m estuarine environments or in Eelgrass habitat and in the western North Atlantic provides numerous commercially important for shellfish [Pseudopleuronectes eelgrass Young species"". beds'"'"; winter americanus] juvenile fish flounder concentrate in [Homarus lobsters americanus] likewise favor eelgrass habitat and have been shown to overwinter in burrows within eelgrass beds""'"; Atlantic cod [Gadus morhua] is as using eelgrass beds as nursery habitat Other commercially and species that recreationally use eelgrass habitat [Osmerus mordax], which spends time part of its documented in Canada"". important include in smelt eelgrass as migratory cycle"", and striped bass IMorone which have been tracked moving eelgrass length! increase with increasing latitude'*'. Additionally, saxatilis] eelgrass leaf growth showed a significant increase beds from south [Argopecten irradians] and blue mussels [Mytilus to north over this geographic range, from a to feed'"'. Shellfish, including into bay scallops V WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRA5SES have been shown edulis], some While are habitat phases and juvenile of eelgrass such as flounder, cod and scallops, no species are officially designated as threat- ened. The eelgrass limpet, Lottia atveus, after the 1930s' wasting disease'"'. became extinct The brant goose {Branta bernicla], a species dependent on eelgrass as a primary food source, was abundant before the 1930s and has only partially recovered. Ducks, swans and other species of goose use eelgrass as food and are known to stop in and anthropogenic nutrient and sediment discharge guantified of The loss return. North two areas in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, of eelgrass loss since settlement is estimated to be the in order of 20 percent, while south of Cape Cod, which more heavily populated and locations documentation populations the of way been lost. England decline rapid have eelgrass of from anthropogenic nutrient resulting by New in is we estimate industrialized, that 65 percent of eelgrass distribution has Two it eelgrass has not been of the region but certainly differs in coast. the loading eelgrass areas during migration. all continue to impact eelgrass habitat and areas where could species associated with decline, in eelgrass beds, utilize to sometimes for settlement sometimes as adults'""'". groundwater contaminated of discharge: Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts, and NInlgret Pond, Rhode Island, HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Major losses of eelgrass area any before occurred Atlantic in eelgrass associated with nitrogen loading rates documentation documented of was accomplished. Areas such as Boston distribution Waquoit Bay, the decline In the western North a space-for-time substitution of seven In degrees sub-estuaries having varying housing of Harbor IMassachusettsI and the Providence River development"". The greatest eelgrass loss occurred (Rhode island] have experienced human modification and impact for the last 400 years; sites within these the sub-estuaries with harbors which probably supported eelgrass are now filled or degraded. Historical reports and anecdotal five years. In information from fishermen, as well as early navigation charts, all much indicate that eelgrass extent greater than it Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, charts dating to Nixon has found S. amount of the upper estuary. Today, in eelgrass extends only two thirds in the of Narragansett Bay way up Quantitative studies of seagrass loss North Atlantic have occurred only so, and in in the bay'™'. the western in the past decade or disease eliminated eelgrass from much almost 1930s the of the area reported here. This decline had major ecological impacts'". human use stuffing effort of and as mulch, which constituted in dropped The eelgrass wrack for insulation, bedding, a commercial Canada and northern New during the 1930s and 19i40s and never England states, Today only a few home gardeners collect In New AN ESTIMATE OF HISTORICAL LOSSES Since the arrival of Europeans all areas of intense in in virtually settlement. Today, most of these areas remain devoid of eelgrass although, with improved sewage treatment and environmental controls of discharge, and to New some industrialized areas (Boston show eelgrass recovery restoration. Dredging, activity, Harbor Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts! are beginning filling, or are now suitable for marina development, boat fishing practices, hardening of the shoreline were a 32-year period using historical and Case Study 20.21. mapped through Bay, eelgrass beds were and 1980s, and again 20 km' of eelgrass were the 1970s Throughout the period, In 1999'^". lost. Little Egg Harbor and the adjacent Barnegat Bay are the only two areas Jersey that areas in New historically in New support eelgrass to any extent. Other still which Jersey supported eelgrass have declined and show no recovery. in Maine (northern Casco Bay! has been impacted by mussel dragging, a fishery practice in which a weighted steel frame and net are dragged through eelgrass beds Case Study a 20.31. to harvest blue mussels'"' (see Dragging for mussels 28.3-hectare bare area In in 1999 created the center of a large eelgrass meadow'"'. Great recurrence Bay, New Hampshire, the wasting of in disease 1989. This loss, percent of the eelgrass the region, the western eelgrass populations human this estuary in Jersey's Little Egg Harbor and Barnegat 130 hectares lost from experienced in the Eelgrass populations went from 824 hectares eelgrass wrack for mulch, North Atlantic has lost in 60 recent maps; areal distribution of eelgrass declined by off revived''""'. was overall, Ninigret Pond, eelgrass distributions Maquolt Bay of most development; the eelgrass A] percent"" (see only a few locations. The wasting of compared over in the 1700s showing eelgrass well up Providence River into the the small previously example, For today. is was percent in was In In a 1980s. 1986 to accounting for 80 Great Bay, was reversed by rapid recruitment from seed production and a recovery of eelgrass to Changes 1 015 hectares by 1996. In the physical environment that may from eelgrass loss Include seafloor subsidence and loss of fine particle sediments and organic matter'"", increase In sediment transport and result decrease In sediment deposltlon'^^', and short-term water quality degradation caused by resuspended sediment'" "'. Biological changes may Include a shift infauna from a predominantly the benthic In The western North Atlantic Case Study 20.2 NINIGRET POND, RHODE ISLAND Loss of eelgrass is a problem shallow nutrient- in enriched estuaries of the urban and urbanizing northeastern United States. From 1 was a clear relationship 1 960 to 992 there between increased housing density and decreased eelgrass area in Pond, Rhode Island, a shallow estuanne Ninigret and corresponding increased nutrient loading via enriched groundwater which produced macroalgal blooms, eelgrass area in Ninigret Pond decreased rapidly between 197i and 1992, primarily pond (see of the loss of eelgrass The major figures]. the pond occurred in shallow in areas where macroalgae and groundwater enrich- ment had the greatest impact; eelgrass deeper areas showed embayment behind a barrier beach"^'. With increased housing density, shallow areas in the in change. little Maps of eelgrass distribution were compared number of houses in the watershed, and a with the significant linear trend of eelgrass area loss with increased housing over time figure!"'". was demonstrated Isee Over the 32-year period examined, housing the watershed quadrupled, while eelgrass areal in distribution declined 41 percent. shallow estuarine systems, such as Ninigret In 1974 Pond, throughout the northeastern United States'", especially within watersheds dominated by highly permeable sand/gravel groundwater associated minimal is a outwash aquifers, glacial dominant source of freshwater and There contamination'"-^". nitrate removal is groundwater as nitrate of discharges from highly permeable and low-organic soils 4.54 km^ into estuarine shorelines. In Ninigret Pond, groundwater discharge entering the pond was clearly visible thermal infrared photographs, in m ultimately contributing to eelgrass loss, mostly shallow areas and due Subsequently, eelgrass has continued ^1992 0.5W0 0,5 Above sea level 1.0 1.5 Below sea level 1,0 1,5 Below sea in 6 1960 5 0.5 Above sea decline 2.0 level s<0, SO.SMO to Ninigret Pond. ^ 10.8 macroalgal smothering"". to 2,C level ^ 4 1 3 (»>N X, \ • 1974 1980»^^1992 tn -a S 500 500 1000 Metere 2 1992 500 Eelgrass distribution in Ninigret Pond, Rhode Island (United 000 1 1 Houses 500 in 2 000 3 000 2 500 watershed States! plotted by depth for 1974 and 1992, Change in eelgrass area in Ninigret Pond, Notes: Data from image analysis of aerial photography and ground- (United States! plotted against increasing trulhmg'"'. the watershed"". deposit-feeding community to a suspension-feeding community'" and a reduction in epifaunal species abundance'"". These types of physical and biological Rhode Island number of houses in changes reduce estuarine productivity and can prevent natural recolonization of eelgrass even quality becomes adequate. when water 212 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The majority of eelgrass area occurs north of Cape Cod. There are no known areal estimates for widgeon grass. Potential seagrass habitat is difficult to measure 20.11. Table 20.1 The area of eelgrass, Zostera marina, in the western North Atlantic because the depth distribution Area Location Maine NewHampshire Massachusetts Rhode Year [\^m'] Method of the Methods have 128.10 1992-97 C-CAP water 11.88 1996 C-CAP determining potential seagrass been comprehensively applied clarity. 1992 C-CAP A DESCRIPTION OF PRESENT THREATS Diver survey Over the NewYorl( 8.50 1994 Ground declined survey due 1999 Aerial photo populations"'"' (data for Peconic Estuary only! 60.83 Bay and Little Egg Harbor some New and the of and natural disturbances"". C-CAP is the from boating US often impacted by direct damage activities such as actual cutting by is wash and boat propeller propellers, Change Analysis Program, which includes through vegetated bottom'"'"'. Other a protocol for assessing seagrass Irom aerial photography'"'. The estimated to within each location, except for Nevw York and New available. No hulls dragging activities relating boat operation and storage that impact eelgrass include docks which can shade the tide was obtained from comprehensive surveys where more cursory information was human increased recurrences episodic National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admmislralion's Coastal area of eelgrass have England and elsewhere associated with pollution Seagrass Notes: Year indicates the date of sampling, parts of wasting disease'""', as well as other human-induced onlyl 1990s 374,37 Total to in populations decade, eelgrass last 1993-95 for but have not to the region. C-CAP 2.56 Idata for Barnegat developed C-CAP Connecticut Nev« Jersey been 1995 ^^^ most areas in habitat''^', 1999 and 158.9i Island eelgrass of northeastern United States varies depending on light quantitative within meadows from and prohibit flat moorings which create holes penetration"'™', Jersey, the swing of the anchor chain'^'". and channel and marina dredging'^". data were available for Canada. Certain fishing and aquaculture practices also Sources: Maine: New Resources; S. Barl<er, of impact eelgrass'"'. For example, harvesting mussels by Marine of Hampshire: F.T Short, University Hampshire; Massachusetts: Department Maine Department of trawling or dragging through Zostera marina New can eliminate areas Massachusetts C. Costello, and plant biomass'"' (see Case Study Environmental Protection, Rhode Island: Clam 20.31. Narragansett Bay Esluary Program and Short et al'"': digging can disturb eelgrass either by direct removal or Connecticut: R, Rczsa, Connecticut Department of increased turbidity. Environmental Proleclion; NY, New New York- Jersey: Center for Analysis, Rutgers University The following threats Peconic Estuary Program, Remote Sensing and North Atlantic are Spatial severe AN ESTIMATE OF PRESENT COVERAGE Eelgrass never in is in in the early 1980s but of eelgrass eastern Canada are summarized here. eelgrass Bay'^". Extensive Northumberland James Bay, Quebec, eelgrass meadows are in between Strait part of Lawrence River""'. Atlantic coast, eelgrass grows the exposed coast"". There eastern Canada than in is the In in Hudson reported in the New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. Eelgrass beds are found the St Nova Scotia, in parts on the coves, tidepools and on probably more eelgrass US in The relative impacts to presently unknown'"'. brown unknown is Wasting but is can be tide in disease potential for very great impact, as seen others"''". most recent outbreaks of the in rise are has the the 1930s, wasting disease have been followed by rapid recovery. Point and non-point source Anthropogenic inputs of nutrient nutrients loading: from land development, sewage disposal, agriculture and the in increase in states of the western resulting in impervious surfaces is a all contribute, overenrichment which promotes algal many places, nutrient-contaminated blooms'^^'. In the United States, current distribution by of from both climate change and sea-level groundwater discharge major contributor to to bays and coastal ponds eelgrass loss"' "'. over Sediment runoff: Land disturbance and defor- neighboring Massachusetts (Table estation produce increased loads of sediment to state ranges from 250 hectares in the western in order of magnitude, eelgrass health and distribution North Atlantic region combined, but no quantitative data 15000 hectares in localized areas, occurs frequently in part ot are available for Canada. in eelgrass The impact the region (Long Island! and primary known areas digitized. Tfie distribution There Canada was mapped to roughly except for the last three where the level of threat et 3( "", and Lathrop listed difficult to quantify. of meadows eelgrass or reduce shoot density of in Connecticut to The western North Atlantic increasing waters, coastal decreasing and turbidity Dredging: Despite laws regulating dredge and routine dredging for permitted is in channel maintenance, deepening fields, of mooring in given special permit review processes. There are no marine protected areas having fill, bays and harbors may be eelgrass, but eelgrass habitat consideration light levels. 213 eelgrass five in the western North Atlantic region. There are National Estuarine Research Reserve INERR) sites and Improved boat access. AU these often cause direct and indirect activities Case Study 20.3 destruction of eelgrass. Fisheries and harvest shellfisheries Net dragging for and shellfish fish practices: region can have severe local impacts, uprooting eelgrass over large areas the bottom. Dragging of eelgrass beds for many years. scars persist In Hardening the shoreline: Creation of bulkheads of and sea walls, as well as elimination shoreline of waters and exacerbate sediment resuspension. Filling: Historically, filling eelgrass, but now had Impact on a large regulations limit fill activity In coastal waters. Boating activities shallow waters resuspend In Maine (United States! Bay, the more extensive stands seagrass The western the In from range plants (more than 2 ml at range exposure extend of 5 eelgrass beds as the long mooring chains, needed for the high tidal ranges the In of rafts: The rapid expansion salmon aquaculture Atlantic Canada has led deployment to Maine and in pens within of sheltered estuarlne areas. High nutrient loads resulting from excess feed and fish waste create mussel local eutrophlcatlon conditions. Blue shade the bottom and promote macroalgal growth that causes eelgrass Brown tide: rafts lower extent of the mid-coast Maine has a m, resulting in the twice daily of the eelgrass; subtidal depth of 10 m is in arenana] and clam beds the clear waters of harvested for wild blue clams \Mya edulis], soft-shell worms [Nereis virens] Fishing practices include dragging for mussels, which has destroyed up to 0,3 a season (see photographl. region, drag across the bottom. Aquaculture pens and in much of to a the estuary intertidal. This mussels [Mytilus in the shallow in densely growing large plants the outer bay The bay create holes Atlantic thm-bladed small, intertidal to robust, eelgrass beds. Docks shade eelgrass to the point elimination and bed fragmentation. Moorings one Intertidal of North eelgrass with extensive flowering sediments and create propeller scars, damaging of the is location of a vast eelgrass bed representing tidal moorings: boat docks and Including Boating, Maquoit of increase sediment input to coastal vegetation, MAQUOIT BAY, MAINE parts of the in in the eelgrass 10-17 years recruitment to meadow km^ eelgrass of in Such uprooted areas are predicted to require recover via a combination of seed and rhizome elongation'"'. contrast, the local practice of digging for and clam worms with In clams a shovel or rake results in partial disturbance to the inshore edge of the eelgrass meadow; the beds recover after two years. loss. Algal blooms shade and eliminate eelgrass. Climate change and sea-level impacts of these changes are rise: The potential great'""'. Wasting disease: Historically, the wasting disease Impacted severely eelgrass distribution; currently, the disease Impacts populations at less severe levels. The conditions that led widespread disease outbreak known, but there Is of the 1 to the 930s are not the potential for recurrence. POLICY Canada, In seagrass receives no specific protection. In the United States, seagrass under the Clean Water Act as and of falls within Is legal protected in the a "special aquatic site" Essential Fish Habitat as a "habitat area particular concern" under the Fishery Conservation and Maquoit Bay, Maine (United States!, sfiowing scars eelgrass bed caused by mussel dragging. Magnuson-Stevens Management Act. Neither of Note: Below to the ttie scrape marks, the round areas ol disturbance bed are caused by the mussel draggers discharging debns from their nets as they return for another pass. these laws provides complete or direct protection of :,X 214 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES permit the mid-1990s based largely on in potential its impact on eelgrass habitat. The US Army Corps of Engineers, the agency primarily responsible for dredge, fill and other construction waters activities in coastal of the United States, has an increasing awareness of the importance eelgrass of undertaken mitigation dredge more and habitat, some for has recently routine mooring area impacted an eelgrass bed. Clearly, activities that specific protection of seagrass habitat needed is in the western North Atlantic. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Students sampling intertidal lostera monitoring site in manna Portsmouth Harbor, at a We SeagrassNet New Hampshire. New Hampshire Agncultural Expenment thanl< the University of for support. Thanks to Jamie Adams data were tnbution coverages and Manne Barker, by Seth provided Department legal or direct protection to eelgrass, they are managed Department research purposes and knowledge eelgrass Program, Rhode Island; Ron Rozsa, Connecticut Department for been established. distribution within these reserves has Most NERR of have programs that include public sites awareness and outreach education. There public is awareness and A group region. interest scientists of in activities. in A Lathrop, Grant AUTHORS US Environmental Frederick Roman multimillion dollar port Maine was denied a construction model Site selection 3 USA. RS for 10 DM [2002 optimal restoration of eelgrass, Zostera flat 11 12 Meadows MS of the Atlantic Coast: Fish and Wildlife Sen/ice 5 [1984], A Comn)unity FWS/OBS-84/24. 85 Short FT, Burdick DM, Wolf J, Profile. US Declines from Pollution and Disease and Part New Hampshire, Durham, NH. 107 pp. Heck KL Jr, Able KW, Roman CT, Fahay MP of II: Management McRoy CP, [1977]. its 9 Adams Muehlstein LK, Porter D, in a Fax: 2175. 603 +1 of 862 manne D, Short FT [1988], Labynnthula MJ [1951], Manne of E-mail: sp., a wasting disease in Biology')'!: 465-472, The eelgrass catastrophe. Scientific Short FT, Burdick DM [19961, Quantifying eelgrass habitat loss development and nitrogen loading Short FT, Burdick DM, Granger in S, Nixon eelgrass, Zostera marina In: Kuo J, L., in in Waguoit Phillips RC, [1996]. Walker Kirkman H Dl, ledsl Rottnest Island. Western Australia, 25-29 January 1996. University eelgrass {Zostera 14 Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, pp 291-298. Short FT (edl [19921. The Ecology of the Great Bay Estuary. Durham, NH, 222 15 16 tidal Hampshire, of Ruppia maritima L. in New Richardson FD [19831. Variation, Adaptation, and Reproductive of 17 New marshes Rhodora82: 403-439 in Ruppia mantima L. Populations from Coastal and Estuarme Tidal Marshes. York, pp 1-52. of New and Bibliography. pp. Richardson FD [19801. Ecology Biology In: Short FT [19911. Labyrinthula zosterae sp. Profile Jackson Estuarme Laboratory, University Scientific New Hampshire, Durham. JM [1994], Seagrass Kurland PhD New Hampshire dissertation, University 147 pp. habitat consereation: management Wells PG, Ricketts PJ ledsl Coastal Zone Canada m in An increasing the Gulf of Maine. marina. Mycologia 83121: 180-191. Muehlstein LK, Porter D [19871, Eelgrass wasting Long-term of New and fauna. SW linked to increased housing challenge of coastal resource FT 1101. epidemic. Biology nov, the causative agent of wasting disease of eelgrass, Zostera Short New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824. 184: 52-55, Hampshire lUSAl Seagrass Ecosystems: A New Point Road, of [19951. Composition, macrofauna The wasting disease Perspective. Marcel Dekker, 8 A. Short, University of Hampshire and Maine: An Estuarme effects on environmental factors Helfferich C ledsl 2144. /.- England estuary: Comparisons among eelgrass meadows and manna] and number contnbution Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop, other nursery habitats. Estuaries 18(21: 379-389. Rasmussen E Milne LJ, Milne development. in Eelgrass Meadows. Jackson Estuarme Laboratory, University of 7 862 Muehlstein LK, Porter decline pp. Jones GE [19931. Eelgrass abundance, biomass and production Jackson Estuarme Laboratory is scientific Bay, Massachusetts, Estuaries 19131: 730-739. 13 The Ecology of Estuarme Research Reserves along the East Coast, USA, Part 6 603 relation to housing habitats. Ecological Engineering 15: 239-252. Eelgrass +1 Tel: American Short FT, Burdick DM, Short CA, Davis RC, Morgan PA [20001. mud Short and Catherine T. eelgrass, Zostera marina. press). in Marine Ecology Progress Series. Thayer GW, Kenworthy WJ, Fonseca Richard Spatial Analysis, eulto/n 173: 557-562. [ Developing success cntena for restored eelgrass, salt marsh and 4 AES marine slime mold producing the symptoms Short FT, Davis RC, Kopp BS, Short CA, Burdick L. Jersey. This disease: Cause and recurrence of a CT, Jaworski N, Short FT, Findlay S, Warren Estuaries of the Northeastern United States: Habitat and land use manna New Remote Sensing and for of Environ- York; fred.shortBunh.edu signatures. Estuaries 23161; 743-764. 2 Walton Center Jackson Estuarme Laboratory, 85 REFERENCES 1 F. contnbution number 392 and and managers meets Protection Agency to discuss eelgrass and receive an update on research New mental Protection; the Peconic Estuary Program, seagrass within the annually under the auspices of the development project Environmental Protection; the Narragansett Bay Estuary of Rutgers University, increasing scientific, policy and some Charles Costello, Resources; l^aine Massachusetts which contain eelgrass. While these reser^^es afford no of Station CIS contnbutions. Eelgrass dis- for '9i: the Coastal Zone: Conference Proceedings. Vol. 3. In: Cooperation Coastal Zone Regional map: North America 60' 60° .•<^, ARCTIC OCEAN • © 1 BERING' SEA . • •®. ^ ft:' • Hudson Bay • • . • ©. 40° » • y / 40' / f i ATLANTIC • ' OCEAN ^ Gulf of Mexico '"^ ^ — 20° , **^ "^' I ^ m i N 300 140° ^^= CARIBBEAN SEA ^fe^ PACIFIC OCEAN i- V' 600 900 1^H' 1200 1500 km 100" Sl^^^r" '9^ XI XII WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES DIVERSITY OF SEAGRASS HABITATS Flowering shoots of Zostera manna in the Netherlands. Enhalus acoroides and Cymodocea rotundata in Puerto Galera, Philippines. intertidal Thalassia nempnchii on a high energy stiore Halophila spinulosa rT; -.1/,.^ ot Kosrae, Federated Halophita tncostata in the Great Barrier Reel, Queensland, Australia States of Ivlicronesia in Papua New Guinea Phyllospadix lorreyi, growing on solid rock with kelp m Ensenada. lulexico. The western North Atlantic Canada Association, Bedford Nova 18 Institute of Oceanography, Dartmoutfi, MP Armstrong [19951. A Comparative Study of ttie Hampshire. PhD dissertation. University of New Hampshire New Hampshire for the RC 11998], RH Elgin J. Wyllie-Echeverria Robertson of 42 22 New Hampshire/Maine Gotceltas IZostera Eraser V. S. manna] by [1997]. Use of New Hampshire. Volume Studies. 24 Normadeau for Public Service Inc., in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis Maine. Journal of in ttie Hoven Kindblom L H. Hydrodynamically induced synchronous waving "Monami" and its Manne first historical basin: The demise marine invertebrate in 29 Wyllie-Echeverria S. eofany 30 S. Lessons from ethnobotany. Pacific Conservation Biology^: 329- 52 in to examine the spatial distribution New Barnegat Bay, Neckles HA, Short FT. Barker Commercial Fishing Impacts to Eelgrass in New 54 England. S. Marine Department 34 Christiansen of in of physical damage from southern Florida. Aquatic Lukatelich RJ, Bastyan G. McComb AJ 11989]. Effect of In UNH in Media Durham. NH. CD-ROM. Burdick DM. Short FT [19991. The effects of boat docks on eelgrass coastal waters of Massachusetts. Environmental 22: 231-240. DM Short FT. Jones GE. Burdick ASMFC Seagrass dechne: [1991], solutions. Proceedings of Seventh [19991. Evaluating Fishing Gear Impacts C. Christoffersen H, Hine AC. Evans response to Dalsgaard MW. Davis RA. Belknap J. Nornberg P [1981]. 56 Symposium on Submerged to DA Short FT, Burdick DM. Kaldy JE [1995]. relation to of light Zostera marina depth distribution in attenuation and eelgrass a Ecology Progress Series 134: 187-194. Danish embayment. Marine and manna Limnology and Oceanography l>0: 740-749. LA. Wright A. Ayvazian SG. Finn JT. Golden H. Deegan ]2{2]: Merson RR. m-212. Burdick DM. Short FT. Wolf monitor the progression 58 J [19931. of the An index 59 assess and to wasting disease in eelgrass. Zostera 94: 83-90. Davis R, Short FT 11997]. An improved method for transplanting eelgrass. Zostera marina different nutrient regimes, Opfieliail: 87-112. Olesen B [19961. Regulation tide" Mesocosm experiments manna. Manne Ecology Progress Series in "brown Short FT, Neckles H [1999]. The effects of global climate change on Consen/ation 57 Sedimentary Petrology Submerged aquatic vegetation Effect of distributions. Coastal structure and support of higher trophic levels. Aquatic [1987]. Depositional 57131:431-439. [19951. manna LI Harrison J [20021. Nitrogen loading alters seagrass ecosystem in seagrass mortality along a low-energy, barrier-island coast: West-central Florida. Journal of CM Dennison WC. Marshall GJ. Wigand C [1989]. L. eelgrass IZostera manna]. Sedimentary Geology 2S: 168-178. 37 grass beds quantify the effects of eutrophication on eelgrass. Zostera Marine Resources. Personal Coastal and nearshore changes correlated with die-back Duarte in seagrasses. Aquatic Botany b2: 169-196. 55 commmunication. 36 the 1930s Estuarine Studies 35: 675-692. [20011. Evaluation of Petersburg. FL. 35 The ecological effects turtle shading on eelgrass l/os/era Jersey Estuaries 24: 904-916. Kopp B S, 53 of Abstract. Estuarine Research Federation Conference, Nov. 3-8, St Barker in States Marine Fisheries Commission. Washington. DC. Lathrop RG. Styles RM, Seitzinger SP, Bognar JA [2001]. Using GIS seagrasses 33 Zostera marina Aquatic Vegetation and Determining Mitigation Strategies. Atlantic modeling approaches 32 of Coastal and Ocean Management/ASCE. Long Beach. CA Cox PA 120001. Seagrass conservation: P, 335. 31 Dl, Problems and Arzel of the seagrasses. Environmental Conservation 23111: of Management 51 53: 419-426. V^yllie-Echeverna Recurrence New Hampshire and Burdick DM. Short FT [19981. Dock Design with the Environment beds Nova Scotia 11907-19601. Economic of Jl [1986]. 127-139. 2: Services. Cox PA [1999]. The seagrass \Zostera marina, [ZOSTERACEAEll industry 78-89. Mind: Minimizing Dock Impacts to Eelgrass Habitat. 50 Nixon SW. Personal communication. 7: AC. Nelson Aquatic Botany 2b: 69-77. 49 of the eelgrass limpet Lottia alveus- Biological 28 concerning possible causes. Ivlanne boat moorings on seagrass beds near Perth. Western Australia. an ocean Bulletin 180: 72-80. 9831. Sea: An eye witness account by van der Werff A. J [19761. 48 Walker Biology and EcologylOb: 165-177. extinction of a [1 Chesapeake the upper in Short FT. Wyllie-Echeverria S [19961. Natural and human-induced eotany [1996]. seagrasses: Carlton JT, Vermel] GJ. Lindberg DR. Carlton DA. Dudley EC [19911. The Wadden 47 Zieman possible effects on larval mussel settlement. Journal of Experimental 27 of of results R. Mathieson motorboats on Grizzle RE. Short FT. Newell CR. NOAA Seattle. 17-27. Aquaculture Society 22: 134-152. 26 submerged vascular plants of disturbance of the World Commerce, Dept. of Netherlands Journal of Aquatic EcologylS: 51-54. Kindblom L [1991], Recruitment and commercial seed procurement US 123. Coastal Change Analysis Maine. USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 29: 89-92. 46 Report. 12 pp. F, NMFS 45 den Hartog C [1994]. The dieback the Niantic River Newell CR, Hidu H. McAlice BJ, Podniesmski G. Short NOAA Regional Implementation. for eelgrass wasting disease at the border of Waterford-East Lyme, Connecticut Shellfish Commission, Final 25 history life Biology SO: Boyton WR. Stevenson JC. Twilley RR. Means JC A summary 44 Short Company Bedford, NH. 479 pp. Short FT [1988]. Eelgrass-scallop Research Kemp WM. Bay: Physical/chemical Studies. Biological 1: Associates. and Manne Ferguson RL. Field DW. Wood LL. Haddad Technology Society Journal (19791. Piscataqua River Ecological Studies. 1978 Monitoring Studies. Report No. 9 JE. Bright EA. The decline juvenile Atlantic cod [Godus mortiua]. Canadian Normadeau Associates James Washington. 92 pp. 43 Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54: 1306-1319. 23 Dobson Technical Report eelgrass beds of [1994]. Eelgrass [1984]. Disturbance by ice Program IC-CAPl: Guidance CA Border. USA. Estuaries 24; 249-256. Brown JA McRoy CP Personal commmunication. S. Mann KH Al, KD. Iredale H. Jensen JR [19951. [2001]. Lobster use of eelgrass habitat in the Piscataqua River on the JJ. adaptations of the seagrass. Zostera marina. Homarus Burdick DM, Short J. Fournier D. 131-142. dynamics [1989]. Natural Short FT, Matso K. Hoven H, Whitten Ecology a low arctic environment, the northeast coast of 41 a shallow cove. Bmlogicat Bulletin 176: 247-256. in Messier R. in 40 Port Authority and the population structure and habitat use of the lobster, amencanus, of small, motile invertebrates, fjtarine Bay, Quebec. Aquatic Botany iT. 303-315. Dept. of Transportation. 59 pp. Karnofsky EB. Atema Lalumiere meadows Nev» Hampshire. 147 pp. Short FT, Burdick Dl^, Bosworth W, Grizzle RE. Davis June 1998. Prepared 39 New Nev» Hampshire Port Authority (litigation Pro|ect Progress Report. 21 [1995] Effects of removal of seagrass canopy on Progress Series ]]S: 129-194. Ecology of Pleuronectes amencanus, from Great Bay Estuary, 20 RM Connolly assemblages Smootti Flounder, Pleuronectes putnami. and Winter Flounder, 19 38 Scotia. Valiela 1. Costa J. L. Foreman Aquatic Botany K. Teal b'): JM. Howes 1-16. B. Aubrey D [1990]. Transport of groundwater-borne nutrients from wastelands and their effects on coastal waters. S/ogeoc/iem/st/y 10: 177-197. 215 216 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 21 of THE MID-ATLANTIC COAST OF THE UNITED STATES E.W. Koch R.J. Orth United States region of the mid-Atlantic The includes tour states: Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina. characterized is It by presently unvegetated. In contrast, middle and the southern areas are colonized by monospecific stands or by intermixed beds of seagrass (usually two species]. numerous estuaries and barrier-island coastal lagoons with expansive salt marshes and seagrass beds in most The beds can vary from small and patchy shallow-water areas'". There are no rocky shores. Hard Bay man-made substrates are either wood or riprap worm loyster and quartz sand sediments reefs). and Sediments are predominantly deeper or well-protected areas. Marsh in sometimes found in sediments cohesive or are the subtidal areas adjacent to eroding marshes. Climatic variations are large with air temperatures ranging from -10°C temperatures ranging from 0°C 40°C and water to 30°C. Tides are to equal and semi-diurnal but relatively small (maximum The m of 1.3 estuary in the Chesapeake Bay 118130 km'l, occurs km^ watershed covers 165760 and is inhabited Additionally, the Carolina by more than largest third the country, area. in this million 15 of Its people. the state of North in the country, encompassing more than 8000 km" with a watershed more than 63 000 Atlantic km''. Other estuaries in of the mid- include the Delaware Bay and a series of barrier-island coastal lagoons. Flowering aquatic plants are common submersed aquatic vegetation term includes all flowering aquatic the in salinity for species that zones |>10 are found in psul'^'^'. occur plants in from is the higher Only three seagrass species the mid-Atlantic region: Halodule wrightii km^ some which of have recreational and commercial significance. The invertebrate production in just one seagrass bed lower Chesapeake Bay was estimated tons per year'". Seagrass beds to OM be in the metric Chesapeake Bay are in reported to be important nursery areas for the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, can yield close whose commercial harvest A5000 metric tons to in a good year. The bay scallop [Argopecten irradians] fishery stage attaches The decline of its is abundance because the also larval byssal thread to seagrass leaves. seagrasses in Virginia's coastal bays in the 1930s led to the complete disappearance of the bay scallop, and loss of a substantial Seagrasses have not returned bay Other scallops. sometimes commercial important fishery. nor have to this region, fisheries local (but not always] associated with seagrasses include hard clams [Mercenaria mercenaria] and fish of commercial and recreational importance, e.g. bass [Morone saxatalis], spotted sea trout [Cynoscion nebulosus], spot [Leiostomus xanttiurus] and gag grouper [Mycteroperca microiepis]'^'. BIOGEOGRAPHY The state of Atlantic. southernmost northernmost is Carolina On the east coast temperate (Delaware estuaries and bays) North is an biogeographical boundary for seagrasses Zostera marina (eelgrass). The northernmost area of mid-Atlantic mixture of Zostera marina and predators for a wide variety of species, Ishoal grass], Ruppia maritima (widgeon grass) and the quite to the Chesapeake ISAV). This freshwater to marine habitats. The term "seagrass" used exclusively of a in Seagrass habitat provides food and refuge from striped estuaries of the mid-Atlantic region. They are often referred to as composed closely tied to seagrass drains from six states estuanne system the is range in during spring tides]. largest IS The largest seagrass bed Ruppia maritima and covers 13.6 biogenically generated shallow exposed areas with finer grain in outcroppings peat or pilings) Irock jetties extensive. limit seagrass for of the interesting in the North United States it distribution of the Zostera marina and is the the the limit for the distribution of the tropical seagrass Halodule wrighti)''\ Due to their existence at : The mid- Atlantic coast the United States of the limits of their thermal tolerance, the seagrasses found in this boundary zone are expected warming effects of global is in this to show early area. Ruppia nnaritima able to tolerate a broad range of temperatures and New Jersey is found throughout the mid-Atlantic region and possibly along the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia. Seagrasses Delaware the mid-Atlantic region occur in in • Bay Majyland L wave-protected habitats. The extensive lagoon system Ifrom Delaware to North Carolina] delimited to the is Rehithalti Delaware east by long barrier islands. These islands provide shelter from oceanic waves, making the lagoons ideal Halodute wrightii. No seagrasses Bav Chincoteague Ba) been reported exposed shores for the in Assateague Island -.^ VJp^_ National Seashore Park of the Atlantic the mid-Atlantic region also llf.UI/K'llU* colonize areas covering a wide range of salinities; from full-strength seawater 130-32 psu) near the mouths the estuaries to mesohaline zones 110-20 psul middle portion * ^ seagrass wrack, Ibut including reproductive shoots with viable seeds! have Ocean. The seagrasses vS< - Ruppia maritima and marina, habitats for Zostera Due of the estuaries. lim f: f of the in Currituck Sound to its ability to Ruppia maritima tolerate relatively low salinities, Virginia ATLANTIC is OCEAN usually the seagrass that extends farthest into the NoffoK,, estuaries. The region is Bay seagrasses distribution of the mid-Atlantic in restricted to shallow waters because of the '\ high suspended sediment and nutrient loadings leading waters to relatively turbid seagrass habitats in (light Alhemtirle ». attenuation coefficients higher than common). In relatively pristine sounds adjacent Bay], the areas (North Carolina to barrier islands maximum depth can be as great as 2 m, while and Chincoteague which seagrasses grow to ^'Pamlico i. habitats associated with in the mainland and eutrophic [i.e. only reaches depths of North Carolina maximum vertical distribution 0.5 to 1.0 m" ". In other areas, t^ I such as the Delaware coastal bays, seagrasses are almost completely absent due Souml^ nutrient enriched! conditions (Chesapeake Bay, North Carolina sounds near the mainland], the ^ SvumJ. r-' per m^ are quite 1 *•' to high water Raleigh Bay Core Sound Cape turbidity. Lookout HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES No record exists of the extent 10 20 30 40 50 Kilometers Sneads Ferry of the vegetation prior to the 1930s, but anecdotal evidence of historical changes in eelgrass"'™ suggest that seagrasses occurred Chesapeake Bay region the (1800s!, seagrasses believed to have formed extensive beds lagoons bays in in in their entirety. to It not is grow have been as deep as ^ m. in estuaries and buildings due to It its was to what depths the estuaries, but When extensive, the seagrass upholstery stuffing. known it may Zostera marina beds was used for packing and also used for insulation of low flammability and excellent decline of seagrasses Atlantic region occurred was and affected, in in the 1930s as Zostera marina many locations eliminated, by wasting disease""'". The loss of mid-Atlantic North In In (Chesapeake Bay, Chincoteague Bay, Carolina recovered. was reported some areas in the eelgrass throughout the northern Atlantic. sounds], eelgrass beds slowly the Delaware coastal bays (Indian River and Rehoboth Bays], recovery 1950s ended, apparently due of eelgrass through the to eutrophication. In the coastal bays of the lower eastern shore of Virginia, insulating properties. A massive Map 21.1 Tlie mid-Atlantic coast of the United States In are the mid-Atlantic region covering the coastal seagrasses used were the the mid- to late 1800s"". in period pre-colonial in in the mid- eelgrass was completely eliminated and never 217 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 218 Figure 21.1 recovered. Ttie decline Seagrass distribution Imainly Zostera marina and Ruppia maritima a fiurricane of but possibly also a few hectares of other SAV species) 1933. Tfiere in present Chesapeake Bay the in 1 930s was complicated by unprecedented proportions August in no evidence of eelgrass ever being is Delaware Bay. in PRESENT DISTRIBUTION 250 Although! rare, sparse and small eelgrass beds are present ll 200 the coastal bays of Delaware in ephemeral lllllil nature. There in is very ------ - seagrass little also the in state of Delaware. Unprecedented changes 100 result of la map and restoration efforts]. They are too small to in - eelgrass populations to Chesapeake Bay occurred following Tropical Storm - - Agnes June 1972. Eelgrass beds in upper the in portions of Chesapeake Bay were the most influenced 50 by the effects of the runoff period 198i 90 86 92 9i 96 2000 98 of Marine Science SAV first and high salinities the distribution Chesapeake Bay (Maryland and in documented partially in in 1978, and annual Based on these 1984. of Virginia! 1971 and 1974, the in baywide survey was conducted surveys began mapping program. While eelgrass. for seagrasses had been Source: Based on data from the Virginia Institute How which occurred during the peak growth turbidity!, data, seagrass Chesapeake Bay was observed to increase 63 percent between 1985 and 1993, but distribution in distribution then declined 27 percent 2000 (Figure Figure 21.2 Changes in seagrass [Zostera marina and Hatoduie distribution in the 21.11. seagrass distribution wrightiil between 1993 and contrast, from In in 1986 to 2000, the coastal bays of (Maryland and Virginia increased 238 percent (see Case Study Cape Lool<out area (southern Core Sound, North Carolina! between 1985 and 1988 21.11. Presently, the seagrasses some areas Chesapeake Bay in show declines in others. There great interannual variation, making difficult to is while recovering in it estimate the area of seagrass. North Carolina, where the seagrass habitats In are dominated by shallow areas protected by extensive barrier islands, seagrass distribution has only recently been mapped. Core Sound was mapped inside of Cape Hatteras in 1990. Lookout has not yet been mapped but no seagrasses are found south north the of seagrasses in result of the city of of unvegetated due to the long fetch of Cape known that The (80 km lack of believed to be the is area. this in Pamlico Sound turbidity during strong is Sneads Ferry high water turbidity of it Wilmington!"". Albermarle Sound western portion 1988 and in The area south is The mostly also and consequent high wind events. Although there has not been a sustained effort to map seagrasses in North Carolina, researchers have been investigating aspects Note: Areas of seagrass coverage that did not change between the two of years are shown in in green cross-hatch; areas of vertical white hatching and areas of loss are gam are shown by the shown by the horizontal white hatching. seagrass ecology and report no noticeable changes species composition 1970s"^'. this. In One the Core and 1988: Cape Looltout Ferguson, Lisa J" Wood and to Drum Inlet, Brian Pawlak. SAV Habitat in Nortl^ Carolina, by 1985 Randolph consistent mapped. In distribution since Sound area [between Drum Cape Lookout! seagrass Source: Poster produced by the Beaufort Lab entitled or the quantitative effort (Figure 21.2! confirms distribution between the two years 1985 there were 7 km' 1988 there were 6.6 km', only a 5.7 of in Inlet and was generally which it was seagrass and in percent loss. There The mid-Atlantic coast were beds 151 1985 in U9 and in Two 1988. United States of the negative impact on seagrasses and their habitats"". anthropogenic impacts on seagrasses were noted There between 1985 and 1988: a clann harvesting operation detrimental effect on seagrasses'*"''". The effect dug up seagrasses. while in was deposited on another area dredge spoil seagrass bed"". a North Carolina, In seagrass beds have been relatively stable since the 1970s at approximately 80 l<m'. it is not clear if seagrass beds in researchers began to work as in in these habitats in was 1970s. Zostera marina disease of the 1930s Chesapeai<e Bay before the in the affected by the wasting North Carolina, but recovered, Chincoteague Bay. the scars are narrower This problem Maryland and seagrasses a threat to in of may and concentration increase may bury the water column. the in channels mid-Atlantic states. This in all operation increases the turbidity of the water, seagrasses in Virginia. Dredging and maintenance dredging IS damage nutrient Regulations in seagrasses be minimized during dredging to Maryland activities. seagrasses to most severe is North Carolina but has also been documented North Carolina suggest (but do not require) that PRESENT THREATS The main threats is similar to that described for clam dredging although North Carolina also suffered the in declines observed also no doubt that propeller scars have a is the mid-Atlantic in currently is re-evaluating its dredging regulations. region today are eutrophication and high turbidity from poor land-management practices. As the coastal zone continues to be developed, nutrient loads and coastal zones to sea-level rise has been classified as suspended sediments very high increase"". coast in the water column tend to These nutrients may come from well- defined sources such as a sewage treatment plant, a pig farm or a nutrients also golf course, but a large amount of comes from non-point sources such as farmland and groundwater nutrient enrichment by septic systems. As a result of increased nutrient loading, may grow algae epiphytic seagrass leaves while blooms macroalgae may occur of on the directly phytoplankton or the water column. These in processes decrease the amount of light that reaches Sea-level rise has the potential to pose a threat to seagrasses is in its bodies the in mid-Atlantic now are region, the highest risk on the east in this the of United understanding of infancy. It Unfortunately, States. may occur may lower This seagrasses and may lead The loss of the the light available to their decline to seagrasses could then lead coastal erosion due to the loss of Although detrimental natural a event, seagrasses. to common North Carolina, and have shown blooms of deterioration resulting macroalgae nuisance from such as in storm a the mid-Atlantic, especially in healthy seagrass beds Isee Case Study 21.1] as well as warming hurricane frequency and recent eelgrass restoration efforts increase. With that, the threat to seagrasses commercial fishing trenches or circles If into the to disruption by especially clam practices, scallop dredging. Hydraulic 21.1). sediment, burying seagrass beds and/or increasing expected Seagrass beds are vulnerable and clam dredging digs deep sediments Isee Case Study these are vegetated by seagrasses, the plants are lost and the recovery relatively slow"". is Clam to seagrasses by removing the plants, eroding the turbidity of the water''*'. coastal bays. be quite the state of Chaetomorpha Unum and Ulva tactuca Imats up to 1.5 thick). These algal blooms have adversely impacted the Delaware can be detrimental to m in loss. wave attenuation Hurricanes are phytoplankton dominated, and the few pristine lagoons of or to further previously provided by the seagrasses. are showing signs our how sea-level rise affects seagrasses is known that sea-level rise leads to marsh erosion'""' and the eroded sediments are then transported to coastal waters where seagrass beds the seagrasses and cause their decline or death. Most water the mid-Atlantic. The vulnerability of in exist seagrass beds of frequent it in the fall of is expected that with global However, to increase. on the effects It little in this in quantitative data region. Hurricanes are more period (September and October) and as temperatures are lower and growth than will also is hurricanes on long-term stability possible that water quality effects is intensity may is be marginal generally less the spring. dredging also has a negative impact on other fisheries. The trenches caused by hydraulic clamming in seagrass beds prevent crabbers from pulling their scrapes through the seagrass beds (a practice that causes relatively little damage to the plants), directly threatening their livelihood. individuals activities. also want No AND REGULATIONS state or federal marine parks to enjoy water-related Boat-generated waves and turbulence have a exist in the mid- Atlantic region, but several protected islands include the adjacent waters in their jurisdiction. estuarine research reserves As coastal areas become more heavily populated, more POLICIES Carolina protection include is in The national Maryland and North seagrass habitats, although afforded by this designation. no The Assateague Island National Seashore Park protects its 219 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES adjacent seagrasses. The state ot Delaware currently has no protection for seagrasses framework. The total the federal of the Clean Water use 1341-1987) and Section 10 and Harbors Act [33 USC /103). which dredged or of the Rivers regulate the material into fill US waters. Authority for administering the Clean Water Act rests with US the Environmental permit program that administered by the Agency. Protection Seagrass protection under the Act federal in is provided by a delegated is US Army Corps of and to Engineers. Potential impacts on "special aquatic sites", such as seagrass beds, are considered the permit review in Army Corps, regulates all activities navigable waters including dredging and placement On seagrasses are afforded Act 133 of process. Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act, also administered by the of structures. for the mid-Atlantic. level, some protection under Section ^04 discharge regulatory its area of protected seagrass beds has not been identified At in a regional basis, considerable and cooperative federal and politicians, by scientists, efforts state resource managers, and the general public have developed policies and plans to protect, preserve and enhance the seagrass populations of Chesapeake Bay''". The foundation for the success of these management has been the recognition efforts many habitat value of seagrasses to and the elucidation of fish and seagrass linkages between habitat health and water quality conditions. of the shellfish, Because these linkages, the distribution of seagrasses Chesapeake Bay and tributaries its tidal is SEAGRASSES IN CHINCOTEAGUE BAY: A DELICATE BALANCE BETWEEN DISEASE, NUTRIENT LOADING AND FISHING GEAR IMPACTS bodies in is one It water an extensive dune system along the Atlantic coast a relatively shallow and marshes along the Chincoteague Bay shoreline. most of the the mid-Atlantic. is pristine Seagrasses coastal lagoon (average depth 1.2 ml with limited freshwater input and long residence times (flushing of 7.5 of percent per day). Salinities are close seawater (26-31 relatively low phosphate'"'). Bay IS and nutrient psul l<10 pM total to The western shore of relatively shallow depth, are bay used to <i pM Chincoteague characterized by extensive salt marshes and isolated, small towns representing an area of low developmental pressure Hess than 0.04 person per hectare). The eastern shore unpopulated (but is accessible located adjacent to an to tourists) Chincoteague Bay are found almost exclusively on the eastern shores. Due those levels nitrogen, in barrier island (Assateague Island National Seashore) with it is to its believed that the entire be colonized by Zostera manna. the In 1930s, Zostera marina disappeared as a result of wasting disease after which slowly it began to recolonize the eastern shore. The recovery of the seagrasses Chincoteague Bay has been well in documented since 1986 there was (see figure, left). a 40 percent increase in Although the human population on the western shore of Chincoteague Bay between 1980 and 2000, the total nitrogen and phosphorus loadings declined between 1987 and 1998 lin some areas as much as 50 percent). This believed to be due to the construction of treatment plants and the reduction fertilizers Bay As and used on the farms west of the of is sewage amount of Chincoteague a result, phytoplankton concentration light is low penetration relatively deep. Seagrasses flourished during this period showing a 238 percent increase 1996, m distribution seagrasses between 1986 and 1999. began even colonizing In the western shore which had remained unvegetated since the 1930s. One of the first Chincoteague Bay since 90 Recovery and recent decline of Ruppia maritima] distribution ) came from damage to 92 seagrass [Zostera marina and In Chincoteague Bay. threats its to decimation a fisheries practice'™. In the seagrass in in the 1930s 1997, severe seagrass beds was noted and attributed to two types of hard clam in being used Case Study 21.1 Chincoteague Bay of fishing gear: hydraulic dredges and modified oyster dredges Isee measure progress as an initial living resources and water and goals water quality in the restoration of in quality. Restoration targets been established fiave improvements of demonstrable to link increases to in seagrass abundance'"'. The states of Maryland and Virginia each have separate regulatory agencies oversee to activities Environment and the Maryland Department and the extent of map seagrass does prohibit one type waters. COMAR Maryland State Code prohibits for damage commercial to seagrasses for piers and navigable waters. seagrass beds INR 4-1006.1 any reason except aerial seagrasses If be will adversely affected, the Maryland Department of the photograph, The seagrass area affected by right). km' hydraulic dredging increased from 0.53 km^ to 5.08 1996 in 1997, while modified oyster dredge in scars increased from 10 1995 in to 218 scars in 1997. Analysis of the recovery from both types of scarring showed years revegetate to notified undisturbed to levels. both 1, existing in as determined by annual mapping surveys. permits Virginia, In use to state-owned submerged lands now include seagrass presence as factor to be considered 28.2-1205 |A| '". amended in 19961. On-bottom seagrasses beneath and leaving long scars via aerial attempting shellfish visible Managers are currently photography to a the application process (Code in determine the source of the nutrients blooms and threatening fueling these macroalgal the seagrasses of Chincoteague Bay Once these impacts, resource managers of state scars require more than three some that its prohibited boundaries INRA 4-10381, and 4-213 specifically situations such as clearing seagrasses from docks, is within a specified distance from shore, which varies by and certain specific fishing activities fishing activity, specific regions of in Hydraulic clam dredging political aquaculture operations. be removed. Maryland to commercial of states are committed to protecting seagrass habitat is current seagrass distribution of hydraulic clam dredging, maintaining viable commercial fisheries and which includes a plan showing the site at which the activity proposed, a dated 221 Natural of for issuing a permit, Resources are responsible that could be injurious to seagrass populations. Both while United States of the The mid-Atlantic coast in Maryland and Virginia responded within several months seagrasses through law and protect to regulation preventing clam dredging within seagrass beds. in In Virginia, the new regulation was successful reducing scarring, but required later revisions for successful enforcement. procedural requirements required km' 12.57 to in between the of linkages close research community, scientific management agencies, has This issue 1999. demonstrated the importance ticians, implement the law during which scarring time, additional increased however, Maryland, In to fully poli- law enforcement agencies and the public, as well as the importance of sanctuaries damage Over the protection or to critical zones prevent to seagrass habitats. years, three last seagrasses Chincoteague Bay have been exposed in another to the blooms of the nuisance macroalga Chaetomorpha tinum, suggesting that this formerly stress: may pristine area be experiencing eutrophication. Indeed, nutrient data total nitrogen 2000. shows a renewed increase and phosphorus loads While pristine seagrasses, systems in the early and late stages of eutrophication are dominated by macroalgae and/or phytoplankton, respectively'™'. observed years in can The macroalgal mats as thick as 1.5 m, 1998 of a portion of damage Chincoteague to the bed from a modified oyster dredge. Notes: Arrows point to circular "donut-shaped" scars created by the dredge being pulled by a boat areas in each circle represent was uprooted and each circle is are now m a circular manner The light areas that had vegetation that unvegetated. The dark spot within seagrass that was not removed. The long, some last two cotored streaks emanating from killing the sediment plumes created by the digging Chincoteague Bay over the be in Bay, Virginia, seagrass bed stiowing in 1999 and systems are dominated by in Aenal ptiotograph taken lighl- of the scars are activities of sting rays. c 222 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES aquaculture now structures are requiring activities minimized when docks, groins, 14-VAC 20 335-10, effective January 19981. constructed. ICode 28.2-120^.1) to develop guidelines with criteria to and beds existing prohibited is seagrasses are passed soft) in m where A 1.2 special regulation the in potential clams Ihard and waters less than in likely to occur. seagrasses for delineate to restoration areas. Dredging for Virginia was portion Virginia of Chincoteague Bay 14-VAC 20-1010) where clam and crab dredging m prohibited within 200 is Because beds. seagrass of enforcement issues, the Virginia of regulation has recently been modified 14-VAC 20-70-10 seq.) and culverts bridges are Marine Resources Commission was directed Virginia define 1999, the In bulkheads, boat ramps, piers, breakwaters, prohibited from being placed on existing seagrass beds permanent markers with include to signs ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Mark Finkbeiner, Ben Anderson and Bnan Glazer are thanked help and for sharing their for their Mike Durako and Mark Fonseca data. contnbuted valuable information. Lisa Wood and Randolph Ferguson developed the seagrass vectors in Figure 21,2. Mike Naylor and several of comments on the above listed colleagues provided Wood and Dave number 3613 from Horn for the report. Melissa Wilcox provided technical support. This contribution is Point Laboratory, University of Maryland Center Environmental Science and contribution number 2491 Virginia Institute Marine Science, College of from the William and of Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia. delineating the protected seagrass™. In the state North of regulations Carolina, involving seagrasses are not as strong as in Virginia and North Carolina protects seagrass beds fvlaryland. along underdeveloped areas. These areas are to be and research although some for education used mainly AUTHORS Evamaria W. Koch. Horn Point Laboratory, University for Maryland Center of MD Environmental Science, PC. Box 775, Cambridge, Tel: +1 21613, USA. 410 221 8418. Fax: tl 410 221 8490. E-mail; kochldhpl.umces.edu recreational activities are permitted. The dredging of channels regulated such that seagrass beds must be is Damage avoided. seagrasses to also is be to REFERENCES 1 12 Orth R, Heck JKL systems Robert Jr, 13 In: Intertidai 2 and Littoral Ecosystems marina, in the Chesapeake Bay, Moore KA, Wilcox Finkbeiner Personal communication. Botany 2: 141- 17 abundance the maritima] in Ross SW, Moser ML in 19 20 56: 222-237. seagrass Halodule wrightii in of the 7 Kollar S, Bergstrom P, Batiuk quality with RA submersed aquatic [1993), Assessing Ferguson Sofany 9 22 RU Korfmacher K [1997). meadows in 58: 241-258. Cottam C [1 934). Past of 11 (1935). Rhodora Orth RJ, Moore Further notes on past penods of eelgrass KA in and abundance of Chesapeake Bay: An histoncal perspective. EstuanesT. 531-540. Manne Fisheries Commission 35 pp, boat-generated waves on a Clark PA [1995). Evaluation and seagrass beds in Tampa management of propeller damage Bay, Florida. Florida Scientist 58: Dawes CJ. Andorfer of the J, Rose C, Uranowski C, Ehnnger N seagrass Thalassia testudinum [1997]. into propeller Kearney MS, Stevenson JC, Ward LG in marsh [1994), Spatial vertical accretion rates at and temporal Monie Bay: Ward LG, Kearney MS, Stevenson JC [1998). Variations rapid in in estuarine submergence, Chesapeake Bay Marine Geo/ogy151: 111-134. 24 (1984). Distribution of 12000], Evaluating Fishing Vegetation and Determining sedimentary environments and accretionary patterns eelgrass scarcity Rhodora 36: 37: 269-271. submersed aquatic vegetation '^} The impact marshes undergoing Cottam C scarcity [2002], Upper 17: 78-89. MS Submerged Aquatic 5, in concerning possible causes. 1010-1020. 23 penods to WR, Means JC Implications for sea-level nse. Journal of Coastal Research 10: Remote sensing and GIS North Carolina, USA. Aquatic 261-264. 10 EW changes analysis of seagrass its scars. Aquatic Botany 59: 139-155. water 86-94. 8 of results Management Senes Regrowth V, vegetation, Bioscience 43: relation to 193-196. 21 Dennison WC, Orth RJ, Moore KA. Stevenson JC, Carter Koch to North Carolina, USA. Aquatic Botany 46:91-98. in seagrass habitat. Journal of Coastal Research 37: 66-74, North Carolina estuaries. Bulletin of Ferguson RL, Pawlak BT, Wood LL [1993). Flowering American waters. submerged vascular plants Mitigation Strategies. Atlantic States Habitat 431-440. [1995). Life history of juvenile gag, Mycteroperca microlepis, Marine Science 13: of Stephan CD, Peuser RL, Fonseca Gear Impacts Orth RJ [19901. Secondary lower Chesapeake Bay Estuaries Twilley RT, Stevenson JC, Boynton The decline Marine Technology Society Journal Chesapeake Bay production within a seagrass bed IZostera marina and Ruppia 6 Kemp WM, Chesapeake Bay: Summary of 18 J. in Zostera marina of Fonseca MS. Personal communication. 23: 115-127. Fredette TJ, Diaz RJ, van Montfrans The autecology 16 DJ, Orth RJ [20001. Analysis ol the in [1938). Zostera [1983). fsfuanes 5 TG Durako. Personal communication. of eelgrass, submersed aquatic vegetation communities 4 Tutin 15 159. 3 Zosfera of 14 of the World. Elsevier, Virginia. >5(;uat;c Renn CE[1934). Wasting disease VA 23062, USA. wasting disease. NewPhytology21: 50-71. Mathieson AC, Nienhuis PH ledsl fcosyslems of the World 24: Amsterdam, pp 193-214. Orth R [1976). The demise and recovery Science, School of Marine Nature 134: 416. Diaz RJ [1991]. Littoral and intertidal the mid-Atlantic coast ot the United States. in Manne Orth, Virginia Institute of J. Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Rooth JE, Stevenson JC [2000]. Sediment deposition patterns Phragmites australis communities: Implications for coastal threatened by nsing sea-level. Wetlands Ecology and 8:173-183. in areas Management The mid-Atlantic coast 25 Fonseca MS, Kenworthy WJ, Whitfield PE [20001. Temporal dynamics cfironic of seagrass landscapes: A preliminary comparison and extreme disturbance events. Iwlartini C. Buia I^C, Gambi MC ledsl In; 28 system Pergent G, Pergent- 2, 2000. Corsica. France. 29 pp 373-376. 26 Orth RJ, Batiuk RA, Bergstrom PW, l^loore press). A perspective on two decades KA (2002a, 30 regulations influencing the protection and restoration of submerged aquatic vegetation in Chesapeake Bay, USA. Bulletin Batiuk RA, Orth RJ. l-loore KA. Dennison WC, Stevenson JC, Staver LW. Carter V, Rybicki NB, Hickman RE, Kollar S. Bieber S, Heasly P [1992], Chesapeake Bay Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Habitat Requirements and Restoration Targets: A Technical Synthesis. Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, 83/92. 248 pp. 120021, Identification a recovering in seagrass the coastal bays of the Delmarva Peninsula. USA. Kemp WM Boynton WR. Murray L, comparative analysis of eutrophication patterns in a Hagy JD, Stokes McClelland Hauxv*ell Valiela 1, 119971. Macroalgal blooms J, in C, 119961. A temperate MD, CBP/TRS J, Behr PJ, Hersh D, Foreman K shallow estuaries: Controls and ecophysiological and ecosystem consequences. Limnology Oceanography i2:\m-]\\&. of Marine Science. 27 KA gear impacts coastal lagoon. Estuaries 19: 408-421 in and of policies m of fishing Journal ol Coastal Research 37: 111-119. Proceedings ilh International Seagrass Biology Workshop, Sept. 25-Oct. Orth RJ, Fishman JR. Wilcox DW, l^oore and management of United States of the and 223 224 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 22 of THE GULF OF MEXICO Onuf C.P. R.C. Phillips C.A. Moncreiff Raz-Guzman A. Herrera-Silveira J. A. Mexico Gulf of The spanning vast a is basin of water, 12° of latitude, from 18° to 30°N. and 17° of longitude, from 81° to 98°W. by the Tropic of Cancer and It is bisected largely subtropical; is however, along the northern edge, up to five days with freezing temperatures are probable on an annual basis. The coastal fringe excess of 1 is moist, with annual precipitation mm, 000 northern Mexico. Precipitation summer period, in except for southern Texas and is concentrated in the most pronounced along the coast Mexico and least pronounced along the coast Louisiana. Most of the Gulf of Mexico of broad coastal plain, except for northwestern Cuba and sections of the Mexican coast near Veracruz. The inner continental shelf to a depth of 20 western side of of the m broad is off the Yucatan Peninsula, along the coast Louisiana and along the western side of Florida, extending as much as 80 km offshore to the Florida. Elsewhere, the inner shelf Most is tip of relatively narrow. of the rivers draining into the Gulf of Cuban the northwestern to the part of the shelf total tour species of Thalassia testudinum and accounted mass and 2740 of the shoreward of a fringing reef. were found was found depth Hatophita 14 of angiosperm filifoime to Halophila engelmanni to 14.4 and A 282 stations: at to a Syrmgodium (190g/m-'l, l<m' area of Seagrasses were limited for 97.5 percent of total 3.5 g/m', 0.25 g/m', shelf. decipiens to m bio- 16.5m m and 24.3 m and 0.14g/ml of fringed by a is seagrasses covered 75 percent Mexico have restricted catchments, except along the north shore, UNITED STATES Florida In were 9888 km^ 1995, there of seagrasses along the Gulf of Mexico coast of Florida'^'. This includes the seagrass beds of Monroe County the Florida Keys off but does not include the seagrasses Biscayne Bay in in Card Sound Dade County Nor does it of include the large sparse offshore beds of Halophiia decipiens from the Florida Keys to the Big Bend area. southern The tip of the Florida Peninsula most obviously the Mississippi River, and parts the bordering on the Gulf of Mexico (Monroe and Collier western Rios Bravo IGrandel, Counties! contained 5901 km^ of seagrasses. Monroe gulf, the including of Panuco, Grijalva and Usumacinta. Barrier islands and spits are prominent features along much and coral reefs shelter the large expanse the southern tip of Florida and off of of the coast, water off the coasts of Veracruz, Campeche, Yucatan and northwestern Cuba. Lunar spring tides are less than 1 m throughout County alone, mostly in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, contained 54.6 percent of the state's seagrasses. The middle section of the Florida Peninsula's Gulf of Mexico coast ILee County to Pinellas 446 km' The Big Bend region (Pasco County of seagrasses. County) contained Wakulla County! contained 3346 km' while to the Florida Panhandle (Franklin to Escambia Counties! the region. contained 195 km' of seagrasses'^'. CUBA No Florida Bay and the Florida Keys are relatively recent assessment has been performed of the seagrass resources on Cuba's coast bordering the Gulf of Mexico'". Therefore, we must resort to an extensive report of a survey of the northwestern conducted in Cuban shelf 1972-73'". Fortuitously, this region from 22 to 23°N and 83 to 85°\N is essentially all of the Cuban coast that borders the Gulf of Mexico. At that time. shallow and, because of the tourism in the area, the seagrasses have been particularly subject from boat traffic to damage and sewage pollution from greatly expanded residential and hotel development, and marina and boat usage. As much as 17.3 percent seagrass meadow in of Monroe County had been scarred by boat propellers, and 32 percent of the 17.3 percent The Gulf had been severely scarred This scarring often leads . seagrass because to a loss of Florida In addition, of erosion and blow-outs. ,. die-off of ^ TX ^ through 199^. Researchers have hypothesized at least «^ Mixsixsippi of >^ Galveston Bay in 1V91, algal blooms and persistent high were widespread, accounting deterioration of seagrass meadows, such for further that between Cltarlalle ftarboi Bi.\caynf Bay Bm hloncia Say Buljin -V; ^ \ "f Sarasota Bt Islands . FlorklT Y.c^ Gulf uf Mcxic Mtijiv Laf^ijiHj turbidity impaBay Bay Tampa Chandeleur .%• Mula^orda Bay San inlonii) Ba\ ^, 7, Cuipifi Chiisti Bin the few have been investigated adequately'". die-off, but Beginning the initiation in Stj W^»^".' "" the involvement of several factors Big Bend loxQi. I V PerdiJo Ba\I \Biloxi, LA Sabine^ fj-afif W 80" AL \tt- 1987 that continued in 9g°w MS \Mabile oay\ Bay casieu Bay suffered a massive Thalassia testudinum beginning „ , Lake ronlchjrtrain A Mexico of Tamaulipas a Alacranes 198^ and 199A Thalassia testudinum biomass declined RIa Lagarlos, Ltn^tlita Chelem ik Tainiuliua by 28 percent, Syringodium fitlforme by 88 percent and Celestun/^ Yucatan Peninsula Halodule wnghtii by 92 percent'^'. The seagrasses in the Big Bend of Florida ^ 131 Campeche " iM^una dc Tcnnin'i\ MEXICO Lacuna li- llvaraM Veracnjz^ . ' percent of all relatively seagrasses from impact little Florida! have experienced in water poor problems or scarring from boat usage. This their quality is due to remoteness from population centers and the relatively the area low population density is on the brink effort. It can only be hoped that the state and local jurisdictions will demand proper sewage and will not occurred in engage in disposal (not septic tanks! the dredge and activities that fill Tampa Bay and Sarasota Bay limited to only a few bay is systems along the west coast was Charlotte Florida. of approximately 30 percent prior to the 1980s'". There seagrasses of its a further harbor-wide decline of 3.3 percent 12.^3 km'] between 1988 and 1992, the Southwest Florida Water 1992. In ment District initiated a biennial assess trends beds'". directly in mapping Manageproject to Charlotte Harbor Data from these Mexico, and Between 1992 and 199^, a 4 percent was observed in (2.91 km'] increase the seagrass beds of the harbor, followed by an additional 3.6 percent increase (2.7A km'! between 199A and 1996. Prior to the 1980s, seagrass losses Bay were estimated However, changes to total in in Sarasota in be light point-source seagrass coverage loads to the in Sarasota bay from wastewater much treatment plants diminished by as as 25 percent. Water transparency off the city of Sarasota and Manatee County increased from a mean Secchi disc m to 1.5 m, often deeper. Between 1988 and 199^, seagrass coverage 6.4 percent (1.'*2 km'l in km of exposure Bay which receives river Gulf of Mexico. Consequently, there for the establishment small patches at the of to the Gulf of encompassed by Mobile discharge volumes second of that is of Haiodule US portion of the is little opportunity true seagrass beds. wrigfitii A few have been reported south end of Mobile Bay along the western shore, km' are present in Perdido Bay, shared with down from 4.9 km' in 1940-41"^'. At the west end of the Alabama coast and shared with Mississippi, ephemeral beds of Ruppia maritima cover ca 2 km' in Grand Bay during the late spring and early summer, and Halodule wrightii has a[so been documented in this 2.5 area. approximately 30 percent. Bay have been dramatic since 1988. Between 1989 and nitrogen only 90 much only to the Mississippi River along the Florida, km'l to linked to improving water quality and Alabama has pollutant load reduction strategies on water quality. 1.1 These observed increases are believed pollutant loads. and depth of Mexico penetration resulting from reductions studies will be used to assess the effectiveness of 1990, of Alabama Historical analysis lost 22.1 the 1950s in and 1960s. Harbor Map The Gulf However, of the area. huge development of a 100 200 300 Kilomelers Tabasco Manatee County increased and another between 1994 and 1996. seagrass coverage increased In 10.1 of Historically, populations of Halodule along the northern shores of Mississippi's barrier islands""^'". Overall, Mississippi has lost most of the seagrass cover that was present one marine species, Halodule maritima (widgeon grass! occurs these increases were along the deep (>1.0 m! edges of existing seagrass in in 1967-69, and only wrightii, still exists in measurable quantities (1.93 km'! Halophila and Thalassia testudinum were present and abundant 7.8 percent 11.85 percent 10.78 km'! wrightii, engelmanni, Ruppia maritima, Syringodium filiforme Sarasota County, between 1988 and 1994, and 22.7 percent between 1994 and 1996. Most Mississippi Mississippi Sound. in Ruppia isolated but well- developed patches along the immediate coastline, and as an occasional component along the barrier islands Some in in Halodule wrightii beds Mississippi Sound. well-established populations of Halodule 225 226 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES mantima. Ruppia engelmanni, Halophila wrightii, Syringodium filiforme and Thalassia testudinum along the western shorelines and bayou systems the small internal in Chandeleur Islands, of the and are south- in km due eastern Louisiana. These islands begin 37 of Biloxi, exist south propagules a likely source of vegetative and possibly seeds supplementing or repopulating seagrass beds some areas in Mexico estuarme inventory"" were used as a historical 1967-69 Gulf a imagery aerial document were study"" recent ground-truthed patterns. distribution depth Sound Mississippi Bois Case Study 22.1 meadow TAMPA BAY in mainly along lie Tampa Bay estimated is 309.6 km' of seagrasses lime. that have supported to By 1981, only in 1879'". km' remained. The most dramatic decrease 57.5 occurred between 1950 and 1963, when approximately 50 percent During this period. Hillsborough disappeared. Bay lost 94 percent of Bay lost AS percent and its Tampa grass beds, Old Tampa Bay proper lost "r 35 percent" 1950s were due to the wastewater treated wastes from phosphate mines, citrus industrial canneries and other industrial sources""', as well and dredge and dredging, extensive as changed water activities that fill circulation patterns and caused extensive turbidity in the waters"". Recent work has shown that the trend seagrass loss In 99.3 in of seagrass were present Management Water Florida 1990, In coverage increased this km', and increased again in 199i to The bay-wide seagrass coverage km'. 1997 was estimated at 109.3 km'"". In Hillsborough Bay, seagrass increased from near zero in 1984 the to about 0.57 km' expansion This response to in in started in to the a the early 1980s These mid-1980s. nearly in 50 percent external nitrogen from domestic and industrial point loading sources, primarily discharging to Hillsborough Bay. A slight occurred in presumably as along in southwest shoreline as well its north side. Ruppia maritima occurs at two its locations at opposite ends of the mainland shore: Point aux Chenes Bay at the 1969 down to 0.5 km' km Park, 10 Alabama border in - 5.3 from the Louisiana border - 0.8 km' to 0.2 State-wide km' in were found, in km' of coastal of in submersed vascular of which were from areas all of the Grand Bay and are shared with the in waters, offshore of the 1967-69 survey"". Almost Alabama, as noted in km' km' 2.1 km' were located seagrasses in 1969 submersed aquatic vascular in islands. In 1992, only 8.1 not included in 1992. mostly true seagrasses on the north sides plants km' Buccaneer State 1992, and plants covered an estimated 55.2 Alabama section. Therefore, Mississippi suffered a decline of between seagrass habitat was vegetated, 13.4 percent is decline in Tampa Bay seagrass coverage in the late 1990s, a result of high rainfall during 1995, 1996 and the 1997-98 El Nino event, all of increased nitrogen loading to the bay"". assumed which in in comparison to only 1992. Physical loss of seagrass habitat for areas where 1969 coverage exceeds current estimates of seagrass habitat. This total estimated of to is be 19.6 percent. Since the discrimination seagrasses from macroalgae was 1998. apparently improvements followed reduction Dog Keys period; none; Ship Island from 6.2 to km'; and Cat Island from 2.4 km' to 0.7 km'. to 1.0 protected areas along in less precise than in the 1992 may be somewhat water quality improvements from 1970s late km' over the same to 2.2 early survey"" indicated that 67.6 percent of potential Southwest 105.7 km' 85 and 89 percent over 23 years. Information from the the to km' Ithis the District]"'. to 1.5 year of monitoring conducted by was first of seagrass of Only on T-shaped Cat Island do seagrass beds occur 2.1 Tampa Bay has been reversed in km' 1988, 93.1 km' to and discharges east to west, 1969 survey, down to the Pass beds from 8.4 km' 1969 down The losses up poorly seagrass cover of the total according From supported 6.8 km' Island in northern the 1992; Horn Island seagrass cover decreased from 22.5 at in a Seagrasses and potential seagrass habitat of Petit habitat critical National Park Service seagrass monitoring project"". shorelines of the offshore islands. Based on the available m which had been previously established limit to Potential seagrass habitat was also identified using a 2 of the Mississippi coast. Seagrass distributions from US Geological Survey baseline, while data from a 1992 the 1967-69 survey assessment, losses overestimated. Mississippi Sound, seagrasses appear to be In threatened by the cumulative effects of both natural events and anthropogenic activities in the marine environment. The primary vector disappearance of an overall decline a major levels, seagrasses water in factor, as it is coastal for the presently thought to be quality. often results Development may be in elevated nutrient higher sediment loads, and the introduction of contaminants, which lead to a loss of water quality. Cyclic shifts in precipitation patterns that affect both salinity and turbidity, and extreme events, especially hurricanes, are also involved. Areas of seagrass habitat The Gulf loss coincide with areas where rapid coastal erosion""' and massive long-term movement of sand have been north. Thaiassia testudinum extreme west end at the documented''"'. Physical loss of habitat and decreased and then is combination with declining water within 10 km light availability quality are the in most visible features that directly affect seagrass communities. dominant species over km Within 20 Louisiana features a wide band brackish marsh, with of some of Is fresh to large lakes. Extensive beds submersed aquatic vascular plants occur the salinity southwest, where, to the Aransas Pass, of the gulf outlet at there, but generally too low for seagrasses to thrive. Since the mid-1950s, seagrasses have been lost from of is even stronger Brazos Santiago Pass species over 90 percent south end at the the dominant is testudinum Thalassia from Aransas Bay near Aransas Pass and uncommon Is in Lakes and from behind the south coast species over 7 percent of the vegetated bottom Small amounts Islands""". reappeared on sand still flats along the north shore, and smaller amounts along the southeastern shore Lake Pontchartrain Louisiana's in the along western the Chandeleur Islands. The beds are of km' In the of relatively stable, at 1978to 56.6 km'in 1989 despite the passage two hurricanes provide a mixed the standards, only decreasing from by regional least to shore In that period. Apparently, the islands protected shallow-water environment far ChristI Bays. Laguna Madre and 30 percent It is the dominant Precipitation, metry are determinants freshwater and inflow of most the of the gradient of Increasing abundance from northeast Texas coast. The much greater freshening of bay waters than do estuaries of In higher turbidity and a reduced area of suitable salinity seagrass growth. than Laguna Madre addition In the Is to support of the bottom other bays. in Texas The Galveston Bay system supported more than Based on a recent compilation of surveys 1980s and 1990s''", the coast of estuaries Its the middle or lower Texas coast. This tends to result seagrass growth reaches much more Inhospitable shore. seagrass receive higher loads of sediments and nutrients and shallowest Texas bay so that sufficient light an otherwise of bathy- higher precipitation and inflow the upper Texas coast ensure that of for middle in southwest along the to seagrasses thrive In the upper environmental influential enough removed from the plume of the Mississippi River and other influences of developed coastlines tor to In vegetated bottom of lower Laguna Madre. of 1V90s. However, most of seagrasses are confined beds species 6A.1 barrier Halodute wrightii have of Is filiforme occurs only south Lake Pontchartrain and White, Calcasieu and Sabine Aransas and Corpus w'itU a seagrass meadow. the of Farther from the outlet, uncommon. Syringodium the Laguna Madre. In lagoon, Thalassia testudinum of the is It quarter of the vegetated a bottom. The association of Thalassia testudinum Louisiana of km one location at Galveston Bay system of the next seen 200 natural gulf outlet The coast present is Mexico of of from the late Texas supports 951 km' seagrass meadow. Unlike Florida, seagrasses Texas do not occur seaward of the barrier islands in and 20 km' of submersed aquatic vegetation limited West Bay and to Christmas Bay, which along the open coast. Rather, they are confined to the Influences. more protected waters A.6 Islands, especially away from in of the bays behind the barrier the lagoonal segments extending mouths. Seagrasses are limited In 1956, but by 1987 only 4.5 km'' remained'""". Seagrasses were km' 1987. in In Is Its embayment, removed from riverine West Bay, seagrass beds declined from 1956 to 1.3 km' In Christmas Bay the In tributary furthest 1965 and were absent 5.0 km' of seagrasses in In In 1971-72 declined km' In attributed to shorefront development and lower water Galveston and Matagorda Bays, covering less than 1 quality associated with the urbanization of the area. river occurrence along the upper Texas coast to 16.6 to km' 1.1 percent of the bottom. Along the middle Texas coast, Including discharges of six including the San Antonio, two ChristI Aransas-Copano and Corpus Bay systems, cover by seagrasses increases by an order of magnitude (17^.8 km' and 12 percent of bay 1987. Losses are sewage treatment plants, which have been discharging since the early of 1960s. beds in In of the mam stem of Galveston Bay extensive Ruppia maritima present along the western bottom]. Along the lower Texas coast, encompassing shore upper and lower Laguna Madre and Baffin Bay, 1961 and have not recovered, whereas beds In 1956 were destroyed by Hurricane Carta In in Trinity seagrasses define the ecosystem, covering 751.9 km' Bay have changed and 50 percent subsidence resulting from excessive groundwater of bay bottom. In Laguna Madre proper, seagrasses carpet more than 70 percent Haiodule wrightii is of bay bottom. the dominant seagrass and Haiophiia engelmanni and Ruppia maritima are at least sporadically present coast. In all bay systems along the Texas Ruppia maritima can dominate some beds in the little. Reduced water withdrawal coupled with bulkheading shore of failure of Galveston Bay submersed vegetation of and the western responsible for the to re-establish. The some patches of Haiophiia engelmanni West Bay since 2000 may be an early indication that appearance in may be clarity of 227 228 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Halodule wrightii which covered Case Study 22.2 expense LAGUNA MADRE percent of lagoon bottom of then declined Laguna Madre accounts cover in percent the state of Texas, while making up only 20 embayment of the state's seagrass for 75 percent of Seagrasses area. to 41 because serious consequences almost the sole food source is it percent at present. The loss of may have Halodule wrightii 67 the earliest survey, and in for 400 000- 600000 wintering redhead ducks. are the foundation of the Laguna Ivladre ecosystem. As a result of the high-quality nursery habitat pro- vided by large expanses of continuous meadovi/. Laguna Madre supports more than 50 percent Texas inshore finfish catch. Madre lagoon, the Laguna area is of of the Rio across the delta Together with its Madres seagrass meadows over lies even more important for the redhead duck, As a of the Laguna Madre as a natural resource, whole system seagrass surveys have been conducted at approximately decade intervals since the mid-1960s. strongly dominate the Although seagrasses Laguna Madre ecosystem, they have been undergoing profound change. In Laguna Madre seagrasses covered almost the bottom 1965, but in tracts of the present day Shifts been even more of the 1965 and only 41 percent in by species from other survey but already is 1988 the in the south by in this farther advanced. Halophila a transient in this system, occupying a considerable area at the outer edge Madre, between 1967 Isee shown], cover of 118 to 2i9 km' and the in but not dominant at any other time. (not Syringodium south. By the 1998-99 survey much displacement was engelmanni the was being replaced Thatassia testudinum. in 1998-99, being replaced maximal coverage fiiiforme achieved meadow seagrass In 1 988 survey upper Laguna and 1988 figure, opposite! Halodule wrightii mcreased from was continuous from shore shore over the northern third to However, of the lagoon. by 1998-99 Halodule wrightii cover had decreased to 214 km^ reverting with a bare to central deep bottom and Syringodium fiiiforme taking over From area a in the large at the north patch of the mid-1960s to the present, for the lagoon as a whole, the area of bare bottom has increased by 10 percent. The area of Thalassia testudinum has increased from barely present dominating some 11 percent of lagoon Syringodium fiiiforme increased from percent, and then fell back to bottom. 7 to 17 to 15 percent, all at the lower failure probably due to maintenance of the light regime before, during, and up 15 grasses had been lost. Laguna Madre a notoriously is windy location and frequent episodes which in of unconsolidated, fine- is persed by currents account resuspended and dis- propagation of for the dredging effects over large areas and long periods of time. Since dredging frequency years, the light reduction The Gulf implicated Intracoastal Waterway the other big change in the order of two is in chronic™. is to in Halodule to species moving north overtime. Prior salinity! completion Waterway of the Gulf Intracoastal in was no permanent water connection there 1949, of more euhaline (adapted narrowly wrightii by marine also is seagrasses in lower Laguna Madre, the displacement between upper Laguna Madre and lower Laguna km Madre. A 30 prevented this. reach of seldom flooded sand Before 1949, salinities in flats excess of 60 psu, or about twice the salt content of the adjacent Gulf of Mexico, were not Madre, and Madre in uncommon lower Laguna in the southern extremity of upper salinities in excess of at the Laguna 100 psu were measured several times. The breaching of the sand flat barrier midpoint of the lagoon greatly enhanced exchange within the lagoon and between the lagoon and the Gulf now north end. of its months after maintenance dredging in 1988 documented significantly increased light attenuation to the end of the study in the region where seato Halodule wrightii far reaching, with dominant over 89 percent is textured dredge deposits species composition have in revegetate since, entire between 1965 and 197i large deep parts in dredging of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway Intensive sediment from the mounds configuration, have remained bare to in to lower deep bottom went bare and, with small adjustments seagrass cover of Laguna in the last 35 years. Laguna Madre between 1965 and 1974, and monitoring world population. result of the importance of The loss prominent a change seen of the radical sister Aythya amencana. providing wintering habitat for more than 75 percent most role in Mexico, the in The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway plays of the Tamaulipas, which Grande WATERWAYS PROMINENT ROLE of Mexico. Prevailing southeasterly winds drive lagoon water north across Bay and ultimately out Corpus Christi into the gulf, with inflow from the gulf at the south end replenishing the system. The net result within was the a moderation lagoon. 50 psu anywhere in Now, salinities hypersaline conditions seldom reach the lagoon. Halodule wrightii tolerate of salinities is the only species that can greater than 60 psu and is a The Gulf superior colonizer compared to Syringodium filiforme Thatassia testudlnum. or wrightii was probably Halodule Consequently, widespread before construction waterway, although there are only incidental of tine reports from a few locations for that period, and not surprising that according to the survey seagrass cover of first mid-1960s the in it is systematic it tide". The bloom varied was but intensity in Mexico of continually present from 1990 to 1997 and has flared up sporadically since. Light intensity was reduced Halodule at m 1 depth by half over large areas, and gradually died back wrigfitii in deep areas. Although and a suite of factors played a role in the initiation unprecedented persistence brown the of tide, dominated the lower Laguna Madre overwhelmingly nutrients regenerated from the gradual die-back of Gradual displacement from the south by Syringodium the seagrass filiforme, in turn its testudinum, is displaced later Thalassia by we know consistent with what relative salinity tolerances of the species, of the and their colonizing and competitive abilities under conditions of moderate salinity The euhaline species had been confined to the immediate vicinity of the natural gulf extreme south end outlet at the moderation of the until the salinity regime. Thereafter, of and competitive characteristics history lagoon life of the plants in sustaining reached meadow were almost the bloom, certainly involved steady state was between seagrass distribution and the brown tide-influenced aspect until of this is A regime. light perturbation disturbing that as yet there is little sign of recovery. Apparently because of the loss of seagrass cover, the bottom is much more prone no reserves to tide them over episodes of low light, establishment has not occurred'"'. set the time course of change'"'. THE UPPER LAGUNA MADRE Presumably, upper Laguna Madre has experienced the same system its trajectory of seagrass as lower Laguna Madre, yet shift change has been very Halodule wrightii increased rather than different. decreased through 1988 and Syringodium filiforme was Changes not evident until 1998-99. Laguna Madre seem to lag those in upper lower Laguna in Madre by 20 or 30 years. Almost certainly, the reason the lag is the extreme hypersalinity of the for of upper Laguna Madre before waterway Even Halodule wrightii 100 psu salinity and must have been southern section completion of the cannot tolerate absent from most Corpus close to of upper Laguna Madre, except Christi Bay The much greater distance to source populations probably accounts for expansion 1988 of Halodule wngfitii meadows through whereas was the upper Laguna Madre, in maximum already at a in it the lower Laguna Madre by 1965. Similarly, the possible sources of Syringodium filiforme for the colonization of upper Laguna Madre lower Laguna Madre or across Corpus are the near the closest gulf outlet Christi Bay, Not surprisingly, establishment Madre was long delayed compared Madre, where The it was present from last large historical the north. to upper Laguna in to lower Laguna the outset. change is the loss of vegetation from deep parts of upper Laguna Madre between 1988 and the present. Laguna Madre was renowned bloom was first earn to Through its 1990, crystal clear June 1990, a phytoplankton noted that was dense and long-lived water However, enough for Seagrass cover in tfie Laguna Madre of Texas in it its own name, the "Texas brown to sediment resuspension. Because new recruits have Notes: Halodule wnghtii [greeni, Tfialassia testudinum Iblackl, Synngodium filiforme Igreyl, bare/no seagrass Ivi/hitel. 229 230 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES management quality efforts are resulting in improved water the bay. in net Little change seagrass cover in along the middle Texas navigation channels, boating evident is The dredging coast'^". of and nutrient activities enrichment from non-point sources are the suspected causes of a loss of 3.3 km^ of Thalassia near Aransas Pass, while led to same general the in inundation area, subsidence has emergent previously of flats colonization of 8.7 l<m* by Halodute wrightii. Thus, absence bulkheading of the effect of in this Corpus part of Christi, is the the coast large that is here testudinum with associated species Other and Halophila salinity, down the deeper parts in green, include to 10 m. Thalassia the brown and red macroalgae, foraminifers, sponges, anemones, corals, polychaetes. mollusks, crustaceans, sea urchins, sea and identified 1977'"" and continuing largely unchanged to the present, the main it areas of shallow seagrass close to population centers found is stars was with bulkheading in Galveston A growing management concern along this part of meadow temperature and in decipiens the Bay. opposite of what changes and in subsidence on submersed vegetation engelmanni and Halophila decipiens. Halodule wrightii is found in the shallower areas where it tolerates show moderate to First fish""'. environmental problems in caused by this area are in local fisheries as well as by the great loads of sediment, and insecticides fertilizers, herbicides transported along the coastal rivers and seagrass beds, only that are to the coral reefs be resuspended during to winter storm seasons. waters The heavy propeller scarring'"'. Laguna of Tamiahua de are predominantly euhaline because the lagoon has only approximately the of estuarine 15 Laguna Madre include 12 Mexico has Gulf of systems. The 000 km'] the in largest state of Laguna de Tamiahua 1880 km') and Tamaulipas, Laguna de Alvarado 1118.3 km"! the state of Veracruz, in and Laguna de Terminos 11700 km] in the state of Campeche. The study of seagrasses and their distribution in Mexico dates from the 1950s. Mexico there are In freshwater inflow macroalgae while Halodule km' or 12 percent 106.2 crustaceans and 129 rivers, phila and Ruppia, of It is found from Tamaulipas Quintana Roo in the south as well as distribution. the north to in in various reef The seagrass location in semi-arid a area, communication with the sea and runoff from the San of mollusks. 32 of a great is volume of water oligo-mesohaline with below 18 psu throughout the greater part mantima covers lagoon area. This Alvarado where of it is 3.2 km' or of 3 percent the only species of seagrass forms dense beds along the inner the sand barrier. Associated macrofauna includes 49 species of mollusks, 26 of crustaceans and 106 of fish"". Fernando a result of Tabasco restricted Very As its minimum a river, this river lagoon is hypersaline, with marine conditions restricted to the areas of tidal influence near the margin has extensive beds Halodule wrightii and western is of inlets. The western macroalgae, while established along both the eastern margins of the lagoon macrofauna includes 76 species crustaceans and 105 of little known about seagrasses mollusks, 42 of km'. The scarcity species: of seagrasses along the coast is delivered by the Grijalva-Usumacinta river system and transported west along the coast. Yucatan Peninsula The Yucatan Peninsula of Halodule Veracruz wrightii, Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme, Halophila The is Quintana and 1 located includes the Mexico, approximately seagrass the state of the result of the large sediment load and high turbidity Gulf of fish'"'. of coral reefs in front of the port of five in have been recorded for the coastal lagoons with a cover of 8.1 Yucatan Veracruz The system is Tabasco. Only Halodule wrightii and Ruppia maritima and covers 357.4 km' or 18 percent of the lagoon area. Associated I lagoon area. Associated and Halophila engelmanni. Laguna Madre has four inlets that change position over time. boasts established of fish"". which carries of the yean Ruppia margin species reported for this coast include Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme. Halodule its one salinities in Tamaulipas of the Consequently, the lagoon of the systems'™'. is By contrast Laguna de Alvarado has two sea one of which is a narrow channel, and four seagrasses: Thalassia. Syringodium. Halodule, Halo- which Thalassia has the widest wrightii macrofauna includes 67 species the genera five and south ends and several very small to along the eastern margin of the lagoon and covers inlets, of limited is creeks. The western margin has extensive beds of of southwestern Gulf wrightii inlets at the north two small sea MEXICO The southwestern coast 800 km Roo, in the southeastern states and Campeche, encompasses of of coastline, including islands. karstic nature of the peninsula is responsible for non-point groundwater discharges through springs directly into coastal lagoons, the broad continental Regional map: The Caribbean XIII XIV Regional map: South America 70° • -^ 40° 55° * CARIBBEAN SEA N ^ .®^•• w ATLANTIC OCEAN 5° 5° T^ :- " ^t ^ m ~N^- '^ . r f 10° 10° • •* ^ 4 • '"J a 1 ,_^-'^-V~< ..'*'''' 25° 25° "oI PACIFIC OCEAN ® n i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K, i i 40° 40° 4\ W R ATLANTIC OCEAN 55° JUU 85° 55° p JSai \ 70° 300 55° 40° 600 900 1200 25° 1500 km The Gulf images and testudinum and Syringodium filiforme have also been observations during 2000-01, there are 5911 km' sighted around the reefs of Alacranes and Cayo Areas, Based on shelf and the open sea. field of seagrasses"" and the the coastal lagoons, the coastal sea in coral satellite lagoons reef Chinchorro of Thalassia testudinum especially Seagrasses along the coasts include the six species present in the peninsula of the southwestern Gulf of Mexico. The most widespread species are Syringodium filiforme and Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wnghtii, with this hypersaline last species also found small areas while Ruppia mantima brackish lagoons coastal found is of in Halophiia Lagartos, Yucatan. Ria engelmanni and Halophila decipiens are found shallow Campeche. and Alacranes. the Mexico of in the in Terminos, Celestun, Chelem, Dzilam, Ria Lagartos, Nichupte, and Ascension Beds Chetumal'"'. Thalassia of dominant is in open waters, maximum the coral reef lagoons. The in total biomass and shoot density recorded are 2000 g/m' and 1 222 shoots/m' """. Halodule wrightii widely distributed species in mixed and monospecific stands, l<1 the is the peninsula. is It most found ml, around freshwater springs and at salinities maximum between 20 and 57 psu. The and shoot density recorded are 700 total biomass and g/m'^ H872 shoots/m""**'". Syringodium filiforme has been obser- ved mainly in open waters mixed with l-lalodule wrightii and Thalassia testudinum. dominating regions where in maximum currents are observed. The strong total Case Study 22.3 part as nursery, feeding and protection areas for the LAGUNADE TERMINOS larvae and juveniles of commercially important species, such as the shrimp Litopenaeus setiferus, Laguna de Terminos lagoon in the is best studied coastal the Mexican Gulf of Mexico. It located at is Farfantepenaeus aztecus and duorarum, and the the transition area between a western terrigenous analis, region and an eastern calcareous region and and characterized marked north-south by a is also salinity fish Farfantepenaeus Caranx hippos, Lutjanus Bagre marinus, Centropomus undecimalis Archosargus rhomboidalis, through the lagoon during their gradient, established by the tides that enter through stitute offshore fisheries of great among which and the freshwater provided by three The seagrasses rivers"". testudinum, Thalassia eastern northern, the and southeastern margins where salinity relatively clear, creating an ideal environment for filiforme is is polyeuhaline species'"'. Syringodium this tropical, where high and the water is restricted salinity is high the to northeastern region and the sediment is biogenic, sandy and calcareous. This species favors calcar- eous substrates and found is forming dense seagrass beds along the eastern Caribbean coast Mexico, l-lalodule wrightii ern and western margins is of found along the north- of the lagoon, the first with high salinity, clear water and sandy substrates, and the second with low salinity, turbid water and substrates, river system drains shows is it adaptable muddy where the great Grijalva-Usumacinta a into the lagoon. Its distribution tropical euryhaline, species that pioneering and tolerates a variety of environmental characteristics. Ruppia mantima has also been observed southwest of the low-salinity areas of the lagoon, all establishing 214 of of fish'"', Laguna de Terminos as the most species rich (4481 of Mexico's four large lagoons along the Gulf of Mexico, supporting almost twice as many species as the other lagoons (181 species Laguna de Alvarado, 228 species Tamiahua and 223 species in Laguna de in Laguna Madrel. The in environmental heterogeneity and complexity of Laguna de Terminos arise from the presence and distribution of the four seagrass species, macro- marked salinity algae, mangrove gradient, all of number of species, and forests and the which favor the recruitment stenohaline and some marine euryhaline estuarine species. These establish communities with different subdividing lagoon the of a great trophic structures'"' according to their preferences for different habitat types'"'. No long-term been recorded for data on seagrass coverage have Laguna de Terminos. However, the extent of the seagrass beds, as well as shoot density, along the inner margin of the barrier island were markedly reduced when Hurricane Roxanne of the lagoon. In this those in value, particularly is Associated macrofauna include 174 species mollusks. 60 of crustaceans and Thalassia testudinum covers extensive areas along economic shrimp fishery noteworthy Syringodium filiforme and Halodule wrightii cover 496.4 km' or 29 percent of the lagoon area the migrate that cycles and con- life two sea inlets seagrass beds, but mainly Thalassia testudinum, play an important in shallow waters in passed over the lagoon twice in October Recovery occurred within three years. 1996. 231 232 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 000 g/m' and hydrological restoration took place and the seagrass biomass and shoot density recorded are 1 7U0 and Halophila community recovered'"". small patches mixed hurricanes have shoots/m^''"'. Halophila decipiens engetmanni can be observed in with other seagrasses and macroalgae Quintana Yucatan and in sandy shallow (<1-5ml mainly on Roo, bottoms. Ruppia maritima has been observed growing in mixed stands with Halodute wnghtii psul waters, and in 15-18 psul waters with a biomass of The seagrasses 1 Quintana Roo, 000 g/m\ major concern for the seagrasses to 2001 In is In this Is in a in lagoon of Celestun, show from a loss of 95 again spp.l, with eutrophication Following the decline has proved construction port of the north of Yucatan the hydrology of in of their similar pattern of recovery for Thalassia testudinum was In Canciin""'. CONCLUSION The Gulf Mexico of Chelem Lagoon changed and the seagrass community was negatively impacted. Four years later the is a globally important area. Extensive beds cover about tip of Yucatan Peninsula appear some infrastructure Yucatan, lost 93 percent A condition'"'. observed their permanent. the coastal in area. Within three years, they had recovered to their macroalgae [Cauierpa all Hurricane during 1988, Halodule wnghtii beds Gilbert percent of seagrass cover and a replacement by green the main cause'"'. However not For example, recovery capacity. and the southern region. limited. Observations Progreso, Yucatan, seagrass on Campeche, by suggesting that water quality Historical analysis 1985 In such as events effects communities. However, these have shown an important initial have been and eutrophlcation by tourism all mesohallne and port development trawling, tourism, eutrophlcation Yucatan, and polyhallne |18 in peninsula the of affected by trawling and eutrophlcatlon in in monospecific stands Natural significant of seagrass 19000 km^ from Cuba Florida through Texas to the Mexico. In many places Impacts be low and seagrass beds healthy; however, to recent perturbations are disturbing because of magnitude and our inadequate understanding of Most worrisome are the persistent and causation. recurring algal blooms, high turbidity and changes in meadows of species composition afflicting seagrass Florida Bay on the east side and Laguna Madre on the west side of the Gulf of Mexico. AUTHORS - Christopfier P. Onuf, Campus Box Center, US Geological Survey, National Wetlands Research 339, 6300 Ocean Dnve, Corpus Tel: +1 361 985 6266. Fax: +1 361 Ronald C. Phillips, Christi, Texas, USA. 985 6268. E-mail: chns.onufrausgs.gov 3100 South Kinney Road #77, Tucson, Arizona 85713, USA. -'. *jM^^» Cynthia A. Moncreiff, Gulf Coast Research Lab, RO. Box 7000, 703 East Beach Ocean Spnngs, Drive, Mississippi, USA. ^..m Andrea Raz-Guzman, Institulo de investigaciones sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Avenida San Juanito Ray on low-density Syringodium lililorme. Mexican Caribbean. REFERENCES 1 Institute de Oceanologia, Habana, Cuba. Personal 2 3 Buesa RJ [19751. Population biomass and metabolic rates on the northwestern Cuban Sargent Crewz DW, Kruer CR 119951 Scarring Leary TJ, shelf. Technical Report TR-1. Florida Management Aquatic Manne Research FMRI Fourqurean JW, Robblee MB [1999]. Florida Bay; Ant. Progreso in seagrass distribution and abundance [1999]. in Decadal Florida Bay 22: 445-459. [2000]. Recent trends in In: D, Ries TF. Patterson SK. Finck R seagrass distributions Bortone SA led] in southwfest Flonda Seagrasses: Mon/tonng. and Management. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. pp 157-166. RC institute. St Lewis RR A meadows of Tampa Bay: A review. 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Journal of Coastal Research 1 in thesis. University of Barcelona. Fore PL, Peterson in A N, Zaldivar Seagrass: Monitoring Ecology, led] the Galveston Bay system: Chronology and relationships to physical 7: Gomez ME, Merino M, Duarte N, Gallegos Anales del 42 submerged vegetation J, Marba matter through 6"C for TX.pp 14-29. (1991]. Declineof Marine Ecology laguna de Celestun, Mexico. Patrones de variacion espacial y variability. evidence. Marine Geology iJ: Texas. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Resource Protection WA filiforme. W:99-m. temporaL Doctoral pathways WJr, White [19941. Herrera-Silveira JA [19931. Ecologia de los productores primarios en 195-243. Division, Austin, CM Seagrass bed recovery after hydrological restoration Yucatan. Otvos EG (1981). Barrier Island formation through nearshore In: N, Duarte pioneer Caribbean seagrasses coastal lagoon with groundwater discharges National Quality. Office of Geology, Bulletin Introduction. Marba A, of Herrera-Silveira JA, Ramirez-Ramirez growth W Jr (19991. a tropical coastal in LPP, p 50. 38 Jackson County, Mississippi: field variation Progreso: Hidrologia y clorofila-a. Informe Tecnico CINVESTAV- and shoreline erosion. Mississippi aggradation: Stratigraphic and relation to tourist in Herrera-Silveira JA, Troccoli, GL, Aranda CN, Alvarez GC, Trejo J (2000]. [1994]. Belle Fontaine, Tahey T (1996]. Biomass and Gallegos ME, Merino M, Rodriguez pp 123-135. SM Biomass and (2000]. Evaluacion de la calidad ambiental de la zona costera de MS, Grand Bay SW, of the Gulf Islands [1993]. Herrera-Silveira JA [1994]. Phytoplankton productivity and inventory, interaction studies and continuing assessment/inventory, Oivanki K, system a shallow tropical lagoon Progress Series in LA-MS, Cat Pitre, [1996]. CM the Mexican Caribbean: in Halodule wrightii and Syringodium au the Yucatan in grass Thalassia testudinum [Banks and Konig) of the turtle Growth patterns and demography No. 130. 25 las cercanias lagoon with groundwater discharge. Vie Milieu 44: 257-266. Dog Keys Pass, MS, Horn Island West, Meadows seagrasses J [1996]. Distribution of Physiology and Management. in Research Federation, fanerogamas marinas en submerged macrophyte biomass three seagrass species Petit Bois Island, Department of Environmental 24 (20011. Estuarine Mexico coastal lagoons. p 114. Seashore, Years One, Two, and Three: Seasonal assessment and Pulich of Gallegos ME, Merino M, Marba N, Duarte in 58-63. : of Heck KL, Sullivan MJ, Zande JM, Moncreiff CA August 1996. Final Report 22 Corona A development. Caribbean Journal of Science 32: 357-364. (edl Sound since Hurricane Camille. Journal of Geological Survey (19921. Draft maps: Pulich L, Mexican Gulf in [1971]. Estudios sobre growth Biology. State of Mississippi, Gulf Coast Mississippi Analysis of Seagrass 21 Inc, NY. 185-192. Research Center, Lafayette. LA, 20 A 34 Van Tussenbroek MS-AL, Kreole, MS-AL. Scale 1:24 000. National Wetlands 19 Seagrass ledsl Elucidating rhizome growth. Marine Ecology Progress Series 95: Animals, and of the Interior, National Biological The distribution MS, Horn Island East, MS, 18 Lot dynamics Mississippi Sound. Bulletin of Marine Science 29: 459-464. Island, Reguero M, Huidobro A, Espinoza the Nation on the to of U.S. Plants. Sound and adjacent waters. the Mississippi Sullivan US Raz-Guzman 32 Doran PD, Mac MJ Eleuterius LN, Miller GJ [1976]. Observations on seagrasses and seaweeds 17 C Marcel Dekker UNAMl,2:]-l,B. Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, MS. pp 191-197. 16 seagrass Helfferich Peninsula, Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science 59: 449-454. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and Study Mississippi, 15 McRoy CP, Scientific Perspeclive. http://www.dumac.org.mx Service, Washington, DC. pp 273-275. 14 A In: 31 FL. pp 279-293. ET, Farris GS, Puckett CE, Living Resources: Distribution, Tampa Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Ptiysioiogy and Handley LR [1995]. Seagrass distributions In: in estuarine management. Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Mexico. Mexico. Conference Abstracts, Bay, Florida: Seagrass restoration [2000]. A resource-based approach Bortone SA 13 in de Veracruz, Ver Anales del Instituto de Biologia Sena Botanica Johansson JOR, Greening H Bay: [1977]. General status of research on 16th Biennial Conference of the Estuarine Tampa ED 85(7.181. 12 A community composition Estevez of Lot and recovery CI from seven to Conservation Biologyi: 306-313. tide. Pacific pp 233-245. water in Hillsborough Bay, Florida. The Ecology after salinity reduction. Estuaries 16: Seagrass responses [2000]. ecosystems Tampa, FL. pp 1199-1215. 2. CP Ecosystems. Recent improvennenis [1991]. leds] Proceedings, Symposium Information Lewis RR 28 estuary. successful integrated coastal and biological indicators Onuf years of brown Pollution Bulletin 37: 468-473. Johansson JOR, Lewis RR Treat SF, Clark Tampa Bay the of ML, Onuf CP [1993]. Laguna Madre: Seagrass 303-311. 3. 27 of Quammen changes continue decades ledsi Clark PA, Fehring WK, Greening HS, Johansson RO, 111, USA, as an example Florida, 1 26 Bay: Historic PA PL. pp 139-150, Lewis RR quality Tampa Scientific Information Paul RT (1998]. The rehabilitation 10 in Treat 5F, Clark In: Mexico of estuarine brachyuran crabs in of tropical the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Crustacean Biology M: 609-620. 233 234 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES The seagrasses 23 of THE CARIBBEAN Creed J.C. R.C. Phillips Van Tussenbroek B.I. Caribbean The sub-regions'": region includes the following Caribbean (Mexico. western Guatemala and Honduras), southern Belize. resources. Substantial research to American the Colombia], Lesser Antilles order in Seagrasses are found throughout the Caribbean. in the reef lagoons between the beaches and They grow or form reefs meadows extensive more (Venezuela, and the islands Aruba, Curacao, Bonaire. coral Trinidad and Tobago. Barbados, Grenada, St Vincent protected bays and estuaries. Seven seagrass species and the Grenadines, St Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, are recognized. Turtle grass, Thalassia testudmum, Barbuda, Montserrat, St Guadeloupe, Antigua and Kitts and Nevis, St Martin (Sint Maarten), St Eustarius, Saba, AnguiUa, the British Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, and the US Virgin Islands! and the Greater Antilles (Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Jamaica, the Cayman Islands and Cubal. In the wider Caribbean the most abundant seagrass known south of in 50 cm to A°S and from 88°W to of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. 52°W, and are influenced by the Gulf They stretch from the Tropic Cancer of (only the north- 12 m In a of Latin review of seagrass ecosystems and resources 1992, Phillips'" stated that "the in leaves which form canopies up to A5 cm upper subtittoral down Shoal to wrightii, supple, grass-like leaves varying and 5 mm and in of America has increased. The seagrass communities some of the islands of the and Lesser Antilles, of Bahamas, and the Greater have also been quite well studied, but both quantitative and qualitative information on the status of seagrasses large up number the of region economic exploitation is highly variable, reflecting the countries and territories which and their individual approaches and to research, protection of make political as coastal well and as marine usually in to 5 wrightii, found width between 2 in mud from found growing on sand and down is has small, It length between i and 10 cm, but found throughout the Caribbean and, seagrasses narrow It more than 20 m. Halodute grass, Central and South the high. grows intermixed with Thalassia testudinum, but can grow in monospecific areas, beds or patches from the sometimes reaching more than 50 cm of has a similar fiiiforme, geographical distribution, with cylindrical, most basic research is needed in almost every place". During the subsequent decade, the number of published reports and surveys on the biology and ecology 10 to m. This seagrass throughout the wider Caribbean region. equator America 1 depth, but has also been reported below 20 m. ern Bahamian islands and Florida are subtropical) to just north of the mm wide and from meadows on shallow sand or mud from the lower intertidal to a maximum 10- Manatee grass, Syringodium under consideration stretch from about 26°N is not creating extensive east coast of Florida. mainlands and islands is mats below the sediment forms dense rhizome substrates the the region, but long, but can reach up to we also consider the Guyanas (Guyana, Suriname and French Guianal. the Bahamas and the of in Venezuela. Plants are erect, leaves generally varying from 5 to 15 context, here The coastlines M needed seagrasses. Caribbean (Nicaragua. Costa Rica and Panama, and South is still provide a comprehensive assessment of Caribbean length. m. Ruppia mantima, widgeon grass, has small grass-like leaves. It It is the intertidal like is is also Haiodule a shallow- the brackish waters of bays and water species found in estuaries between and 2.5 m deep. The three sea vine species belonging to the genus Haiophila - Hatophita baiUonii, Haiophila engelmanni and Haiophila decipiens - are small and delicate. Their leaves are paddle shaped, are less "grass-like" than the other species and lack a basal sheath. Haiophila decipiens found in deep water (to 30 ml, while is Haiophila W The Caribbean coexists with Synngodium filiforme, Hatodule wnghtii and calcareous rhizophytic green algae belonging to 200 400 600 Kilomelefs Indiun River Lif^ooii Schasiiaii Inlvl amongst which Halimeda spp. most conspicuous members, and play an the order Caulerpales, ^ Puerto Morelos IhxanoBaS'^. Reel National Park ATLANTIC Uxuma Cays ^', • are the OCEAN BAHAMAS important role carbonate in sand production of sediments. Calcium production Halimeda spp. of us AND UK VIRGIN ISLANDS PUERTO ."VAmbergn^Cay "' ^ „ Jamaica ., Soulh WalCT Cay Jr~ HAITI ^^ "l * Calabash Cay '"t- i i CIRISBEANSEA unCrviD.rS • Pointe Sable National Park ParquG J' same order such as Caulerpa spp. and Avrainvillea spp. are also found in these beds. Drifting or free-floating masses of algae calcified rhizophytic algae of the •' ' Natural ^ ^r Hypnea ' Euchema sp., may be abundant sp., sp.l Thaiassia (estud/num-dominated communities environments are usually preceded on the beach side by a small fringe of Halodule wnghtii. In deeper PanjuoNacfonsf ./.. Mochmha Mo/TOCOy -i , ) "">' Lake Mamcaiho reef in Galeta Pcwnt 80' 23.1 The Caribbean waters, other filiforme and Halophila decipiens replace Thaiassia seagrasses such Synngodium as testudinum. more protected areas, such as estuarine In engelmanni found only down to 5 is Bahamas, m and restricted is and the Florida, the Greater Antilles western Caribbean. Hatophila the Lesser and Acanthophora sp. locally. " to the Lobophora Laurencia spp., le.g. Cum Tayrona Curlujiciia Bay^ Buhiu 1ms Minus Map in seagrass beds can exceed 2 kg/m*7year'-'. Other non- RICO bailtonii is only found in Antilles'^'. environments, or zones influenced by mangroves, and depending on prevailing salinity, nutrient conditions, and sediment conditions, seagrass vegetation light consists of virtually monospecific beds or alternating monospecific patches of Thaiassia testudinum and Halodule wnghtii with rhizophytic Caulerpa spp. and ECOSYSTEM DESCRIPTION The coastlines of the ecosystems: three mangroves, with interactions Caribbean are characterized by loosely attached green algae, seagrasses, the coral reefs numerous linkages and existing and trophic between these ecosystems'"". Seagrasses are considered open systems, exporting leaves and other components of primary production m the form of organic material to other habitats. At Galeta to be Panama, Caribbean Point, 0.01-km' seagrass bed has been estimated 37-294 kg/month 3-171 Thaiassia testudinum leaves, and of 3-74 and a export to kg/month, order Dasycladales many formed these areas. waters in of which belong Batophora when Acetabularia spp.l. Drifting mats, typically of (e.g. occurring, are filamentous red and green algae Ruppia maritima found is to sp., in in brackish bays and estuaries, sometimes with Halodule wnghtii. Halodule wrightii forms monospecific stands lagoons with high salinity fluctuations. Halophila in grow spp. finer in sands and sediments, forming monospecific or mixed species beds with the above- associated macroalgae Laurencia and Acanthophora mentioned seagrasses. Halophila spp. require less light than the other seagrass species, and can be found spp. Seagrass and its associated algal material can even end up as offshore foodfalls, which have been conditions. shown to respectively, the in very deep waters or be a significant pathway by which energy enters the deep sea'". Seagrasses, sediments of in extensive their by stabilizing systems roots and of in very shallow areas with turbid Seagrasses are colonized by calcareous and filamentous epiphytes. In classic models of Caribbean seagrass succession, rooted vegetation starts with rhizomes, prevent abrasion and burial by sediments of rhizophytic algae followed by Halodule wrightii land the adjacent corals during storms. sometimes Syringodium Migratory movements of various animals such as fish, spiny lobsters, prawns and sea urchins enhance the links between the seagrasses, reefs sidered be filiforme] pioneer species, which are con- with a Thaiassia fesfud/nivm-dominated vegetation as climax" '". and to An enormous diversity of fauna is associated with mangroves. These migratory movements can occur on the Caribbean seagrasses. Groups that contribute most a daily basis le.g. foraging in the to the seagrass beds during the day and sheltering from predation during the nightl or seasonally, when in the reefs juvenile stages of species migrate from mangroves or seagrasses to the reefs when reaching Thaiassia seagrass vegetation in richness of seagrass systems fish, in the Caribbean echinoderms, decapods, gastropods, mollusks and sponges. Foraminifera, polychaetes, oligochaetes, nematodes, coelenterates, amphipods, isopods, hydrozoans and bryozoans are important mesofaunal adulthood'"". testudinum are typically the reef lagoons dominates where it often groups. demersal The fish Caribbean seagrasses have distinct assemblages. Fish assemblages in the 235 236 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES seagrasses vary depending on their affinity witfi mangrove and coral reef communities. At Martinique. French West Indies, 65 species were collected families In belonging of fishes 28 to Thaiassia testudinum beds. in Belize barrier reef lagoons, the fish dominated numerically and community is biomass by grunts, in US respectively, antillarum some fishes, grunts and goatfishes seagrass in of Two Panama meadows potentially important regulators mesofaunal top-down Thaiassia testudinum beds are the in isopod Limnoria simulata, which bores into the tissue of Thaiassia testudinum"', fishes. snail in seagrass beds is the in calcareous sediments. feed predominantly on decapod crustaceans and other Macroinvertebrate diversity in seagrasses are used as a of Foraminiforans play a large role production the lagoon. In Leaves substratum by invertebrates such as hydroids and sponges. in Diadema testudinum. Thaiassia of 1.^ (St Croix, weight/individual/day, dry g another important herbivorous urchin is places. juveniles of species that occur as adults on the reef, or and the Virgin Islands, juvenile snappers, scorpion Islands] Virgin apogonids and tetraodontitorms. Most fishes are either are small species that reside Smaragdia which viridens, live and the small green grazes on the in sea- chloroplast-containing epidermis. Macroalgae 27 macroinvertebrate grass beds can provide food and shelter for associated species are associated with the seagrass beds at fauna. The inconspicuous epiphytes are a major food Mochimba source high; for example, Bay'". in Venezuela, 1 Throughout the Caribbean, sea urchins such as Lytechinus vanegatus and Tripneustes major herbivores ventricosus are also of seagrass to members mesofauna. The seagrass- of the associated alga Batophora sp. Florida's FLORIDA'S EAST COAST rather than pure stands: Synngodium filiforme, Mosquito Lagoon east Florida's of (29''N1 the in Biscayne Bay 125°N) south of coast, north lower to Miami, occur in shallow lagoonal coastal river systems typical seagrasses IThe area. covered in Chapter seagrass habitat Florida, much of it Florida the of this Keys are east in in seagrass decline of in- Thaiassia testudinum the south, reaching Shoal grass. Halodule seagrass in the mam some an early colonizer, and grows In the Indian dredge spoil islands River, Ito 2 ml, climax in the mid- most abundant both shallow and in Synngodium is filiforme is and food habitat known for the manatee and the second-most commonly occurring species in the Indian River Lagoon, although Mosquito Lagoon, a sub-estuary increase during the years 199i-98'"'. a more abundant is wrightii, is the as "manatee grass" and Biscayne Bay is part of the Indian River Lagoon, River and. since 1950, a 43 percent loss from the of growth habit Indian River Lagoon; beds often persist for decades. mid-depths However, Indian River seagrasses showed are also found its northern limit its clude a loss of about 30 percent from the Indian northern and urbanized section l-lalophila species, slow growing, long lived and requiring high light levels. developments. Estimates first six Thaiassia testudinum other areas. of km long and encompassing population centers and many canal-side and manna-onented housing beds testudinum, Halodule wnghtii, throughout the Caribbean. Similar to of the Indian River Lagoon. 250 mixed in Thaiassia and Halophila johnsonii. The Approximately 2800 km' in usually coast, decipiens, Halophila engelmanni, Ruppia maritima found along the east coast 22.1 is the of from source of a preferred is food for the queen conch, and Laurencia spp. are the Case Study 23.1 The seagrasses Lagoon. Ruppia maritima is in of the Indian River more common than Elsewhere vegetated with mangroves and Australian pines dot Synngodium the intercoastal waterway; bridges and supported Ruppia maritima highways cross the and fresh environments. The Halophila species river to provide access coastal beaches. The east coast of Florida to hurricanes. Manatee eating seagrass; live months, manatees cluster outlets of electric other large in the many manatee scarred by boat propellers. plants, in In the is to the subject Indian are River, killed or filiforme. is |27°51'N| and Virginia Key seagrass are found along both salt in fragile Halophila johnsonii, a seagrass found only along the between Sebastian of Florida l25''/i5'N), primarily Inlet in the Indian River Halophila johnsonii of in and Halophila engelmanni, and the rare and southeast coast deep boat basins and the Indian River, Florida include the cosmopolitan Halophila decipiens the cooler winter at the in common and grows warm water facilities. Seven species M consuming 0.155 (Jamaica) and blades, species status in 1998 was by the given threatened National Marine The Caribbean principal settling substrate for the recruitment of the countries. spiny lobster contribute most of the total value of exported seafood, Seagrass been have beds productive fishery areas the in recognized Caribbean""'. as Soft- bottom demersal fisheries exploit scianelds, mullets, estimated squid and octopods over seagrass beds. Other Eucheuma and make Lesser Antilles and seamoss US$10. A million at fishing alone is and queen conch 1995. Spiny lobster in worth over US$23 million per year The Caribbean natural hazard: is exposed types of three to hurricanes, volcanic eruptions and may resources are free-living macroalgae earthquakes. Hurricane Hydropuntla. which are collected and used to seagrass vegetation because seamoss drinks sediment deposition on the seagrass beds. porridge the In The queen conch and the spiny Belize. in major fisheries resources. The queen lobster are conch Strombus gigas testudinum beds and overfishing. associated with is now Is seriously threatened by The spiny lobster Panutirus argus very important resource fished and on the nearby decreased due aim fisheries Thalassia Though reefs. protect Act. has It its abundance has resource this Fisheries Service under the Species one in investigate it the is in various Federal Endangered most limited the of geographical distributions of any seagrass world, although also a present restrictions to overfishing, to is the seagrass beds in the in currently under genetic study to that possibility It may be an introduced species'^''. Beds of Haiophila johnsonii are highly activity of was the most violent of Guadeloupe and Puerto than a months. few Beds are than on Rico"". Thalassia been found, and alone'"'. it is highly productive seagrass in in areas limit boats with engines in order propeller scarring of the grass beds. efforts aimed at sports fishers and attempting to decrease large changes some seagrasses, in grasses, though the human development impacts from other l-latophila species increasing percent in four years at some and more than 500 locations. Grouper, snapper, sea trout and flounder use seagrass habitat as nursery on the Florida east coast. Bay scallops, shrimp and blue crabs also depend on seagrasses. Controls on dredge and activities set standards for turbidity, protect life manatee habitat and to fill water color and other physical parameters. There are guidelines to preserve indigenous forms, including seagrasses, on State of Florida submerged seagrasses lands. in Removal state parks is or destruction forbidden, and of some Halodule wrig/if/'/ to decrease Educational boaters are sea- land-based are probably of greater concern the distribution of Halophiita johnsonii with of destroyed human impacts on the Indian documented eroded otherwise continuous seagrass meadows. Such The St Johns River Water Management The monitoring program has more by the formation of large sediment "blow-outs", holes speculated that the plants 1994. a Hugo meadows were of since River had square kilometers of maintained by vegetative growth has been monitoring seagrass District It testudinum. nearshore areas, and tens Haiophiia jotinsonii nor seeds or seedlings have populations are 1989 impact on Syringodium filiforme beds destructive often discontinuous and patchy. Neither male flowers In the century to pass over about two weeks and beds often persisting no longer loss of in Hurricane Hugo, with squalls exceeding 160 knots, growing, with individual plants reaching mature size in result sediment erosion or and the plants are quick transient in Nicaragua. snappers, groupers, grunts, sharks, penaeld shrimp, loliginid Belize, spiny lobster In with a male flower, Florida 237 238 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES needed. data Distribution are required assess the real or potential threats Determining the distribution losses. seagrasses is order to in seagrass and to Caribbean of mapping a problem because of coastal marine resources using remote-sensing techniques has only recently been refined to be able to differentiate seagrass communities, and most countries the in Caribbean have neither the infrastructure nor the funding to execute projects of this nature. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES There are few historical reports on permanent losses of beds seagrass Carriacou A "blow-out" Grenadine Tobago seagrass beds once found many years btow-outs can migrate and expand, taking to recover'". However, many in visible effects at all" whicfi was '" cases, eittier tiurricanes tiad no or recovery Mexican Caribbean reef lagoon passage reported in 1988 after in atmospheric the in earthquake area"^'. pressure 1991 resulted of Costa In a 0.5 in tlie the uplift of a lagoon Thalassia testudinum completely overgrew and a mbl ever Limon 1888 Rica, m it, although the following year there was an equivalent reduction Perez and Galindo"" seagrass area'". in reported mass Parque Nacional defoliation of Thalassia testudinum Morrocoy, hyposalinity after torrential rains, but recovery die that overall, resistant or resilient to the grazing past, Diego Martin by the green turtles and manatees must have had an enormous impact on the common names seagrass beds. The "manatee grass" are seagrasses in mydas and testament a "turtle grass" to the the diet of the green turtle Chelonia West Indian manatee the Tnchechus manatus. The manatee and the green overfishing and, eggs in for food. turtle because threatened throughout the Caribbean of and importance of are of the case of the turtle, the collection Although both animals have received to We was fast did not and River! due meristems conditions, Caribbean seagrass beds In the considerable conservation status, they are and shortly after the event formed leaves again. These reports indicate Tobago have disappeared. in Venezuela, Iseverat months! as the apical-shoot mouth of Scotland Bay, in (near the in lost Trinidad and In Island], Five Islands, Cocorite Speyside relatively fast, Hurricane Gilbert, a class 5 hurricane with of lowest the was Thalassia testudinum case for ttie Grand Fond Bay (Monos chain Island seagrasses between 1969 and 1994. the Turks and Caicos Islands. in Barbados and Caribbean. the in the in still hunted. can only speculate about their past impact on the seagrass communities and how these communities have changed populations since of these large herbivores have diminished or disappeared. under natural seem be to fairly major natural disturbances. PRESENT THREATS The vast expanses of the seagrass beds in the Caribbean, together with their relatively high resistance PRESENT DISTRIBUTION or resilience to major natural disturbances, The only data available on area coverage are from specific studies been mapped at a in seagrasses false sense which seagrasses have they are of very local scale. The following estimates are compiled from various sources: Mexico 500 km'; Belize 1 500 km^ Guatemala (one site! 20 km'; of security and lead immune to human The population growth (Parque Nacional Cahuital 0.2 km'; Venezuela (Cariaco years has been estimated 500 km"'; 0.64 km'; Martinique 41.4 km'; Parguera, Guayanilla (Discovery Bayl 0.5 km'; 1 Bayl populations and rapidly of the Caribbean over the last 20 to be 58 percent"''', which has Guadeloupe 82.2 km'; and their seagrasses. Additionally, an estimated km'; 27.68 Puerto Rico (La km'; Jamaica Cuba ICayo Coco, Sabana- out but area estimates not published; further in Socio- includes high led to increasing pressure on the adjacent coastlines 2 km'; Camaguey Archipelago! 75 km'; Grand Cayman 25 km'. More extensive mapping may have been carried and distribution studies impacts. region give a Tobago Curacao 8 km'; Bonaire Antigua ISeatons Harbourl may perception that expanding agricultural and tourist-industrial frontiers. Nicaragua (Great Corn Island) 2.4 km'; Costa Rica Gulfl human economically. the Caribbean proportions of urban to the mapping the Caribbean are badly 12 million tourists per year The number visit the Caribbean region. who visited the Belize Barrier 1994 was 128000, generating an of tourists Reef Complex in estimated US$75 million. On local scales, seagrasses are being destroyed or removed by the construction of coastal develop- ments associated with tourism or other coastal The Caribbean Tourist activities. developments are accompanied by construction the dredging and harbors and of moorings. recreational channel docl<s. Venezuela, In houses were constructed over seagrass beds"". At La Parguera, Puerto Rico, increased ships and traffic of recreational vessels are causes of anchor damage, trampling, propeller scarring, fuel impacts, littering, detrimental shading of the seagrasses by marinas and piers, beds and damage in of example in have been removed fishing make way for salt production were beds lost used human The detrimental activities!. effects diffuse river loads are exacerbated by erosion of spp.l St Lucia. In in In St illegal to dynamite Lucia, Damage of sand mining from beaches in the smaller islands. Sand suspends sediments and alters local hydrodynamics. The seagrasses at Ambergris Cay, Belize, have been damaged by dredging Isand and Belize has suffered deposition], because sand of seagrass! land moderate impact ecosystems results of in seagrass on eutrophlcation changes in composition and or species community structure higher productivity of seagrass leaves. As nutrient epiphytes on more abundant, resulting density, leaf area a decline in in loads masses become Increase, epiphytes or drifting algal seagrass shoot and biomass. Rapidly increasing development throughout the widespread, particularly erosion aquifers that are contaminated by to the the for mining coastal point distinct rivers!, multiple point sources Isuch as submarine springs connected and between 1965 and 198A has destroyed seagrass areas. extraction and example, Ifor agricultural activities. Throughout the Caribbean, the to seagrasses through Is runoff sources (effluents from sewage treatment plants) or watersheds caused by deforestation, urbanization and production. salt type of to in Guatemala 95 km' were shrimp and characterized according is Mexico. At other sites, seagrasses seamoss [Gracilana cultivation of surface of seagrass mariculture; Eutrophlcation beaches are often removed, Pointe Sable National Park on St Lucia, in fertilizers!, effluent discharge, being diffused through freshwater land-based for Isewage and agricultural hydrocarbons, pesticides and other toxic wastes"". the beds by dredging. Seagrass front of hotel Venezuela and eutrophlcation Caribbean will result ments; such loading damaging to Barbuda and an ever-increasing load in wastewater nutrients has already been particularly seagrasses in Jamaica. Curacao, at Antigua and at southern Oil is drilled In the region of the Caribbean with Venezuela and Trinidad removal. Pollution from land-based sources varies from country to country. The greatest threats are from and Tobago being the principal producing countries"". 1986, In 8 million of liters crude spilled oil onto Case Study 23.2 PARQUE NATURAL TAYRONA, BAHJA DE CHENGUE, COLOMBIA The small bay (3.3 km^j Bahia de Chengue of situated on the Caribbean coast of Colombia Parque Natural The Tayrona'". bay is the in contains 1 831 g dry weight/m^ with green leaves representing less than 10 percent of that weight. Productivity has been estimated as 1.71-5.36 g dry welght/mVday sedimentary beaches, rocky shores, small lagoons Twenty-six shrimp species and small within the Thalassia testudinum beds. seagrass Mangroves, rivers. beds consisting testudinum occur in coral mainly reefs and The importance Thalassia of the bay. Four other seagrass to Costeras IINVEMAR! and because Marinas relatively well preserved. in the bay Synngodium filiforme can form Corals Millepora. of Diapona, Manicina, Siderastrea. Pontes and Cladocora grow within the Thalassia testudinum beds. Sea urchins bay, is considered Parque Natural Tayrona because habitats. For reported for example 372 this fishing is Only one family no road, so tourists are and small-scale salt it mining is on lives rare. in the and fishermen sometimes use dynamite to nets and beach seines are extended across the seagrass beds. Bahia de Chengue is a CARICOMP site and is thus regularly monitored. Such programs usually within the beds. Biological diversity is fish. Gill and seaweeds, such as l-ialimeda opuntia, are common y the bay and there There the genera identified of the site lies in its proximity Halophila baillonii and Halophila decipiens] are also monospecific patches. have been Santa Marta and the Instituto de Investigaciones species [Synngodium fiUforme. Halodule wrightii, found of marine environ- coastal into area. fish to of the be high at range of species have been Thalassia testudinum biomass has been estimated as between 631 and attract future studies to the regions initiated. the This seagrass site region, although it is is where they are representative of relatively protected from human impacts and receives special attention from scientists. 239 240 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Case Study 23.3 intermixed with Thalassia testudinum (between ca PUERTO MORELOS REEF NATIONAL PARK values [>500 g dry weight/m^l 20 and 250 g dry weight/m'l, but can attain high patches or Park National Reef Morelos Puerto Nacional Arrecifes Puerto Morelosl 2rOO00' and 20%8'33"N. and 86°/i6'39"Wand has an area 90 knn^ of ca extends along the northern It part ot an extensive barrier-fringing reef complex Yucatan Strait Itvlexico), from Belize that runs to the the second largest barrier-fringing reef complex the world. In this in park, three seagrass species and been have species macroalgal IbU reported, together with 669 species of marine invertebrate and vertebrate fauna"*'. The dominant ecosystems are coral and beds seagrass reefs, inland the mangroves which are separated from the marine m environment by sand berms 2-3 The IParque situated at is During high. small monospecific Caribbean coast (vlexican Peninsula has undergone last in fringes'"'. four decades. is It of the destinations for resort tourism within the Caribbean. Amongst the major attractions are the crystal-clear the seas, February in tiny a fishing of and rooms'^*'. 2 500 hotel village drainage or m 1.3 rivers. of surface between Rainfall varies and 1.1 per year, and the water passes through an Several to is environment and fissures. principally is oligotrophic: low mean in pM| 113.9 Salinity varies little the pM), nitrite 10.06 pMl and phosphate (0.^6 concentrations were recorded during 1982 and nitrate 1983. throughout the year, generally between 35.8 and 36.2 psu. Surface fluctuating water temperature varies seasonally, from ca 26°C in in summer vegetation in pressure of noticeable. is relatively pristine, human development The village of Puerto is the increasing starting to be Morelos any treatment, sources into holes in the ground. of nutrients Reefs in the coastal seas thrive under low natural waters are so increase in clear], nutrient input into these areas cause drastic changes in the near future. (occasionally Halodule wrightn] and rhizophytic and Halodule wrightii forms very narrow fringing zones attained annual mean in total biomass values coastal fringe area and 81 in a constituted ot Puerto Morelos reef lagoon of 573 g dry weight/m' a back-reef station, 774 g dry weight/m' mid-lagoon 1 g dry weight/m' station: leaf between A.8 and 8.6 percent in a in a lush biomass of total Synngodium filiforme usually small when growing biomass'"'. Total biomass of or Halodule wrightii H-/ is the may the coastal ecosystems the lagoon largely consists of Thatassia Thalassia testudinum why which implies that any (extreme near the beach. During 1990-91, These land nutrient concentrations (also the reason calcareous algae growing on coarse carbonate sand. bed not yet flow through to the reef lagoon kilometers away. testudinum, accompanied by Synngodium filiforwe in is can enter the water table and minimum of 12.5°CI to 31°C maximum 3i.5°Cl. The the winter (extreme the Although the Puerto Morelos Reef National Park lagoon are discharged into septic tanks or directly, without del agua] loyos caves governed by marine conditions. The water lagoon disposal and residences. vent into marine coastal areas through underground of lagoon the rubbish significant the region: equipped with a central sewer system, and wastes submarine springs Thus, farming, in and immense network channels intensive rapidly a to approximately 3000 residents growing community hotels, absence of the region have been substantial. Puerto Morelos has changed from mangrove wetlands exports brackish tannin-colored into the lagoon. The Yucatan limestone is into the aquifer, resulting in the effects throughout potential sources of nutrients occur extremely karstic. and rainwater rapidly infiltrates reef presidential The 1998. pressure population increased the Puerto Morelos received of National Park through the status of declaration and beaches white-sand ecosystems. The reefs periods of exceptionally heavy rains, overflow of waters Yucatan immense growth over the now one of the premier Thalassia testudinum sfioot with a female flow/er in The Caribbean seagrasses Bahia Las Minas, Panama"". Thalassia at testudinum suffered initially damage and blade browning but eventually recovered, except cm wide stioreward margin where off. Syringodium sensitive, still filiforme, which proved had lower biomass two after the event. The density reduced by a factor 20-90 tor a seagrass died ttie be more to to three years seagrass infauna was of of three at oiled sites. Additionally, from bauxite mining has been reported effluent damage seagrass beds in to Jamaica, Surmame, Guyana, the Dominican Republic and Haiti"". Often different synergistically severe seagrass For example, loss. wrasses and triggerfish Virgin Islands human impact factors of act and together they are responsible off for overfishing of the coast of Haiti and the US caused an explosion in sea urchins which then destroyed the seagrass beds by overgrazing. In Jamaica, urban and industrial pollution, dredging of canals, bauxite landfilling, urban channelization, mining, spills, oil urban runoff, sewage, construction of river bulkheads and docks, artificial beach nourishment, thermal effluents and cement Sand dunes adjacent degrade seagrass ecosystems"". Other seagrass beds near industrial areas are also highly beds. tailings all impacted, such (Venezuela), those as the Lake at Mamonal" "El Maracaibo (Cartagena Bay, Colombia], the west coast Havana and Bay in Cuba"". complex industrial The of Trinidad replanting of seagrasses has successfully mitigated a fraction of these impacts. As seagrasses extensive subtidal there is actively form structures in concern about the effects of and sea-level rise flat and global on seagrasses. Models warming of global Halodule wnghtiiand Thalassia testudinum specific environmental legislation. Most countries are formulating or have formulated marine system plans. Systems from country to Of the 31 fully management marine protected areas vary country, but most include seagrasses. of managed marine protected areas of the Caribbean, 2A (7^ percent! include seagrasses"". maintain the Caribbean, to Ronda. USA. CARICOMP network The (Caribbean Marine Productivity network! was set up coral mangroves and seagrasses'". reefs, vation units coastal environments of the Caribbean, including rising niques to measure the target ecosystems. sea was established increasing water temperature and more and operation maintain vertical rates of habitat accretion pace with 1992. middle the dominant predicted rises this century, in and sea level until a rise in seriously affect the at least the sea level is of not expected to predominant species unless a general deterioration of the habitat occurs'"'. the Caribbean, two major intergovernmental efforts protect the environment can be singled out: the Nations Environment Meso American the of United Programme (CEP-UNEPI and Barrier Reef Project the (Sistemas Arrecifales Mesoamericanos) which forms part of the Corredor include Mesoamericano Biologico countries of the Caribbean network was The stated aims of (CBMl. Both which have initiated at the CARICOMP influences on discriminate in 1990 end of are "to determine coastal productivity, to human disturbance from long-term in distribution". coastal systems over the range of To these coordinated through a Data In Caribbean Environment Programme of the monitor for ecosystem change, and ultimately to their to this CARICOMP 1985, the associated network in natural variation POLICY, REGULATION, PROTECTION In work together, using standardized tech- frequent hurricanes. Seagrasses should be able to in Coastal monitor network, associated marine laboratories and conser- climate change predict considerable changes for the level, to ends, CARICOMP Management Centre is at the University of the West Indies in Jamaica. Seagrass parameters such as biomass, areal productivity and turnover, shoot density, leaf width and length, and leaf area indices are measured twice yearly. involves 27 institutions seagrasses are being, or in 17 CARICOMP countries where will be, monitored'". ACKNOWLEDGMENTS recognized the desirability of managing marine coastal We areas; seagrasses are included, but not singled out for Phanor Montoya-Maya, Eduardo would lil<e to acknowledge ttie help and information provided by Klein, Daisy Perez and Ricardo Bitter- 241 2A2 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Soto. The author was supported by fellowships from first CNPq and UERJ IProciencial during the preparation of this chapter The third author is CEP 20559-900, Xavier 524, Rio de Janeiro RJ, Brazil. Tel: +55 10121 2587 7328. Fax: +55 10121 2587 7655. E-mail: jcreedOopenlink. com.br grateful to Tracy Blanchon for critically reviewing the manuscript, Ron 3100 So. Kinney Road #77, Tucson C, Phillips, , Arizona 85713, USA. AUTHORS Bngitta de Ecologia, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade de Ciencias del PHLC do Estado do Rio de Janeiro - UERJ, Sala 220, Rua Sao Francisco REFERENCES Phillips 1 [19921. The seagrass ecosystem and resources in Seeliger U led! Coastal Plant Communities of Latin In: MS DS, Littler Littler UNESCO Seagrass Beds and Mangroves: UNESCO Coastal Zones of the Caribbean. JN Kilar JA, Norris and import [19881. Composition, export, of drift 19 vegetation on a tropical, plant-dominated, frmging-reef platform [Caribbean, Panama!. Coral Reels 5 Freile D, Hillis L [19971. incrassata T. 20 Panama. Proceedings of 8th International Coral Reel Symposium 1:767-772. 6 DG Patriquin [1975], "fvligration" of Barbados and Carnacou, West blowouts Indies, and geological implications. Aquatic Botany CARICOMP ]-. in its seagrass beds 21 UNEP in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of South America. development. Ecological Monographs 60: W9-469 transects. 9 Van Tussenbroek BrearleyA [1998]. Isopod burrowing Bl, of turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum, lagoon. Marine 10 MG Sturm in a t^exican and Freshwater Research de L [1991]. The living '>'): resources Rodriguez RW, impact of Webb RMT, Bush DM [1994]. 10: Journal of Science Van Tussenbroek 4: A Perez D, In: in Environment LM [1999]. Monitoring Indian River Lagoon, Florida using fixed Bortone SA [edi Seaprasses: Monitoring, Ecology, CRC LJ, Hanisak MD Press, Boca Raton, pp 167-176. P, Virnstein [1999]. Reciprocal transplanting of the the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, of Bortone SA In: [ed] in Seagrasses: and Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 197-210. 278-296. 25 INE [Instituto Nacional de Ecologia, Comunidad de Puerto Morelos, Quintana Pool [2000]. Programa de manejo del Parque Nacional Arrecife de Puerto Morelos. Instituto Nacional de Ecologia, Mexico, The impact of DR Hurricane Gilbert on the in Puerto Morelos 26 222 pp. Van Tussenbroek production retrospective study. Botanica Marina 37: of Bl [19981. Above- and below-ground biomass and Thalassia testudinum in a tropical reef lagoon Aguatic Botany i>\:b'l-S2. Galindo L [2000], Effects of hyposalmity in Thalassia 27 Gallegos ME, Merino M, Rodriguez A, Marba N, Duarte testudinum [Hydrocharitaceael from Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Growth patterns and demography of Venezuela, Revista Biologia TropicaUS. [Supplement] 243-249, Halodule wrightii ani Syringodium 15 UNEP[1997]. Glol)a/enwro(imen(Ou(/oo/(. Oxford University Progress Ser/es 109: 99-104. 16 Vera B [1992]. Seagrasses of the Venezuelan coast: Distribution and Press, A Global Representative Vol. 4. threatened seagrass Hatophila/ohnson/; [Johnson's seagrass] 421-428, 14 Future Technical Report No. 22. Morris LJ, Virnstein RW, Miller JD, Hall RW, Morris 335-345. vegetative development of Thalassia testudinum reef lagoon, Mexico- to Mexico, Bahamas, and the Northeast Coast Heidelbaugh WS, Hall LM, Kenworthy WJ, Whitfield La Parguera, Puerto Rico Caribbean Bl [1994]. CEP 24 at the Glynn PW, Almodovar LP, Gonzalez JG 11964). Effects of hurricane life in of a variety Jamaica. Marine Pollution in Waycott, M. Personal communication. 18-W. Hurricane Hugo on the shelf and coastal resources Edith on marine 13 2: Management 23 Caribbean Sea Another look Puerto Rico, USA. Journal of Coastal Research 12 Caribbean reef Panama Synthesis the Marine and Coastal Regions of the Physiology and Management. leaves 525-531. of the and adjacent regions. Caribbean Marine Studies 11 in Minerals Bookers F [19851. Effects Marine Protected Areas. seagrass changes 22 3. seagrass Department, The World Bank, Washington. Caribbean Coral Reel. Seagrass and Region and Small Island Papers B, Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S [1995] Williams SL [1990]. Experimental studies of Caribbean seagrass Sites. Coastal in Long-term Ecosystem and Socioeconomic Response Climatic Conditions 8 - [edsl 355-360. [1993]. of the 1986 Bahia 93-0048. Jupp A, Miller B, 16: JBC of the Interior impacts on seagrass restoration UNESCO Mangrove New York. community components. Communities In: Seeliger U led] Coastal Plant of Latin America. California, pp 135-140. tt OCS Study MMS Thorhaug of the Oil Spill at Bahia Las Minas, of 7 (19981. of Technical Report on plants and animals Keller BD, Jackson Service System 163-189. In: US Department of at ecological and CEP Mafias D [1993]. Effects V, oil spill Report. 6u«e(/n land proximal lagoon, Pici Feo, San Bias, in a Marshall MJ, Batista of 93-103. Carbonate productivity by Halimeda Land-based Sources of the Wider Caribbean Region. in Assessment Tfieir Reports Science 23. in l»larine 4 in tfie Overview [1994]. Regional communities. [1983]. Coral Reefs, Interaction UNEP Cancun, 77500, Quintana Roo, Mexico. 52, 1 1 Las Minas, Panama, Graphics, Washington. 3 Apdo. Postal Instituto Autonoma de Limnologia, Universidad Nacional l^lar y No. 33. 18 Caribbean Reef Plants. Offshore 120001. I. Pollution Latin America. Academic Press, San Diego, California pp 107-121. 2 (Mexico, 17 RC America. ll Van Tussenbroek, Unidad Acdemica Puerto Morelos, Joel C. Creed, Laboratorio de Ecologia Marinha Bentica. Departamento Academic Press, San Diego, CM [1994]. pioneer Caribbean seagrasses fililorme. Marine Ecology South America: Brazil, Argentina and Chile 243 Ik The seagrasses of SOUTH AMERICA: BRAZIL, ARGENTINA AND CHILE J.C. region considered includes the The geographical and islands of the following countries: coastlines Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Chile, Ecuador These coastlines stretch from about 5°N 57°S and from 82°W to 3/.°W; to thus they are influenced also expect to find, are restricted to the Caribbean and are not found 1992 ecosystems and resources most basic research During needed is subsequent the America that "the of Latin in almost every place". decade, number the of published reports of surveys, biology and ecology of the seagrasses of Brazil, Halodule wrightii Halophila which baillonii, Caribbean, has been reported twice northeast of Brazil. comment, much important or, it must be information remains as is often the case, no not present. The continental shelf narrow as 15 km, and extensive have reefs Consequently, along ECOSYSTEM DESCRIPTION protected ecosystems. wrightii some taxonomic debate, least at six seagrass species have been reported for the region; nearly are restricted to the Atlantic coast. seagrasses are common but rarely form very meadows. Remarkably, the couple the small of coast Pacific known populations these are remnants Chilean populations'". of it Heterozostera of in northern Chile at species this Intriguingly, only from Australia; only seagrasses South America are of tasmanica (now Zostera tasmanica] Coquimbo'^'. all the southwest In is otherwise has been suggested that formerly widely distributed No seagrasses are known for of the the in in the Brazilian Shoalgrass [Halodule [Hatophita decipiens] in restricted to sometimes as developed not most is and other reasons for this of the estuaries, in coast have wrightii] a and sea vines tropical-subtropical the southwest Atlantic, stretching from Brazil. Halodule bays and other the continental platform widens, such as the Abrolhos region of Brazil, the formation of in extensive allows reefs seagrasses, which thrive establishment the in of these protected areas. Here, beds of Halodule wrightii [2-7 m) and Halophila decipiens 15-22 ml decipiens reaches Atlantic right it Ocean in become more common. Halophila in the its southernmost limit Guanabara Bay at Rio de Janeiro, under the famous Sugarloaf Mountain. Because can occupy deeper waters, Halophila decipiens be of greater importance ecological previously been thought, but than distribution its not very well known. As these may has is still species reach the southeast of Brazil they form smaller and Peru or Ecuador distribution is Where Although South Americas seagrasses are the subject a Large extents the in 1888 and lin 1980s, though not sincel at Itamaraca Island, information has been collected. known on distribution. also found widely is seagrasses have not yet been found or because they are unavailable as gray literature extensive the seagrass that is most frequently occurs and has the widest some progress has been fact that with respect to Phillips's Atlantic, at Itamaraca Island. coastline have no recorded seagrasses, either because recognized that of able to South America has increased somewhat. However, despite the made is form large monospecific beds, such as those found In seagrass a review of in the southwest Atlantic. Consequently, in the northeast of Brazil Halodule wrightii in by both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Phillips'" stated in Creed more isolated populations. Halodule emarginata Brazil, is a species endemic to and forms small populations from northeast to no agreement as to the Caribbean to the Brazilian states of Parana and Rio southeast Brazil. However, there de Janeiro, respectively. Surprisingly, Syringodium whether Halodule emarginata should be maintained and Thatassia testudinum, which one might as a distinct species from Halodule wrightii. Leaf-tip filiforme is \ ft n 24A WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES characteristics are used to distinguish! which rarety flower or Ruppia maritima down Brazil Magellan where seagrass of forms it in the world, at Such records Straits'^'. the the reflect species' wide latitudinal distribution and tolerance to variable environmental conditions, as growing in salinities from Lagoon southern of in to and lagoons coastal it can be found estuaries with 39 psu. At the Patos Estuarine Brazil, a large labout 120 km') area Ruppia maritima dominates the benthos and local Phillips'" what was reported as of leaf Zostera has been found commented unlikely that it seagrasses in of studies dealing with South America can be exemplified by the Brazilian experience, although has the most studies Brazil study of the pioneering After a available. From 1980 studies were carried out until the 1980s. until an present, the companion biota Halodute wrightii by Kempf"', few associated with species average additional been have year a 22 of reported associated with the Brazilian seagrasses and the trend suggests that demonstrating this rate will continue"^', that seagrass habitats are attracting research effort primary productivity. An unattached was it so far away as Chile. The dearth found sporadically from is southernmost populations the Heterozostera tasmanica but that came from Argentina, to species, ttie fruit. Montevideo, at that the leaf tip Uruguay. resembled that of (Figure However only one 2^,1|. papers relating seagrasses to research or two of the one of are region published each year. Case Study 24.1 ITAMARACA ISLAND, NORTHEAST BRAZIL The regional importance seagrasses (7°45S. 3i°50'WI time" has been recognized Hatodule wrightii on the eastern side flats reefs. Locally, Halodute means which IS 1 .2 km wide (1 1 In 1967, km seaward .2 .4 Itamaraca at collections and in in Brazil, is mapped the coverage areal reduction drop halfbeaks. reef systems. The fauna taxonomically diverse: over 100 macrofaunal and 46 epiphyte floral taxa have been Itamaraca'". identified Amongst in or the on of common and in a prawn and in practices, recommended Local researchers have landfill, tourism are responsible. that environ- mental education programs be implemented manage needs research basic to help the ecosystem. have been the realization of a survey of the distribution of the seagrass flora meadows and their associated and fauna; the identification of impacting anthropogenic l-lalodute at agents; beds at the development of research programs which l-latodule Itamaraca are clams, shrimp, lobsters, stone and blue crabs, and in Itamaraca. at highlighted at Itamaraca Island: mangrove, estuarine and is landuse bad and an increase preserve and There are ecological interactions between the local Halodute has been suggested that coastal It Three seagrasses and the most the the area of Halodute has resulted in pollution ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS of fisheries production, especially of in only the 1980s, and has not been found since'". is the state of Pernambuco. and Furthermore, the local fishermen report that a bailtonii, 1888 in area. Local inhabitants have reported regression development, in Itamaraca the seagrasses contribute as a nursery and foraging area known from of productive fisheries total the Santa Cruz Channel made in aguthia Hatodute in a km'l, although the greater but unknown'". Hatoptiila found of the island in known as capim is needlegrass. stretched approximately portion some for protected from the open sea by shallow-water The area populations of the At Itamaraca there are large expanses of "'. ' of Itamaraca Island, Pernambuco State at ballyhoo halfbeaks, all identify the regional ecological importance of seagrasses'". which are fished recreationally and commercially. The region's seagrass beds are feeding grounds for The Itamaraca area stands out because: a co-occurrence of seagrass species; the West Indian manatee. About 12 metric tons a there year of Halodute wrightii are collected for fodder for Halodute captive-reared manatees at the Centre de Pesquisas Caribbean seagrass succession, here do Peixe-boi Marinho (National Manatee Research climax dominant; Centre! run Ambiente which is e by the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio- Recursos Naturais Renovaveis IBAMA. located on the island. the is wrigtitii. seagrass importance and to human a known pioneer beds may be activities. are of in is the the commercial suffering die-back due , South America: Brazil, Argentina and Chile •W-w 500 • m ruX rX Jxmando ECUADOR' dc Noronha I •• •• 'o H 300 '^ 200 • llamaiaca Island- • Abrolhos Bank and ^,.^ j Marine National Parfc^ Cumulativ ^• ^ C3 • • 4 iiuiinuhiiru Buv 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 Rio de Janeiro sao Paulo • URUGUAY Year reported Figure 2i.1 Cumulative number of companion species to the Brazilian P- seagrasses reported since I960""' TLANTIC OCEAN A Kir- BIOGEOGRAPHY Magellan South American seagrasses are often found near to, 400 coastal ecosystems and habitats, and this juxtaposition in heightened which studies associated diversity. For example, recent compared have Halodule with and Halophila is richness and the density, total diversity of the infauna Map enhanced by the presence of seagrasses from the Caribbean marshes Trichechus manatus'". Both have benefited from sponsored privately and by specific conservation action environmental agency IBAMA (green Brazilian TAMAR and manatees by the Projeto Peixe-Boi Marinho). The black-necked swan Cygnus melancoryphus and the red-gartered coot flats. Halodule without salt are the green and the West Indian manatee turtles by the Projeto where they are replaced by to Brazil turtle Chelonia mydas^'"' Abrolhos, Brazil, and mangroves to Santa Catarina mud 2000 KilomelefS 2i.1 the and 1600 South America seagrasses. Coral reefs extend from the Caribbean to State, Brazil, 1200 macrofauna the wrightii decipiens beds with nearby areas devoid of vegetation have shown that 800 other marine and closely tropfiically linked with, results Straits or is associated with much freshwater input, shallow habitats such as reefs, algal beds, coastal lagoons, rocky shores, sand beaches and unvegetated soft-bottom areas and nearby mangroves Fucila armillata also feed directly on Ruppia maritima in southern Brazil endangered'". Argentina and Recently, but are not the semi-aquatic capybara Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris, which is world's the associated with deeper reefs, algal and marl beds, and was observed feeding on Ruppia maritima near Rio de Janeiro. Amongst the fauna deeper soft-bottom vegetated areas. Ruppia maritima which use seagrasses as without too can be found fishpond, much in salinity Halophila fluctuation. is low-salinity (coastal lagoon, estuary, mangrove, salt marsh and soft-bottom unvegetated! and high-salinity (coastal lagoon, salt largest in as souvenirs While South America are known important habitat for a wide variety of to be plants and a habitat are two corals, Meandrina brasiliensis and Siderastrea stellata. They grow unattached in Halodule wrightii beds and are sold pond, soft-bottom unvegetated] habitats. Seagrass beds rodent, locally. the seagrasses of South America contribute to coastal protection and local productivity, and thus fisheries, there hardly any information is genus or species level) of organisms associated with the Brazilian seagrasses have been compiled by Creed'*'. The groups that available about the value of seagrasses to the local contributed most to species diversity are polychaetes, whitemouth croaker [Micropogonias animals. About 5^0 taxa fish, (to amphipods. decapods, foraminifera, gastropod and bivalve mollusks, macroalgae and diatoms. Two threatened species which feed directly on economy. Economically important the bluewing mullet (Mug/7 platanus] Brazilian seagrass fish species [Prionotus searobin are beds. found Local such as punctatus], furnieri] and and fished fisheries in exploit commercially important crustaceans such as blue 245 246 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES ebraea], rockshells [Ostrea puelchana] haemastoma], oysters [Thais and [Trachycardium cockles muricatum]'^'. In Chile, the Chilean scallop [Argopecten purpuratus] preferentially settles Zostera tasmanica in beds'". HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES As no detailed seagrass mapping work has been carried out South America, there in is little information about changes factual and abundance. tribution tasmanica beds much populations of thought that the Zostera is It Chile in are mapping Halodule Itamaraca Island, V"* measure of loss • « • was as the area over the last ^0 years partially Halodule wrightii beds mapped these beds at some be estimated, to before, in the 1960s. seagrass loss is of and were revisited ten years Seagrass was no longer found Losses are not due sites. Pernambuco de Janeiro. These were at Rio listed by Oliveira e( a(."' of wrightii should allow This Brazil. For now, the only quantified later'"". remnant historically larger meadows'". Researchers from the Universidade Federal Rural are currently anecdotal or seagrass dis- in at 16 percent of use direct to of seagrasses, as the only known use of Halodule wrightii Siderastrea stellata, a coral that occurs habitats and is common in m a wide range of shallow is to feed captive-reared manatees. seagrass beds. PRESENT DISTRIBUTION Estimating the real area of seagrass cover America in South present almost impossible because of at is the dearth of studies. The data available allow little only an educated "best guess". Brazil probably has 1 t about seagrasses, of Chile pointed out, Phillips'" Mexico ~4^^l ^^^^^^ ! ^ ^il^^^H __*3^H * h /. : .: crabs /-, ,; ;poradically from Brazil seagrasses found from all iaevicauda] Penaeus to Argentina problems concerning them should be In fact, some general Latin 481 to grow, from 179 million to between 1950 and 1995"". The concen- tration of population growth marginal agricultural lands ible for pressures exerted by urban areas and human population on the South America, pressure concentrated the coastal cities. The continent has in urban several population in and shrimp [Penaeus brasiUensis and the world I; Buenos associated with seagrass beds. in the main factor respons- In {Menippe all is environment"''. Panulirus paulensis], relatively similar. observations of threats to marine America continues million stone crab lobster of management coastal ecosystems are pertinent. The population of [Panuiirus argus and [Caltinectes sapidus], nodifronsl, down km^ and southern Brazil are species characteristic to the western tropical Atlantic Ocean, so I 2 km^ 1 PRESENT THREATS As \ km' 200 Argentina about large centers: this Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2000 27.9 million (second largest Aires, Argentina, 1 is city in l.i million (12th|; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 10.2 million I16thl"-". By 2020, Other shellfish which are commercially collected from over 80 percent seagrass beds are clams [Anomatocardia brasiUana. expected Tagelus piebeius, Tivela mactroides], volutes [Votuta put of the to live in incredible population of South America is urban areas"". Such concentrations stresses on the coastal marine South America: Brazil, Argentina and Chile Human environment. tfiree environment activity affects the in major ways: landuse and [andcover change, the metalworking from extraction and depletion of natural resources, and the nutrients production of wastes. discharge have It is necessary seagrasses to them. This seagrasses of at least to l<now the distribution of order in is assess potential or real threats to problem when considering the a South America. Direct reports of impacts on seagrasses on the continent are few. However, from sporadic mining and pollution by heavy metals biphenyl by polychlorinated activities, congeners and organochlorine compounds, and by damage agricultural all sewage and runoff been reported. Effects of physical by anchors and trampling on seagrass and associated macroalgae have also been identified. Loss of water area, because of sediments produced after erosion due to deforestation, and dredging occupied infilling for construction has also reduced the area activities, South Americas seagrasses. by Ruppia Case Study 24.2 ABROLHOS BANK, BAHIA STATE, NORTHEAST BRAZIL The Abrolhos Bank is formed by a widening of the surgeonfish (seagrass stomach contents: Kyphosus Acanthurus chirurgus 8 percent; continental shelf at the extreme south of the state of spp. 12 percent: Bahia |18°S, 38°Wl. The area consists Sparisoma and Scarus 0.5-5 percent""! and green line of reef banks, a small archipelago embryonic fringing with The banks"". of five islands and outer reef reefs, Marine Abrolhos an inner of Park National turtles [Chelonia mydas which has been observed taking 32 bites of Haloduie wnghtii per minute in situ] heavily graze the seagrass and 56 associated commercial protects the archipelago, surrounding waters and an seaweed species. Predatory inshore reef system. Peculiar to the area are reef importance hunt over the seagrass beds and juvenile columns yellowtailed from chapeiroes which typically extend called depth a about 20 of m Nearshore areas are subjected because surface the to higher turbidity to of local river inputs but offshore areas are research interest Despite the considerable national the in park, until recently"^' seagrasses were overlooked and not reported. In Haloduie wnghtii and especially Halophila fact, decipiens are common more believed. Haloduie wrightii is than found snapper and angelfish 900 tourist boat ecotourist visits in 0.5 percent per year least 22 may Despite is an important being protected of anchor damage, in community structure which can take more than year to recover after a single impact"*'. Buoys were a previously installed recently shallow sandy problem, but is because which despite its should alleviate desirability has been carried out to the no trans- mitigate the m. The suspicion that be very abundant on the Abrolhos Bank was confirmed assessment protocol the the losses suffered so far at in showing reduced seagrass density and a change plantation to per year and destination"^'. areas interspersed with coastal reefs and around the Halophila decipiens live seagrass. The Abrolhos Archipelago receives about Abrolhos Archipelago, while Halophila decipiens found down of within the national park, the seagrass beds have lost characterized by less turbid waters. invested fish in recent rapid a of biodiversity carried out in the region"". Of the i5 reef edge/soft-bottom sites selected, Halophila was present Although no area quantification total at 18 [AO percent!. was made, these sites were distributed over a study area of about 6000 km', so the potential importance of Halophila decipiens in terms Very of little in the region, especially primary productivity, could be enormous. is known about Halophila decipiens the biology or ecology of in Brazil. The Abrolhos Bank has important reef-based and open-sea trophic reefs fisheries. interactions across vertebrates, In Abrolhos, there are between seagrass beds and distinct grazing halos. Large such as sea chub, parrotlish and Redonda Island, Abrolhos Archipelago, Brazil. fi 247 248 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES maritima has suffered from reduced fresfiwater inputs because of nee irrigation, population growth and lock criteria, AO 100 percent of Chilean and Argentine, and percent of seagrasses Brazilian "highly are threatened". Thirty-six percent of Brazil's seagrasses construction. Acknowledging that there are human- intrinsic related pressures on the coastal zone, and that these have been quantified for the South American continent, known threat potential onto the the superimposition of known seagrass measure distribution can provide a of the threat to South American seagrasses. Using these are "moderately threatened" and 24 percent are in "low threat" areas. POLICY, REGULATION, PROTECTION Seagrasses are not in Brazil, specifically protected by legislation Chile or Argentina but are covered by resource Case Study 24.3 RUPPIA MARITIMA IN THE PATOS LAGOON SYSTEM the Patos Lagoon, beds. Eleven percent of the water area has been lost Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul |32°S, since the 1700s and this includes substantial areas The Ruppia maritima meadows near the city of in 52°Wl have received more research attention than any other seagrass system in South America, The mean Patos Lagoon consists of shallow bays with annual water depths of maritima meadows occupy an area of the system. estuary Ruppia 20-70 cm. The of about 120 km' Considerable scientific knowledge has been accumulated about these seagrass beds during the last 25 years, and has summarized""'. been recently extensive beds in forms Ruppia these shallow marginal bays with both annual and perennial populations, depending on local environmental factors, interspecific shading and epiphyte fouling"". with other attenuation seagrass to relatively When compared worldwide, habitats light the waters of the Patos Lagoon in relatively high, (algall and consequently Ruppia is is restricted shallow water'". This imposes seasonal influences on primary productivity; primary productivity of annual net Ruppia maritima has been estimated as 39.6-43.2 g carbon/mVyear'", with sandy shorelines, unvegetated tidal flats and salt marsh The Ruppia meadows The large areas habitats. of interface Ruppia meadows serve as complex habitats for a local fishery by providing substrate, refuge, Associated drift nursery and feeding grounds. algae can also be locally abundant alternative habitats. Pink shrimp lea 2800 metric tons landed annually in lea HOD tons), important the region! and the blue crab found foraging local Whitemouth croaker lea in the seagrass, are resources. fishery artisanal 7500 tons! and mullet lea 2300 tons! also use the Ruppia beds as nursery or grounds. The stout razorclam foraging ptebius] IS |7age/us another commercially important species. Predators such as the bottlenose dolphin are common 131-100 system) the Patos Lagoon and feed principally on in individuals whitemouthed croaker which is the within found in lagoon the Ruppia of Ruppia meadow; many anthropogenically areas were Areas of filled by seagrasses. inhabited previously preservation, conservation and develop- ment have been proposed beds would be proposal. partially for the region, Ruppia protected under such a However, "management efforts of the Patos Lagoon estuary are hampered by technical and legal problems"'". The Ruppia beds continue to be studied as part of the Brazilian Long Term Ecological Research Ruppia maritima weedgrass. is Program IPELDI. called lixo-capim which Locally means South America: Brazil, Argentina and Chile management and conservation legislation. Brazil has comprehensive environmental legislation. The Federal Constitution of 1988 dedicates a chapter exclusively to government has amongst the environment. The federal other items the responsibility to "preserve and restore and processes essential ecological ecological management promote the species and ecosystems of ... preserve the diversity and integrity of genetic resources ... The coastal zone protect the flora and fauna". is recognized as a national resource by this constitution. In 1998, Congress approved the Environmental Law. It Crimes regulates crimes against the natural environ- ment. Although algal beds, coral reefs and moUusk beds are specifically mentioned, seagrasses are on the creation not. complex management system based Brazil has a conservation units of and municipal government levels. conservation units are recognized at federal, state Approximately 290 in the coastal zone, which represent about 21 million hectares that have specific legislation. Of these, seagrasses are found in both (Marine National Parks lAbrolhos and Fernando de Noronhal as well as numerous ecological stations, state parks, biological reserves and environmental protected areas. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would acknowledge the help and information provided by the like to following colleagues: Alejandro Bortolus (from Argentina], Eduardo Leite Ferreira, Eduardo Texeira da Guerreiro Couto, Brazil], Carlos Erminda da Conceicao Kanne Magalhaes, Marcia Abreu de and Ulrich Seeliger Ifrom Oliveira Figueiredo and Evamana W, Koch and Ronald i The author was supported by fellowships from Phillips Ifrom the USA). CNPq and UERJ Silva, [Prociencia] dunng the preparation of this chapter AUTHOR The Brazilian Joel C. Creed, Laboratdno de Ecologia Marinha Bentica, Departamento depicts a turtle, corals, algae de Ecologia, Institute de Bioiogia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade and seagrass. A closer look do Estado do Rio de Janeiro - UERJ, Xavier Tel: +55 CEP 524, 20559-900, 2587 (0]21 7328. Fax: PHLC Sala 220, Rua Sao Francisco Rio de *5i Janeiro IDI21 2587 RJ, Brazil. 7655. E-mail; Jcreed0openlink.com.br 1 Phillips RC America. In: The seagrass ecosystem and resources Seeliger U ledl Coastal Plant in Latin Communities of Latin Gonzalez SA, Edding ME [1990]. Extension of the range Heterozostera tasmanica (Martens ex AschersI den Hartog i however, reveals the mistake - the seagrass IS probably Thalassia. a genus IS not found in Brazil Short FT, Coles RG (eds] [20011. Global seagrass habitats: A in first Barros HM, Eskinazi-Leca Chile. of Brazil's analysis. Biologia seagrass and Marina t^editerranea 7:207-210. Gerenciamento of E, Macedo participativo de Lima T SJ, estuanos e ledsl [20001. manguezais. Universitana da UFPE, Recife. Seeliger U, Odebrecht C, Castello JP [eds] [19971. Subtropical Aijuadc Botany 38: 391-395. 3 linsetl, Creed JC [2000]. The biodiversity 119921. America. Academic Press, San Diego, California, pp 107-121. 2 banknote artist's that REFERENCES 2 real Seagrass Research Convergence Environments: Tfie Coast and Sea of (he Methods. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. Scuthvtestern Atlantic. Spnnger-Verlag, Berlin. Kempf M Aguilar M, Stotz [1967/91. Nota preliminar sobre os fundos costeiros da WB [2000], Settlement of juvenile scallops regiao de Itamaraca (Norte do Estado de Pernambuco, Brasil]. Argopecten purpuratus (Lamarck, 1819] Trabalhos do Instituto do Oceanografico da Universidade do Recife Puerto Aldea, Tongoy Bay, Chile. Journal ofShellfisti Research 19: 9/11:95-110. 749-755. in the subtidal zone at n 249 6 9 250 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Oliveira EC de, Pirani JR, Giulietti seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 12 lb: AM 11983]. The Brazilian 1 press]. Diversity of macrophytes 17 Ferreira CEL. Unpublished data. 18 Seeliger U [2001]. The Patos Lagoon Estuary, Brazil. Global Environment Outlook. Oxford University Press, Kjerfve B ledsl Coastal Marine CEP Technical Report 1 Leao ZMAN, Kikuchi of Btbzil. RKP 20 [2001). The Abrolhos reefs of Brazil. In: Seeliger U, Kjerfve B ledsl Coastal Marine Ecosystems of Latin Creed JC, Amado Filho Gl^ [1999). Disturbance and recovery macroflora of a seagrass [Halodule wnghtii AschersonI Brazil: meadow m the Abrolhos Marine National Park, An experimental evaluation of anchor damage. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 235; 285-306. ri tf [1 the Abrolhos In: Seeliger U, Ecosystems of Latin America. 989]. Vertical distribution Aquatic Botany 22: 123-129. Acta Botanica America. Spnnger-Verlag, Berlin, pp 83-96. of the Costa CSB, Seeliger U allocation of Ruppia maritima den Hartog C [19721. The seagrasses in Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 167-184. Regional Overview of Land-based Sources of Neeriand/ca 21: 512-516. 15 [in UNEP [1997]. New York. UNEP [1 99i]. No. 33. 14 MAO Creed JC. Personal observations. Pollution in the Wider Caribbean Region. 13 Figueiredo Bank, Brazil. Conservation International, Washington, DC. Ibl-lbl. Creed JC. Unpublished data. L in a and resource southern Brazilian estuary. ' Appendix Appendix 1: Seagrass species, by country or territory S; ^ o 3 oiDQ i ™ ™ 1 en CTI01'*--o ft) c T3 -- .- TO (U-C.C — l/l N <<< SPECIES i/i TO TO ^ — t S 0) TO 1- .5 -Q El^ TO .y q; ui P E S o E £ = 5 2 TO 5 S c S, -g I t _ ,.^,„ a 3—- .^ 03.ti *-; TO ui TO 2 E ra Q. >, (jnj(UQ)i_i_ut-3fDfT)nj—'j:.coooi-3 -, <m O ^1-—N C XI _ . C b <D O Q. CQCDCDCD0D£DO0QCDOOOi2cjOUOOOO u a o CD 0) cc Amphibotis antarctica Amphibolis • griffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea nodosa • Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrutata • Enhalus acoroides • • Hatodule beaudettei Halodule bermudensis Halodule emarginata Halodule / / pinifolia Halodule uninervis / Halodule wnqhtii / • / • / / • Halophila australis Halophila baillonii Halophila beccarii • • Halophila capricorni Halophila decipiens / • Halophila engelmanni • Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii / / • • Halophila minor Halophila ovaiis Halophila ovata Halophila spinulosa / / / / • Halophila stipulacea Halophila tricostala Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus / / • Phyllospadix scoulen Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia • • • / Posidonia australis Posidonia conacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii Posidonia oceanica • / / Posidonia ostenfeldii Posidonia robertsoniae / Posidonia sinuosa • / • Syringodium filiforme / • / Syringodium isoetifolium / / / • / • / Thalassia hemprichii • Thalassia testudinum / / • • / / • • Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricorni Zostera caulescens / Zostera japonica Zostera manna Zostera mucronata' Zostera muellen' Zostera • noltii Zostera novazelandica* Zostera tasmanica TOTAL Notes: / 3 indicates presence of a species; Posidonia robertsoniae is 2 2 3 29 1 3 indicates a species conspecific witti Posidonia coriacea. Not including Ruppia spp. Heterozostera tasmanica is 3 1 name no ' 5 /I 3 4 2 4 3 2 5 to be conspecific 2 1 12 5 6 4 3 5 3 2 longer used. now considered now designated Zostera tasmanica. Species that are witli Zostera capricorni. 5 1 251 • 252 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 3 (/I T3 tn C m -0 " E nj u <u c E c c > 5 — L. 01 (U c ?* <n >. C ^ -O *- 01 i_ in LU LU LU -^ T3 Q. 0) C T3 c C ra L. T3 -0 'ra XX : I fD T3 C 3 til SPECIES 1- flj 0) CD _>. o ™ Amphibolis antarctica Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata / • / / / / / Cymodocea nodosa / / / Enhalus acoroides •• •/ • / / / / / / / • / Habdule beaudettei Halodule bermudensis Habdule emarginata Halodule / / pinilolia Halodule uninervis • / / • / / Halodule wriqhtii / Halophila australis Halophila baillonil • Halophila beccarii / / Halophila capncorni Halophila decipiens / • / / / / Halophila engelmanni Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor / / / Halophila ovalis Halophila ovata / / / / / / / / / / • Halophila spinulosa / / Halophila stipulacea • / / • Halophila t ricostata / / Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustilotia Posidonia australis Posidonia conacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii / • Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenleldii ' Posidonia robertsoniae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium isoetifoUum Thalassia hempnchii / • / / / / / Thalassia testudinum Thalassodendron ciliatum / / / / • / /•• • / / / Syringodium filiforme / / / / / / • Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capncorni Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica / Zostera marina // / / / / / / / • Zostera mucronata' Zostera muellen' Zostera // noltii / / Zostera novazelandica' Zostera tasmanica TOTAL Notes: ' / 12 indicates presence ot a species; Posidonia robertsoniae is 3 1 6 1 4 indicates a species conspecific with Posidonia conacea. Not including Ruppia spp. Heterozostera tasmanica is 1 1 name no ' 11 2 2 5 1 2 5 2 1 3 2 1 U 12 1 6 5 4 16 4 longer used. Species that are now considered to be conspecific with Zostera capncorni. now designated Zostera tasmanica. 1 ' Appendix °^ OD R 0) 'ibati wait rea, c ~ ^ i£ rea, o C ™ >• - ll >5 ID (D m (U U /T, dagas laysla huani; rshall rtlnlqi Idlves uritan (D ^ yotte uritiu! J2 ands ui o- ^_ ra Tones xIco *-ran3n)fD_,(i3n5njra(u.iioo>,a;aicrcu'-'oF"Sm ^^ :i in c c 01 s < O O D tt> SPECIES c 1 Amphibolis antarctica Amphibotis qriffithii Cymodocea angustata • Cymodocea nodosa / • / • / Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata Enhaius acoroides / / / • / / // / •• / Halodule beaudettei / / • • / • / / • Hatodule bermudensis Halodule emarginata Halodule • pinifolia • • Hatodule uninenis Halodule wriqhtii /• / / / / / • / / / / / / / / / / Halophita australis Halophila baillonii / Halophila beccarii / • / / • Halophila capricorni • Halophila decipiens / / / • Halophila engelmanni Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii / • Halophila minor Halophila ovalis • // • / / / • / / / / / Halophila ovata • Halophila spinulosa Halophila stipulacea • • • / • Halophila tncostata • • / Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus • Phyllospadix scoulen Phyllospadix serrulatus / Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii / Posidonia oceanica / Posidonia ostenletdii Posidonia robertsoniae Posidonia sinuosa • Syringodium filiforme Syringodium isoetifotium Thalassia hemprichii / / / / • • • / • / • • / • / / Thalassia testudinum Thatassodendron citialum / / / • • • • / / • •• / / • / • • • / / Thalassodendron pachyrhizum •• / / Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa • Zostera capensis / / / Zostera capricorni / Zostera caulescens // // Zostera japonica Zostera marina / / / • • / / • / • 1 Zostera mucronata' Zostera muelleri' Zostera • noltii 1 Zostera novazelandica' Zostera tasmanica TOTAL Notes: / 12 Indicates presence of a species; Posidonia robertsoniae is 1 5 7 2 2 indicates a species conspecific with Posidonia coriacea. Not including Ruppia spp. Heterozostera tasmanica is 3 12 12 3 name no ' 2 2 3 7 i 8 10 412 5 2 5 1 3 2 4 10 5 longer used. Species tiiat are now considered now designated Zostera tasmanica. to be conspecific with Zostera capricorni. 253 ' 254 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES £ c ro O in J! Q.-0 X 0) a: = •i C (xj i ro OJ E - cu < !; — IT) in <u o OJ "nj . ° "> ™ fD .^ SPECIES l/l 1/1 c c 3 c > (U *il/l ^ 01 T3 ? I/) i/i Amphibolis antarctica Ampbibolis gnffithti Cymodocea angustata / Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata / / Enhaius acoroides •• / • / / / / / / / / / Halodule beaudettei Halodule bermudensis Halodule emarginata Halodule / / / / pinifolia Halodule uninervis / / Halodule wrightii Halophila australis Halophila baillonii Halophila • • Halophila beccarii capncomi • • Halophila decipiens / • / / / / / / / • / / • / • / / / / • / / • • • / • Halophila engelmanni Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor / / Halophila ovalis / / / / / Halophila ovata Halophila spinulosa Halophila stipulacea Halophila tricostata Phytlospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phytlospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phytlospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifotia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia Ivrkmanii Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenleldii ' Posidonia robertsoniae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium isoetilolium Thatassia hemprichii Thatassia / / Syringodium filiforme / / • / • / testudmum Thatassodendron ciliatum • / / / / / / / • Thatassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricorni / / Zostera cautescens Zostera japonica / / Zostera marina / Zostera mucronata' Zostera muelleri' Zostera noltii / / 2 6 Zostera novazelandica' Zostera tasmanica 12U TOTAL Notes: ' / indicates presence of a species; Posidonia robertsoniae is 1 3 6 3 indicates a species conspecific with Posidonia coriacea. Not including Ruppia spp. Heterozostera tasmanica is name no ' 3 1 10 1 9 1 3 11 5 3 5 7 2 1 17 2 longer used. Species that are now considered now designated Zostera tasmanica. to be conspecific with Zostera capricorni. Appendix ^c -a JS c <_ c ^ o >, i-O-crac.Exicui-i-— l/l ro ra (- U) _ < c -a = h: SPECIES in ro = -t; Lj c > 5E < < J5 S1 LU 3 3 J2 ^ i/i 1/1 Qi -) N 3 <D C c m - b c ro i- o c cu E F <u .<" ^ Amphibolis antarctica Cymodocea angustata / / / Cymodocea nodosa • / / / / / Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata Enhalus acoroides / / • / / • / / / • / / / / / / / / / / / • Habdule beaudettei Halodule bermudensis Hatodule emarginata Halodule / / / / / pinilolia Halodule uninervis Halodul e wnqhtii / / • / / / / / Halophila australis Halophila baiUonii Halophila beccarii Halophila capncorni / / / / / / / • Halophila decipiens Halophila engelmanni Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor / / / Halophila ovalis / / / • / / / / / / / / / / / • / / Halophila ovata Halophila spinulosa Halophila shpulacea / / Halophila tricostata Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix laponicus / / / Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia conacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii • / Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenleldii Posidonia robertsoniae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium isoetifolium / / • Thalassia hemprichii // / / / Syringodium filiforme • / / • • Thalassia testudinum / / • • / • Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricorni Zostera caulescens / / Zostera japonica / / Zostera marina Zostera mucronata' Zostera muellen' Zostera / / / • noltii Zostera novazelandica' Zostera tasmanica TOTAL Notes: * / 4 indicates presence of a species; Posidonia robertsoniae is 12 11 3 4 4 indicates a species conspecific with Posidonia coriacea. Not including Ruppia spp. Heterozostera tasmanica is 5 1 name no * 2 3 23 2 4 11 2 12 6 11 4 9 longer used. Species that are now considered now designated Zostera tasmanica. to be conspecific with Zostera capricorni. 1 255 256 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Appendix Marine protected areas known to include seagrass beds, by country or territory 2: managed Few of in a region. Total protected area these sites are Summary of directly to support is given lUCN management categories Strict seagrass protection, and hectares but this in - more is in many cases they do not protect the most important areas of seagrass not indicative of the area of seagrass. detailed information http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/categories/ index.html at: Nature Reserve: protected area managed mainly for science Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection managed mainly National Park: protected area Natural Monument: protected area Management for ecosystem protection and recreation managed mainly Area: protected area for conservation of specific natural features managed mainly IV: Habitat/Species V: Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area VI: Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly u/a Unavailable managed mainly lUCN management category does not always equate with management for through management intervention landscape/seascape conservation and for recreation for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems effectiveness. Country Area name Designate Anguilla Crocus Bay Marine Park Sombrero Marine Park Island for conservation Size thai lUCN cat. Year u/a - u/a Antigua and Barbuda Cades Bay Marine Reserve Australia Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve 58 300 la 1983 Corner Marine and Coastal Park 18 000 VI 1986 34 480 000 VI 1979 II 1989 Inlet u/a 1999 Great Barrier Reef Commonwealth Marine Park Hinchinbrook Island National Park Marmion Marine Park 9 500 VI 1987 Ningaloo Marine Park 225 564 VI 1987 Ningaloo Reef Commonwealth Marine Park 232 600 u/a 39 900 Rowley Shoals Marine Park 23 250 VI 1990 Shark Bay Marine Park 748 735 VI 1990 Shoalwater Islands Marine Park 6 545 VI 1990 Wilsons Promontory National Park Bahamas Union Creek Managed Nature Reserve Bahrain Hawar Other area Belize Half Islands Moon Cay National Monument 49 000 1813 3 925 II 1898 la 1965 u/a III 1982 Hoi Chan Marine Reserve 411 IV 1987 Port Honduras Marine Reserve 84 700 IV 2000 Cay Marine Reserve 29 800 IV 1996 Abrolhos Marine National Park 91300 II 1983 Fernando de Noronha Marine National Park 11270 II 1988 Saltinho State Forest Reserve 2 10 u/a 1986 Diego Garcia Restricted Area - V 1994 Cambodia Ream National Park Canada Race Rocks Ecological Reserve South Brazil British Indian Ocean Vi/ater Territory Cayman Islands II 1993 220 la 1980 Environmental Zone 1731 lb 1986 North Sound (Grand Cayman! Replenishment Zone 3310 IV 1986 South Sound (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone 317 IV 1986 Replenishment Zone 33 IV 1986 8 000 V 1990 Little Sound (Grand Cayman] Spott Bay China Shan Kou (Cayman BracI Nature Reserve 15 000 Appendix name Size Ihal lUCN Natural National Park 120 000 II 1977 Natural National Park 995 II 1996 Tayrona Natural National Park 15 000 II 1964 Cahuita National Park U022 II 1970 Gandoca-Manzanillo National Wildlife Refuge 9 4i9 IV 1985 Croatia Briuni National Park 4 660 V 1983 Cuba Punta France+D225s - Parque Nacional Marino II 1985 Country Area Colombia CoralesdelRosanoyde Designate cat. Year San Bernardo Old Providence McBean Lagoon Costa Rica MkU Punta Pederales Cyprus Lara-Toxeftra Marine Reserve 650 IV 1989 Dominica Cabrits National Park 531 II 1986 Dominican Republic Del Este National Park 80 800 II 1975 Jaragua National Park 137 400 II 1983 Los Haitises National Park 154 300 II 1976 Montecristi National Park 130 950 II 1983 Cote Bleue Marine Park 3 070 VI 1982 Golfe du Morbihan Nature Reserve |by Decreel 1500 u/a 1669 IV 1975 11300 IV 1992 V 1980 France Scandola Nature Reserve Iby Decreel French Polynesia ScillylManuael Territorial Germany Strelasund Sound/Greifswald Wetland Zone of National Importance Wetland Zone of National Importance Reserve Lagoon/Isle Greifswald Wismar Bight/Salzhaff area Guadeloupe Grand Guide Sac Mann Nature Reserve Guam Guam Territorial Guatemala Punta de Manabique/ Wildlife Honduras Guanaja Jeanette Kawas Punta Izopo Wildlife Gulf of Kutch GulfofKutch Seashore Park - V 1980 3 736 IV 1987 6135 VI 1978 38 400 u/a Marine Reserve 28 000 u/a National Park 78162 II 1988 11200 IV 1992 Marine National Park 16 289 II 1980 Marine Sanctuary 29 303 IV 1980 11 1986 VI 1989 Refuge Bahia La Graciosa India Refuge Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve INational) 623 050 000 Wandur Marine National Park 28150 II 1983 Arakan Wowontulap Nature Reserve 13 800 la 1986 Bali Barat National Park 77 727 II 1982 Kepulauan Karimata Nature Reserve 77 000 la 1985 Kepulauan Togian Nature Reserve 100 000 u/a 1989 Pulau Bokor Nature Reserve 15 la 1921 Pulau Rambut Nature Reserve 18 la 1939 Ujung Kulon National Park II 1992 Israel Elat Coral Reserve Italy Archipelago Toscano Zona di Tutela Biologica Marina litalyl Cinque Terre Zona di Tutela Biologica Marina litalyl Golfo Zona di Tutela Biologica Marina (Italy! Miramare Zona di Tutela Biologica Marina litalyl Portofino Regional/Provincial Nature Park Discovery Bay Montego Bay Negril Indonesia Jamaica di Portofino 122 956 50 IV - IV 1982 - IV 1982 - IV 1982 27 IV 1986 4 660 u/a Marine Park - u/a Marine Park 1530 Marine Park " II 1991 u/a 1998 2 257 258 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES name Country Area Jamaica Negril Bay/Bloody Bay- Designate Size Ihal - Fisheries Sanctuary lUCN cat. Year u/a Hanover FIS Kenya Korea. Republic of - Ocho Rios Protected Area Palisadoes-Port Royal Cays National Park Kiunga Marine National Reserve Malindi Marine National Park Malindi-Watamu Marine National Reserve Mpunguti Marine National Reserve Watamu Marine National Park Nakdong River Mouth Natural Ecological System 100 25 000 V 1966 u/a VI 1979 II 1968 17 700 VI 1968 1100 VI 1978 II 1968 IV 1989 630 12 500 3i21 Preservation Area Madagascar Malaysia - Grand Recif Marine National Park Mananara Marine National Park 1000 II Pulau Besar Marine Park 8iU II Pulau Pertientian Besar Marine Park 9121 II Pulau Perhentian Kecil Marine Park 8107 II Pulau Redang Marine Park 12 750 II Pulau Sibu Marine Park i260 II Pulau Sipadan Marine Reserve Pulau Tengah Marine Park Pulau Tiga 710 u/a II Park 15 864 II Pulau Tinggi Marine Park 10180 II Pulau Tioman Marine Park 25115 II Talang-Satang National Park 194U u/a Tunku Abdul Rahman Park Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area Martinique Caravelle Nature Reserve Mauritania Banc d'Arguin National Park Mauritius Baie de I'Arsenal Marine Marine National Park 4 929 422 1173 000 100 1999 1999 u/a 5U9 136 844 1989 1978 II 1974 u/a 1996 IV 1976 II 1976 u/a National Park - Balaclava Marine Park Flacq Fishing Reserve 600 IV 1983 Port Louis Fishing Reserve 500 IV 1983 Trou d'Eau Douce Fir Fishing Reserve 700 IV 1983 Arrecifes de Puerto Morelos National Park II 1998 Banco Chinchorro Biosphere Reserve (National! VI 1996 El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve INationall 790 VI 1988 La Blanquilla Other area 66 868 IV 1975 Ria Lagartos Other area 47 840 u/a 1979 Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano National Marine Park 52 239 II 1992 Monaco Larvotto Marine Reserve Mozambique Bazaruto National Park Mexico llhas da Inhaca e dos 10 828 144 360 2 546 50 1997 IV 1976 II 1971 2 000 IV 1965 15 000 Faunal Reserve II Portugueses Maputo Game Reserve Marromeu Game Reserve Nacala-Mossuril Marine National Park Pomene Game Reserve Primeira and Segunda Islands National Park Zambezi Wildlife Utilization 1 90 000 IV 1969 000 000 IV 1969 - lb 10 000 - Area 1 000 000 IV 1972 u/a VI 1981 Appendix Country Netherlands Antilles Area name Designate Bonaire fvlarine Park 2 600 u/a 1979 Saba Marine Park 820 u/a 1987 Nicaragua Cayos Patau Ngerul<ewid Islands Papua New Guinea Philippines f^lanne Reserve Misl<itos Comarca Kuna Pananna Size Iha! Yala ISan BlasI cat. Year 50 000 la 1991 unknown 1200 III 1956 Commarc 320 000 u/a 1938 VI 1996 Designation Indigenous lUCN Kamiali Wildlife Management Area 47 413 Lou Island Wildlife Management Area - Maza u/a Wildlife Management Area 184 230 Motupore Island Wildlife Management Area - Nanuk Island Provincial Park 12 IV 1973 Talele Islands Provincial Park 40 IV 1973 II 1971 u/a 1988 III St Paul Subterranean River Tubbataha Reefs National National Park 5 753 Marine Park 33 200 VI 1978 u/a t^arine Park Puerto Rico Boqueron Cayos de Wildlife Cordillera la Refuge IRefugio de Vida Silvestrel Nature Reserve Estuanna Nacional Bahia Jobos Hunting Reserve Isla Reunion Caja de Muerto Nature Reserve 237 IV 1964 88 IV 1980 1133 IV 1981 188 IV 1988 Jobos Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 1168 IV 1981 La Parguera Nature Reserve 4 973 IV 1979 Cap Fishing Reserve - VI 1978 la Houssaye-Ravine Trois Bassins Nature Reserve - IV 1975 Hot d'Europa Nature Reserve - IV 1975 Pointe de Bretagne-Pointe Fishing Reserve - VI 1978 Fishing Reserve - VI 1978 lies Glorieuses de I'Etang Sale Ravine TroisBassins-Pointe de Bretagne Russian Federation St Lucia St Vincent Astrakhansky Zapovednik 66 816 la 1919 Dalnevostochny Morskoy Zapovednik 64 316 la 1978 Kedrovaya Pad Zapovednik 17 900 la 1925 Nature Reserve 12 IV 1982 Pigeon Island Other area 20 III 1978 Soufriere Marine Management Area VI 1994 Tobago Cays Marine Reserve IV 1987 fvlaria and Islands 3 885 the Grenadines Saudi Arabia Davtfhat Ad Dafi, DawhatAl- Other area 210 000 u/a Musallamiyah & Coral Islands Seychelles Farasan Islands Protected Area 69 600 la 1989 Aldabra Special Nature Reserve 35 000 la 1981 Port Launay Marine National Park 158 II 1979 Marine National Park 1423 II 1973 St Anne Singapore Southern Islands Marine Nature Area 980 u/a 1996 Slovenia Strunjan Landscape Park 192 V 1990 South Africa Agulhas National Park Spain u/a Cape Peninsula National Park - Greater St Lucia Wetland Park 258 686 Knysna Other area 15 000 National Park IState Network! 50 720 Doriana Ilia de Tabarca Hies f^ledes Marine Nature Reserve [Spain! Submarine Nature Reserve u/a II 1895 u/a II 1969 1463 IV 1986 418 IV 1983 2 259 260 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES name Designate Country Area Tanzania Bongoyo Island Marine Reserve Chumbe Marine Sanctuary Island Coral Park iize Itial . 30 lUCN cat. Year II 1975 II 1994 ICHICOPI Thailand Tonga - II 1975 VI 1995 II 1981 II 1975 47 000 VI 1997 Conservation Area 2158 VI 1998 Mnemba Conservation Area 15 VI 1997 Pangavini Marine Reserve II 1975 Haad Chao Mai National Park 23 086 Mu Ko Non-hunting Area «7M Fungu Marine Reserve Yasini 82 200 Mafia Island Marine Park Maziwi Island Marine Reserve - Mbudya Marine Reserve - Menai Bay Conservation Area Misali Island Libong Fanga'uta and Fanga Kakau - Marine Reserve 2 II 1981 III 1979 835 VI 1974 49 IV 1979 650 la 1973 II 1980 1992 Lagoons Pangainnotu Reef Reserve Trinidad and Tobago Buccoo Reef Nature Reserve Tunisia Icfikeul National Park 12 600 Turks and Caicos West Caicos Marine National Park 397 IV Arabats'kiy State Zakaznik 600 u/a Karadagskiy Nature Zapovednik lUkrainel Karkinils'ka zatoka State Zakaznik Islands Ukraine United Kingdom United States Kazantypskyi Nature Zapovednik lUkrainel Molochniy liman State Zakaznik Mys Martiyan Nature Zapovednik lUkrainel Helford River Voluntary Reserve JUKI Isles of Scilly Area Skomer National Nature Reserve lUK) Skomer Marine Nature Reserve lUKl Acadia National Park Apalachicola Assateague Island Bafiia 2 la 27 646 u/a 450 u/a 1900 u/a 1979 la 1973 u/a 1987 600 V 1976 307 IV 1959 1500 IV 1990 15 590 II 1919 National Estuarine Research Reserve 99 630 IV 1979 National Seashore 16 038 V 1965 212 V 1961 72 900 II 1980 3 661 IV 1904 18018 V 1961 of 240 Outstanding Natural Beauty lUKl 1 State Park Honda 874 Biscayne National Park Breton National Wildlife Refuge Cape Cod National Seashore Channel Islands National Park 100 987 II 1980 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary 428 466 IV 1980 Chesapeake Bay IMDI National Estuarine Research Reserve 2 374 IV 1981 Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 1796 IV 1991 IVAl DryTortugas National Park 26 203 II 1992 Everglades National Park 606 688 II 1947 Fire Island National Seashore 7 834 V 1964 Florida Keys Wilderness [Fish and Wildlife Service! 2 508 lb 1975 Galveston Island State Park 786 la Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 7 452 IV 1999 Great Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 2138 IV 1989 Gulf Islands IFloridal National Seashore 54 928 V 1971 Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge 102 960 la 1945 National Wildlife Refuge 122 660 IV 1960 Izembek 18 sites) Appendix Country Area name Designate United States John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park 22 68i V 1959 Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge 55 953 IV 1963 Narragansett Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 1286 IV 1980 National Estuarine Research Reserve U55 IV 1980 159 IV 1956 [continuedl Padilla lUCN cat. Year Pinellas National Wildlife Refuge Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 5 062 IV 1978 National Estuarine Research Reserve 1903 IV 1974 26 467 IV 1931 Slough Soutti Marks St United States Bay Size Ihal National Wildlife Refuge Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 1013 IV 1988 Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve 648 IV 1984 Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge 12 843 la 1974 II 1972 minor outlying islanc Venezuela Archipielago Los Rogues National Park Ci Wildlife Refuge Wildlife Refuge Virgin Islands IBritishI 11825 IV 1972 II 1974 Laguna de Tacarigua National Park 39100 II 1974 Medanos de Coro National Park 91280 II 1974 Mochima National Park 94 935 II 1973 Morrocoy National Park 32 090 II 1974 San Esteban National Park 43 500 II 1987 Con Dao National Park 15 043 II 1982 Little Restinga la Jost Van Dyke Norman Natural Monument 450 u/a National Park 390 u/a North Sound National Park 3 800 u/a The Dogs Protected Area 2 000 u/a Wreck Virgin Islands lUSl u/a 18 862 Laguna de Nam 25 723 National Park Cuare Viet 221 120 Island of the Rhone Green Cay Salt River Canyon National Wildlife Refuge Submarine Protected Area 324 III 1930 6 IV 1977 1000 u/a NHS Sandy Point St Marine Park James Virgin Islands National Wildlife Refuge 134 - Marine Reserve and Wildlife banctuar> National Park 5 308 IV u/a 1994 II 1956 2 261 . 262 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Appendix maps Species range 3: The range maps have been created to establish seagrass species might be expected drav«n to to encompass points all determine the occurrence to a guide to where there was of a individual areas have been adequately surveyed. In documentation sufficient seagrass species some location. in a possible that seagrass species occur beyond the ranges all where occur Range boundaries were shown is It since not instances, isolated However, shown genetic research likely to insufficient. and Ivlenez"'. Estimates of species range area In seagrass plants have led some to being revised based on genetic and morphometric research. species revisions have been made which combine Two maps have been included. to make exist'". for a connection Further genetic studies and/or suggested under genetic and morphometric investigation. Closely linked species actually be conspecific have often been grouped together in a is undertaken. These species do not of the Posidonia ostenfeldii to wnghtii 1 2 Stone from Hawaii. Halophila ovata Gaudichaud from the Indo-Pacific and Halophila minor IZollingerl den Hartog, were morphological variations of, and therefore conspecific f."'. Range maps are presented determined all with, for to in to Irmisch ex. Aschers. and Zostera mucronata den be conspecific with Zostera capncorni. Zostera novazelandica and Zostera capricorni on the New muellen have included EG Phillips RC, fvleriez in the seagrass Kuo J, b 7 in Australia and New WJ [20021. of Zealand. J Sys [1984]. A taxonomic study of the among members of the Posidonia of four new [2000]. Re-evaluatmg species Posidonia ostenfeldii spec\es - morphological and genetic McMillan C, seagrasses genetic testing The complex consists variation. Waycott M. Personal communication. Williams SC, Escobar L, Zapata (19811. Isozyymes. secondary compounds and experimental cultures Posidonia osfenfe/dii complex of the species are conspecihc. Smithsonian genus Halophila IThouarsI: insights Campey ML, Waycott M. Kendrick GA boundaries 8 some North Holland f/ie IVor/d. complex IPosidoniaceael with description Aquatic Botany 6i. 41-56. of five species: we iii-m. 27. Cambridge ML complex IPosidoniaceael suggests that the Pacific Australian seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 20: 267-295, presented for former species individually as well as for the newly new in Les DH, Moody ML, Jacobs SWL, Bayer RJ [2002]. Systematics maps are the case of the Posidonia ostenfeldii complex, the only Halodule species [1988). Seagrasses. Zostera muelleh and Zostera mucronata ate displayed separately Range In is eastern Africa and India where Halodule Waycott M. Freshwater DW, York RA, Calladme A, Kenworthy. ostenfeldii same range map. redefined Zostera capricornt'' den Hartog, are unpublished genetic studies. These results den Hartog C 119701. The Sea-6rasses of Botany 5 Hartog are also We Halodule uninervis contain conspecific species. seagrasses IZosleraceael Zostera capricorni revision in of (fvlikil from molecular phytogeny Bulletin of Marine Science i Zealand are conspecific. based on detailed genetic and morphometric garden experiments are needed. also found. Without conclusive published information, IS Evolutionary trends species individually as well as for the newly redefined Halophila ovalis. to in that environmental conditions'". Press, Washington DC. 3 each former analysis, the Australian species Zostera of Halodule Contributions to the fvlarine Sciences 34. Smithsonian Institution be Halophila Zostera novazelandica Setchell and Zostera capricorni Ascherson of Publishing Co.. Amsterdam. 275 pp. received detailed genetic evaluation. Four species, Halophila phnsonii considered is present the Halodule species separately but realize that both complexes References Halophila hawaiiana Doty and common indicate that Halodule uninervis Halophila ovalis revision of Florida, be conspecific and Indian Oceans, except are likely Halophila species found around the world have recently different Ascherson and Halodule pimlolia complex and the Halodu/espp. complexes are included below. Eiseman from the east coast major groups that two complex consists The Indo-Pacific Halodule species, consisting other species designations remain a matter of debate and are currently have adjusted range maps, but descriptions Atlantic Halodule spp. morphology changes under IForsskall complex while additional research The morphology However, some researchers have suggested tip with the literature documenting these species distributions. Several From the same have wnghtii Ascherson. Halodule beaudettei Iden Hartogl den Hartog and The species range maps species formerly accepted have also been included analysis'". we view the species separately but realize that the complex to Halodule bermudensis den Hartog. The three species are distinguished by leaf Brown] Hooker fvlore re-evaluate and define the complex now leaf lip ovalis IR. to contain conspecific species. Halodule identified conspecific of order in Halodule spp. complexes species (see Habphita ovalis and Zostera capncorni, belowl; revised A group needed is recent confusion regarding species designation, and several species are may of Posidonia robertsoniae are not The most recent genetic analysis indicates Morphological differences that analysis The species range maps update earlier work by Phillips are given with each map. species range and testing as a whole'". Without publication of conclusive information, Range maps were den Hartog'" and by genetic of Posidonia conacea and that continued were deemed results separate species'"; they are treated as Posidonia conacea here, observations of species occurrence were marked as distinct entries. not prepared for Ruppia species as the existing data published morphological characteristics shared by species within the complex have in of Australian Halophila. Halodule. Amphibolis. and Posidonia. Aust J 6(3(29:247-260. Posidonia ostenfeldii den Hartog, Posidonia denhartoqii Kuo & Cambridge, Posidonia robertsoniae Kuo & Cambridge. Posidonia In conacea Cambridge & Kuo and Posidonia kirkmanii Kuo & Cambridge'". debate and currently under genetic and morphometric investigation. the maps below, ' indicates species designations that are a matter of Appendix 3 Family Hydrocharitaceae (3 genera) Genus Enhalus L.C. Richard (1 species) Dioecious robust perennial with creeping, coarse unbranched or sparsely monopodiaily branched rhizomes with short internodes. Fleshy thick roots are unbranched, Male inflorescence has a short stalk and a 2-bladed spathe surrounding many flowers that break 3 petals and 3 stamens. off and release pollen Female inflorescence with There are 3 sepals and 3 petals. The ovary is to float a long stalk rostrate, on the surface and composed of the water There are a 2-bladed spathe containing of 6 carpels and 6 styles, and is 1 3 sepals, large flower. forked from the base. The stalk of the female flower coils and contracts after anthesis. Fruits are fleshy. Leaves are distichously arranged and sheathed at the base; persistent fibrous strands from previously decayed leaves enclose the stem. Leaf apex rounded. Enhalus acoroides Enhalus acoroides ^""^^ •* h.t'- MAP 1: Enhalus acoroides Shaded area [LA.] Royle (Hydrocharitaceae) = 5 005 000 km", actual species distribution is much less Genus Halophila Jhouars [M species) Monoecious and dioecious small, lateral shoot. Each node has 1 fragile plants with long internodes unbranched root. Single inflorescence short stalks, 3 tepals, 3 stamens, sessile anthers and pollen grams have 3-6 styles, and ellipsoid to globular fruit that hold arranged along upright shoot, in Habphila in ellipsoid chains. Female flowers are numerous globular seeds. Leaves are sessile, either distichously pairs on long petioles or as pseudo-whorls at top of lateral shoots. Leaves have ovate, elliptic, lanceolate or linear blades with margins smooth or serrate, with on rhizomes each bearing 2 scales and a covered by 2 spathal bracts. Male flowers have leaf surface australis. Halophila baillonii, 1 mid-vein and intramarginal veins linked by cross-veins. Leaf smooth or Habphila hairy. beccarii, Halophila capricorni, Halophila decipiens, Halophila engelmanni, Halophila hawaitana, Halophila johnsonn, Halophila minor, Halophila Halophila spinulosa, Halophila stipulacea. Halophila tncostala ovalis. Halophila ovata, 263 264 WORLD ATLAS OF 5EAGRAS5ES Halophila australis I ^ MAP 2: Halophila australis Doty Shaded area Hi = & Stone 000 km', actual species distribution is / > ] (Hydrocharitaceae) much less Halophila baillonii MAP 3: Halophila baiUonii Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 139 000 km'', actual species distribution is much less Halophila beccarii MAP 4: Halophila beccarii Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 1511 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Appendix 3 Halophila capricorni f MAP 5: Halophila caprlcorni Shaded area t- Larkum (Hydrocharitaceae) = 269 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Halophila decipiens MAP 6: Halophila dedp/ens Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 7 702 000 km\ actual species distribution is much less Halophila engelmanni MAP 7: Halophila engelmanni Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 725 000 km', actual species distribution is much less 265 266 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Halophila hawaiiana . ^m- \\ MAP 8: Halophila hawaiiana Doty Shaded area & Stone = 7 000 km', actual species distribution Note: Halophila hawaiiana is now is much (Hydrocharitaceae) less conspecific with Halophila ovali^'[ Halophila johnsonii MAP 9: Halophila johnsonii Eiseman (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 12 000 km', actual species distribution Note: Halophila lohnsonii is now is much less conspecific with Halophila ovali^'\ Halophila minor MAP 10: Halophila minor [Zollinger] den Hartog (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 3 761 000 km', actual species Note: Halophila minor is now distribution conspecific with Halophila is much oralis"^'. less Appendix 3 Halophila ovalis MAP 11: Halophila ovalis (R. Shaded area Note: Map = 7 6U Brown) Hooker 000 km", actual species distribution represents the range of the former Halophila 15 much ovalis, (Hydrocharitaceae) f. less before its current revision. See Msp 12 Halophila ovalis revision MAP 12: Halophila ovalis revision Shaded area = 7 633 000 km', actual species distribution conspeciiic with Halophila ovali^^'. The range map nnuch less is Note: Halophila johnsonii, Halophila hawaiiana. Halophila m/norand Halophila ovata presented here is for the are now considered newly redefined Halophila to be ovalis. Halophila ovata MAP 13: Halophila ovata Gaudichaud (Hydrocharitaceae) Shaded area = 3 186 000 km', actual species Note: Halophila ovata is now distribution is much conspecific with Halophila ovalis"'. less 267 268 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Halophila spinulosa MAP 1A: Halophila spinulosa (R. Shaded area Brown) Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceael = 3 796 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Halophila stipulacea MAP 15: Halophila stipulacea (Forsskal) Shaded area = 924 000 km', actual species distribution is Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceael much less Halophila tricostata MAP 16: Halophila tricostata Shaded area Greenway (Hydrocharitaceael = 415 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Appendix Genus Thalassia Banks ex Konig (2 species) Dioecious perennial with creeping rhizomes that have intervals there are 1 more unbranched or stalk, 3 perianth sections. also have 3 perianth 3-12 light internocjes and stem with 2-6 1 scale leaf at each node. At leaves. Male flowers have a short styles each split into 2 lengthy stigmata. Fruit is prickly and spherical with non-uniform valves, releasing pear-shaped seeds with membranous germinate immediately The linear finely serrulated apex. many small roots and a short erect yellow stamens and globular pollen grains linked into chains. Female flowers segments with 6-8 a fleshy pericarp that splits into 3 leaf blade, sometimes slightly testa. Seeds bowed, has 9-17 longitudinal veins and a round, Tannin cells are present but stomata are not. Jhslassia hempnchii, Thalassia testudinum .^ - -' Thalassia hemprichii '"' 1 ^' f~^,' ^ ^^' ' '' -w .'' ' .i -J^^^^B* Wumf MAP 17: Thalassia hemprichii lEhrenberg) Shaded area = 6 094 000 km', actual species distribution is much Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceae) less Thalassia testudinum MAP 18: Thalassia Shaded area = 1 testudinum Banks ex Konig (Hydrocharitaceae) 165 000 km', actual species distribution is much less 269 270 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Family Cymodoceaceae (5 Genus Amphibolis C. Agardh (2 general species) Dioecious perennial with woody sympodially branched rhizomes. 1-2 wiry but abundantly branched roots at each node. Nodes nnay have long, thin abundantly branched stitf stems with crown leaves on each branch. The terminal flowers are enclosed by several leaves. Male flowers have 2 anthers connected at the same singular, height to a short stalk. Female flowers are sessile with 2 free ovaries, each with a short style spilt into 3 long stigmata with pericarpic lobes at each ovary base. Seedlings are viviparous and have comb-shaped structures extending from the pericarpic lobes that act as anchors. Leaf sheaths shed leaving circular scar on the erect stems. The linear leaf blade has 8-21 longitudinal veins and a bidentate apex. Amphibolis antarctica, Ampliibolis gnlfithii Amphibolis antarctica MAP 19: Amphibolis antarctica (Cymodoceaceae) Shaded area (Labill.) = 535 000 km', actual species distribution is Sonder much et Ascherson less Amphibolis MAP 20: Amphibolis griffithii [Black] Shaded area = 330 000 km"', actual species distribution is den Hartog (Cymodoceaceae) much less griffithli Appendix Genus Cymodocea Konig [i> species) Dioecious perennial with creeping herbaceous monopodially branched rhizomes. a short stiff 3 stem bearing 2-7 leaves found at 1 to several branched roots with each node. Stalked male flower has 2 anthers connected at same height on stalk. Female flowers are sessile with 2 free ovaries each with a short style that splits into 2 long 7-17 stigmata. Fruit are semi-circular to elliptical shaped with a solid pericarp. The linear leaf blade has longitudinal veins and smooth margins. Apex rounded, sometimes notched or serrate. Leaf sheaths shed leaving circular scar on erect stems. Cymodocea angustata, Cymodocea nodosa, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata Cymodocea angustata MAP 21: Shaded area Cymodocea angustata Ostenfeld (Cymodoceaceae) = 160 000 km", actual species distribution is much less Cymodocea nodosa MAP 22: Shaded area Cymodocea nodosa lUcrial = 610 000 km', actual species distribution Ascherson (Cymodoceaceae) is much less 271 272 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES k--. 'xy^^^ ---,w - -'J' K Cymodocea rotundata ^"^"^^W ;.\ MAP ^r',--- Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenberg & Hemprich ex Ascherson 23: (Cymodoceaceael Shaded area = 5 323 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Cymodocea serrutata MAP 2i: Shaded area Cymodocea serrulata = 5 (R. Brown) Ascherson ICymodoceaceaej 578 000 km', actual species distribution Genus Halodule Endlinger (6 is much less species) Dioecious perennial with creeping herbaceous monopodialiy branched rhizomes. a short erect stem with 1-4 leaves found at 1 or more unbranched roots and each node. The singular, terminal flowers are enclosed by a Stalked male flower has 2 anthers connected at same leaf. height on stalk. Female flowers have 2 free ovaries each with a long, continuous and undivided style. Fruit has stony, solid pericarp. Leaf sheaths shed leaving circular scar on the stems. The linear leaf blade has 3 longitudinal veins and a variable apex shape. The genus has 2 species in the Pacific and 4 species Halodule beaudettei. Halodule wnghtii in the Atlantic, all largely distinguished by leaf tip morphology. Halodule bermudensis. Halodule emarginata, Halodule pinifolia, Halodule uninervis, Appendix 3 Halodule beaudettel* MAP 25: Shaded area Halodule beaudettel* (den Hartog) den Hartog iCymodoceaceae) = 74 000 km', actual species distribution is mucti less Halodule bermudensis* MAP 26: Halodule Shaded area = 1 bermudensis* den Hartog ICymodoceaceae) 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Halodule emarginata* MAP 27: Halodule emarginata* den Hartog ICymodoceaceae) Shaded area = U1 000 km', actual species distribution is much less 273 274 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRA5SE5 Halodule pini folia* MAP 28: Halodule pinifolia*W\k\] Shaded area den Hartog iCymodoceaceae) = 5 580 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Halodule uninervis* MAP 29: Halodule uninervis* (Forsskal) Shaded area = 6 73i 000 km', actual species distnbutioti is Ascherson ICymodoceaceae) much less Halodule wrightii MAP 30: Halodule wrightii Ascherson ICymodoceaceae) Shaded area = 2 625 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Appendix Genus Syringodium 3 Kiitzing (2 species) Dioecious perennial with creeping herbaceous monopodially or sympodially branched rhizomes. Rhizomes with 1-4 little branched roots and an erect shoot bearing 2-3 round leaves are encompassed by a reduced leaf. at each node. Inflorescence cymose. flowers Stalked male flower has 2 anthers connected at same height on stalk. Female flowers have 2 free ovaries each with a short style and 2 short stigmata. Fruit has stony, solid pericarp. Leaf sheaths shed leaving circular scar on the Syringodium liliforme, rigid stems. Round leaf blades tapering to the tip. Syringodium isoetifolium Syringodium filiforme MAP 31: Syringodium filiforme Kiitzing (Cymodoceaceae) Shaded area = 1 174 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Syringodium isoetifolium MAP 32: Syringodium isoetifolium (Ascherson) Dandy (Cymodoceaceae) Shaded area = 5 919 000 km*, actual species distribution is much less 275 276 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Genus Thalassodendron den Hartog species) (2 Dioecious perennial with woody sympodially branched rhizomes. 1 or more robust, woody, little branched roots occur at the nodes preceding the erect stem-bearing nodes. From every fourth node there are long, wiry infrequently branched stems each bearing crown leaves. Single flowers enclosed by several bracts. Male flowers with 2 anthers connected at the grow same at the end of the stem and are height to the stalk. Female flowers are sessile with 2 free ovaries, each with a short style split into 2 stigmata. Seedlings are viviparous. Leaf sheaths shed leaving circular scar on the erect stems. The linear and rounded apex are leaf blade has 13-27 longitudinal veins and the margin finely denticulate. Thalassodendron ciliatum. Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Thalassodendron ciliatum MAP 33: Shaded area Thalassodendron ciliatum (Forsskil) den Hartog (Cymodoceaceae) = i 087 000 km*', actual species distribution is much less Thalassodendron pachyrhizum MAP 34: Shaded area Thalassodendron pachyrhizum den Hartog (Cymodoceaceae) = 1 U 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Appendix 3 Family Posidoniaceae (1 genus) Genus Posidonia Kbnig (8 species! Monoecious perennial with creeping, monopodially branching rhizomes with 1-2 branched or unbranched roots and racemose with many barbs. Flowers are hermaphroditic, have a shoot. Inflorescence 3 stamens but no perianth. Stigma are disc-shaped with inconsistent lobe shapes. Stone fruit with fleshy pericarp. Pericarp splits to release oblong seeds with and blade. The leaf The is leaf blade membranous sheath either is flat testa. Leaves are distichous, ligulate and auriculate with a distinct sheath persistent and frequently breaks into fibrous strands covering rhizome internodes. and biconvex or terete and linear with 5-21 longitudinal veins and apex obtuse or truncate. Posidonia angustifolia. Posidonia australis, Posidonia conacea lincludes conspecific Posidonia roberlsoniae], Posidonia denharlogii, Posidonia kirlananii, Posidonia oceanica. Posidonia oslenfeldii. Posidonia sinuosa Posidonia angustifoUa MAP 35: Shaded area Posidonia angustifoUa Cambridge = 284 000 km", actual species distribution much 15 & Kuo (Posidoniaceae) less Posidonia australis MAP 36: Posidonia australis Shaded area = 600 Hooker 000 km', actual species distribution f. is (Posidoniaceae) much less 277 278 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Posidonia coriacea* MAP 37: Posidonia coriacea* Cambridge Shaded area = 32i 000 km", actual species distribution is & Kuo much IPosidoniaceae) less Note: Posidonia robertsoniae has been combined with Posidonia conacea as recent research'" suggests they are conspecific. Posidonia denhartogii* MAP 38: Posidonia denhartogii* Shaded area Kuo & Cambridge IPosidoniaceae) = 137 000 km", actual species distribution is much less Posidonia l(irl<manii* MAP 39: Posidonia l(irl<manii*K\io Shaded area = 66 000 km', actual species distribution & Cambridge is much less IPosidoniaceae) Appendix 3 Posidonia oceanica MAP AO: Shaded area Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile (Posidoniaceael = 533 000 km', actual species distribution is mucti less Posidonia ostenfeldii* MAP 41: Shaded area Posidonia ostenfeldii* den Hartog (Posidoniaceael = 66 ODD km', actual species distribution is much less Posidonia sinuosa MAP A2: Shaded area Posidonia sinuosa Cambridge = 266 000 km', actual species distribution is & Kuo much less I Posidoniaceael 279 280 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Family Zosteraceae (2 genera) Genus Zostera L. (9 species) Monoecious perennial (sometimes annual! that has creeping herbaceous rhizomes with shoot with 2-6 leaves. Tannin cells absent; stomata absent. The inflorescence shoots the spathe stalked and bears alternate male and female flowers is retinacula can be present or absent. Pollination hydrophilous. linear, flattened, with 3-1 1 longitudinal veins. The apex shape is 2 in The 1 to several roots and 1 show sympodial branching; rows on the spadix without perianth. The fruit is ovoid to ellipsoid. The leaf blade is variable and the sheath can be open or closed. Zostera asiatica, Zostera caespitosa, Zostera capensis, Zostera capncorni (includes the conspecific Zostera mucronata, Zostera muelten and Zostera novazelandica], Zostera cautescens, Zostera japonica. Zostera manna, Zostera noltii. Zostera tasmanica (formerly Heterozostera tasmanica] Zostera asiatica MAP 43: Zostera asiatica MikI (Zosteraceae) Shaded area = 1 3) 1 000 l<m', actual species distribution is much less Zostera caespitosa MAP 44: Shaded area Zostera caespitosa Miki (Zosteraceae) W5 000 km', aclual species distribution is much less = Appendix —5;^ -J»P MAP 45: Zostera capensis Setchell (Zosteraceae) Shaded area = 363 000 km', actual species distribution is 3 Zostera capensis mucti less Zostera capricorni MAP A6: Zostera capricorni Ascherson (Zosteraceae) Stiaded area = 5i3 000 km', actual species distribution Notes: Zostera novazelandica Setchell complete overlap to of occurrence in is New Zealand. much is now considered to less be conspecific with Zostera capncorni.. The two show mueWen and Zostera Zostera mucmnata are also now considered be conspecific with Zostera Capricorn/^'. Zostera capricorni revision MAP 47: Zostera capricorni revision Shaded area - 773 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Note: Zostera mucronata. Zostera muelten and Zostera novazelandica are Zostera capncorni"'\ The range map presented here is for the now considered lo be conspecific with newly redefined Zostera capricorni. 281 282 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Zostera caulescens MAP 48: Shaded area Zostera caulescens Miki (Zosteraceael M2 000 km*', actual species distribution is much less = Zostera japonica & Graebner MAP 49: Zostera japonica Aschers. Shaded area = 2 819 000 km"', actual species distribution is much (Zosteraceael less Zostera marina MAP 50: Zostera Shaded area = 5 marina Linnaeus (Zosteraceael 738 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Appendix 3 Zostera mucronata MAP 51: Zostera Shaded area = 1 mucronata den Hartog IZosteraceael 16 000 km', actual species distribution Note: Zostera mucronata is now considered to much is [ess be conspecific with lostera capncorni'''\ Zostera muelleri MAP 52: Zostera muelleri \rm\sch ex Aschers. (Zosteraceae) Shaded area = 1 W 000 km', actual species distribution Note: Zostera muelleri is now considered to is much less be conspecific with Zostera capricorni "'. Zostera MAP 53: Zostera no<f// Shaded area = 1 Hornemann (Zosteraceae) 571 000 km', actual species distribution is much less noltii 283 284 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Zostera tasmanica MAP 54: Zostera Shaded area tasmanica (Martens ex Aschers.) den Hartog IZosteraceae) = i79 000 knr, actual species distribution is much less Note: Formerly Heterozostera tasmanica'". Genus Phyllospadix Hooker (5 species) Dioecious perennial with creeping herbaceous rhizomes bearing 2 to several short unbranched roots and each node. The spathe retinacula is stalked and bears alternate male and female flowers present. Fruit are crescent-shaped and have lateral flattened, subterete, variable is sometimes and the sheath is leathery, sometimes rolled, arms in 2 1 leaf at rows on the spadix. The with hard bristles. The leaf blade is linear, with 3-7 longitudinal veins. The apex shape is open. Phyllospadix iwatensis, Phyllospadix japonicus, Phyllospadix scouleri. Phyllospadix serrulatus, Phyllospadix torreyi Phyllospadix iwatensis MAP 55: Phyllospadix iwatensis Shaded area = 722 000 km', actual species Makjno (Zosteraceae) distribution is much less Appendix 3 Phyllospadix japonicus MAP 56: Phyllospadix japonicus Shaded area Makino (Zosteraceael = 248 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Phyllospadix scouleri MAP 57: Shaded area Phyllospadix scouleri Hooker IZosteraceae) = 263 000 knr', actual species distribution is much less Phyllospadix serrulatus MAP 58: Phyllospadix serrulatus Ruprecht ex Aschers. IZosteraceae) Shaded area = 363 000 km', actual species distribution is much less 285 286 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Phyllospadix torreyi MAP 59: Phyllospadix torreyi S. Shaded area = 181 Watson (Zosteraceae) 000 km', actual species distribution is much less Family Ruppiaceae (1 Genus Ruppia (4 marine species) Dioecious annual or perennial with monopodially branched rhizonnes and 1-2 unbranched roots per node. Root hairs abundant. Inflorescence a spike of 1-2 flowers on opposite faces of the axis, enclosed at first in the inflated sheath. Peduncle short, stout, erect or elongating greatly before anthesis to a fine thread raising the flowers to the water surface and becontiing tightly spirally coiled, retracting the developing fruits. Pollination either on or below the water surface. Fruit is a fleshy drupe on a long stalk. Leaves alternate (except the 2 immediately below the flower which are sub-oppositel, sheath open, edges overlapping. Blade narrow-linear to filiform, concavo-convex with a large air more canal either side of an inconspicuous median vein. Tannin cells present or less in most tissues. Ruppia cirrhosa, Ruppia mantima, Ruppia megacarpa, Ruppia tuberosa Range maps were not prepared Acknowledgement We are grateful to tfie this Kuo for Ruppia species as the existing data were deemed insufficient, following sources for the information on genera taxonomy given appendix: J, den Hartog C [20011. Seagrass taxonomy and identification key In: Short FT, Coles RG ledsl Global Seagrass Research Methods. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 31-58. Womersley HBS [1984]. The Marine Benthic Flora of Southern Australia. Part 1. DJ Woolman, Government Pnnter, South Australia. 329 pp. den Hartog C [1970]. The Sea-Grasses of the World. North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam. 275 pp. in genus) Global Seagrass Workshop THE GLOBAL SEAGRASS WORKSHOP including seagrass distribution and diversity The Global Seagrass Workshop was organized and on an extensive literature search, framed convened by UNEP-WCMC, with considerable assistance discussion at the maps based much of the workshop. Delegates debated the map in St Petersburg. 2001. Twenty-three results and marked corrections. A standard species list was agreed upon and information on economic value, delegates (see photograph] from 15 countries prepared uses and threats, associated species and management fronn the World Seagrass Association, Florida. USA on 9 November discussion papers for their areas of expertise, and a further five papers were received from people unable interventions attend (see map). policy A preliminary study prepared Delegates lizumi. at the by Global Seagrass Workshop. From UNEP-WCMC. left, shared. The workshop ended with a and a commitment by all delegates to contribute a regional chapter to this World Atlas. front row: Caroline Ochieng. Second row: Evamaria Koch, Chatcharee Supanwanid, Graeme was discussion of global priorities for seagrass research and to Inglis, Mark Spalding, Fred Short, Michelle Joel Creed, Nataliya Milchakova, Taylor, Hitoshi Salomao Bandeira. Third row; Paul Erftemeijer, Rob Coles, Tanaji Japtap, Miguel Fortes, Diana Walker, Hugh Kirkman, Jorge Herrera-Silveira, Japar Sidik Bujang . row: Kun-Seop Lee, Ron Phillips, Andrea Raz-Guzman, Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria. Map showing Itrianglesl. the location of all delegates at the Global Seagrass Workshop IcirclesI, and other regions for which papers were prepared Back 287 1 288 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Index to THE WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Page references figures in bold refer to in tfie text; ttiose in italics refer to tables or boxed material Andaman Sea 144-50 Asterina pancera 51 Angola 251 Atlantic Anguilla 251. 256 Anguilla anguilla 33 Australia animal fodder 61, 62 annual populations 121 associated species endemic species 14 antibiotics 1 Abrolhos Bank, Brazil 2i3, 247 antifouling compounds 114 Abu Dhabi Emirate 74. 78. 80 Acanthopagrus schlegeii 196 Acanthophora 235 Antigua and Barbuda 238, 251. 256 Antilles, Netherlands 253. 259 adaptations of seagrasses 5 Apseudes chilkensis 75 Aqaba [Elatl, Gulf of 67, 68-9, Aplysia punctata 40 1 Sea 50. 52 Aegean Sea 65, 67, 68, 71, 72 Africa see East Africa; South Africa; West Africa Adriatic agriculture seagrasses 61, 62, runways 164-5, 166 Akkeshi. Hokkaido 187. 189 uses of 188, 197 aircraft Al Iskandariya (Alexandria! 66-7 Alabama 225 Aland Islands. Finland 29. 30 Alaska 199-204 Albermarle Sound. North Carolina 218 Alexandria 66-7 Alfacs Bay, Spain 54 algae see epiphytic algae; filamentous algae; macroalgae; phytoplankton Algeria 251 alien species 49-50. 114. 203-4. macroalgae seagrasses Amami seaweeds 55. 68, 69, 71, 114, Islands, 205 ;55 203-4 Japan 186 213 87-8, 176, 197 shellfish 43, 154, as threat to seagrasses 99, 130 70-1, 74 aquaculture fish 114, 154, ;5S, Ocean see mid-Atlantic region; North Atlantic 197,205,213 Arabian Gulf biogeography 74-8 policy and management 80 seagrass distribution 78 threats and seagrass losses 78, 80 turtles and dugong 79 Arabian Sea 75 Aral Sea 59, 61,63 Aransas Bay, Texas 227 Arenicola manna 44 Argentina /4. 246 Argopecten irradians 209-10, 216 Argopecten purpuratus 246 ark shell 97 Aru Islands. Indonesia 179 associated biota 10-12 Brazil 244. 245 Caribbean 235-6 UO. 117 Northern Territory 1 1 policies and protection 23 seagrass species 251 southern coast 9, 122, 128 see also Eastern Australia; Western Australia Austrovenus stutchburyi 135 Avon-Heathcote Estuary, New Zealand 135 137. 138, 139-40 Aythya amencana 228 Azerbaijan 62, 251 Azov Sea 59.61-2 B Bagamoyo. Tanzania 87 Baguala Bay. Indonesia 179 Bahamas 251. 256 Bahia de Chengue, Colombia 239 Bahrain 74, 75, 78, 80, 251. 256 causeway 6. 76 Baja California 199. 201 Balearic Islands 53 Baltic Sea 28-30. 33. 34. 35 Bangka. Indonesia 178 Bangladesh 251 banknote. Brazilian 249 "banquette" 53 Banten Bay. Indonesia 175-6. East Africa 83. 85 endangered/threatened 11 12, /2. 17. 40. 178. 180 Amblygobius albimaculatus 96 183 Barbados 251 Ambon Bay, Indonesia Ammonia 175 India 101-2. 105. 107 Barbatia fusca 97 Indonesia 174-80 Barnegat Bay. New Jersey 209. 210 bass, striped 209 Batophora 235-6 179 Amphibolis antarctica 113. 117. 122, 251-5. 270 Amphibolis griffithii 251-5. 270 Amphiroa fragilissima 1 55 Anambas Island, Indonesia 178 anchor damage 43, 204, 247 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 101. 102-3. 704. 105 major taxonomic groups 11 Mediterranean 51 migratory movements 235 New Zealand 134-5. UO north western Atlantic 209-10 Philippines and Viet Nam 183 Scandinavia 27, 28,30 western Europe 40 bay scallop 209-10, 216 beach cast material beach seines 148-9 86, 88-9 Belitung, Indonesia 178 Belize 14. 236. 237, 239, 251. 256 Index Bermuda 251 biodiversity 10, 9, Calcanna calcar 75 185 1 seagrass ecosystems 10-12, 17 seagrasses 9, 22 biogeograplnic patterns 9-10 in biomass 16 Baltic Sea 28 below-ground 172 Gulf of Mexico 231-2 Indonesia 172-3 Japan 187 Zostera 196 U1, 189. 199, 200. 210, 228. 245 Biscay, Bay of 45 bivalves digging/dragging for 98, 99, 1 57, 158.2)0. 2^2. 213 dredging for 43-4, 219, 220-1 East Africa 83, 85 endemic 140 Malaysia 157, 158 New Zealand 135, 140 protected 51 western Europe 40, 43-4 western north Atlantic 209-10, 212, 213 black brant 200 Black Sea 59-61 "blow-out" areas 18, 237-8 boating 18 Brazil Catlinectes sapidus 216, 245-6, 248 Callophytlis rhynchocarpa 197 Calotomus carolinus 85-6 Calotomus spinidens 96, 97 Cambodia 251, 256 Canada Atlantic coast 207. 212 India lOi birds 40, 247 Hudson Bay 207. 212 marine protected areas 256 Pacific coast 199-204 seagrass species 251 Cape Cod 208, 210 Cape Lookout, North Carolina 218 capybara 245 carbon cycle 17, 84. 85 carbon dioxide levels 85 Caribbean 9, 234-41 ecosystem description 235-8 historical perspectives 238 policy and protection 241 species and coverage 234-5, 238 threats to seagrasses 238-9, 241 see also named islands Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity [CARICOMPI network 239, 241 Carpentaria, Gulf of 1 1 9, 1 20, 1 25 Caulerpa 232, 235 eastern Mediterranean Boundary Bay, Canada 201-2 Branta bernicla (brant goose) 40, 210 Branta bernicla nigricans Iblack 200 Brazil Abrolhos Bank 243, 247 biogeography 245-6 ecosystem description 243-4 Itamaraca Island 243, 244 Patos Estuanne Lagoon 244, 248 policy and protection 248-9, 256 seagrass losses and coverage 14. 246 seagrass species 251 Bay of 40 British Columbia 199-204 British Indian Ocean Territory 251. 256 Brest, South America 246-7 Western Australia 112 western Pacific islands 165, 166-7 see also land reclamation coastal management East Africa 89-90 assessment technique 77 116-17, 147 111, 112, 113 68, 69, 71 cockles 135,246 cod, Atlantic 209 Malaysia 155. 156 54, Colombia239, 241,257, 257 55 Caulerpa cactoides 126 Comoros Caulerpa prolifera 66, 68, 71, 155 Caulerpa racemosa 55, 68, 69, 71, Coorong Lakes, Australia 130 257 95, US Connecticut, 209, 212 coot, red-gartered 245 coral reefs 2 155 Caulerpa scalpelliformis 68 Caulerpa serrulata 70 Caulerpa taxifolia 55 causeway development Bahrain 6, 76 Kosrae 164-5 166, 167 Cayman Islands 251. 256 Ceramium 60, 61, 62 East Africa 82, 84 Eastern Australia 120-1 "halo zone" 71 Malaysia 1, 153, 155. 157-8 Red Sea 69-70 South America 245, 246 Thailand 145-6 western Pacific 161-3 Cerithium tenetlum 175 corals 245, 246 Chaetomorpha linum Champia sp. 197 Core Sound, North Carolina 218 Corpus Christi Bay, Texas 227, 229 219, 221 Chandeleur Islands, Louisiana 226, Corsica 57, 53, 55 Costa Rica 238, 257, 257 crabs 40, 83, 156, 196-7 227 Chara 62 Charlotte Harbor, Florida 225 blue 216. 245-6, 248 Charophyceae 63 Cheilio enermis 1 77 Chelonia mydas see green turtle Chesapeake Bay, US 216, 218, 220-1 hermit 101 New Zealand endemic 135 Thailand 148 threatened species 72 Chicoreus ramosus 98 croaker, whitemouth 248 Brunei 251 chicoric acid 55 Croatia 257, Buenos Aires 246 Chile 10, Bulgaria 251 China 185,257 Chinocoteague Bay 220 "bullata" ecophene 66 7 Pacific islands 161 Cockburn Sound, Western Australia Caspian Sea 61, 62-3 western Mediterranean 52-3. bottlenose dolphin 248 Mediterranean 55 northeastern United States 27 coastal protection 17, 86-7, 88-9 mid-Atlantic region 219 NortfiAmerica204, 212, 213 western Europe 42, 43 see a/so shipping Bonaire 14. 238 Boston Harbor 208 Botany Bay 123 Malaysia 157 rapid 239. 241 CARICOMP network East Africa 86-7 brant] New Zealand 137, 138 Christmas Bay, Texas 227 Chrysochromulina 31 Chwaka Bay, Tanzania 85, 86 Cladophora 60, 61 Cladophora glomerata 33 clam worms 213 clams 246 dredgingfor43-4, 219, 220-7 hand digging 43, 212, 213 soft-shell 275 Clean Water Act lUSI 220 climate change 167, 191, 241 potential response of seagrasses 17,85 coastal development Arabian region 76, 78, 80 Caribbean 238-9, 241 Japan 188-9 Christchurch, Benoa Bay, Indonesia 178 centers of 289 ?4, 243, 246, 257 257 crustaceans 40, 97-8, 156 Caribbean 236-7 Indonesia 175 vvn X^^. t( , 290 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES seed consumption 190 South America 245-6 see also named groups and seagrass species 257 species threats to seagrasses 86-8 Australia 120-1, 123, 124-5, 130 Denmark Cuba224, 238, 2i1, 251.257 Curacao ?4. 238 curio goods 85, 98 Curonian seagrass productivity and value 85-7 uses of seagrasses 30 depth distribution Spit, 32,33 27, biogeography 120-2 Japan 186-7 physical characteristics 119 Malaysia 154 Cuyo Island 183 Cygnus atratus 141 Cygnus cygnus 189 Cygnus melancoryphus 245 13, 251-5, 271 27, 32, 33, 112- 154 western Zostera Derawan Pacific 162 manna 27, 32, 33, 232 Islands, Indonesia 778 detritus by country/territory 257-5 direct eastern Mediterranean 65-8 ecological value 40 range map 271 western Mediterranean uses 55, 197 species Echinometra mathaei 86 Echinothnx diadema 86 see also beach cast 48, 49, 50, 52-3, 54 Cymodocea rotundata Diadema antillarum 236 Diadema savignyi 86 Diadema setosum 86, 98 ecological value 75 16-17,24, 129 carbon sequestration 17 coastal protection/sediment by country/territory 251-5 Diani-Chale Lagoon, Kenya 86 Eastern Australia 128 India 104, 105, 106-7 diatoms 101 Indonesia 171, 172, 173-4, 178-9 die-back see wasting disease Japan 187 Diogenes Malaysia 157 156, Mozambique Dick, Chief map 147 nutrient cycling 40, 84, 85 75 distribution maps maps 7 calculating global areas 13-16 272 Red Sea 69-70, stabilization 17, 86-7, 88-9, 116-17. Adam 202 direct habitat 99 95, 96, photosynthetic studies 85 range 1 and protection 23, 130-1, 256 seagrass coverage 14, 125-8 seagrass losses 122-5, 126-7 threats to seagrasses 129-30 uses of seagrasses 122, 128-9 echinoderms97-8, 176 see also named groups and policies Red Sea 69, 70 and water quality Lithuania 30, 33 Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea nodosa Eastern Australia 119-31 development 3, 7-8 economic value 17-18 ecosystems adjacent to seagrasses 84 seagrass 7, 10-13 see also associated biota ecotypes 66, 194-5 geographic regions 9-10 eel 33 Thailand 144, 146, 147, 148 limitations 13 western Pacific seagrass habitat 7, 13 seagrass species 8-10, 262, 263-86 eelgrass see Zostera marina Egretta garzetta 158 71 169 168, Cymodocea serrulata Egypt 65, 66-7, 67, 252 by country/territory 251-5 dolphin, bottlenose India 104, 105 Dominica 257 Dominican Republic 241, 257, 257 Donuzlav Salt Lake 60 dragging, net 213 El dredging Elpidium Indonesia 171, 172, 173-4, 178-9 Japan 187 Malaysia 153, 755 Mozambique range 95, 96. 99 map 272 Red Sea 68-9 Thailand 144, 145, western Arabian Gulf 76, 78, 147 El 220-7 Malaysia 157 mid-Atlantic Cypraea tigris 85 Cyprus 67, 68, 71, 251, 257 US 219 dugong IDugong dugon) 183 East Africa 83, 88 Eastern Australia 119 168 Deception Bay, Queensland 123 69, 70, 1 17, 40, 183 seagrasses 12-13, 188, 236-7 endemic species 12, 770, 777 740 Enhalus acoroides 13 by country/territory 257-5 India 103, 704 Indonesia 180 Malaysia 154, 156 Japan 189 Mozambique Malaysia 154, 156 Thailand 145, 747 148-9 Philippines 183 range map 95, 96, 99 263 Red Sea 68, 70 seeds 149, 166-7 Thailand 144, 145, 146. 147 transplantation 176 definitions 5-7 policies and protection 34-5 seagrass distribution and losses 27-8, 31-2,33 pink ear 95 Indonesia 171-80, 181 20-1 Denmark 75 Japan 187 123, 124-5, 130 Delaware 216-22, 220-1 1 fish India 102, 105 western Pacific 164 deforestation 138-9 Gulf of 67, 68-9, 70-1, 74 feeding 147, 149 decline, global 20 deepwater seagrasses Elat, associated biota 2, captivity 180 Dahlak Archipelago 69 Dares Salaam 87 Dasycladales 235 David and Lucile Packard Foundation ElSuweisl5uezl67, 68-9, 70-1 endangered species Arabian Gulf 78, 79 D Nino Southern Oscillation lENSOl 205, 226 variegated 96 duck, redhead 228 6 Dab'a66 emperor 80 for bivalves 43-4, 219, 146, Pacific 163 Cymodoceaceae 248 earthquakes 238 East Africa 82-90 biogeography 82-5 policies and protection 88-90, 258, 260 seagrass coverage 87-8 uses 87, 122, 154, 166-7 western Pacific 162, 166-7, 168-9 ENSO lEl Nino Southern OscillationI 205, 226 Enteromorpha 60, 61, 62, 87 environmental impact assessment 6, 76, 77 1 1 Index epibenthos 124-5 Caspian Sea 63 Glenan Archipelago 45 epifauna 27, 28, 101, 190 East Africa 83, 85-6, 88 global habitat distribution 13 Eastern Australia 128-9 Korea 196-7 global seagrass area 13-16 Malaysia 154, global Epinephetus malabancus epiphytic algae 10-1 Black Sea 60 Caribbean 235, 236-7 K7 156. Workshop 2, 287 warming see climate change Global Seagrass 158 mid-Atlantic region 216 goatfish, dash-dot 97 India 101 Mozambique 95-8 goby, tailspot 96 Korea 197 New Zealand 135 north western Atlantic 209-10 shrimps 77-8, 128-9,23/ South America 245-6 Thailand 147-9 Malaysia 156 Western Australia 113 western Europe 40 Eritrea 69, 252 Esox lucius 33 Estonia 29, 34, 252 value of seagrasses 17 western Europe 40 western Pacific 163-4 Eucheuma 237 Eucheuma spinosa 87-8 fishing Euro-Asian seas seagrass coverage 14 see also Aral Sea Azov Sea Black seine net 85-6 and losses 40-3 uses and value of seagrasses 38 see also Mediterranean Sea; flounder, winter 209 Scandinavia flowers Great Bay, male Water Framework Directive 35 eutrophication 3 9, 189, 236-7 128-9 green turtle 102 Arabian Gulf 79 Caribbean 238 East Africa 83, 88-9 240 237 foraminifera 175 Eastern Australia forestry 138-9 Pacific 164 Atlantic coast 39, 40, 43, 44, 32, 33. 34, Caribbean islands 252 Mediterranean coast 51, protected areas 257 seagrass species 252 35 East Africa 87 Gulf of Mexico 232 Mediterranean 55 Western Australia 112-13 western Europe 42, 44 45 55, 56 1 19 South America 245, 247 Greenland 252 Grenada 52 groundwater 85, 21 groupers 12. 176 Malabar 147 Guadeloupe 14. 238, 252. 257 Guam 162,257 Guatemala 252. 257 Guinea Bissau 252 Gulf of Arabia see Arabian Gulf fruiting 121, 149, 187-8 Fucila armillata 245 Funakoshi Bay, Honshu 190 evolutionary origin 10 207, 208. 68, 252 Green Island seagrass meadows France Black Sea 60 Caribbean 239 23, 131 New Hampshire 210 Greece 66, 67, flowering 187-8, 201 female Habitats Directive 35, 44, 46, 52 Denmark 14. Marine Park Gulf of Mexico 224-5 European Union (EUl snails 28, 44 128-9 Florida 11 east coast 183 deepwater seagrasses 124-5 Green Island seagrass meadows Western Australia 115 FloresSea 173-4 and protection 44-5 seagrass coverage 14. 43 threats to seagrasses 43-4 policies 210,245 dugong 147 Great Barrier Reef 120-1, 126-7 traps 96-7 historical perspectives birds 28, 40, 141, 189, 199,200, sea urchins 86, 236. 241 Sea; Caspian Sea Europe, western 238 sea turtles 247 methods 219,220-; mechanized 148-9 ; 14. grazing fish 83, 85-6, invertebrates 97-8, 99, 212, 213. ; Gracilaria coronopifolia 155, 156 Grand Cayman fungi 101 Gulf of Carpentaria 119, 120, 125 Gulfof Kutch 105 New Zealand 141 Faure Sill, Western Australia 116-17 ferry terminals 204, 205 Fiji 162, 166, 167, 169.252 filamentous algae 33, 60, 61 Farewell Spit, Finland 29, 30, 35, 252 First Nations people 199 fishfarming 154, 158. 213 fish habitat areas (FHAsl 131 fish species associated with seagrasses 11. 12 Gulfof Mannar 102, 104, 105 Gulf of Mexico 14, 224-32 Gadus morhua 209 gams, seagrasses 128-9 Galeta Point, Panama 235 Galveston Bay, Texas 227, 230 gastropods 28, 44, 83, 85, 155, 156. 175-6,236,237 Gazi Bay, Kenya 82, 84. 85, 86 genetic testing 262 Geographe Bay, Western Australia Gulf of Thailand 144-50 Gulf War oil spill 75-7 Guyana 241 H Haad Chao Mai National Park, Thailand 144-5, 109-10, 111, 112 146. 147, 149 Caribbean 235-6, 237 Indonesia 176-7, 180 Korea 196 Mozambique 95-6 geographical information systems habitat distribution, global 13 [GiSI7, 166 geographical regions 9-10 habitat threatened 12 Cerres oyena 83, 96 see also named fishes fisheries Arabian Gulf 77-8 Brazil 245-6 Germany 28, 29, 30, 33, 252. Gerupuk Bay, Indonesia maps 7, 13 Habitats Directive (EUl 44, 46 257 173, 175, 177, 178 Gilimanuk Bay, Indonesia 178 Gippsland Lakes, Australia 123 252 Hatimeda 235, 239 Haiti 241, Halodule spp. leaf morphology 82-3 taxonomy 243-4, 262, 272 Halodule beaudettei 251-5. 262, 273 291 292 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Halodule bermudensis 251-5. 262, 273 Halodule emarginata 2^3-4, 257-5, 273 Halodule pinifoUa India 704 Indonesia 171, 772, 178-9 Malaysia 153, 155-7 Halodule uninervis Arabian region 74, 75-8, 80 by country/territory 257-5 Eastern Australia 72S genetic studies 262 148 Indonesia 171, 172, 173, 77S-? Malaysia 154-5, 156, 157 95, 96. 99 map 274 Hervey Bay, Queensland 121, 122, 123, 725 Heterozostera tasmanica see Zostera tasmanica by country/territory 251-5 Hippocampus Caribbean 234-5 Gulf of Mexico 224, 225-6, 227-31 range map 265 Holothuna atra 148, 164 HolothunascabraSZ. 96-7. 266 Halophila minor 262 40. 51 148, 176 Holothuroidea 85, 96-7. 98, 148, 154, 163-4, 176 Homarus amencanus 209 Honduras 252. 257 hotspots, biodiversity 9, 10, by country/territory 251-5 Hudson Bay Indonesia 77S-9 human Mozambique 99 199,204 Hurricane Carta 227 Hurricane Gilbert 238 Hurricane Hugo 237-8 Hurricane Roxanne 237 range India 704, 105 Mozambique 74,^, Halophila hawaiiana 251-5. 266 Halophila johnsonii 236-7. 251-5. map 274 Thailand Ui, U6. 747 range Thailand 144, 145, Halophila engelmanni by country/territory 251-5 range South America 243, 245 southernmost limit 243 map 266 Thailand 144, 146 Halophila ovalis 2 Arabian region 74, 75, 77, 78 by country/territory 257-5 185 207, 212 food 87, 122, 136, 148, 166-7, hurricanes 218, 219, 227, 257, 237-8 dugong grazing 747 hydraulic dredges 219, 220-7 Red Sea 69-71 Eastern Australia 122, 725, 72S Hydrobia shoot density 173 India 704 Thailand U4, 74<5, 747 Indonesia 171, 772-3, 778-? western Pacific 166 Halodule wrightii Brazil 246 Japan 186 Malaysia 153, 154-6 Mozambique 95, 96. hydrothermal vents 72 99 by country/territory 257-5 photosynthetic studies 85 Caribbean 234, 235, 236. 237, 239. 230,231-2 range maps 267 Red Sea 69, 70, 71 salinity tolerance 74 taxonomy 262 Thailand 144, 145, 747, 148 India 704 var ramamurtiana 104 male flower 237 western Pacific 162-3, 167 240 East Africa 82-3, 87 Gulfof Mexico 225, 227, 22S-?, mid-Atlantic region 216-17 Mozambique 99 28, 44 Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris 245 Hydrocharitaceae 6 Hydropuntia 237 Halophila ovata Iceland 27, 252 India associated biota 101-2, 105 biogeography 102-3 Kadmat Island 70^-7 policies and protection 105, 108, by country/territory 257-5 257 northeast Pacific 200, 203 India 704 northernmost limit 216-17 range map 274 range seagrass coverage 74, 702 seagrass species 252 threats to seagrasses 104-5 95, 96. salinity tolerance 228-9. 231-2 map 267 Red Sea 69 Halophila spinulosa South America 243, 244, 245, 247 taxonomy 82-3, 262 Halophila spp. 121, 235,263 Halophila australis 251-5. 264 Australia 724-5 Halophila baillonii range Brazil 243, 244 by country/territory 257-5 Caribbean 234-5 range map 264 Halophila beccarii 171 Indian River, Florida 236 Indonesia 257 by country/territory 257-5 historical perspective 180 Philippines 183 and protection 180-1, 257 seagrass coverage 74, 178-9, 180 seagrass species and ecology 171-4,252 policy map 268 Halophila stipulacea Arabian region 74-6, 78 by country/territory 257-5 East Africa 87 eastern Mediterranean 65-6, 68 India 704 India 102, 103-4 Mozambique Malaysia 153, 156-7 range map 264 range map 268 Red Sea 68-72 Thailand 144, 146 salinity tolerance 74 western Mediterranean 48, 49-50, 52-3 by country/territory 257-5 Caribbean 234, 235 Eastern Australia 725 Gulf of Mexico 224, 230, 231, 232 India 704, 105 95, 99 96-7. 99. integrated coastal zone management international agreements 35 introduced species see alien species invertebrates Halophila tricostata by country/territory 257-5 Eastern Australia 121, 124, 725 range map 268 Hawaiian Islands 166 heavy metal pollution Malaysia 153, 154, 755 Helsinki Convention map 265 Mozambique 89-90 Indonesia 171, 778-? range Inhaca Island, 100 by country/territory 257-5 Halophila caphcorni9, 251-5. 265 Halophila decipiens associated biota 174-7, 179-80 Indonesia 171, 777-S herring. Pacific 199 India 707 New Zealand 134-5, 740 southeastern Africa 97-8, 99 see also named species and groups Ionian Sea 66, 67 Iran 74, Iraq 33, 87 [HELCOMl 35 75 75 Ireland 38-9, 252 Northern 43 Israel 67-8. 70. 252. 257 1 Index Italy 50. 51. 52.252.257 Kutch, Gulfof 105 Itamaraca Island. Brazil 243, 2^4 Iwate Prefecture. Japan 190 Izembek Lagoon, Alaska 199, 200 US 226, 227 Lutjanus fuivifiamma 97 Louisiana, Kuwait 74, 75 253 Kuwait Action Plan 80 Kwakwaka'wakw Nation 202 Kwangyang Bay. Korea 197 Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa 94 M macroalgae Kylinia 60 alien species 55, 68, 69, 71, 155 Jamaica 238, 241,252, 257-S Japan 185-6 biogeography 186-8 Baltic Sea 34 Caribbean 235, 236-7 culture 87-8, 176. 197 Labynnthula zosterae historical losses 188 losses of seagrasses 189 18. 38. 138. 207 seagrass coverage H. 188 seagrass species 252 tfireats to seagrasses 188-9 uses of seagrasses 188 Jervis Bay, New South Wales 1 Jordan 69, 252 Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Saudi Arabia 78 Eastern Australia 126-7 Laguna de Alvarado, Mexico 230, 231 Euro-Asian enclosed seas Laguna de Tamiahua. Mexico 230. 231 Laguna de Terminos. Mexico 230. 231 Laguna Madre. Texas 227. 228-9 Gulf of Mexico 232 Laguna Ojo de Japan 188 Liebre, Baja California 199 102, 104, 106- Arabian Gulf Kattegat Strait, Denmark 34, 80 76, 78, East Africa 88 Karimata Island, Indonesia 178 Karkmitsky Gulf 60 35 Kazakhstan 252 Kenya biogeography 82-3, 85 Gazi Bay 82, 8i. 85, 86 policies and protection 88-90, 258 seagrass coverage 87-8 seagrass productivity and value 85-7 seagrass species 253 threats to seagrasses 86-8 Kepulauan Serlbu reefs 175 Kerch Strait 60 Japan 189 Korea 198 Malaysia 155-7 Philippines 183-4 see also coastal development latitude 13, 209 Latvia 29, 34, 253 Laurencia 62, 235. 236-7 Law of the Sea Treaty 167 Lebanon 67, 68. 253 Lelu Island. Micronesia 164-5 Lepidochelys olevacea 102 Lepilaena 6 Leptoscarus vaigiensis 95. 97 Lethnnus lentjan 95 Kiel Bight 28 Lethnnus variegatus 96 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 253 Kimberley coast. Western Australia light availability Australia 111-13 110 253 Kiribati Ko Samui, Thailand 145-6 KoTalibong, Thailand 145, U6. 149 Korea, Republic of 185 India 102 Indonesia 174 Mediterranean Scandinavia 27. 32, 33 western Europe 44 see a/so eutrophication; sediment loading Western Australia 113 western Europe 40, 44 Macrophthalamus hirtipes 135 Madagascar 94, 100,255,258 maerl bed 46 Magellan Straits 244 Maia squinado 40 Maine, US 207-10, 2?2, 273 Makassar Strait 179 Malaka Strait 179 Malaysia biogeography 153-4 ecosystem description 152-3 historical perspectives 152, 154 macroalgae community 155-6 policies and protection 152, 158-9, 258 seagrass species 253 seagrass losses and present coverage 14, 154-7 Tanjung Adang Laut shoal 154, 155 threats to seagrasses 157-8 Maldives 253 Maluku Island, central 179 manatee 12 236. 238, 245 Manatee County, Florida 225 manatee grass see Syringodium historical losses 197 Limassol, Bay of 65 and protection 198, 258 seagrass distribution and coverage Limnona simulata 236 mangroves Limon earthquake 238 Manila Bay 183 U. 193, 197 seagrass research 196 seagrass species 253 limpet Mannar, Gulf threats to seagrasses 198 Lithuania 29. 30. 33. 253 of seagrasses 197 Kos68 1 1 1-12. 235 filiforme 169 Kotania Bay, Indonesia 175, 176, 178-9 Krasnovodsky Bay 62-3 Kung Krabane Bay, Thailand 145, 146 Kuta Bay, Indonesia 177 178. 180 82, 84. 85, 110, of 102, 104. Maori people 135-6 New maps Zealand 140 Egg Harbor. New Jersey 210 lobster 209 Kosrae, Micronesia H, 164-5, 166, 168. requirements eelgrass 140 210 Little 55 Mozambique 93 light uses 52, 53, Scandinavia 33, 34 biogeography 193-7 policy 63 mid-Atlantic region 219, 221 7 land reclamation Kadmat Island, India 106-7 Kaduk Island, Korea 197 60, Malaysia 155-6 Lakshadweep Islands Lampung Bay, Indonesia 178 Lamu Archipelago, Kenya 83, 87 K East Africa 84. 87 spiny 203. 237 Lombok. Indonesia 245 105 calculating global areas 13-16 methods 3, 7-8 deepwater seagrasses 124-5 data sources and limitations 13 171, 172. 173. 174-6. 177. 180 Lomentana hakodatensis 197 Island, US 209, 212 Long seagrass habitat species ranges 7, 3, 13 262, 263-86 Maputo Bay, Mozambique 96-7, 99 Maquoit Bay, Maine 210, 213 losses, global 20 marema Lottiaalveus 140. 210 mariculture seeaquaculture fish traps 96-7 293 1 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES 294 marine protected areas western Pacific 163 see also named species and groups Mombasa Marine Park. Kenya 88-9 Australia 115-17. 131, 256 East Africa 88, 258, 260 global ?9, 20, 23, 256-61 changes in distribution 135-8, 139, 141 policies and protection 139-41 seagrass species and distribution Malaysia 152. 158-9,258 Monaco 258 134, 735, 136-7. New monitoring, global 168-9, 184 threats to seagrasses 138-9 Zealand 141 western Pacific 167 Marsa t«1atrufi Monroe County, Florida 224-5 Montepuez Bay, Mozambique 23, Harbor, Egypt 66 Marseille-CortiQU region, France 51 Marshalllslands 166,253 Martinique U. 236, 238, 252. 253. 258 Mar/land, US 218, 221 Massachusetts, US 207-8, 210, 212 Mauritania 253. 258 Mauritius W, 95, 99, 100, 253. 258 96, 97, Halophita stipulacea 66 Phyllospadix spp. 195 Mediterranean Sea, eastern 65-8, 719, 48-56 associated species 51 167. 170 mid-Atlantic coast 216-22 moshiogusa 188 Mozambique 23, 94 Pacific coast and biomass 52-3. 55 seagrass coverage M, 51-2 species distribution 48-51, 52-3 threats to seagrasses 55-6 meiofauna fisheries 95-8 ecosystem description 207-9 seagrass losses and coverage 98-100 historical perspectives India 107 Indonesia 174-5 mullet 248 Pacific coast 199, 201 protected areas 258 seagrass species 253 /4, 224-32 harvesting 210, 212, 213 Mya arenaria 213 Myanmar 253 Mexico. Gulf of Micronesia 161 biogeography 162 historical perspectives 164-6 169 and protection 167, 170 seagrass species 253 SeagrassNet 168-9 uses and threats to seagrasses 166-7 mid-Atlantic region biogeography 216-17 217-18 and protection 219-22 seagrass distribution 218-19 threats to seagrasses 219, 220-1 historical perspectives policy Miliolina 175 55, 149, 155-7. 239. 241 Mississippi 225-7 mojarra. blacktip 96 mollusk shell middens 165 mollusks digging/dragging for 98, 99, 157, 158. 210,212,2/3 dredging for 219, 220-1 222 9. 199-205 biogeography 200-4 historical perspectives 203-4 policy and protection 205 seagrass coverage 204 threats to seagrasses 204-5 Northern Ireland 43 Northumberland Strait. Canada 207, Norway 27, 30-1,253 Notoacmea helmsi Iscaphal 140 nutrient cycling 17, 84. 85 N names, nutrient loading local, for seagrasses 135-6, Indonesia 171-2 188 Nantuna and Island, Indonesia 178 New 237,237-8,238 Zealand 139-40 US 27 7 Tampa Bay 226 Western Australia 112-13 western North Atlantic 27 7, 212 see also eutrophication; sewage net dragging 213 Papua New Guinea 169 207. 209. 272 South Wales 121. 127 York State. US 11. 209, 272 morphology 82-3 northeastern Red Sea 71-2 natural hazards 18, 218. 219. 227. Netherlands 39, 4 1. 43, 44, 253 Netherlands Antilles 253. 259 New Caledonia 252 New England. US 210, 212 New Hampshire. US 207-8. 208. 210, 272, 214 leaf mid-Atlantic coast 219, 220 Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island 208, 210 New New New New New 1 Gulf of Mexico 232 pollution Nyali-Shanzu-Bambun Lagoon, Kenya 86, 88-9 Ireland. Jersey. US East Africa 83, 85 Zealand ecosystem description 134-5 Indonesia 175-6 endemic species 140 New estimated coverage 14 Zealand 135, 140 20. Nova Scotia 207, 212 168. policy mining seagrass coverage 212 seagrass losses 210-1 threats 212-13 North Carolina, US 216, 216-17, 218- 212 Mytitus edulis 28. 34. 209-10. 273 164-5 166, 210 and protection 213-14 northeast Pacific Mullus surmuletus 40 murex 98 Muscutista senhousia 205 mussels 205 blue2B. 34. 209-10. 2/3 culture 43. 213 Caribbean coast 238. 240 estimated coverage 14 Gulf of Mexico coast 230-2 policy 14. seagrass species 253 threats to seagrasses 97 MPAs see marine protected areas mttmbi 86 Mexico 199-204 North Atlantic, western 9 biogeography 209-10 protected areas 258 productivity 14, Nicaragua 237, 238, 253. 259 Nicobar Islands 101. 102-3. 704, 105 Ninigret Pond, Rhode Island 210, 27 7 nomenclature 5-7 non-governmental organizations 150, North America biogeography 93 2 Kosrae Island Newfoundland 207 Zos(era spp. 190. 194-5 54 Mediterranean Sea, western use of seagrasses 136-7 Zealand Fisheries Act (19961 140-1 Meandrina brasiliensis 245 Mecklenburger Bight 28 Spam 253 New 98 and nutrients 82-3 Islands, 95, Moreton Bay, Queensland 119, 123 Morocco 253 Morone saxatilis 209 morphological characteristics 5 Halodule spp. 82-3 Mayotte 253 Medes 7/ historical ocean currents 191 Odontodactytus scyltarus 175 oil pollution Arabian Gulf 75-7, 78, 80 Caribbean 239-40 Index Europe kU,, productivity 15, 16-17 Phyllospadix serrulatus East Africa 87 50 Malaysia 155 by country/territory 251-5 East Africa 85 northeast Pacific 202, 203 Indonesian seagrasses 171-4 measurement 180 range map 285 Phyllospadix torreyi northeast Pacific 205 Okinawa Island. Japan 189 Onnan 75, 253 Oresund region 28, 31, 34 Mediterranean 52-3, 55 and nutrient availability 171-2 Thalassodendron cibatum 84, 85 western Europe 40 Zos(era 196 protection of seagrasses 20, 23 Protoreaster nodosus 76 Pseudopleuronectes americanus 209 by country/territory 251-5 northeast Pacific 199, 202, 203 overwater structures 34, 204, 205 range map 286 uses 199,205 phytoplankton 44, 102, 113 oysters 97 Picnic Cove, Osmerus mordax 209 Otsuchi Bay, Honshu 190 Shaw Island 203 culture 43, 154, 197,205 pike 33 dredging 220-1 Pitbara coast. Western Australia 1 10 1 200 Ocean see northeast Pacific flyway Pacific Pacific; western Pacific islands Pagrus auratus 135 Palau 162, 164, 166, 167, Pinna muricata 3, 97 Pinna nobilis 51 pinna shell 3, 51, 97 Pleuroploca trapezium 98 Pohnpei, Micronesia 168 Poland 33, 254 pollution Pagurus spp. 175 169, 253, 259 Pamlico Sound, North Carolina 218 Panama 235, 236, 241, ,?53, 259 Panulirus argus 237, 246 Panuiirus interruptus 203 Papua New Guinea 161, 165, 166 biogeography 162 policies and protection 167, 259 seagrass monitoring 169 seagrass species 254 Pan Island, Indonesia 176-7 Parque Nacional Arrecifes Puerto l^lorelos 240 Parque Natural Tayrona, Colombia 239 Pseudosquilta citiata Q Qatar 74, sewages/, 128-9. 161 South America 247 thermal 72 toxic chemicals 113-14 Western Australia 12, 13-14, 15 see also eutrophication; nutrient 1 loading: oil 75. 254 queen conch 1 1 236, 237 Queensland, Australia 119, 122, 123, 125 seagrass protection 130-1 Queensland Fisheries Act 130-1 Quinmba pollution polychaetes 43, 107, 114 98, 99. Islands, Mozambique Polysiphonia 60, 61, 62 Polysiphonia japonica 197 Port Phillip Bay, Australia 123 R Patos Estuarine Lagoon, Brazil 244, Posidonia angustifolia 251-5. 277 ray 232 248 Pecten novazelandiae 135 Pengkalan Nangka, Malaysia 158 Posidonia australis razorclam, stout 248 City, Australia 112, 115 183-4,254,259 Philippines 14, phosphorus levels 172, 221 1 14 by country/territory 251-5 Ramsar Convention rapid pollution 71-2 117 113. seagrass distribution Redonda photosynthetic studies 85 Posidonia denhartogii 251-5, 262. reefs, artificial 197 Phyllospadix spp. 203, 284 278 Posidonia kirkmanii 251-5. 262, 278 remote sensing Posidonia oceanica research by country/territory 251-5 Japan 186 Korea 193, 194, 197-8 morphological features 195 range map 284 Phyltospadix japonicus by country/territory 251-5 Japan 186 Korea 193, by country/territory 251-5 eastern Mediterranean 65-7, 68 range map 279 seaweed competition 55 uses 55 western Mediterranean 194, 197. 198 Phyllospadix scouleri Posidonia ostenfeldii 251-5, 262, 279 Posidonia robertsoniae 251-5. 262 Posidonia sinuosa 113. 123, 251-5, Posidoniaceae 6 northeast Pacific 199,202-3 Potamogeton 6, 29 Potamogeton pectinatus map 285 uses 199 Island, Brazil 77 66, 68-71, 27 8, 86 reproduction 162, 187-8 Korea 196 Mediterranean 48 photosynthesis 85 South America 244 Resource Management Act 119911, New Zealand 140 restoration of seagrasses 23 north western Atlantic 208. 209 Wadden Sea 41 restricted range species 12-13 Reunion 259 279 by country/territory 251-5 range 48, 49. 50. 52-4. 55-6 morphological features 195 range map 285 141 assessment technique 77 Red Data Book species 188 Red Sea 67 Eastern Australia 122 range map 277 Western Australia rabbitfish97, 183 Posidonia coriacea 251-5. 262, 278 Phyllospadix iwatensis 95, 100 Parupeneus barberinus 97 Perth 75 1 Caribbean 239, 241 heavy metals 33, 87 Mediterranean 71-2 Red Sea 71-2 Portsmouth Harbor, Maine 207, 208. 214 Portugal 39, 43, 254 Portunus pelagicus 83, 148, 156 parrotfish 83, 85, 86, 95, 96-7 1 Pteragogus ftagellifera 97 Puerto Galera, Philippines 184 Puerto Morelos Reef National Park 240 Puerto Rico 238, 239, 254. 259 Puget Sound 204, 205 push seines 148-9 Pyrene versicolor 75 Pinctada nigra 97 61, Princess Charlotte Bay 121 63 Rhode Island, US 208-9, Rhodes IRodosI 65 Rias Coast, Honshu 190 rimurahia 136 210, 211. 212 295 4 296 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES Rio de Janeiro 2i6 Sarasota Bay, Florida 225 seine net fishing 95-6, 98, 148-9 roach 33 Sarawak 153 Senegal 254 Rodos IRhodesI 65 Romania 25A Sardinia 52, 55 Sen Indians 199 Sermata Islands, Indonesia 179 Sargassum spp. 155 Sargassum muticum 44 Rotaliina 175 Rufiji Delta, Tanzania 87 Ruppia cirrhosa Caspian Sea 62 eastern Mediterranean 67 western Europe 38, 39 Ruppia maritima Caribbean 23i, 235, 236 Gulfof Mexico 225-6, 227, 230, 231,232 India 104 Indonesia 171, 180 Korea 193, 194. 197. 198 Malaysia 15A mid-Atlantic region 216-17 Serranidae 147-8 sewage Saudi Arabia Arabian Gulf 74-80 protected areas 259 Red Sea coast 67, 69-70 seagrass species 254 Saudi Arabia-Bahrain causeway 76 scallop bay 209-10, 216 Shaw New shellfish Zealand 135 scallops, Chilean 246 Scandinavia historical and present coverage 30-4 policy and protection 34-5 30 longpipes 203 sea cucumbers 85, 96-7. 98, 148, western Europe 38 western North Atlantic 207, 208, sea goose (black brantl 200 Russian Federation 62, 254. 259 Rutilus rutilus 33 sea snake, banded 166 Ryukyu Islands, Japan sea turtles 13, 40, 51 (special areas of conservation] 46 see boating St Kitts and Nevis 254 St Lawrence River 212 St Lucia 239, 254. 259 St Vincent and the Grenadines 254. 259 Saleh Bay, Indonesia 179 sailing Arabian Gulf 74 Aral Sea 63 Sea 28 Caspian Sea 62 Gulf of Mexico 228-9, 231-2 mid-Atlantic region 217 Baltic salinity tolerance 246 Sicily Hatophila spp. 74 Zostera noltii 62. 63 203 Samoa 162, 254 San Francisco Bay 204 San Juan Archipelago 203 sand mining 155-7, 239 Sao Paulo 246 Sao Tome and Principe 254 Sallsh people 52 Arabian Gulf 79 Siderastrea stellata 245, 246 Caribbean 238 Sierra Leone 254 Siganus canaliculatus 183 Siganus sutor 95, 96 1 19 endangered species 183 grazing 247 Sinai 71 Singapore 254. 259 Skagerrak Strait, Denmark 34, 35 slime molds 18,38, 138,207 India 102 Pacific 164 South America 245, 247 sea urchins 40, 51, 96-7. 98, 176 grazing and competition 86, 236. 241 Seagrass-Watch 168. 184 SeagrassNet 168-9. 184 seaweeds 71, 155 see also macroalgae Sebastes inermis 96 Secchidepth27, 32, 33 1 Seychelles 259 sediment loading 1 Eastern Australia 123 New Zealand 138-9 North America 210-11 Western Australia 113 sediment stabilization 17, 116-17 seeds consumption 190 Enhatus acoroides 149, 166-7 human uses Slovenia 259 Smaragdia viridens 236 smelt 209 snails sea-level rise 167,219, 241 East Africa 87 Hatodule wrightii 228-9. 231-2 pollution shrimp fisheries 77-8, 128-9, 231. sea stars 51, 176 alienspecies55, 68, 69, farming 87-8, 176, 197 salinity oil shoot height 194-5 Eastern Australia SACs shipping 44, 130,204,205 shoal grass see Hatodule wrightii shoot density 173, 231-2 East Africa 83, 88-9 Sabah, Malaysia 153, 154, 157-8 Sabella spatlanzani 1 1 Mozambique 97-8 western Europe 40, 43-4 western North Atlantic 209-10, see also boating; 154. 163-4, 176 sea horses 12. sea rabbit 40 188, 189 2/3,219,220-; species of shellfish var maritima 203 185, 186, 187, harvestings, 97-8, 99, 210, 212, 212,213 see also named groups and uses of seagrasses 30 Scotland 38, 43 209 Ruppiaceae, taxonomy 6-7 TF 14. northeast Pacific 199, 200. 203 South America 245, 246, 247-8 var. Washington 203 Brazil 246 seagrass species distribution 27threats to seagrasses 34 Island, culture 43, 154, 197,205,213 Mozambique 99 Thailand U4, 146 pollution Green Island, Australia 128-9 western Mediterranean 51 western Pacific islands 161 Seychelles 94, 95, 99-100, 254. 259 Shark Bay, Western Australia 109-10, 115, 116-17 of 148, 166-7 production 121, 187-8 mud 44 small green 236 snake, banded sea 166 snapper blackspot 97 New Zealand 135 Solomon Islands 163, 164, 254 Somalia 254 South Africa 10 biogeography 93-4 present coverage 100 protected areas 259 seagrass species 254 South America biogeography 245-6 ecosystem description 243-4, 245 historical perspectives 246 policy and protection 248-9 research data 244 seagrass species and distribution 246-8, 254 South Sea 193 1 Index Spain39, ^3. 51. 53-4.55 marine protected areas 259 seagrass species 53. 254 special areas of conservation ISACsl kb Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia 171-2. 174 Sri Lanka 25i seagrass species 255 Tobago 14. 238 Tokyo Bay 188 Tonga 162. 255. 260 threats to seagrasses 86-8 Torres Strait 120. 125-6 seagrass productivity and value 85-7 Tarut Bay. Saudi Arabia 74-5. 75-6. 77 Tasmania taxonomy 121. 122. 127-8 5-7. 262, 263, 269, 270, 271, 272, 275. 276. 277, 280, 284, 286 Stethojulis strigiventer 96 TBT stomatopods 175 storms 120. 123. 167.218.219 StrombuB gibberulus 85 Strombus gigas 237 Strombus trapezium 85 Sudan 254 Te Angiangi Marine Reserve, Suez. Gulf of 67. 68-9. 70-1 Itributyltinl 114 New tourism Caribbean 238-9 East Africa 86-7 chemicals 13-14 Western Australia 113-14 toxic 1 Tozeuma Zealand 141 spp. 1 75 transplantation of seagrasses 23, tectonic activity 205, 238 176, 208 209 Teluk Kemang, Malaysia /55 transport infrastructure 164-5, 166 teripang trade 176 trap fisheries 96-7 Texas 227-30 trawling 52. 53. ST. 115 Thailand tributyltin (TBTI 114 Sulawesi. Indonesia 171-2. 174. 178 biogeography and seagrass Trichechus manatus 236. 238, 245 surfgrasses see Phyllospadix spp. species 144-6. 255 dugong 145. 147 148-9 Trinidad and Tobago 238, 239, 241, estimated coverage 14 historical perspectives and losses 146-8 Tripneusles gratilla 86, 98, 176 swan black U1 black-necked 245 whooper 189 Sweden policy east coast 28-30. 31 and protection 35 seagrass species 254 west coast 27-8. 31 Syngnathoides biaculeatus 177 Syria 68, 255 policies Synngodium filiforme 255 260 and protection 149-50. 260 threats to seagrasses 148-9 uses and value of Thalassia hemprichii 2 biomass and shoot density 173 by country/territory 251-5 India 104. 105. 106-7 Caribbean 234, 235, 236. 239. 240. Indonesia 171, 172-4, 177-9 Philippines 183 range map 269 Red Sea 69-71 southeast Africa range map 275 isoetifotium 2 by country/territory 251-5 Eastern Australia 128-9 India 104. 105 93, 94. 95. 96. Pacific 162-3. seagrasses 162-3 260 255 Turkmenistan 255 Turks and Caicos Islands 255. 260 turtle grass see Thalassia testudinum turtles see sea turtles Turkey 99 Thailand 144. 145. 146 western Storm Agnes 218 Tunisia 55. 255, Eastern Australia 128 Gulf of Mexico 224-31, 232 Tropical Tudor Mangrove Creek. Kenya 83 tulip shells 98 Thalassia 269 241 Trochus niloticus 163, 175 trochus shell 163, 175 tropics, stresses to seagrasses 146-8 by country/territory 251-5 Synngodium 168 169 Thalassia testudinum 60, 68, u Ukraine 255 260 Ulva 87. 102 Indonesia 172-4. 178-9 by country/territory 25/-5 Malaysia Caribbean 234-41 female flower 240 Ungwana grazing 236 255 United Kingdom policy and protection 44, 46, 260 seagrass species and coverage 38, 43, 255 755. 156 Mozambique and souttieast Africa 95. 96. 99 range map 275 Red Sea 69-71 soutfieastern Africa 95. 96. 100 Tfiailand 144. 145. 146. 147 western Pacific 162, 163, 166 Bay, Kenya 88 United Arab Emirates 74, 75. 11. 78, 80, Gulf of Mexico 224-32 range map 269 Thalassodendron ciliatum by country/territory 257-5 East Africa 82. 84 United States Indonesia 171. 172-3. 174. 177-8 Gulf of Mexico 224-30 Mozambique and southeast marine protected areas 260- 93. 94-5, 96. Africa 99 mid-Atlantic coast 74,216-22 Pacific 162, 183 north Atlantic coast 74. 207-14 Tabasco state. Mexico 230 Tagelus plebius 248 Taka Bone Rate. Indonesia 174. 178 Philippines 183 Pacific coast 74. productivity 84. 85 seagrass protection 213-14. 219- Talibong Island. Thailand 145, 146, Red Sea 68-71 149 Tamaulipas 230 Tampa Bay, Florida 226 Tanjung Adang Laut, Malaysia 154, 155 Tanzania biogeography 82-3. 85 policies and protection 88-90. range 297 map 276 199-204 22 seagrass species 255 southern Africa 94, 95 Thalassodendron pachyrhizum 2515 Tib thermal pollution 72 threatened species United States lUSI Army Corps urchins see sea urchins Uruguay 244 uses of seagrasses 16 associated biota 17.40. 183 agricultural 61. 62. 188. 197 seagrasses 12-13. 188. 236-7 ancient Egypt 65 threats to seagrasses named 1. 7. 18-20 260 see 3(so seagrass coverage 87-8 named countries and regions threats and under of Engineers 214. 220 Australia 122. 128-9 Black Sea 61 East Africa 86 <S^ tf 298 WORLD ATLAS OF SEAGRASSES human consumption 148, 166-7, 87, 122, 136, 199,204 Japan 188 Korea 197 New western Pacific islands 161, 252 biogeography 161-4 Thailand 146-7, 148 historical perspectives and seagrass losses 164-6 policy and protection 167, 170 present seagrass coverage 166 seagrass monitoring 168-9 threats to seagrasses 162-3, 167 uses of seagrasses 166-7 Western Samoa 255 Westernport Bay, Australia 122, 123, 126-7 United States 217 Whanganui IWesthavenI western North Atlantic 210 western Pacific Islands 166-7 see a/so value of seagrasses Zealand 134, 137. 141 widgeon grass see Ruppia maritima women 97, 98 World Heritage Sites Great Barrier Reef 23, 120-1, 124- Malaysia 154 medicinal 148 Mediterranean region 55 New Zealand 136-7 North America 199, 204, 205 Scandinavia 30 seeds 148, 166-7 V 5. value of seagrasses 75, 16-18 see fisheries see a(so ecological value; economic value: uses of seagrasses Vancouver Island 201, 202 Vanuatu 162, 164, 166,255 Vauchena dichotoma 63 Venezuela 238, 239-40, 255. 261 Venice Lagoon 50 Veracruz 230 to fisheries Victoria, Australia 121-2, 123, 127 Viet Nam Virgin 255.261 Islands 236, 241, 255. 261 Virginia, 14. US w 183, 184, 216, 217-18, 221-2 WaddenSea39, Inlet, New 126-7, 131 Zealand 134-7, 141 range 251-5. 281 taxonomic revision 262 Zostera cauiescens by country/territory 251-5 Japan Korea 187, 189, 790 194, 195, 196, 197 morphological features 195 range map 282 Zostera japonica by country/territory 251-5 Japan 185-6, 187 Korea 194, 195, 196, 797, 198 morphological features 195 northeast Pacific 201, 202, 203-4, 205 range Viet map Nam 282 184 Zostera marina Shark Bay 109-10, 115, 775-77 World Seagrass Distribution Map by country/territory 257-5 3, 7-8, 13, 14-16,21 ecological value 199 Euro-Asian seas 59-63 wrasse flowering and fruiting 187-8, 189, flagfin 97 201 Japan three-ribbon 96 185, 187-8, 189 Korea 194-5, 196, 197 Mediterranean 48-9, 50 52-3 mid-Atlantic coast 216-22 morphological variation 194-5 Yad Fon Association 150 northeast Pacific 199, 200-1, 204 Yamada Bay, Japan 790 Yamdena Islands, Indonesia 779 northwest Atlantic 207-14 Yap, Micronesia 163, 166 Yellow Sea 193 Yemen 75. 255 Yucatan Peninsula 230-2, 240 and biomass 40 range map 282 Scandinavia 27-34 southernmost limit 216-17 productivity transplantation 208 uses30, 61,202, 217 variation with latitude 209 western Europe 38-40, 4 44 7, 43 Wakatobi Island 77? Wales 43 Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts 210 Zannichellia palustns 33 Zostera mucronata 251-5, 283 Zostera muetten 251-5. 283 Zanzibar83, 85, 87-8 Zostera wasting disease 18 Black Sea 59-60 Zostera 4?, 43, Zeuxo noltii by country/territory 251-5 sp. 190 flowering and fruiting 187-8 eastern Mediterranean 65, 66, 68 Euro-Asian seas 59-63 mid-Atlantic region 217-18, 219, morphological variation 194-5 protection 44 220 phylogenetic studies 196 range New taxonomy 280 salinity tolerance 62, 63 Zealand 138, 139 Scandinavia 31, 32 western Europe 38, 4 7, 42 western North Atlantic 207, 210, 212,213 water quality see eutrophication; nutrient loading, pollution; sediment loading West Africa 10 West Timor 779 Western Australia biogeography 110-11 ecosystem description 109-10 mechanisms of seagrass decline 111-14 and protection 115-16 seagrass coverage 74, 114 Shark Bay 116-17 threats to seagrasses 114-15 policy uses 61, 62 Zostera angustifoUa 38 Zostera asiatica Scandinavia 27, 28-9 by country/territory 257-5 Japan Korea 186, 187, 188 193, 194, 195, 197-8 northeast Pacific 200, 203 range map 280 Zostera caespitosa 186, 187, 188 Korea 194, 195, 197. 198 morphology 195 range map 280 Zostera capens/s 93-4, 96-7. 98, 99, 100,257-5 281 Zostera capricorni Australia 122 western Europe 38-44 western Mediterranean 49, 52-3. 54 Zostera novazelandica 134, 251-5. 262 Zostera tasmanica by country/territory 251-5 Chile 243, 246 by country/territory 251-5 Japan map 283 Eastern Australia 121-2 range map 284 Zosteraceae 6 of coastal resources and critical habitats is more important than ever. The World Atlas ofSeagrasses stimulate new and efforts, research, conservation, and will management will help better focus priorities at the international level for these vitally important coastal ecosystems. EDMUND P. GREEN heads the UNEP-WCMC's Marine and Coastal Programme and is coauthor of World Atlas of Coral Reefs (California, 2001, with Mark D. Spalding and Corinna Ravilious). FREDERICK T. SHORT is Research Professor of Natural Resources at the University of New Hampshire and coeditor of Global Seagrass Research Methods (2001). Front cover: Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) resting in a bed of Thalassodendron dliatum, Watamu Back cover, left: Bay, Kenya. Photo: A. Stewart. A manatee (Trichechus manatus), feixe-boi in Portuguese, over a Halodule wn'ghtii becJ in Recife, Brazil. Photo: L. Candisani. Center: Halophila spinulosam Papua New Guinea. Photo: M. Richmond. Right: Seastarin Enholus acoroides and Thalassia hemprkhii, Micronesia. Photo: F.T. Short. f v. .V- "Scientists, conservationists, resource managers, UNEP WCMC and increasingly policy makers are coming to believe that seagrass communities are book will make them vitally important ecosystems. This clear the extent of seagrass assemblages, the degradation, and the ^ many adverse consequences magnitude of their of failure to conserve and manage effectively." DONALD POTTS Professor of Biology at the University of California, Santa Cruz "The World Atlas ofSeagrasses will be an invaluable reference: for the novice provide a broad background in seagrasses and for the spedalist into how local it will it will give insight problems of seagrass distribution can be explained on a large scale.' STEPHEN BORTONE Director, Marine Laboratory, Sanibel-Captive Conservation Foundation UNIVERSITY nr rAt Tfn Berkeley 94720 ISBN D-SED-SMDM7-S www.ucpress.edu Printed in China 9 178052011240476"