MA Dissertation Joel 3v1-5

The outpouring of the Spirit, the day of the LORD and the accompanying ‘signs’. An exegetical study of the words of YHWH recorded in Joel 3:1-4 (Eng. 2:28-31). A research paper presented to Regents Theological College. In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M.A. in The Study of Pentecostal and Charismatic Issues. (for which this writer was awarded MA with distinction) Alan Keith Hodson 2007 19,970 words. Contents: 1. Introduction.…………………………………………..………………….5 2. Joel 3:1-5: in the context of the whole book……………..………………7 3. Joel 3:1-5: as a unit………………………………………..……………10 4. Joel 3:1-2: exegesis (the first strophe)...………………………………..12 4.1 ‫י־כן‬ ֵֵ֗ ‫“ וְ ָה ָיָ֣ה ַֽא ֲח ֵר‬And afterwards”.………………...………………12 4.2 ‫“ ֶא ְש ּ֤פֹוְך‬I will pour out”.…...........................….......……............12 4.3 ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ִ ‫“ ֶא‬my Spirit”....................................…...........……..........13 4.4 ‫ל־ב ָָׂ֔שר‬ ָ ‫ל־כ‬ ָ ‫“ ע‬on all flesh”.….................….......................…….....15 4.5 ‫ֹות ֶיכֶ֑ם‬ ֵ ַֽ‫ּובנ‬ ְ ‫יכם‬ ָ֣ ֶ ֵ‫“ וְ נִ ְב ֖אּו ְבנ‬your sons and daughters will prophesy”…………………………………………….…….16 4.6 ‫ֹלמּון‬ ָׂ֔ ‫ֹלמֹות י ֲח‬ ָ֣ ‫יכם ֲח‬ ֶ ֵ‫“ זִ ְקנ‬your old men will dream dreams”.............19 4.7 ‫יכם ֶחזְ יֹנ֖ ֹות יִ ְר ַֽאּו‬ ֶָׂ֔ ‫“ ב ָ֣ח ֵּור‬your young men will see visions”..............21 4.8 ‫ל־ה ֲע ָב ִ ֖דים וְ על־ה ְש ָפ ֶ֑חֹות‬ ַֽ ָ ‫“ וְ גם ע‬even on my servants, both men and women” ………………………………………...22 4.9 ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ַֽ ִ ‫“ ביָ ִ ָ֣מים ָה ֵָׂ֔ה ָמה ֶא ְש ֖פֹוְך ֶא‬I will pour out my Spirit in those days”……………………………………..…………..26 5. The universality of the gift of the Spirit.………………………………27 2 6. Joel 3:3-4 exegesis (the second strophe).……………………………..30 6.1 ‫ּנֹורא‬ ָֽ ָּ ‫הוה ַהגָּ ֖דֹול וְ ַה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫“ י֣ ֹום י‬the great and dreadful day of the LORD”……………………………………………..30 6.2 ‫ּוב ָ ֶ֑א ֶרץ‬ ָ ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים ב ָש ֖מיִ ם‬ ְ ‫“ וְ ָנַֽת ִתי ַֽמ‬I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth”.……………………………...41 6.3 ‫ימ ֖רֹות ָע ָ ַֽשן‬ ֲ ‫“ ָ ָ֣דם וָ ֵָׂ֔אש וְ ִ ַֽת‬blood and fire and billows of smoke”…..43 6.4 ‫“ ה ֶש ֶמש יֵ ָה ֵפְָ֣ך לְ ָׂ֔חֹ ֶשְך וְ היָ ֵ ֖רח ְל ָ ֶ֑דם‬The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood”.………….………………50 6.5 7. Understanding the Second Strophe.…………………………..53 Joel 3:5 exegesis (the third strophe).……………………………...…..54 7.1 ‫הו֖ה יִ ָמ ֵלֶ֑ט‬ ָ ְ‫“ וְ ָה ֵָ֗יה ֹּ֧כֹל ֲא ֶשר־יִ ְק ָ ָ֛רא ְב ֵשם י‬And everyone who calls on the name of the LORD will be saved”.…………..54 7.2 ‫יטה‬ ֵָ֗ ‫ירּוש ִַ֜ ִלם ִ ַֽת ְה ֶיָ֣ה ְפ ֵל‬ ָ ‫ּוב‬ ִ ‫ר־ציּ֨ ֹון‬ ִ ‫“ ִּ֠ ִכי ְבה‬for on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be deliverance”.……………..…..55 7.3 ‫הוה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫“ ַֽכ ֲא ֶשר ָא ָ֣מר י‬as the LORD has said”…………..……..…….55 7.4 ‫הו֖ה ק ֵ ַֹֽרא‬ ָ ְ‫ידים ֲא ֶשר י‬ ָׂ֔ ִ ‫ּוב ְש ִר‬ ּ֨ “among the survivors whom the LORD calls”.………………………………………..55 8. Conclusions:…………………………………………………………..57 8.1 This is what?…………………………………………………..57 3 8.2 This is when?………………………………………………….58 9. Appendix 1 The semantic range and context of ‫רּוח‬ ַ in the OT.………60 10. Bibliography……………………………………………………….….63 Tables and Illustrations: Fig. 1 ‫ יֹום יהוה‬In the eighth century prophets……….……………..34 Fig. 2 ‫ יֹום יהוה‬In the late seventh century pre-exilic prophets……..35 Fig. 3 ‫ יֹום יהוה‬In the prophets of the exile………………………....36 Fig. 4 ‫ יֹום יהוה‬In the post-exilic prophets (excluding Joel)………...37 Fig. 5 ‫ יֹום יהוה‬In the Book of Joel………………………………….37 Fig. 6 Some verbal parallels between Joel’s description of ‫יֹום יהוה‬ and that of the other prophets………………………………..38 Fig. 7 Sketch of a Proto-Aeolic capital from Ramat Rahel…………45 Fig. 8 Sketch of a palmette window balustrade from Ramat Rahel...45 Fig. 9 Cosmic changes associated with YHWH’s presence………...50 4 Keywords: Joel; Holy Spirit; day of the Lord; signs and wonders; prophesy. 1. Introduction. The text of Joel has very few corruptions;1 the Septuagint follows the MT fairly closely2 and there are only slight disagreements between those texts and the Vulgate and Peshitta versions.3 The divisions employed by the Masoretes see the book of Joel fall into two parts, 1:1-2:27 and 3:1-4:214. From the sixteenth century, most Hebrew copies of the nebi’im adopt a four-chapter division for Joel. The exegesis will be based on the MT and, when appropriate, the Targum Jonathon of Joel5 and the LXX6 texts will be consulted. 1 Joel 1:7, 17f; 2:11; 4:11. The MT/LXX versification will be used throughout. The LXX has a few minor additions to the MT at 1:5, 8, 18; 2:12; 4:11. 3 Harrison, R.K., Introduction to the Old Testament, (London: Tyndale, 1970), 881. 4 Bible references that are unattributed are from Joel. 5 Targumim have been in existence since shortly after the return from exile – Merino, L.D., “Targum Manuscripts and Critical Editions”, Beattie, D.R.G., and McNamara, M.J. (Eds.), The Aramaic Bible, Targums in their Historical Context, (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1994), 51-2. Although the Aramaic Targumim (including the Targum of the Minor Prophets) assumed written form at or after the end of the second temple period, they are valuable exegetical tools, being part of a living tradition of interpretation that reflects Judaism’s self-understanding as both carrier of scripture and the fruit thereof. Hengel [M. “The Scriptures in Second Temple Judaism”, ibid. 174] correctly points out that both the Targumim and the LXX are “attempts at exegesis”. The Targumim hereafter: Jonathan, TJ; Neofiti 1, TNf; Onqelos, TOnq and Pseudo-Jonathan TPs-J. Texts from the Targumim are from: Alexander. P.S. (Trans.), The Targum of Canticles, (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2002); Cathcart, K.J. and Gordon, R.P. (Trans.), The Targum of the Minor Prophets, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1989); McNamara, M. (Trans.), Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1992); McNamara, M. and Clarke, E.G. (Trans.), Targums Neofiti 1 and Pseudo-Jonathan: Numbers, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995); Stec, D.M. (Trans.), The Targum of Psalms (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2004); Stenning, J.F. (Trans.), The Targum of Isaiah, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949). 6 For a discussion about the transmission of the Hebrew and Greek OT, which led to the ability to refer to the LXX or MT see Harrison, Introduction, 211-243. Where textual variants are significant, they will be discussed as the text is exegeted. 2 5 The focus of this paper will be the words of YHWH as recorded in 3:1-4.7 Thus the outpouring of the Spirit, the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬and the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬associated with that day will be the main concern. Although this paper will argue that 3:1-5 is one pericope in three strophes and will show the internal cohesion of the pericope, only the first two strophes will be exegeted at any depth. However, brief comments about 3:5 will be included in order to demonstrate that the conclusions reached from the exegesis of YHWH’s words apply to the whole pericope. After the exegesis, suggestions will be made about Joel’s purposes in presenting his material in the way that he does. This paper will begin by setting 3:1-5 in the context of the prophecy as a whole, showing that it is an integral part of the whole work. 3:1-4 will be seen as pivotal in the response YHWH makes to his people’s lament. Unless otherwise stated Scripture quotations will be from: The New International Version – Anglicised, (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1984); The Greek New Testament, (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft Stuttgart, 1983); Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft Stuttgart, 1990); Septuaginta, (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft Stuttgart, 1979); The New English Bible Apocrypha, (Cambridge, The University Printing House, 1970). 7 6 2. Joel 3:1-5: in the context of the whole book. After the introduction (1:1), Joel summarizes the effects of a recent and unparalleled locust plague (1:2-9) followed by a severe drought (1:10-12) that threatened the food supply, not only for the people and their domesticated beasts but also for the wild animals.8 Joel calls the various sectors of the community to “wake up and weep”9 (1:5) and join in heart-felt lament and repentance (1:14-20). Chapter two begins with YHWH instructing the watchman to sound the alarm. In language similar to that of the first chapter, yet more intense, Joel speaks of an invasion of catastrophic proportions and again calls the people to lament/repent (2:1-17). Commentators are divided as to how or whether the army of 2:1-11 is related to the locusts of 1:2-7.10 Whatever the relationship, however, it is significant that Joel pictures YHWH both as the commander of the invading army bringing a destructive ‫( יֹום יהוה‬2:11) and at the same time as the one to whom petition for mercy and a day of blessing can successfully be made (2:12).11 Joel’s covenant theology is at the centre of this thinking.12 The state of the land – prosperous and free or barren and overrun – is a reflection of the people’s relationship with YHWH. 8 So, Allen, L.C., The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), 48-49; Crenshaw, J.L., Joel, (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 88-90; Kapelrud, A.S., Joel Studies, (Uppsala: Lundequist, 1948), 4; Wolff, H.W., Joel and Amos, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, E.T. 1977 [1963]), 27-30. However, see n.10. 9 Although these specific words are spoken to those drinking wine, they apply, by extension, to the whole community; as Joel’s subsequent words show, all need to lament. 10 Those who see in chs 1&2 a literal locust invasion include, Ahlström, G.W. Joel and the Temple Cult of Jerusalem, (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 62; Allen, Joel, 64; Barton, J., Joel and Obadiah, (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 70; Kapelrud, Studies, 5. Wolff [Joel, 41-3] contends that 2:1-17 is apocalyptic, cf. Crenshaw, Joel, 117. Stuart, D., [Hosea-Jonah (Waco: Word, 1987), 250] writes that 2:1-17 uses the imagery of ch.1 to describe the Babylonian conquest of 586 BC. See further, §6.1 & §8.2. 11 The warning of destruction and the call to lament are both introduced by the watchman blowing the ‫ׁשֹופר‬. ָּ Note the similarities in the locust ‘plague’ YHWH sent on Egypt (Ex. 10:4-6) and that here. 12 See the list of correspondences between Deut. 32 and Joel 1-2 in Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 228. Note also Deut. 28:38,42 – locust plagues are a punishment for breaking the covenant. Also Lev. 26:3-9 (// Joel 2:18-27), obedience brings rain, food, peace, the vanquishing of enemies and YHWH’s favour. 7 A three-way relationship exists between YHWH, his people and the land he has given them.13 The hoped-for response of 2:18 powerfully reflects this tri-partite covenant partnership, the existence of which made Joel confident that, in the face of a wholehearted community-wide lament, God would bring a reversal of fortune (2:12-27).14 Although Joel does not specify how Judah had breached the covenant, the people’s lament (2:17) constituted acceptable repentance and YHWH would once again be their protector15 and transform the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬16 into a day of blessing (3:1-5). Therefore, the promise of the outpoured Spirit17 (3:1-5) follows on from, and is a consequence of, acceptable and accepted lament.18 Those who ask, “Where is God?” (2:17) will be told, “He is in Israel” (2:27), bringing material blessing (2:18-27) and a new knowledge of himself (3:1-2). Those who “call on the name of the Lord” in lament (1:19) will receive salvation and be filled with his Spirit (3:5). Having restored Judah’s fortunes (4:1),19 YHWH will gather all nations (‫ּגֹוים‬ ִָׂ֔ ‫)כל־ה‬ ָ for judgement (4:2-15) before Jerusalem is established as a place of blessing where he will dwell forever (4:16-20). Allen, L.C., “Joel: Theology of”, New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (hereafter NIDOTTE), Vol. 4, VanGemeren, W.A., (Ed.), (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1997), 796. 14 Allen, Joel, 42; Redditt, P.L., “The book of Joel in Peripheral Prophecy”, Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 48:2 (1988) 228. See 2:19a, 24 which reverses 1:10b; 2:19b-20, 26b-27 countermand 2:17; and 2:25 reinstates what was lost at 1:4. Cf. 2:22a v 1:18; 2:22b v 1:7; 2:23 v 1:20a; and 2:26a v 1:16. 15 Joel 2:18 begins with ‫“ ויְ ק ֵנא‬then he [YHWH] was jealous”, continuing the narrative from verse 17 and indicating YHWH’s complete acceptance of his people’s lament. So, Crenshaw, Joel, 147; Barton, Joel, 86-7; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 256; Wolff, Joel, 54. 16 See the discussion at §6.1. 17 The use of the capital ‘S’ here and throughout this paper in referring to God’s ‫רּוח‬ ַ is not eisegesis; 13 this text is not being read through the lens of Peter’s sermon. See the discussion of ‫רּוח‬, ַ §§4:3; 5. For an interesting but inconclusive discussion of the issues, see Austin, M.R., “The Curse of the Metaphysical Capital”, Expository Times 103 (1992), 104-7. 18 Crenshaw [Joel, 163-4] unnecessarily distinguishes between the restorative action of God and the repentance of the people as being that which enables the outpouring of the Spirit. 19 TJ interprets this as ‘ending the captivity of Judah’. 8 The book of Joel falls naturally into two sections. However, commentators are divided as to whether the second section begins with YHWH’s promise of restoration (2:18) or its fulfilment (3:1).20 Whilst it is possible to see a distinction between the lament (1:2-2:17) and the divine response to Judah and to other nations (2:18-4:21),21 most scholars rightly divide the book into 1:2-2:27 and 3:1-4:21.22 This paper is concerned with the text of the book of Joel in its final redaction.23 The unity of the book of Joel was first questioned in the late nineteenth century and by the beginning of the twentieth century, many regarded the integrity of the book to be questionable.24 However, most modern commentators rightly regard the book of Joel as a unity.25 The similarity in expression and thought progression between 2:27-3:2 and 4:17-1826 and the recurrence of the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬motif throughout the book is significant in this regard.27 20 See Allen, Joel, 39-42. E.g. Dillard, R.B. “Joel”, McComiskey, T.E., (Ed.), The Minor Prophets, Volume 1, Hosea Joel Amos, (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992), 286; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 226. 22 So, Barton, Joel, 13; Crenshaw, Joel, 18; Kapelrud, Studies, 176; Keller, C.A., “Joel”, The Oxford Bible Commentary, (Oxford: OUP, 2001), Barton, J., and Muddiman, J. (Eds), 578; Wolff, Joel, 78. See the discussion in Allen, Joel, 39-43. 23 Prinsloo [W.S. The Theology of the Book of Joel, (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1985), 2] writes, “Our point of departure is the final form of the text”. 24 See Wolff, Joel, 6-15. 25 Contra Barton, Joel, 5-14. Its unity is maintained by Allen, Joel, 27; Crenshaw, Joel, 30-4; Dillard, Joel, 244; Kapelrud, Studies, 176; McQueen, L.R., Joel and the Spirit, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 38-9. Ahlström [Temple Cult 137] writes that no verse should be regarded as secondary. Wolff [Joel, 7-8] identifies eleven words and phrases used in the same way in the two ‘halves’ of the book. Cf. Cook, S.L., Prophecy and Apocalypticism, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 184-8. 26 God is amongst his people to protect them (2:27 cf. 4:17) and bring a superabundance of spiritual blessing (3:1-2 cf. 4:18). Whether this unity is the result of a single author or a later redactor [as suggested by e.g. Childs, B., Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 389] is not germane. 27 Allen [Theology, 797] calls it “the theological motif that binds the book together”, cf. Cannon, W.W., “The Day of the Lord”, Church Quarterly Review 103 (1926) 32-63. Contra Bewer [J.A. “Obadiah and Joel”, Smith, J.M.P., Ward, W.H., Bewer, J.A., Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadiah, Joel, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1985 [1911]), 50-51] who is guilty of circular argument by saying that all “references to the day of Yahweh in chs. 1, 2 (are) interpolations” (his italics) and then concluding that since the day of the Lord is only mentioned in chs 3-4, the two halves, “originally …were distinct and not connected” (ibid, 51). Note Kapelrud’s scathing remarks [Studies, 121-26] about the “arbitrariness (of) transposing and amputating” material simply to suit one’s preconceptions. 21 9 3. Joel 3:1-5: as a unit. The pericope, Joel 3:1-5, consists of three strophes, each of which has three lines.28 YHWH is the speaker in the first two strophes and Joel speaks in the third.29 The first (3:1-2) uses ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ִ ‫( ֶא ְש ּ֤פֹוְך ֶא‬LXX, ἐκχεῶ ἀπὸ τοῦ πνεύματός μου) as an inclusio,30 and has an AB-BA chiastic structure.31 The second strophe (3:3-4) has the same AB-BA structure32 and the repetition of ‫( דָּ ם‬LXX, αἷμα), while not perfectly mirroring the first strophe’s use of ‫א ְש ּ֤פֹוְך‬, ֶ does act as an inclusio. In the third (v5), ‫ קרא‬acts as both an inclusio and, by changing the focus from “calling on” (LXX, ἐπικαλέω) to “called by” (LXX, προσκαλέω), as an effective substitute for the chiasmus.33 Commentators debate whether Joel 3:1-5 should be regarded as one,34 two35 or three36 pericopes. The temporal indicators37 suggest that Joel wanted his readers to see all three strophes as one unit. There is nothing in the language to suggest any discontinuity between the three predicted events.38 After the devastation and physical restoration (1:2-2:27), God will pour out his Spirit and thereby transform 28 So, Crenshaw, Joel, 170-72; Prinsloo, Theology, 81; Wolff, Joel, 58. Allen [Joel, 41] inadvertently (and incorrectly) suggests that YHWH speaks in the first two lines of each strophe and the prophet in the third line. 30 An oft-used poetic device in Hebrew literature whereby the repetition of a word or phrase opens and closes a unit of text. 31 Poured out Spirit: all flesh // delineation of that flesh: poured out Spirit. 32 The heavens: the earth // signs on earth: signs in the heavens. 33 Hymes, D.C., “Notes on Joel 3:1-5”, Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies, 1/1 (1998), 87. 34 Allen Joel, 41; Hymes, Notes, 102-3; Kapelrud, Studies, 7; Prinsloo, Theology, 80-90; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 258. 35 Barton, Joel, 93 & 97; Dillard, Joel, 293-8. 36 Crenshaw, Joel, 170. 37 3:1 has ‫י־כן‬ ֵֵ֗ ‫( וְ ָה ָיָ֣ה ַֽא ֲח ֵר‬and it will happen after this). 3:3-4 has simply ‫( וְ ָנַֽת ִתי‬and I will show) and 29 ‫הוה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫( ִל ְפ ֵ֗ני ּ֚בֹוא י֣ ֹום י‬before the day of YHWH comes), while 3:5 begins ‫( וְ ָה ֵָ֗יה‬and it will happen). 4:1 has much stronger temporal indicators, ‫ּובע֣ת ַה ִ ִ֑היא‬ ָּ ‫( ַביָּ ִ ִ֥מים ָּה ֖ה ָּמה‬in those days and at that time) thus ch.4 is to be understood apart from 3:1-5. 38 Synchronous or at least temporally and logically connected events. As Hymes [Notes, 87 & 1023] concludes, “Joel 3:1-5 is a tightly bound literary unit”. 10 the nation into a community of prophets. ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬will precede the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬which will be a day of salvation for his people. Although this paper will examine the strophes separately, and only the first two in any depth, the conclusion will bring the results of the exegesis together. Joel 3:1-5 is one pericope and it is inappropriate to keep the promises of 3:1-2 separate from the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬of 3:3-4.39 Luke’s report of Peter’s Pentecost sermon (Acts 2:17-21) treats these verses as a unit – despite the obvious fact that there was no blood nor smoke, nor portents affecting the sun and moon. 39 11 4. Joel 3:1-5: exegesis. 4.1 ‫י־כן‬ ֵ֗ ‫“ וְ ָּה ָּי֣ה ַ ָֽא ֲחר‬and it will happen afterwards”.40 This anacrusis not only links what has gone before with what follows but also marks it off; it indicates a new departure.41 The promised reversal of fortune (2:18-27) as God’s response to the lamentation offered by ‘all flesh’42 is, for Joel, just the arrabon. The material blessing is linked to the promise of the outpouring of the Spirit by the temporal adverb “afterwards” and the phrase “in those days”. 43 After the covenant relationship has been restored, there will be demonstrations of God’s presence and power.44 The key question of whether “afterwards” points to Joel’s near future or the eschatological future will be determined by the content of the prophetic word and will be addressed after the text is exegeted.45 4.2 ‫“ ֶא ְׁש ּ֤פֹוְך‬I will pour out”. The verb ‫ ָשפְך‬is found in a wide variety of contexts, both literal46 and figurative,47 meaning ‘to pour out’.48 In the MT, it is used in connection with the Spirit four times49 and the Septuagint translates it as ἐγχέω.50 Although the context of Joel 3:1- 40 My translation. Ahlström, Temple Cult, 133; Kapelrud, Studies, 7; Prinsloo, Theology, 80; Wolff, Joel, 58. 42 Joel 1:15-16; 2:16-17; – elders, children, babies, bride and groom, priests and people. 43 Joel 3:2, ‫ – ַביָּ ִ ֣מים ָּה ָ֔ה ָּמה‬ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις. 44 Crenshaw, Joel, 163-4; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 260. 45 See §8.2. 46 The pouring out of water, Ex. 4:9; and of blood, Deut. 21:8. 47 To pour forth anger, Hos. 5:10; or to pour out one’s heart, Lam. 2:19. 48 Roots are pointed as in Brown, F., Driver, S.R., Briggs, C.A., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966). When commenting on the frequency, use or context of a Hebrew root it is to be understood that the comments relate to the root and its cognates. 49 Joel 3:1, 2; Ezek. 39:29; Zech. 12:10; – a similar idea is expressed using ‫( נבע‬προΐημι) Prov. 1:23; 41 ‫( ערה‬ἐπέρχομαι) Isa. 32:15; ‫( יצק‬ἐπιτιθημι) Isa. 44:3. Cf. Isa. 19:14; ‫( מסך‬κεράννυμι), a perverse spirit is poured out and Is. 29:10; ‫( נסך‬ποτίζω), a spirit of deep sleep is poured upon the people. 50 Of the 117 occurrences of ‫( ָשפְך‬in 112 verses), the LXX renders it by ἐγχέω 106 times, χέω twice and προσχέω once. ἐγχέω is used in the OT a further 18 times, often in the context of worship. 12 2 indicates that this ‘pouring out’ is a lavish act on YHWH’s part,51 Crenshaw is wrong to say the word itself (in the Qal imperfect) “signifies a lavish pouring out”.52 The context determines the meaning; there is nothing intrinsic to the word ‫ ָשפְך‬that requires the understanding ‘lavish’.53 4.3 ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ִ ‫“ ֶא‬my Spirit”. YHWH declares, “I am your God” (2:27) and then continues by twice promising to pour out his Spirit (3:1,2). The possessive “my” makes it clear that it is God’s Spirit that will be imparted. The Septuagint translates ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ִ ‫ ֶא‬using a partitive genitive54 as if it were ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ִ ‫ ִמן־ ֶא‬. However, the partitive ‫ ִמן־‬is not found here in Joel. Nor is ἀπό to be found in either Aquila or Symmachus.55 It is likely that the LXX translation could have been suggested by Numbers 11:17, 25 where YHWH takes ‫ן־ה ָ֛רּוח‬ ָ ‫“ ִמ‬of the Spirit” (LXX, ἀπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος) that was on Moses and anoints the seventy elders.56 It is not likely that the translators of the Septuagint were making a considered theological statement that humanity only has some of the Spirit while the totality remains within the Godhead.57 Wolff [Joel, 66] rightly calls it, “God’s unreserved giving of himself”. Crenshaw, Joel, 164. 53 Although it is often used in the context of a total or lavish ‘pouring forth’ (e.g. Lev. 4:7, 18, 25, 30, 34; Is. 42:25; Ezek. 16:15, 36;), this is certainly not the case in e.g. Gen. 37:22 (also Qal imperfect), Exod. 4:9 or Ezek. 18:10. 54 See Blass, F., and Debrunner, A., A Greek Grammar of the New Testament, Tr. Funk, R.W. (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1967), 92-3. 55 They both have τὸ πνεῦμά μου. 56 Wolff, Joel, 56; Dillard, Joel, 295. 57 Barrett, C.K., Acts 1-14, (London: T&T Clark, 2004), 136; Parsons, M.C., and Culy, M.M., Acts, A Handbook on the Greek Text, (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2003), 34. Contra Haenchen, E., The Acts of the Apostles, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1971), 179; Fitzmyer, J.A., The Acts of the Apostles, (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 252. 51 52 13 ‫רּוח‬ ַ occurs 394 times in the OT and is translated by πνεῦμα or a related word in the Septuagint in 277 instances.58 The semantic range of ‫רּוח‬ ַ is wide and includes breath, the human spirit, wind and supernatural beings either good or ill.59 However, the concerns of this paper are restricted to ‫רּוח‬ ַ as God’s Spirit interacting with humanity.60 Eighty times the MT speaks about this interaction. God’s Spirit is active in faithful men,61 producing a variety of gifts and abilities,62 especially prophecy.63 The Spirit also brings revelation,64 gives leadership ability,65 is everywhere,66 can be grieved67 and brings refreshment and restoration.68 The ‫רּוח‬ ַ of God is his creative and dynamic presence in the life of his people, which transforms the intrinsic weakness of human flesh and provides the necessary strength and direction for his people.69 Isaiah 31:3 sets the Spirit, as the source of all that God’s people need for security, in opposition to ‘flesh’ (‫ֹא־רּוח‬ ֶ֑ ‫)ב ָ ֖שר וְ ל‬. ָ 70 However, rather The LXX leaves it out 25x and translates it as ‘wind’ 60x – 48x by ἄνεμος (and cognates). On 40 further occasions, Greek words that refer to the mind, person or human temperament are used to translate ‫רּוח‬. ַ Only thrice is ‫רּוח‬, ַ as God’s Spirit, translated by words other than πνεῦμα and its 58 cognates (ὀργή Is. 59:19; θυμός Ezek. 39:29; Zech. 6:8;) and twice, when referring to ‘the breath of God’, it is omitted – Job 26:13; Is. 40:7. 59 See the discussions in Hill, D., Greek Words and Hebrew Meanings, (Cambridge: The University Press, 1967), 205-17 and Hildebrandt, W., An Old Testament Theology of the Spirit, (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1995), 1-27. 60 150 occurrences of ‫רּוח‬ ַ relate to God’s Spirit or other supernatural ‘spirits’. It denotes ‘wind’ 112x and the human spirit/personality/temperament 111x. See Appendix 1 for a full analysis of the use of ‫רּוח‬. ַ 61 E.g. Joseph (Gen. 41:38); Bezalel (Ex. 31:3); Gideon (Jud. 3:10; 6:34); Jephthah (Jud. 11:29). 62 Intelligence, craftsmanship and knowledge (Ex. 28:3; 35:31;) and strength (Jud. 14:6, 19). 63 For the texts see n.82. 64 11x. 65 9x. 66 Ps. 139:7. 67 Is. 63:10; Ps. 106:33. 68 16x. 69 Hildebrandt, Theology, 67-103, esp. 81-2. 70 See also Ps. 20:7; Ezek. 28:2, 9; Hos. 11:9; and 4Q504.5:15-16, “For you have poured your holy spirit upon us, to fill us with your blessings” and 1QH15:6-7, “Lord, …you have sustained me with your strength, you have spread your holy spirit over me”, Martînez, F.G., The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated, (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 415 and 343 respectively. Unless otherwise stated, all DSS quotations in translation will be from Martînez. 14 than stressing the dichotomy between flesh and Spirit, Joel says YHWH will anoint ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫ ָּכ‬with his ‫רּוח‬ ַ in a union which effects a revolutionary transformation. 4.4 ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫ל־כ‬ ָּ ‫“ ַע‬on all flesh”. The semantic range for ‫“ ָּב ָָּ֔שר‬flesh” includes humankind, animals, creatures in general, the body as distinct from soul or spirit, relatives, meat and even the genitals of a man or an ass.71 It occurs 270 times in the MT, forty of which are modified by ‫כל־‬. ָּ 72 Hildebrandt is right to suggest that Moses’ yearning that all God’s people would be recipients of God’s ‫רּוח‬ ַ (Num. 11:29) is reaffirmed and brought closer to fulfilment in Joel’s ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫כ‬. ָּ However, when he says that Numbers 11:29 modifies Joel’s “all flesh” and it must therefore be understood as “all Israel”,73 he goes beyond the text. Numbers 11:29 speaks of ‫ל־עם יְ הוָ ה‬ ּ֤ ‫“ ָכ‬all YHWH’s people” whilst Joel 3:1 refers to ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫כ‬. ָּ 74 The terminology employed by Moses cannot determine how Joel’s language is to be understood.75 The connection is simply that Joel recognises that Moses’ longing will be satisfied. Some commentators claim that nowhere in the forty references to “all flesh” (apart from Joel 3:1) is the sense limited to “all Israel”.76 However, Jeremiah 12:7-13 is a judgement oracle against 71 Clines, D.J.A. (Ed.), Dictionary of Classical Hebrew Vol. II, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 277. 72 Clines, DCH II:37, 279. 73 Hildebrandt, Theology, 98-9. 74 For the sake of completeness, note that Num. 16:22 and 27:16 refer to ‫ל־ב ָ ֶ֑שר‬ ָ ‫ֹלהי ָהרּו ֖חֹת ְל ָכ‬ ֵ ‫( ֱא‬the God of the spirits of all flesh) a phrase which, in the OT, is found only here. However, in the book of Enoch it occurs more than 100 times. See Ashley, T.R., The Book of Numbers, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 313, n.52. In the NT it is found only once, Heb. 12:9 where God is called, τῷ πατρὶ τῶν πνευμάτων (the father of spirits). 75 Otherwise there would be no scope for any development in prophetic vision and understanding. 76 Barton, Joel, 96. So also Clines, DCH II:277-9 and BDB, 142. 15 Judah which concludes, ‫ל־ב ָ ַֽשר‬ ָ ‫“ ֵאין ָשל֖ ֹום לְ ָכ‬and no-one will be safe” (Jer. 12:12).77 Clearly here ‫ל־ב ָ ַֽשר‬ ָ ‫ ְל ָכ‬refers just to the people of God.78 The vast majority of the occurrences of ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫ ָּכ‬do not limit its meaning although this has more to do with context than anything intrinsic to the phrase. It is the context in Joel which should determine the parameters of ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫ ָּכ‬here. YHWH addresses his people (2:27), promises to pour out his Spirit on all flesh and then declares that “your sons and your daughters” (‫ּובנָֽ ֹות ֶיכִ֑ם‬ ְ ‫)בנ ֶיכ֣ם‬ ְ will become prophets. This is all in the context of God speaking to Judah. It would appear that, for Joel, the flesh upon which YHWH will pour his Spirit is ‘all Jewish flesh’.79 4.5 ‫ּובנָֽ ֹות ֶיכִ֑ם‬ ְ ‫“ וְ נִ ְב ֖אּו ְבנ ֶיכ֣ם‬Your sons and daughters will prophesy”. The conjunction ‫ ו‬prefixed to the verb ‫ נבא‬denotes result;80 the outpouring of the Spirit will result in the ‘prophet-hood of all youth’.81 Apart from Joel 3:1, the MT talks a further 21 times of the Spirit inspiring prophecy.82 It is important to realise that, for Joel, the Spirit is given neither to improve the nation’s moral standards and Lit. “without safety for all flesh”. See Kapelrud, Studies, 131. McKane, W., Jeremiah Vol. 1, I-XXV, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), 275-6; Thompson, J.A., The Book of Jeremiah, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981), 359. Allen [Joel, 98 n.9] suggests that Ps. 65:2(3) may similarly limit ‫ל־ב ָָּ֔שר‬ ָּ ‫ ָּכ‬to Israel. 79 So, Allen, Joel, 98-9; Bewer, Joel, 123; Crenshaw, Joel, 165; Hubbard, D.A., Joel and Amos, (Leicester, IVP, 2004), 69; Kapelrud, Studies, 131; Ogden, G.S., “Restoring the Years: A Commentary on the Book of Joel”, Ogden, G.S., and Deutsch, R.R., A Promise of Hope – A Call to Obedience, (Edinburgh: Handsel, 1987), 37; Ogilvie, L.J., Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah (Dallas: Word, 1990), 241; Wolff, Joel, 67. However, see §5. 80 Crenshaw [Joel, 165] incorrectly identifies the niphal perfect form ‫ וְ נִ ְב ֖אּו‬as Qal perfect. See Weingreen, J., A Practical Grammar for Classical Hebrew, (Oxford: OUP, 1959), 297. 81 However, see §5, where Joel’s use of the terms, sons, daughters, old men, young men and male and female slaves is further discussed. 82 Num. 11:25, 26, 29; 24:2; 1 Sam. 10:6, 10; 19:20, 23; 2 Sam. 23:2; 2 Ki. 2:9, 15; Is. 48:16; 59:21; Ezek. 11:5a; Hos. 9:7; Mic. 3:8; Zech. 7:12; Neh. 9:30; 2 Chron. 15:1; 20:14; 24:20. Cf. Appendix 1. 77 78 16 obedience to God,83 nor to recreate the people of God.84 As the Spirit comes, these effects are not precluded but, for Joel, the primary consequence of God pouring out his ‫רּוח‬ ַ is the transformation of his people into a prophetic community. Joel 3:1 promises that Moses’ programmatic longing (Num. 11:29) will be fulfilled. TJ makes this explicit by using “my Holy Spirit” (‫קּודשי‬ ִ ‫ )רּוח‬in both Joel 3:1 and 3:2.85 TJ Isaiah has a remarkable echo of this, when at Isaiah 44:2-3 it says, “O Jacob my servant, …as waters are poured upon a thirsty land, …so will I pour my holy spirit upon thy sons and my blessing upon thy sons’ sons.” For the meturgeman, the Holy Spirit was not only a theologoumenon that avoided anthropomorphisms but also the means whereby YHWH spoke to his people through the prophets.86 Although ‘Holy Spirit’ is found in the MT only three times,87 the phrase is more common in the Targumim,88 where it is often explicitly connected to the prophet or mouthpiece of God receiving YHWH’s word.89 Indeed, this connection accounts for TJ changing “grieved his Holy Spirit” (Is. 63:10) to grieved “his holy prophets”.90 83 Cf. Ezek. 36:26-27. Cf. Is. 32:15; 44:3. 85 Only here does the phrase ‘Holy Spirit’ occur in the Targum to the Minor Prophets. Of the seven other alterations to the rendering of the 33 occurrences of ‫ רּוח‬in the Minor Prophets, TJ changes it from God’s Spirit to his memra (impersonal utterances) four times (Hos. 13:15; Mic. 2:7; Zech. 4:6; 7:12), prophecy twice (Mic. 3:8; Hag. 2:5) and subsumes it into God himself once (Zech. 6:8). 86 Chilton [B.D. The Glory of Israel, (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1982), 49-50] writes, “‘Holy spirit’ is… the normal means of God’s address to his people, accomplished through the prophets.” 87 Is. 63:10, 11; Ps. 51:13[11]. 88 In the Pentateuch, for instance, TNf uses ‘Holy Spirit’13x and a further twice in marginal glosses – see McNamara, Targum Genesis, 38-9. 89 TNf. Gen. 41:38; TNf. Num. 11:17, 25a, 25b, 26, 28, 29; 24:2; TJ. Is. 40:13; 42:1; 44:3; 59:21. 90 See Is. 30:1 and Hag. 2:5, in both verses, “my Spirit” (MT) becomes “my prophets” (TJ). Cf. Is. 61:1 where “The Spirit of the Sovereign LORD is on me” (MT) becomes “The spirit of prophecy is upon me” (TJ). The Targum of Psalms (51:13-14[11-12]) has David asking, “remove not your holy spirit of prophecy from me …uphold me (with) the spirit of prophecy.” Furthermore, TPs-J Num. changes ‘holy spirit’ to ‘prophetic spirit’ on eight out of the nine occasions it occurs in TNf. Num. (Num. 11:17, 25a, 25b, 26, 28, 29; 24:2; 27:18). 84 17 Some commentators have, erroneously, focused on the ecstatic elements in the prophetic gift. Kapelrud is typical in saying that when the Spirit is poured on all flesh, “all shall be seized by prophetic ecstasy”.91 Bewer offers “speak with tongues” as an alternative to “prophesy”, emphasising the ecstasy accompanying Spirit possession.92 However, with the possible exception of the experiences of Saul and his messengers (1 Sam 10:5-13; 19:20-24), nowhere in the OT is truly ecstatic behaviour predicated of Spirit-inspired prophecy.93 Saul’s prophetic demonstrations subsequent to receiving the Spirit are neither paradigmatic nor are they programmatic for interpreting all subsequent prophetic demonstrations.94 Indeed, where it is explicitly stated that the Spirit comes upon someone and they prophesy, ecstatic behaviour is almost always absent.95 As Wolff correctly observes, “Joel …hardly expects a nation of ecstatics.”96 It might also be said that Moses did not long for such a thing either.97 Seven verbs are used in connection with the Spirit coming on a person and producing prophecy, none of which have any intrinsic implication that ecstatic behaviour might be expected. In fact, two of them, ‫“ נוח‬to rest [upon]” (used thrice) and ‫“ נתן‬to bestow” (used twice), imply quite the reverse.98 Kapelrud, Studies, 131. Cf. Crenshaw, Joel, 165. Keller [Joel, 580] writes, “Whenever God pours out his divine energy, people …behave like madmen (and) seized by ecstasy they undress…” (emphasis mine). 92 Bewer, Joel, 122. 93 Behaviour that appeared ‘odd’ sometimes accompanied a prophetic declaration (e.g. Ezek. 4&5). However, it was not ecstatic since the prophet was in control of the behaviour. 94 See Levison, J.R., “Prophecy in Ancient Israel: The Case of the Ecstatic Elders”, The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 65 (Oct. 2003), 504-5. 95 The 70 elders (Num. 11:25-29), Balaam (Num. 24:1-4), David (2 Sam. 23:2), Isaiah (Is. 48:16; 59:21), Ezekiel (Ezek. 11:4-5), Micah (Mic. 3:8), Azariah (2 Chron. 15:1), Jahaziel (2 Chron. 20:14) and Zechariah (2 Chron. 24:20). 96 Wolff, Joel, 66. 97 He found it difficult enough to control the people of God without them all manifesting wild and ecstatic behaviour. 98 Num. 11:25b, 26; 2 Ki. 2:15 and Num. 11:25a, 29 respectively. Both verbs are used to describe the manner in which the Spirit anoints Messiah, Is. 11:2 and 42:1 respectively. Of the other five ‫מלא‬ 91 ‘fill’, ‫‘ נפל‬fall’ and ‫‘ לבש‬clothe’ are each used once, while ‫( היה‬6x) and ‫( צלח‬2x) are interchangeable 18 While the exact etymology of ‫ נָ ִ ָ֣ביא‬and cognates is debated, the context in which the word group is used will certainly help determine whether ecstatic manifestations are intrinsic to the concept. Genesis 20:7 describes Abraham as a ‫ נָ ִ ָ֣ביא‬and consequently he prays for Abimelech. Moses, protesting that he “speaks with faltering lips”, is told that he will be like God before Pharaoh and Aaron will be his ‫ נָ ִ ָ֣ביא‬or spokesman (Ex. 7:1-2). Ezekiel’s testimony was that when the Spirit came upon him, he was told what to say to the people (Ezek. 11:5). The only behaviour that was consistently associated with Spirit-inspired prophecy in the OT was verbal communication. Even if the people refused to listen, God still spoke by his Spirit through his prophets.99 Joel was telling God’s people that when the ‫ רּוח‬was poured out, their “sons and daughters” would stand “in the council of the LORD to see or to hear his word” (Jer. 23:18) and then they would share that word with others.100 4.6 ‫ֹלמּון‬ ָ֔ ‫ֹלמֹות יַ ֲח‬ ֣ ‫יכם ֲח‬ ֶ ‫“ זִ ְקנ‬your old men will dream dreams” ‫יכם‬ ֶ ‫“ זִ ְקנ‬old men” is from ‫ זָ ֵקן‬101 and occurs four times in the MT of Joel. The LXX translates it each time with πρέσβυς. Both ‫ זָ ֵקן‬and πρέσβυς can be translated as either ‘elder’ or ‘old’.102 In Joel 3:1 young people are contrasted with old men and therefore “old men” is to be preferred. In this context, the significance is not status and mean ‘to come upon’ or ‘to be on’. Five times the Spirit’s activity is indicated by the propositions ‘on, ‘with’, ‘of’ (once each) and ‘through’ (2x). 99 See Zech. 7:12; 13:3-4; Neh. 9:30; Hos. 9:7-8. 100 So, Allen, Joel, 99; Hubbard, Joel, 70. 101 The root ‫ זָ ֵקן‬occurs 225x in the MT. The verb means ‘be old’, ‘grow old’ or ‘make old’ (20x). The adjective has a range of meanings, including ‘old person’ [71x] and ‘an elder’ [115x]. The noun occurs 19x and means ‘beard’. Additionally, the cognates ‫( זְ ֻקנִ ים‬4x) and ‫( זִ ְקנָ ה‬6x) are respectively masc. and fem. nouns signifying ‘old age’. See Clines, DCH III:129-33. 102 ‫ זָ ֵקן‬occurs only six times in the Minor Prophets: Joel 1:2, 14; 2:16; 3:1; and twice in Zech. 8:4. 19 but age. ‫ֹלמֹות‬ ֣ ‫“ ֲח‬dreams” from ‫ חֲלֹום‬has the same meaning as the LXX ἐνύπνιον, ‘things seen in sleep’. Similarly, ‫ֹלמּון‬ ָ֔ ‫ יַ ֲח‬from ‫ חלם‬and LXX ἐνυπνιάζω mean “to dream”.103 This has led to the phrase being translated “dream dreams”104 as if the doubling somehow strengthens the sense. However, Joel does not use the cognates here for effect or for emphasis. It is simply the normal Hebrew idiom for ‘have dreams’.105 In the ancient world, dreams were believed to be communications from a deity or malignant spirit and their interpretations were believed to have significance in the religious, political and individual realms. 106 The importance of dreams as a vehicle of revelation in the OT period,107 intertestamental Judaism108 and the NT era109 cannot be denied. Dreams are connected with prophecy110 as a legitimate means through which YHWH speaks with individuals.111 The assumption is that YHWH, as the source of the dream, will supply the ability to interpret that dream correctly.112 The ‘dream-revelation’113 can be for the dreamer’s own personal benefit and/or for that of the faith community. On the few occasions 103 Qal imperfect 3rd masc. pl. indicating incomplete or ongoing action. With the plural noun “dreams” this indicates, “they will go on dreaming”. 104 So, NIV, AV, NRSV, Bewer, Joel, 121-2; Dillard, Joel, 293; Kapelrud, Studies, 135. 105 ‫ חלם‬occurs 26x in the OT, 19 of which are of the form ‫חלֹום ָחלם‬. ֲ Clines, DCH III:43. Smith, G.V., ‫חלם‬, NIDOTTE, 2:153-4; Oepke, A., ὄναρ, TDNT V, 221. E.g. Abimelech, Gen. 20:3,6; Jacob, Gen. 28:12; 31:9-11; Joseph, Gen. 37:5,9; Pharaoh, Gen. 41:1-8, 22; a member of Gideon’s army, Jdg. 7:13-15; Solomon, 1 Ki. 3:5, 15; Daniel, Dan. 1:7; 7:1. 108 Philo speaks of “receiving some foretaste and foreknowledge of things to come” via the medium of dreams (Som. 1:2). Cf. the discussion of the place of dreams in Judaism in Oepke, TDNT, 231-4. 109 Joseph, Matt. 1:20; 2:13, 19, 22; Pilate’s wife, Matt. 27:19; Paul, Acts 16:9 – generally thought to be “a dream which …was Spirit instilled”, so Fitzmyer, Acts, 597; Barrett, C.K., Acts, A Shorter Commentary, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2002), 249. 110 Especially Num. 12:6; cf. Deut. 13:2[1]; 1 Sam. 28:6, 15; Jer. 23:25-32; 27:9; 29:8. 111 So, Christensen, D.L., Deuteronomy 1:1-21:9, (Nashville: Nelson, 2001), 271; Craigie, P.C., The Book of Deuteronomy, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 222-3. Jer. 23:28 is synonymous parallelism whereby ‘dream’ and ‘word’ are equally valid forms, see Overholt, T.W., The Threat of Falsehood, (London: SCM, 1970) 64-5 and Craigie, P.C., Kelley, P.H., and Drinkard Jr., J.F., Jeremiah 1-25, (Dallas: Word, 1991), 348-51. 112 Gen. 40:8; 41:16; Dan. 2:28. 113 This phrase discounts from the discussion ‘natural’ dreams, which are occasionally used as similes to indicate that which is insubstantial: Ps. 73:20; Job 20:8; Is.29:7-8. 106 107 20 when the OT appears to be disparaging of dreams,114 it is not the form but the content that is questioned.115 Claims made about the origin, interpretation and veracity of ‘dream-revelations’ could be erroneous. However, this is not Joel’s concern. He is declaring YHWH’s promise that, when the Spirit is poured out, everyone will be able to hear God – for themselves, for others and forever. 4.7 ‫יכם ֶחזְ יֹנ֖ ֹות יִ ְר ָֽאּו‬ ֶָ֔ ‫“ ַב ֣חּור‬your young men will see visions”. ‫יכם‬ ֶָ֔ ‫ ַב ֣חּור‬is from ‫ ָּבחּור‬and means ‘young man’ or ‘youth’. It has a similar semantic range to ‫ נַ ַער‬116 and occurs 48 times in the OT.117 ‫חזְ יֹנ֖ ֹות‬, ֶ “visions” is a plural noun from ‫ ִחזָּ יֹון‬which is found only eight more times in the MT.118 It is one of a number of cognates of the verb ‫( חזה‬to see). The verb ‫ ראה‬from which ‫ יִ ְר ָֽאּו‬is derived, also means ‘to see’ and is the root from which the word ‘seer’ comes. 119 Showing his ability as a ‘wordsmith’, Joel is talking about the nation’s youth120 becoming prophetic seers or visionary prophets.121 114 Deut. 13:1-6; Jer. 23:9-40; Zech. 10:2. So McKane, Jeremiah Vol. 1, 590; Thompson, Jeremiah, 501-2. Contra Oepke [TDNT, 230-31], who writes that Deut.13:1-3 shows distrust of dreams and Jer. 23:16-32 absolutely rejects them. Hunt, [J.H., “Dreams”, Alexander, T.D. and Baker, D.W. (Eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, (Leicester: IVP, 2003), 200-1] writes that Deut. 13:1-5 indicates the rejection of dreams. However, as Kapelrud [Studies, 136-7] correctly points out, it is the lie and the liar that is disparaged; the dream as a vehicle is legitimate. 116 Is. 40:30 could suggest that the words are synonymous; however, on the other five occasions when the two words are in proximity, four times ‫ נַ ַער‬would be better rendered ‘boys’ and ‫ָּבחּור‬ 115 ‘young men’ (Ps. 148:12; Jer. 51:22; Lam. 2:21; 5:13;). Furthermore, 1 Sam. 9:2-3 uses ‫ ָּבחּור‬for the youthful Saul and ‫ נַ ַער‬for his ‘lads/servants’. ‫ ָּבחּור‬is never used of a servant. ‫ נַ ַער‬occurs five times more frequently than ‫בחּור‬, ָּ 240x compared to 48. Half of which are in Job – 4:13; 7:14; 20:8; 33:15; see also, 2 Sam. 7:17; Is. 22:1, 5; Zech. 13:4. 119 Is. 30:10 uses synonymous parallelism that involves these two word-groups (roots in brackets) and suggests they are virtual synonyms, “say to the seers (‫ )ראה‬do not see (‫)ראה‬, to the visionaries 117 118 (‫ )חזה‬do not envision (‫… )חזה‬prophesy (‫ )חזה‬illusions.” 120 Nevertheless, see §5. 121 Perhaps the closest one can get to this wordplay in English is ‘seers of visions’. 21 The OT recognises that visions, like dreams, are a legitimate vehicle by which God’s revelation is given to his people.122 Job speaks of dreams being visions received during the night123 and Nathan’s word for David (2 Sam. 7:5-16) was received in a vision. Indeed, the totality of the prophetic experience is summed up by the word ‫( ִחזָּ יֹון‬Zech. 13:4). The NT continued to regard visions as a legitimate vehicle that God uses to speak to his people.124 4.8 ‫ל־ה ְש ָּפ ִ֑חֹות‬ ַ ‫ל־ה ֲע ָּב ִ ֖דים וְ ַע‬ ָֽ ָּ ‫“ ַע‬on the men-servants and the maid-servants”125 ‫ ֲע ָּב ִ ֖דים‬is a masculine plural noun from ‫ ֶע ֶבד‬and, in the context, simply means ‘male slaves’ or ‘men-servants’.126 ‫ ְש ָפ ֶ֑חֹות‬is the plural form of the feminine noun ‫ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬ (derived from the root ‫ )שפח‬and means ‘female servants’ or ‘slave-girls’.127 The Old Greek corresponds with the MT but some later Greek translations add μου either after δούλους 128 or after both δούλους and δούλας (καὶ ἐπὶ τοὺς δούλους [μου] καὶ ἐπὶ τὰς δούλας [μου]).129 TJ has no definite articles here, “upon menservants and maidservants” (‫בדין וְ על ֲא ָמ ָהן‬ ִ ‫ )על ע‬and has changed the MT ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬to ‫א ָמה‬. ָ The probable reason for TJ’s change of word is that, while both words are used 122 Num. 12:6 indicates that God will speak to the prophet in visions and dreams. Cf. 2 Chron. 9:29; 32:32; Is. 28:7; 30:10; Jer. 14:14; 23:16; Lam. 2:9, 14; Ezek. 7:26; 12:27; 13:9, 16; 22:28; Dan. 9:24; Hos. 12:10; Mic. 3:6. 123 Job 20:8; 33:15. 124 See Acts 9:10, 12; 10:3, 17; 18:9; 22:17. 125 My translation. 126 BDB, 712-16. Cognates of ‫ ֶע ֶבד‬are found 1130 times in the OT, 75% of which are nouns and 25% verbs. They have a semantic range including ‘slave’, ‘work’, ‘worship’, or ‘serve’ (either another person or in the temple). ‫ ֶע ֶבד‬is also used to designate ‘the Servant of the Lord’ (Is. 42:1). 127 BDB, 1046-7, see also Clines, DCH IV:12-3. 128 Anon. The Septuagint Version V2, (London: Bagster, 1794; reprinted Kessinger n.d.) 1083. 129 Wolff Joel, 56. The Septuagint published by the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1979 does not have μου at all. The double μου is, however, to be found in Acts 2:18. 22 figuratively as a token of humility when speaking to another person, ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬is never used when addressing God130 and is therefore an inappropriate designation for one on whom the Holy Spirit of prophecy (which requires communication with God) is to be poured.131 In seeking the rationale for Joel’s use of ‫ׁש ְפ ָּחה‬, ִ Dillard is wrong to say that “of the two (sic) terms for a female slave in Hebrew” ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬indicates a female servant who is “less closely assimilated to the employing family than ‫”א ָמה‬ ָ and therefore its use “enhances the breadth and inclusiveness of Joel’s vision”.132 Any attempt to distinguish between ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬and ‫ ָא ָמה‬fails because the words ‫ׁש ְפ ָּחה‬, ִ 133 ‫א ָמה‬, ָ 134 and ‫ נַ ֲע ָּרה‬135 can be used interchangeably136 and share an overlapping semantic range: marriageable virgins, household servants, slaves, concubines and prostitutes.137 The reason for Joel’s choice of ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬is not semantic but literary. It has been rightly observed that the book of Joel is a carefully crafted work. 138 In all probability, he chose ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬to designate female slaves because it is suggestive of ‘poured out’. There is nothing intrinsic to the words to connect them but the root of 130 BDB, 1046. The theology of Jonathan is discussed in Cathcart & Gordon, Targum Minor Prophets, 4-9. 132 Dillard, Joel, 296. 133 Used 63x in 58v. See BDB, 1046. 134 Used 320x in 195v. See BDB, 51; Clines, DCH I:309-10. 135 Used 67x in 60v. See BDB, 655; Clines, DCH V:711-12. 136 All three words are used to describe Ruth, (‫ נַ ֲע ָּרה‬Ruth 2:5; ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬2:13; and ‫ ָא ָמה‬3:9). Abigail 131 refers to herself using both ‫ ָא ָמה‬and ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬and uses ‫ נַ ֲע ָּרה‬of her five attendants (1 Sam. 25:40-42). ‫ ִׁש ְפ ָּחה‬and ‫ ָא ָמה‬are both used of Bilhah and Zilpah, Hannah and the wise woman of Tekoa. Schultz [R. ‫ ָא ָמה‬NIDOTTE, 1:419] is not convincing when he attempts to maintain a distinction between the two words. However, elsewhere [“Servant, Slave”, NIDOTTE, 4:1185] he writes, “the Heb. language does not distinguish between slave, servant and attendant”. 137 ‫( ילד‬born) is used (13x) to designate ‘home-born’ slaves whether male or female. 138 Allen [Joel, 39-42] calls the book “an intricate literary mosaic”; Crenshaw [Joel, vii and 38-9] says it is “literary artistry” and “rich in simile and metaphor”; cf. Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 227; Wolff, Joel, 10-11. 23 ‘female slave’ (‫ )שפח‬and that of ‘poured out’ (‫ )ׁשפך‬being virtually homophones, may provide a play on words that suggests YHWH’s ‫( רּוח‬itself a fem. noun) is ‘poured out’ on the one who ‘pours herself out’ for her master. The Torah was concerned to establish the rights of both male and female slaves and to enshrine those rights in law – even the rights of runaway slaves.139 After the account of the giving of the Decalogue (Ex. 20:1-17), the book of Exodus sets down the laws that are to direct the interactions of the covenant community. The first “guiding decisions” (‫ )ה ִמ ְש ָפ ִָׂ֔טים‬that are to be “established” (‫ ) ָת ִ ֖שים‬relate to the treatment of slaves.140 Slaves are to be free to observe the Sabbath and worship at the feasts along with the family to whom they are enslaved.141 Despite the fact that the basic humanity of the slaves was recognised and harsh treatment of them was unacceptable,142 nonetheless their rights were in no way comparable to those of a free person.143 Jeremiah 34:8-22 indicates that the rights of slaves were not always observed even though the people were often told that the memory of their own slavery in Egypt should motivate them not to ill-treat the destitute.144 Although Joel’s vision of the Spirit being lavishly poured upon slaves seems to be revolutionary, he is not taking such a great leap as at first might be supposed. Job 139 See Deut. 23:15-16. Runaways were not to be returned to their master and were free to live where they pleased without oppression. 140 Ex. 21:1-11 – verses 2-6 relate to male slaves and verses 7-11 to female. This concern is revisited three more times in the legislation – Ex. 21: 20-21, 26-27, 32 – a total of approx. 15% of the verses of the so-called ‘Book of the Covenant’. 141 Ex. 20:10//Deut. 5:13-15. Also, Deut. 12:12, 18; 16:11, 14. These six refs. are the only occasions where the list – “you, your sons and daughters, your menservants and maidservants” – is to be found. These verses along with Job 31:13 and Eccles. 7:21-22 suggest that slaves were part of the family/household. So, Fitzmyer, J.A., The Letter to Philemon, (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 29. 142 Lev. 25:43; cf. Ex. 21:26-7 which is “a remarkably humanitarian provision directed (against) cruelty and sadism in a slave owner”, Durham, J.I., Exodus, (Waco: Word, 1987), 324. 143 See the discussion in Combes, I.A.H., The Metaphor of Slavery in the Writings of the Early Church, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 37-9. 144 Specifically, in Deut. 5:15; 15:15; 16:12; 24:18, 22; and more generally, Ex. 13:3; 20:2; Lev. 26:13; Deut. 5:6; 6:12; 7:8; 8:14; 13:6[5], 11[10]; Jdg. 6:8. 24 has already recognised the basic equality of masters and slaves in God’s sight because of their common humanity (Job 31:13-15). Furthermore, Leviticus 25:55 says that all God’s people are his slaves (‫)ע ָב ִ ָׂ֔דים‬. ֲ This radical statement goes beyond the requirement for “even the highest officials (to) treat… their servants as they wish to be treated.”145 If all God’s people are his ‫ע ָב ִ ָׂ֔דים‬, ֲ then surely anyone who enslaves a member of God’s covenant community encroaches not only on YHWH’s authority but also on the enslaved person’s relationship with YHWH.146 If this is true on the national level,147 it is also true on the individual level. How can the owner of slaves ‘A’ and ‘B’ permit slave ‘A’ also to be the slave-owner of ‘B’ without losing some of his authority over slave ‘B’? This apparent social anomaly is resolved when Joel’s vision is actualised. Masters and slaves alike will be filled with the Spirit of prophecy and the transformation so effected will forever alter societal relationships. YHWH not only regards his people as enslaved to him, he also calls them “children of God” (Deut. 14:1), which implies that, irrespective of social standing, they are all brothers and sisters to each other. This relationship is explicitly declared when Deuteronomy 15:12 retains the appellations ‘brothers’ and ‘sisters’ for the Hebrew slaves of a Hebrew.148 Similar sentiments are found in Sirach149 and Philo150 and, apparently, the Essenes did not keep slaves.151 The NT provides the most striking example of the implication of Joel’s vision. After the conversion of Onesimus under Paul’s ministry, Paul says that he “became my son” 145 Hartley, J.E., Leviticus, (Dallas: Word, 1992), 442. Combes, Slavery, 43. 147 Cf. 2 Chron. 12.7-9 where serving an earthly monarch is Contrasted with serving God. 148 So also Lev. 25:39-43, where their rights as ‘countrymen’ are enumerated. 149 Strangely, after saying a bad servant is tamed, “by racks and tortures” (Sir. 33:26) he says, “If you have a servant treat him as an equal …treat him like a brother” (Sir. 33:30-31). 150 De Spec. Leg. 2:90-91; De Virt. 124. 151 Philo says of the Essenes, δοῦλός τε παρʼ αὐτοῖς οὐδὲ εἷς ἐστιν (Omn. Prob. Lib. 79). So too Josephus, οὔτε δούλων ἐπιτηδεύουσιν κτῆσιν (Ant. 18:21). 146 25 (Phlm. 10). Upon returning to Philemon, Onesimus was to be regarded “no longer as a slave, but …as a dear brother” (Phlm. 16). Indeed, Paul urged Philemon, “welcome him as you would welcome me” (Phlm. 17). Master and slave “as Christian brothers, …would belong to each other for eternity as well as time”.152 Joel presents YHWH’s radical agenda – an agenda that is both implied and required by other statements that describe the relationship God has with his covenant community. 4.9 ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ָֽ ִ ‫“ ַביָּ ִ ֣מים ָּה ָ֔ה ָּמה ֶא ְׁש ֖פֹוְך ֶא‬I will pour out my Spirit in those days”. ‫“ ַביָּ ִ ֣מים ָּה ָ֔ה ָּמה‬in those days”. This temporal indicator corresponds to the initial “afterwards” and is part of the inclusio. ‫ת־רּוחי‬ ָֽ ִ ‫“ ֶא ְׁש ֖פֹוְך ֶא‬I will pour out my Spirit”. This is identical wording to the beginning of the inclusio.153 152 Bruce, F.F., The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon and to the Ephesians, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), 217. 153 For a discussion of the concepts involved, see §§4.2, 4.3. 26 5. The universality of the gift of the Spirit. The promise of the Spirit is for everyone: boys and girls, old men and youths;154 the only limitation, in 3:1, is ‫ – ֶכָ֣ם‬the second person masculine plural suffix ‘your’.155 However, when Joel says that the Spirit will be poured out on male and female slaves, he introduces the possibility that non-Jews could be included. Jews could own foreign slaves and there is legislation in the Torah to govern how such slaves should be treated. An important part of that legislation requires male slaves to be circumcised so that they, along with female slaves, may participate in the various Jewish feasts.156 So significant is circumcision that God says that any uncircumcised male “will be cut off (since) he has broken my covenant” (Gen. 17:14). Foreign slaves, whether male or female, became part of the household they were enslaved in and part of the faith community that the household belonged to. Circumcision was not offered to a male slave as an option, it was a non-negotiable requirement laid down in the Torah whereby the slave entered the covenant community. Joel’s prophetic word allows for the Spirit to be poured out even on slaves of foreign origin.157 They were included within the faith community; they were included in the restoration of the covenant; they were included in the giving of the Spirit. The contrasting categories of the recipients of the Spirit indicate the comprehensive nature of ‫ל־ב ָָׂ֔שר‬ ָ ‫כ‬. ָ “All flesh” is the inclusive phrase that Joel illustrates by reference to different groups within the community. Bewer goes too far when he suggests 154 Crenshaw, Joel, 165. The same suffix applied to ‘old men’ (‫יכם‬ ֶ ֵ‫ )זִ ְקנ‬and ‘young men’ (‫יכם‬ ֶָׂ֔ ‫ )ב ָ֣ח ֵּור‬later in the same verse. 156 Gen. 17:13; Ex. 12:44. See also Ex. 20:10; Lev. 22:11; Deut. 5:14; 12:18; 16:10-11. 157 Allen, Joel, 99; Crenshaw, Joel, 166-7; McQueen, Joel, 41. 155 27 that ‫ל־ב ָָׂ֔שר‬ ָ ‫ ָכ‬becomes the equivalent of tout le monde.158 The meaning of ‫ל־ב ָָׂ֔שר‬ ָ ‫ ָכ‬is determined by the context in which it is used and is better rendered in French as toute chair.159 There is no significance in the fact that ‘old women’ and ‘maidens’ are not in the list.160 Age, gender and social status are irrelevant insofar as receiving YHWH’s Spirit is concerned. When Joel speaks of the slaves being recipients of the Spirit and when he mentions young men and women before their elders, the social order is not so much reversed as abolished.161 This is a comprehensive promise for all the people of God. It is YHWH’s response to the comprehensive call to lament (1:5-14; 2:16-17) taken up by all his people.162 Formerly, the Spirit was active in some individuals for some of the time. In Joel’s vision of the future, everyone who belongs to YHWH will have unhindered access to his ‫רּוח‬ ַ all the time.163 It is surely right to see the three activities of seeing visions, dreaming dreams and receiving prophecy as equivalent, each parallel to and illuminating the others.164 It is not significant that Joel talks of the old men being dreamers and the young being visionaries. These are not age-specific forms of prophecy.165 Joel looks forward to an era when the Spirit of God will bring the authentic word of God both to and through all the people of God. 158 Bewer, Joel, 123; cf. Allen, Joel, 98; Crenshaw, Joel, 165. ‘All flesh’ – as in La Sainte Bible, (Alliance Biblique Universelle, 1910). 160 Just as there is no significance in the omissions in the first call to lament (drunkards, farmers, vine growers, priests and elders – 1:5-14) or in the second (the people, elders, children, nursing infants, bride and groom and priests – 2:16-17). Cf. the phrase “elders and all who live in the land” (1:14) is not meant to suggest that the elders do not live in Judah. 161 Allen, Joel, 99 n.8. 162 Hubbard [Joel, 69] correctly identifies the different categories of recipient as “virtual merisms …parallel(ing) the summons to repentance (2:16)”. 163 Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 260. 164 Crenshaw [Joel, 166] sees the three verbs as synonymous. So too Wolff, Joel, 66. 165 Kapelrud [Studies, 135] is right to say that when Joel spoke of the old men dreaming he was only using that group as an example of what was available to everyone. 159 28 Joel did not speak in isolation. He was part of a prophetic tradition that had much to say about God’s Spirit. The outpouring of the Spirit and the consequent immediacy of access to YHWH looks to a time when Moses’ desire (Num. 11:29) to see the whole people in such a condition would be satisfied. Micah specifically links the Spirit to prophetic declaration166 and for Jeremiah the restoration of the covenant will result in a new closeness between YHWH and his people (Jer. 31:3134). A close parallel to Joel’s vision is the promise made in Ezekiel 39:29when YHWH says, “I will no longer hide my face from them, for I will pour out my Spirit on the house of Israel (‫ל־בָ֣ית יִ ְש ָר ֵָׂ֔אל‬ ֵ ‫ת־רּוחי ע‬ ִ ‫)ש ּ֤פ ְכ ִתי ֶא‬.” ָ 167 Whatever his antecedents, Joel brings together the promise of the Spirit, the ‘prophethood of all God’s people’ and a redefining of the social order168 into a vision of the community of the Spirit.169 166 Mic. 3:8, “I am filled with power, by the Spirit of the LORD (‫הוה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫ת־רּוח י‬ ָ֣ ‫)א‬, ֶ …to declare…”. Joel uses the imperfect ‫ יִ ְשפְֹך‬while Ezekiel uses the perfect form of the verb. The meaning is identical since Ezekiel is using the so-called perfectum propheticum placing himself, so to speak, at the point when the first part of his prophecy is fulfilled and therefore speaks of the pouring out as if it had already happened. See Cowley, A.E. (Trans.), Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966 [1910]), 312-3. 168 Cf. Paul’s understanding (Gal. 3:28). 169 Whether temporal or eschatological will be discussed at §8.2. 167 29 6. Joel 3:3-4 exegesis (the second strophe). In the second strophe, Joel expands on what he has already said about ‫יֹום יהוה‬.170 That day will be heralded by cataclysmic portents in the heavens and on the earth, leading Joel to call it a “great and dreadful day” (3:4; c.f. 2:11). The ‘Day of YHWH’ motif will be examined first, in some detail, since it is crucial to understanding both the book of Joel in its totality and this pericope in particular. After this, the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬that Joel says will herald that day will be discussed. The question of when ‫הוה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫ יֹום י‬is to come will be addressed after the whole pericope has been exegeted.171 6.1 ‫נֹורא‬ ַֽ ָ ‫הוה הּגָ ֖דֹול וְ ה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫“ יָ֣ ֹום י‬the great and dreadful day of the LORD”. Although the structure of the phrase allows for ‫‘ גָּ דֹול‬great’172 and ‫נֹורא‬ ַֽ ָ ‘fearful’173 to modify either the masculine singular noun ‫ יֹום‬or the proper name ‫יהוה‬, there is no reason to reject the usual translation. It is “the day” that is “great and dreadful”. The LXX mistranslates ‫נֹורא‬ ַֽ ָ ‫ וְ ה‬as καὶ ἐπιφανῆ, reading ‫נֹורא‬ ַֽ ָ from ‫‘ ירא‬to fear’ as if it were ‫‘ נִ ְר ֶאה‬appearing’ from ‫‘ ָר ָאה‬to see’.174 170 Joel 1:15; 2:1-2,10-11. Below §8.2. 172 Adjective, masc. sing. 173 A niphal masc. sing. participle (from ‫ )ירא‬used as an adjective. See Clines, DCH IV:280. 174 So, Barrett, Acts 1-14, 138; Bruce, F.F., The Acts of the Apostles, (London: Tyndale, 1965), 90; Fitzmyer, Acts, 253. Conzelman, H., Acts of the Apostles, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987 [1963]), 20. 171 30 ‫ יֹום‬is used in two basic ways in the OT. Whilst its primary meaning is determined by the time it takes the earth to spin on its axis,175 ‫ יֹום‬is also used to designate an individual’s lifespan, a section of a person’s life or the reign of a monarch.176 It also denotes a specific period of trouble, war, disaster or peace.177 YHWH’s day is neither an actual measurement of time178 nor even a single event. Lamentations, for example, uses ‘day of YHWH’ language to describe both the destruction of Jerusalem (a past event)179 and a promised day yet to come.180 Such a bifurcation would not be possible if ‫ יֹום יהוה‬was definable as one time or one event.181 In Lamentations, YHWH’s day is simply the time when God acts openly in history to judge humanity and establish his agenda.182 The phrase “the day of the LORD” is found five times in Joel.183 It occurs another fourteen times in the MT184 while similar phrases occur a further thirteen times.185 It is implied on many more occasions in such phrases as “In that day” or “The day This is the case whether the reference is to ‘day’ in Contradistinction to ‘night’ (e.g. Gen. 1:5a) or the whole 23hr 56 min. 4 sec. cycle (e.g. Gen. 1:5b). 176 E.g. Jdg. 5:6; Job 29:4; Is. 1:1; Dan. 2:44; Joel 1:2. “In the days of …” occurs 84x in the OT. 177 E.g. ‫יֹום־צ ָ ֹּ֧רה‬ ָ “day of distress” (2 Ki. 19:3; cf. Zeph. 1:15); ‫“ ְכיֹום ִמ ְד ָ ַֽיָֽן‬day of Midian” (Is. 9:3); 175 ‫“ ְביָ֣ ֹום ִמ ְצ ָׂ֔ריִ ם‬day of Egypt” (Ezek. 30:9). E.g. Is. 34:8 where YHWH’s “day of vengeance” parallels his “year of retribution”. 179 Lam. 1:12; 2:1, 21, 22. 180 Lam. 1:21 suggests that ‘the day’ has a future component. See also Ezekiel, where ‫יֹום יהוה‬ connotes a past event (34:12), a future battle between Egypt and Babylon (29:21) and an unspecified future [eschatological?] judgement on the nations (39:7-8). 181 Gottwald, N.K., Studies in the Book of Lamentations, (London: SCM, 1962), 84. 182 Ibid, 85. 183 Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11; 3:4; 4:14. 184 Is. 2:12; 13:6, 9; Ezek. 13:5; 30:3; Amos 5:18(2x) ,20; Ob. 15; Zeph. 1:7, 14(2x); Zech. 14:1; Mal. 3:23[4:5]. 185 “The day of the LORD’s anger/wrath/vengeance etc.” – Is. 22:5; 34:8; 61:2; Jer. 46:10; Lam. 1:12; 2:1, 21, 22; Ezek. 7:19; Zeph. 1:18; 2:2, 3; and “The day of the LORD’s sacrifice” – Zech. 1:8. von Rad [G. ἡμέρα, Kittel, G. (Ed.), Bromiley, G.W. (Trans.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 2, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967), 946] incorrectly states that Jeremiah does not use the day of YHWH motif. However, elsewhere [von Rad, G., Old Testament Theology Vol. II, (London: SCM, 1985 [1965]), 119] when listing “the sixteen” passages relating to ‫ יֹום יהוה‬he includes Jer. 46:10 and inexplicably makes no mention of Mal. 3.23[4:5]. 178 31 is coming”.186 Often these are employed to introduce YHWH’s actions in judgement.187 The day of YHWH is a significant theme within the prophetic corpus.188 Although there is no certainty about the origin of the concept,189 a chronological analysis of all the passages that use ‫ יֹום יהוה‬or a similar phrase190 does reveal important developments in the prophetic expectations of the day of YHWH. This development is mirrored in Joel’s presentation of ‫יֹום יהוה‬. Virtually everything Joel says about ‘that day’ is said elsewhere and almost everything said elsewhere about ‘the day’ is incorporated into Joel’s apologetic.191 The consensus is that the first use of the phrase ‫ יֹום יהוה‬is in Amos 5:18-20. His use of it suggests that it was already a familiar concept. In all probability, Amos’s contemporaries would have expected it to be a day when YHWH would both visit judgement on the nations that oppressed them and bring abundant blessing to Israel.192 Amos reverses this popular conception and speaks of the coming day as a time of judgement on God’s wayward people. Although the book of Amos ends on a note of hope (Am. 9:13-15), nonetheless ‫ יֹום יהוה‬is still portrayed as an 186 “Nearly 200 times in the prophets” – Hiers, R.H., “Day of the Lord”, Freedman, D.N. (Ed.), Anchor Bible Dictionary Vol. II (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 82. 187 E.g. Is. 7:18, 20, 21; 10:20; 24:21; 30:25; Jer. 33:14, 15, 16; 48:12, 41, 47; 50:4, 20, 31; Ezek. 29:21; 39:7-8; Amos 8:9; Zeph. 1:9, 10, 15; 3:11, 16; Zech. 13:1, 2; 14:6, 8, 20. 188 Hiers, [“Day of the Lord”, 82] “a central feature of the prophets”; Oswalt, [J.N. The Book of Isaiah Chapters 1-39, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 126] a “prominent theme”; von Rad, [OTT II, 119] “the very heart of prophetic eschatology”. 189 Some suggest ‫ יֹום יהוה‬originated as a cultic ‘day’ or festival, e.g. Ahlström, Temple Cult 64-5; Kapelrud Studies, 73. Others place its origins in YHWH waging a ‘holy war’, e.g. Wolff, Joel, 34; von Rad, OTT II, 123. However, as Prinsloo [Theology, 35] writes, “we know virtually nothing about its origin”. Cf. Childs, B.S., Isaiah, (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 124. 190 See Figs 1-5. 191 This strengthens the view that Joel was the last OT prophet – see §§8.1, 8.2 and further in this section. Compare Figs 1-4 with Fig. 5. See also Fig. 6. 192 Cannon, Day of the Lord, 51-2; Jacob, E., Theology of the Old Testament, (London: Hodder, 1974 [1955]), 319-21; Niehaus, J., “Amos”, McComiskey, T.E. (Ed.), The Minor Prophets, Volume 1, Hosea Joel Amos, (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992), 428-9; Rowley, H.H., The Faith of Israel, (London: SCM, 1974 [1956]), 177-8; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 353-4. 32 unavoidable day of devastation.193 In the earliest preaching about the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬there was no suggestion that it would be attended by blessing or deliverance. Indeed, before the Babylonian exile, the idea that the ‘day’ might bring blessing is only mentioned as a corollary of judgement on the enemies of God’s people (Is. 34:8).194 The fall of Jerusalem marks a fundamental change in the prophetic understanding of the ‫יֹום יהוה‬. Ezekiel epitomises the twin aspects of this change. Before the fall of Jerusalem, the dominant note in his oracles is of judgement on Judah (cf. Ezek. 7:19; 13:4) whereas after the fall he proclaims judgement on the nations oppressing God’s people (Ezek. 30:3-4) and restoration of covenant blessing for Israel (cf. Ezek. 29:21).195 The post-exilic prophets speak in a similar vein. Judgement will be visited on all nations, particularly insofar as they have arrogantly set themselves against YHWH and his people, while blessing and deliverance will be the lot of Israel.196 Joel gives the most sustained treatment of ‫ יֹום יהוה‬to be found anywhere in the OT.197 It is the dominant theme of the whole book,198 and much of what Joel says about ‫ יֹום יהוה‬echoes what other prophets say.199 The day of YHWH has been called “the inauguration of a new era”,200 but this is too narrow. It is misleading to speak of ‘the day’ as if it were a specific point in time or even a single event. For Joel ‘the As it is for Isaiah ben Amoz – see Fig. 1. See Figs 2-3. 195 So, Block, The Book of Ezekiel Chapters 25-48, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 3; Cannon, Day of the Lord, 54. See Fig.3. 196 See Fig. 4. 197 See the discussion, and full list of parallels, in Crenshaw, Joel, 26-8. 198 Cook [Prophecy, 188] states that the book of Joel “is theologically unified by the Day-of-YHWH theme”. Cf. Garrett, Structure, 297; Prinsloo, Theology, 112; Wolff, Joel, 33. 199 Although it is not essential to the conclusions of this paper, Joel is held to be the last of the OT prophets and all the verbal parallels (see Fig. 6) as Joel quoting earlier prophets. 200 von Rad, ἡμέρα, 946. 193 194 33 day’ is a process that includes judgement, restoration, and blessing. 201 The locust plague and drought, with which the book of Joel opens, herald ‫יֹום יהוה‬. Joel has prepared the way for this interpretation of events by stressing the unique nature of the locusts (1:2-4) and portraying them as an invading army (1:6-7). In an obvious play on words, having already spoken of the devastation (‫ )ׁשדד‬caused by the drought (1:10), Joel says ‫ּוכ ֖שֹד ִמשדי יָ ַֽבֹוא‬ ְ ‫הוה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫“ יָ֣ ֹום י‬the day of YHWH will come as destruction (‫ )ׁשֹד‬from Shaddai (‫”)ׁש ַדי‬ ַ (1:15 // Is. 13:6). Fig. 1 ‫הוה‬ ָׂ֔ ָ ְ‫ יֹום י‬in the eighth century prophets.202 Text:203 Judgement for: Blessing for: Portents, signs and other remarks: Darkness. Unavoidable devastation (see 5:19). Am. 5:18-20 God’s people. ----- Is. 2:6-18 God’s people. ----- The earth shakes. Is. 13:6-13 Babylon (vv.6-9) and the world (v.11). ----- Sun, moon and stars darkened. Heavens tremble, earth shakes. The day of his burning anger. Is. 22:5 God’s people. ----- A day of tumult, trampling and terror. Garrett, D.A., “The Structure of Joel”, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 28/3, (Sept. 1985), 296. Contra Barton, [Joel, 60-1] who prefers to talk of a succession of discrete events each of which was “a day of YHWH”. 202 Amos and (the so-called) First-Isaiah. 203 The texts, in this and the subsequent charts, will appear in approximate chronological order. It is acknowledged that the dates ascribed may be a matter of debate; the generally accepted consensus will determine the place at which the text appears in the charts. Precise chronology is not the remit of this paper. A general picture of the use and development of the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬motif is all that is sought. 201 34 Fig. 2 ‫הוה‬ ָׂ֔ ָ ְ‫ יֹום י‬in the late seventh century pre-exilic prophets.204 Text: Judgement for: Blessing for: Zeph. 1:7-2:3 God’s people (1:718) and then, almost incidentally, “the whole world will be consumed” (1:18). There is just the possibility (2:3) that the judgement (on God’s people) might be averted by heartfelt repentance. Is. 34:8 Edom. Zion – her cause will be upheld. Portents, signs and other remarks: Gloom, clouds and blackness. The day is described in terms of wrath, anguish, trouble, bitterness and ruin. YHWH will act “in the fire of his jealousy” and (‫ )וְ ֻש ּ֤פְך ָד ָמם‬blood will be poured out. A day of vengeance and retribution, spoken of in terms of unquenchable burning sulphur and pitch, the smoke of which “will rise for ever”. From ca. 627 BC [Zephaniah – so dated by Smith, R.L., Micah-Malachi, (Waco: Word, 1984), 121-3] to 600 BC [the historical setting of Is. 34 – so Watts, J.W., Isaiah 34-66, (Waco: Word, 1987), vii]. 204 35 Fig. 3 ‫הוה‬ ָׂ֔ ָ ְ‫ יֹום י‬in the prophets of the exile. Text: Judgement for: Blessing for: Portents, signs and other remarks: A day of wrath. Ezek. 7:19 God’s people. ----- Ezek. 13:4 God’s people, specifically false prophets. ----- Lam. 1:122:22205 God’s people, the “Daughter of Zion”. ----- A day of fierce anger. His wrath is poured out like fire. “He has burned in Jacob like a flaming fire.” Ezek. 29:21-30:6 The nations, Egypt specifically (Ezek. 30:5). ----- “I will set fire to Egypt” (Ezek. 30:8). Jer. 46:10206 Egypt. ----- A day of vengeance when “the sword will devour …till it has quenched its thirst with blood”. Obad. 1517207 All nations. Mount Zion, where there will be deliverance. 205 God’s people will be the fire, Esau will be the stubble that is consumed. This is written as a reflection on the events of 587 BC by an eyewitness, so Harrison, Introduction, 1070. 206 This is post 587 BC – Ibid¸ 808. 207 For dating Obadiah ca. 580 BC, see Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 404. 36 Fig. 4 ‫הוה‬ ָׂ֔ ָ ְ‫ יֹום י‬in the post-exilic prophets (excluding Joel). Text: Judgement for: Blessing for: Portents, signs and other remarks: Sun darkened (implied – 14:7). Zech. 14:120208 All nations. God’s people and the survivors from the nations if they worship YHWH. Is. 61:2209 The nations (c.f. 63:16). God’s people – YHWH’s favour. A day of vengeance. Mal. 3:1924210 All the arrogant and every evildoer opposed to YHWH (3.19). God’s people – “you who revere my name” (3:20). The great and dreadful day will burn like a furnace. Fig. 5 ‫הוה‬ ָׂ֔ ָ ְ‫ יֹום י‬in the Book of Joel. Text:211 Judgement for: Blessing for: Joel 1:15A God’s people. ----- Joel 2:12,B10F 11C God’s people. There is just a possibility (2:12-17) that judgement might be averted if there is genuine lament. Joel 3:1-5C, ----- D. Joel 4:1421A,E,F. The nations of the world. Portents, signs and other remarks: Destruction, ruin and devastation. Great and dreadful. Darkness, gloom, clouds & blackness. Stars, moon and sun all darkened. God’s people (and ‘converted’ foreign slaves) – spirit outpoured; on Mount Zion – there will be deliverance. Great and dreadful. Blood, fire and smoke. Sun darkened, moon turns to blood. Earth and sky tremble. God’s people. Stars, moon and sun all darkened. Earth and sky tremble. 208 Smith (Micah-Malachi, 170) suggests a date for Zech. 14 of late 6 th or early 5th century BC. Watts (Isaiah 34-66, viii-ix) sets this in ca. 460 BC. 210 Smith (Micah-Malachi, 298) dates Malachi in the first half of the 5th century BC. 211 The large case superscript letters appended to the text references in this figure refer to material in Fig. 6. 209 37 Fig. 6 Some verbal parallels between Joel’s description of ‫הוה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫יֹום י‬ and that of the other prophets A Joel 1:15 Is. 13:6 Joel 4:14 Ezek. 30:3 B Joel 2.2 Zeph. 1:15 C Joel 2:11 Joel 3:4 Mal. 3:23 D Joel 3:5 Obad. 17 E Joel 4:16 Amos 1:2 F Joel 2:10 ‫ּוכ ׁ֖שֹד ִמ ַׁש ַ ִ֥די יָּ ָֽבֹוא‬ ְ ‫הוה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫ ִ ּ֤כי ָּקרֹוב י֣ ֹום י‬For the day of YHWH is near and like destruction from Shaddai it will come ‫הוִ֑ה ְכ ׁ֖שֹד ִמ ַש ַ ִ֥די יָּ ָֽבֹוא‬ ָּ ְ‫ ִ ִ֥כי ָּק ֖רֹוב י֣ ֹום י‬For the day of YHWH is near, like destruction from Shaddai it will come ‫הוה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫ ִ ּ֤כי ָּקרֹוב י֣ ֹום י‬For the day of YHWH is near ‫יהוִ֑ה‬ ָּ ‫י־ק ֣רֹוב יָ֔ ֹום וְ ָּק ִ֥רֹוב י֖ ֹום ַ ָֽל‬ ָּ ‫ ִ ָֽכ‬For the day is near, indeed the day of YHWH is near ‫ י֧ ֹום ֣חֹ ֶׁשְך וַ ֲאפ ֵ֗ ָּלה יּ֤ ֹום ָּענָּ ן וַ ֲע ָּר ָ֔ ֶפל‬A day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and blackness ‫ יִ֥ ֹום ח ֹ ֶׁשְך וַ ֲאפ ָ֔ ָּלה יִ֥ ֹום ָּע ָּ ֖נָ֖ן וַ ֲע ָּר ֶ ָֽפל‬A day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and blackness ‫נֹורא‬ ִ֥ ָּ ְ‫הוָ֛ה ו‬ ָּ ְ‫ גָּ ֧דֹול יֹום־י‬The great and dreadful day of YHWH ‫ּנֹורא‬ ָֽ ָּ ‫הוה ַהגָּ ֖דֹול וְ ַה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫ לִ ְפ ֵ֗ני ּ֚בֹוא י֣ ֹום י‬Before the coming of the great and dreadful day of YHWH Before the coming of the great and ‫ּנֹורא‬ ָֽ ָּ ‫הוה ַהגָּ ֖דֹול וְ ַה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫לִ ְפ ֵ֗ני ּ֚בֹוא י֣ ֹום י‬ dreadful day of YHWH ‫יטה‬ ֵָּ֗ ‫ירּוׁש ִַ֜ ִַלם ִ ָֽת ְה ֶי֣ה ְפל‬ ָּ ‫ּוב‬ ִ ‫ר־ציּ֨ ֹון‬ ִ ‫ ִּ֠ ִכי ְב ַה‬But on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be the delivered For on Mount Zion ‫יטה‬ ֖ ָּ ‫ּוב ַ ִ֥הר ִציָ֛ ֹון ִת ְה ֶיִ֥ה ְפל‬ ְ there will be the delivered and YHWH will roar from Zion and from Jerusalem he gives his thunder ‫קֹולֹו‬ ִ֑ ‫ירּוׁש ִַ ֖לם יִ ֣תן‬ ָּ ‫ּומ‬ ִ ‫ יְ הוָּ ה ִמ ִצי֣ ֹון יִ ְׁש ָָּ֔אג‬YHWH will roar from Zion and from Jerusalem he gives his thunder ‫קֹולֹו‬ ָ֔ ‫ירּוׁש ִַלם יִ ֣תן‬ ָּ ‫ּומ‬ ִ ‫יהוה ִמ ִצי֣ ֹון יִ ְׁש ֵָּ֗אג‬ ָָּ֞ ַ‫ו‬ ‫ ָּ ֣רגְ זָּ ה ֶָ֔א ֶרץ ָּר ֲע ׁ֖שּו ָּׁש ָּ ִ֑מיִ ם‬the earth shakes, the skies tremble Joel 4:16 ‫ וְ ָּר ֲע ׁ֖שּו ָּׁש ַ ֣מיִ ם וָּ ָּ ִ֑א ֶרץ‬and the skies and earth will tremble Is. 2:19 ‫קּומֹו לַ ֲע ִ֥ר ֹץ ָּה ָּ ָֽא ֶרץ‬ ֖ ‫ ְב‬he (YHWH) rises to shake the earth Is. 13:13 ‫קֹומּה‬ ִ֑ ָּ ‫ ָּׁש ַ ֣מיִ ם ַא ְר ָ֔ ִגיז וְ ִת ְר ַ ִ֥עׁש ָּה ָּ ֖א ֶרץ ִמ ְמ‬I will make the heavens tremble and will shake the earth from its place 38 The process continues with a blast on the ram’s horn (2:1). When the ‫שֹופר‬ ָ ִַ֜ was sounded, it was almost invariably to get the attention of those within earshot. 212 It is YHWH who commands that the horn be blown, initially to warn his people of the impending judgement. Although there is debate over the identification of the agents of destruction in 2:1-11,213 YHWH is acknowledged to be the commanderin-chief of his army (2:11,25). Joel tells his compatriots that ‫ יֹום יהוה‬will be a day of unprecedented disaster, when YHWH will visit judgement on them because they have broken the covenant (// Amos 3:2).214 A second blast on the ‫שֹופר‬ ָ ִַ֜ summons the congregation to solemn assembly and fasting (2:15). The covenant theology at the heart of the book of Joel215 enabled the prophet to offer the hope that YHWH would ‘turn’ (2:14 ‫ )יָ ָ֣שּוב‬and bless them if they would ‘return’ (2.12 ‫ ֻשבּו‬and 2:13 ‫)שּובּו‬ ֖ to him.216 This oracle (2:12-14) and subsequent call to lament (2:15-17), coming immediately after the warning that ‫ יֹום יהוה‬is unendurable (2:11), is the first hint that ‘the day’ may not be as devastating as Joel first declared. Since judgement is to be executed on sinners, perhaps the penitents who desert sinful ways will not experience ‘the great day’ as a ‘dreadful day’.217 Everyone is summoned; no one is 72x in OT. To announce God’s presence (Ps. 47:5), to accompany the giving of God’s word (Ex. 19:16, 19; 20:18), and to summon men and nations to judgement (16x, e.g. Is. 58:1; Jer. 51:27; Ezek. 33:3-6). Also, as a call to prayer/worship (e.g. Ps. 81:4[3]), a signal for action (e.g. 2 Sam. 15:10), to make an announcement (e.g. Is. 18:3) and calling people to war (e.g. Neh. 4:12[18], 14[20]). The ‫שֹופר‬ ָ ִַ֜ was used in war probably as much to alarm the enemy as to muster the troops (Josh. 6:4-20 Jdg. 3:27). 213 See §2 particularly n.10 & 12. 214 See the discussion in Ahlström, Temple Cult, 62-3. 215 See §2. 216 The play on words is maintained in the LXX (ἐπιστράφητε and ἐπιστρέψει) but is lost in the TJ because the Targumist could not conceive of God repenting. Although both Joel 2:14 and Jonah 3:9 have an identical opening clause (‫יֹודע יָ ָ֣שּוב וְ נִ ָ ֶ֑חם‬ ֖ ֵ ‫)מי‬ ִ the wordplay is not carried through in Jonah. 212 217 This reflects the “perhaps” of Zeph. 2:3. Cf. Ezek. 18:32, “so repent and live” – ‫וְ ָה ִ ֖שיבּו ִ ַֽו ְחיַֽ ּו‬. 39 exempt. The call goes out to ‫ל־ב ָָׂ֔שר‬ ָ ‫ – ָכ‬old and young, babes and (by implication) nursing mothers, bride and groom, priests and people – all are to gather to worship and lament. For God’s people, this transforms ‫ יֹום יהוה‬from a day of destruction into a day of deliverance.218 However, that cannot be the end of the matter. If the locust plague was not an isolated event but did indeed herald ‘the day’, then the rest of the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬process must unfold. That this is the case is demonstrated when Joel receives an oracle to the effect that the destruction caused by the locusts was going to be reversed. That YHWH’s day is not an event but a process is made clear by that declaration: “I will repay you for the years (‫ )ה ָש ָׂ֔ ִנים‬the locusts have eaten” (2:25).219 The locusts are again described as YHWH’s great army that he sent upon his people, the initial part of the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬process. The restoration of material blessing220 is just the arrabon, initially of restored fellowship221 and then, more significantly, of spiritual transformation and intimacy.222 YHWH’s day will become a “great and awesome day”223 of deliverance (3:5). The process will culminate in an abundant provision of blessing and security for God’s people224 and the enemies of God will be utterly destroyed.225 Joel maintains that judgement begins with the household of faith (1:15-2:11) and that the judgement associated with ‫ יֹום יהוה‬is redemptive (2:12-14). The whole 218 3:5 // Obad. 17. See also Is. 32:8 “a day of vengeance, a year of retribution” and 61:2 “the year of the LORD’s favour and the day of vengeance of our God”. 220 2:18-26 // Amos 9:11-15; Obad. 17. 221 2:27 // Is. 44:3. 222 3:1-5 // Ezek. 36:25-7. 223 2:11; 3:4 // Mal. 3:23. 224 4:16-18, 20-21 // Is. 61:1-3. 225 4:14, 19 // Ezek. 30:3-6. 219 40 process, from inauguration to consummation is the ‫יֹום יהוה‬. The locusts are God’s agents of redemptive judgement and eventually produce the required response of lament/repentance (2:15-17). YHWH re-establishes the covenant and reinstates the associated blessings of prosperity and security (2:18-27) prior to transforming the people into a prophetic community (3:1-5) as part of the outworking of ‘that day’ (3:4). Joel sees the conclusion of the process as judgement on the nations and neverending blessing for Israel (4:1-21). All the elements of Joel’s proclamation of ‫יֹום‬ ‫ יהוה‬are found in the earlier prophets, including conditional blessing for other nations along with God’s people.226 6.2 ‫ּוב ָ ֶ֑א ֶרץ‬ ָ ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים ב ָש ֖מיִ ם‬ ְ ‫“ וְ ָנַֽת ִתי ַֽמ‬I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth”. ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬is variously translated by signs, wonders, miracles or portents and is from ‫מֹופת‬, cognates of which occur 36 times in the MT.227 On half of these occasions it is used of the miracles YHWH performed in connection with the exodus from Egypt.228 ‫ מֹופת‬is also used of prophets and prophetic activity229 and of miracles performed directly by God.230 Only once is it used in the context of judgement on 226 Insofar as foreign nationals accept the faith of Israel (Joel 3:2; Zech. 14:16-19; cf. Figs 4 & 5). This fulfils Gen. 12:3 where the blessing on ‫( ֖כֹל ִמ ְש ְפחֹת ָה ֲא ָד ָ ַֽמה‬on all peoples of the earth) is conditional on them first being a blessing to Abraham. 227 Clines DCH V:183. BDB, 68 suggests ‫ מֹופת‬comes from the conjectural root ‫אפת‬. 228 18x. Ex. 4:21; 7:3, 9; 11:9, 10; Deut. 4:34; 6:22; 7:19; 26:8; 29:2; 34:11; Jer. 32:20, 21; Ps. 78:43; 105:5, 27; 135:9; Neh. 9:10. 229 Is. 8:18; 20:3; Ezek. 12:6, 11; 24:24, 27; Zech. 3:8; Ps. 71:7. 230 To bring Jeroboam back to his senses, 1 Ki. 13:3, 3, 5; God’s miracles in general, 1 Chron. 16:12 and Hezekiah’s healing, 2 Chron. 32:24, 31. 41 God’s people to describe disaster, blight or curses (including swarms of locusts) that God would send if his people breached the covenant.231 ‫ מֹופת‬is one of three Hebrew words used for ‘miraculous signs’. 232 Although ‫מֹופת‬, ‫ אֹות‬and ‫ ֶפ ֶלא‬share a degree of semantic overlap233 and are sometimes interchangeable,234 they are not totally synonymous.235 Eighteen times ‫ מֹופת‬is coupled with ‫( אֹות‬sign) and is then usually translated as ‘wonder’.236 In Joel 3:3 ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬denotes both the cosmic and the earthly ‘wonders’.237 The AB-BA structure of the strophe means that although the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬in the heavens are mentioned first, the wonders on the earth (blood, fire and smoke) are treated before those affecting the sun and moon. 231 Deut. 28:46, “they will be for you as a sign and a wonder” ‫מֹופֶ֑ת‬ ֵ ‫ּול‬ ְ ‫ל ֖אֹות‬.ְ The other two are ‫( אֹות‬79x) and ‫( ֶפ ֶלא‬80x). ‫ זכר‬is more properly a remembrance or memorial sign and is therefore not germane to this discussion. 233 They are all used of miracles generally ‫( אֹות‬10x), ‫( מֹופת‬10x) and ‫( ֶפ ֶלא‬21x) and those associated 232 with the events of the exodus in particular ‫( אֹות‬29x), ‫( מֹופת‬18x) and ‫( ֶפ ֶלא‬8x) 234 See Ps.78, where ‫ ֶפ ֶלא‬is used of the miracles and wonderful deeds God performed in the exodus (vv.4,11,12,32) while ‫ אֹות‬and ‫( מֹופת‬v.43) sum up all ten ‘signs and wonders’. Cf. Ps. 105:5 where the parallelism suggests ‫ ֶפ ֶלא‬and ‫ מֹופת‬are interchangeable, and that which 2 Chron. 32:24 calls ‫מֹופת‬, 2 Ki. 20:8-9 calls ‫אֹות‬. Only ‫ ֶפ ֶלא‬is used of ‘difficult’ or ‘hard’ situations and only ‫ אֹות‬is used of banners, phylacteries and the signs of the covenant (circumcision, rainbow and Sabbaths). However, Wolff [Joel, 67-8] goes too far in saying that ‫ מֹופת‬is always both extraordinary and a sign or portent (so too Crenshaw [Joel, 167]). Although both Isaiah (Is. 20:3) and Ezekiel (12:11) behaved ‘oddly’, it is difficult to see these actions (and the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬at Is. 8:18; Ezek. 24:24, 27) as ‘wonders’ or ‘portents’ in Wolff’s sense (cf. Kapelrud, Studies, 137-8). Neither Joshua (Zech. 3:8) nor the psalmist (Ps. 71:1) can be called ‘extraordinary portents’. Further, Deut. 13:1-5 specifically says that an extraordinary ‫ מֹופת‬of itself is not a sign of anything. Attempts to differentiate between ‘miraculous’ and ‘non-miraculous’ signs and wonders “introduce(s) distinctions that would not be self-evident to an Israelite” Meier, S.A., “Signs and Wonders”, Alexander, and Baker, (Eds), Pentateuch, 758. 236 Only twice is the phrase not translated “signs and wonders” by the NIV. Isaiah is described as being ‫ּומֹופת‬ ֵ ָׂ֔ ‫“( ָ֣אֹות‬a sign and portent”) to Israel (Is. 20:3) and he earlier describes himself and his disciples as YHWH’s “signs and symbols in Israel” (Is. 8:18). 237 So too the LXX (τέρας). However, Luke uses τέρας to describe the wonders in the heavens and σημεῖον of the earthly signs (Acts 2:19). 235 42 ‫“ – וְ ָנַֽת ִתי‬and I will bestow”.238 YHWH continues to speak in the first person. He will take the initiative and ‘pour out’239 his ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬on the earth and on the sun and moon just as he ‘pours out’ his ‫ רּוח‬on all flesh. 6.3 ‫ימ ֖רֹות ָע ָ ַֽשן‬ ֲ ‫“ ָ ָ֣דם וָ ֵָׂ֔אש וְ ִ ַֽת‬blood and fire and billows of smoke”. ‫“ ָ ָ֣דם‬blood”, related to ‫“ ָאד ֹם‬red”,240 is found 360 times in the OT241 and on the vast majority of occasions simply refers to the blood of humans or animals, often in the context of shedding blood.242 Seven times the OT explicitly links ‫ ָ ָ֣דם‬with ‫נֶ ֶפש‬. As “the life is in the blood” ingesting the blood of another creature was forbidden.243 However, while blood can defile,244 it is also that which cleanses and purifies both the worshipper and the implements used in worship.245 The paradox is that in the wrong place blood is the most powerful pollutant but in the right context it is the most efficacious purifier. Although blood plays an indispensable part in the OT 238 My translation. On the range of nuances that ‫ נתן‬can have, see Clines, DCH V, 784-5, 921. When the verb ‫ נתן‬is used with fluid or abstract nouns it can assume the secondary sense of ‘to pour out’, and if that is the case here it provides another example of Joel’s deliberate use of language. See Grisanti, M.A., ‫נתן‬, NIDOTTE, 3:206. 240 Hughes, P.E., “Blood”, Alexander and Baker, (Eds), Pentateuch, 87. Cf. 2 Ki. 3:22, ‘the waters looked red – like blood’ (‫)את־ה ֖מיִ ם ֲא ֻד ִמים כ ָ ַֽדם‬. ֶ 241 Clines, DCH II:443-7. Almost ¼ are in Leviticus (88x) and over ½ in a ‘cultic’ context (195x), so, Hughes, Blood, 88. 242 Whether by warfare, violence or ritual sacrifice. 243 Gen. 9:4, 5; Lev. 17:11, 11, 14, 14; Deut. 12:23. However, the link is implicit at least another 18x in the OT and the prohibition is given a further 12x without any reason being given. 244 E.g. Lev. 12:4-5; 15:19, 25; 20:18; Num. 35:33; Deut. 15:23; Lam. 4:14. 245 Lev. 14: 25, 28, 52; 16:14-19, 27; 2 Chron. 29:22, 24. See also Heb. 9:21-22 “the law requires that nearly everything be cleansed with blood”. 239 43 covenant and sacrifice,246 atonement is effected not by blood itself but by the blood insofar as it carries the life of the sacrificial victim.247 Unlike most other ancient traditions, the OT does not provide an account of the origin of fire. It indicates that fire cleanses,248 destroys,249 is an integral part of sacrifice250 and is used to effect capital punishment.251 A relatively small number of the 380 occurrences of ‫ אׁש‬refer to its domestic use for cooking or heating purposes.252 ‫ אׁש‬is one means whereby YHWH executes judgement.253 The motif of fire as judgement runs throughout Isaiah,254 culminating with the suggestion that hell-fires will be eternal.255 In post-exilic Judaism, fire will be that which destroys the enemies of the people of God.256 Second-temple Judaism talks of hell-fire257 and the final judgement being with fire,258 while the Qumran material also has the ungodly ultimately judged by fire.259 ‫“ ָּע ָּׁשן‬smoke”, occurs 33 times in the MT, half of which are either associated with theophany260 or the action of God in judgement.261 Its other uses relate to E.g. “blood of the covenant” – Ex. 24:8; Zech. 9:11. “blood of sacrifice” – 2 Ki. 16:15. Cf. Ex. 23:18; 34:25; Lev. 14:14, 17, 25, 28; Deut. 12:27; 2 Ki. 16:15. 247 von Rad, G., Old Testament Theology Vol. I, (London: SCM, 1975 [1957]), 207. 248 E.g. Lev. 13:2; Num. 31:23; Is. 6:6. 249 E.g. Is. 50:11; Jer. 23:29; Ezek. 21:37; Joel 2:3. 250 E.g. Ex. 29:14; Lev. 3:5; Is. 30:33; Jer. 19:5. 251 E.g. Gen. 38:24; Lev. 10:2; Josh. 7:15. 252 12x. Clines [DCH I:400] includes a thirteenth, Jer. 29:22. However, the oven needed to roast Zedekiah and Ahab would probably not be a domestic one. 253 E.g. Gen. 19:24; Lev. 10:2; Jer.11:16; Ps. 106:18; Job 20:26. 254 Is. 5:24; 9:5, 18; 10:16; 26:11; 30:27; 33:14; 47:14; 64:1[2]; 65:12; 66:16, 23-4. 255 Although this is debated, see Oswalt [Isaiah 40-66, 692-3 n.88] who writes that the undying worm and the unquenched fire indicate that “as the worship of the righteous is perpetual (v.23) so is the punishment of the rebellious”. Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 542, 546-7. TJ. Is. reads “their spirits shall not die, and their fire shall not be quenched”. 256 Is. 66:16, 24; Zech. 12:6 says that Judah will be the fire that consumes her enemies, cf. Obad. 1517. 257 1 En. 91:9; 100:9; 2 Esd. 7:38; 2 Bar. 44:15. 258 1 En. 102:1; 2 Esd. 13:10; 2 Bar. 37:1; 48:39; Jub. 3:10; 9:15. 259 Qumran text page nos. from Martînez, DSS. 1 Q.H 11:29-31 (p.333); 1 Q.S 2:7-8 (p.4); 4:12-14 (p.7); 1 Q.Hab. 10:5, 13 (p.201). 260 11x. Gen. 15:17; Ex. 19:18, 18, 18; 20:18; Is. 4:5; 6:4; 9:18; Ps. 18:9; 104:32; 144:5. 261 7x. Deut. 29:19[20]; 2 Sam. 22:9; Is. 51:6; 65:5; Joel 3:3; Ps. 74:1; 80:4[5]. 246 44 destruction by fire262 or are metaphorical.263 The phrase ‫ימ ֖רֹות ָע ָ ַֽשן‬ ֲ ‫“ וְ ִ ַֽת‬billows of smoke” is significant. ‫ימ ָרה‬ ָ ‫ ִת‬is related to ‫“ תָּ מָּ ר‬palm-tree” and ‫“ ִתמ ָֹרה‬palm ornamentation” and suggests that the smoke “like a palm-tree, (went) straight upwards for a distance, and then spread(s) out like the branches”;264 consequently “mushrooming smoke” is the evocative translation favoured by some.265 The word ‫ ִתמ ָֹרה‬is found 19 times in the MT, always to describe carved decoration and ornamentation, often on the pillars which supported the temple.266 The capitals were proto-Aeolic267 and were a stylised representation of the top of a palm tree (see Figs 7 & 8). These palmette designs were common in Israelite monumental buildings from the early monarchical period onwards.268 Fig. 7 Sketch of a Proto-Aeolic capital from Ramat Rahel. Fig. 8 Sketch of a palmette stone window balustrade from Ramat Rahel. It is generally held that blood, fire and mushrooming smoke relate to the devastations of war and that therefore this second strophe should be understood as judgement on the nations and an accompanying deliverance for Israel.269 Although 262 7x. Josh. 8:20, 21; Jdg. 20:38, 40; Is. 14:31; 34:10; Nah. 2:13. 8x. Leviathan’s breath (Job 41:12[20]; ‘smouldering’ anger (Is. 7:4); an irritant (Pr. 10:26) or something insubstantial (Hos. 13:3; Ps. 37:20; 68:3; 102:4). The plume of incense-laden smoke heralding Solomon’s arrival to consummate his marriage (Cant. 3:6). 264 Burrows, G., The Song of Solomon, (Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 1977 [1853]), 334. Kapelrud, [Studies, 140] employs very similar language. 265 Crenshaw, Joel, 167-8; Dillard, Joel, 298; Hubbard, Joel and Amos, 71; Wolff, Joel, 56. 266 Either on the wall or on the supporting columns. 6x in Solomon’s temple and 13x in Ezekiel (all in chs 40 & 41) in the plans for the second temple. 267 Older authorities refer to these as proto-Ionic. 268 See Kitchen, K.A., On the Reliability of the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 128; Mazar, A., Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 471-5 (on whose photographs the sketches in Figs 7 & 8 are based); Stern. E., Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 69-71. 269 So, Barton, Joel, 98; Crenshaw, Joel, 167-9; McQueen, Joel, 43; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 261; Wolff, Joel, 68. 263 45 these words can call to mind a cataclysmic vision of a rampaging army shedding blood and putting homes to the torch, this is not required by the context of Joel 3:15. Indeed, as will be shown,270 it is probably not what Joel intended. Before suggesting how “blood and fire and pillars of smoke” might best be understood in Joel 3:3, this paper will re-visit the key concepts as they are found elsewhere to show how they may fit together in a context other than war. ‫ מֹופת‬is used eight times in neutral or positive contexts and another eight times in the context of redemptive judgement.271 It is not used of eschatological signs. Since it is used of prophets per se and their actions, as well as of God and his actions, ‫ מֹופת‬cannot be consistently translated by a ‘catch-all’ word or phrase. It is most frequently bound up with the events of the exodus, where YHWH said to Moses, “I will be with you” (Ex. 3:12) and revealed his name: “I am who I am” (Ex. 3:14). In the prelude to the exodus events (Ex. 6:2-8), in a passage of about 100 words, God says seventeen times ‫הוַֽה‬ ָ ְ‫( ֲא ִני י‬I am YHWH).272 During the so-called ‘plague narratives’ of the exodus it is stated eight times that the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬are given so that there will be a recognition of YHWH and his presence.273 Durham points out that what was referred to as ‫( אֹות‬Ex. 4:8, 9, 17) and ‫( ֶפלֶ א‬Ex. 3:20) is now called ‫מֹופת‬ for the first time,274 and helpfully calls those ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬associated with the exodus, “a preview of election, exodus, and triumphant proof-of-Presence.”275 He goes on to 270 See §6.5. Sometimes this is punitive, sometimes just a (stern) warning of the consequences of sin. 272 In the context of establishing the covenant and rescuing his people. 273 Ex. 7:5, 17; 8:10, 22; 9:14, 29; 11:7. Ex. 8:19 shows that YHWH’s hand was recognised in the events. 274 Durham, Exodus, 56. 275 Ibid. 271 46 say that the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬are a repeated demonstration of the “Is-ness” of YHWH and his authority over both Pharaoh and Israel.276 Joel was an exceptionally competent ‘word-smith’, and his use of language was not accidental. It is therefore more than probable that he chose to use ‫ מֹופת‬rather than ‫ אֹות‬or ‫ ֶפלֶ א‬because it would recall the salvation-events of the exodus. ‫ ָ ָ֣דם‬had a double significance in the exodus events. Blood was prominent in establishing Moses’ veracity before the people of Israel and before Pharaoh.277 It was a ‘proving-act’.278 Blood was also that which effected the ‘pass-over’. It protected the Israelite homes on the night of the final ‘plague’ and brought about the exodus.279 ‫ אׁש‬is often associated with theophany and its first occurrence in the OT is associated with establishing the covenant with Abram (Gen. 15:17).280 The fire associated with the presence of YHWH is often a demonstration of his grace, such as when directing his people281 and accepting their sacrifices.282 Outside Joel, fire (‫ )אׁש‬and smoke (‫)ע ָּׁשן‬ ָּ occur together only nine times, five of which are theophany.283 Of these five, four are linked to significant people and events: the covenant through Abraham (Gen. 15:17), Moses receiving the law (Ex. Ibid, 113. As a response to Pharaoh’s arrogance, “Who is the Lord, I do not know him” (Ex. 5:2) and Moses uncertainty, “If the Israelites will not listen to me, why would Pharaoh listen” (Ex. 6:12). 277 Ex. 4:9; 7:7, 19, 20, 21. 278 Durham, Exodus, 46. 279 Ex. 12:7-13, 22-23; Ps. 78:44; 105:29. 280 Here fire is associated with ‫“ ָּע ָּׁשן‬smoke” (its first occurrence in the OT too). Cf. Ex. 24:17 “the glory of the LORD looked like a consuming fire”. 281 The pillars of cloud and fire Ex. 13:21-2; 14:24; Num. 9:15-16; 14:14; Ps. 78:14. He also spoke from the fire, cf. Ex. 3:1-4; Deut. 4:12, 15, 33. 282 E.g. the fire that consumed the sacrifices when Solomon dedicated the temple (2 Chron. 7:1-3). Cf. Elijah on Carmel (1 Ki. 18:38); see also Lev. 9:23-4; Jdg. 6:21; 1 Chron. 21:26. 283 Of the others, three are God’s judgement or description of the wicked (Is. 9:17[18]; 65:5; Ps. 68:3;) and one is God’s orchestration of the victory at Ai (Josh. 8:19-20). 276 47 19:18) and David being rescued from Saul (2 Sam. 22:9 // Ps. 18:9[8]). The fifth connects ‫ אׁש‬and ‫( ָּע ָּׁשן‬and ‫)דם‬ ָ֣ ָ to the day of the Lord (Is. 4:2-6). After YHWH has executed judgement on his people, the remnant left in Zion will be called holy (Is. 4:3). The “Branch of YHWH” (Is. 4:2) has messianic and regal significance.284 In language that echoes both the wilderness wanderings and the cloud of YHWH’s glory,285 Isaiah indicates that “on that day” YHWH’s people will have an immediacy of access to YHWH’s glorious presence.286 It cannot be overstressed that Joel chose his words with accuracy and care. He chose not to use the words more commonly associated with the abundance and/or the columnar appearance of smoke. The verb ‫ּגָ ָאה‬, from which the noun ‫ ּגֵ אּות‬is derived, means ‘to rise up’ (‫“ ּגֵ אּות ָע ָ ַֽשן‬columns of smoke” Is. 9:17[18]) and is used about 100 times in the OT.287 ‫ ָע ָלה‬means ‘to go up’288 (‫“ י ֲע ֶלָ֣ה ֲע ָש ָנֶּ֑ה‬smoke will rise”, Is. 34:10) and ‫‘ יָ ָצא‬to go’ or ‘to come out’289 (‫“ יֵ ֵצָ֣א ָע ָ ֶ֑שן‬smoke pours from”, Job 41:12[20]). The phrase ‘columns of smoke’ (‫ימ ֖רֹות ָע ָ ַֽשן‬ ֲ ‫ )וְ ִ ַֽת‬is found only twice in the MT (Joel 3:3; Cant. 3:6). In Canticles it has nothing to do with a catastrophic fire. It is the smoke produced by burning expensive perfume and incense that was then swept upwards with the dust created by Solomon’s palanquin as it moved through the wilderness. The picture is one of magnificent opulence. The king is coming to claim MT: ‫הוה‬ ָָׂ֔ ְ‫ ֶצָ֣מח י‬while TJ Is. 4:2 has ‫יחא דיוי‬ ָ ‫מ ִש‬. ְ Is. 4:5-6; “a cloud of smoke by day …flaming fire by night”, cf. Ex. 13:21; 40:38; 1 Ki. 8:10. 286 “The undisturbed enjoyment of God’s presence”, Watts, J.D.W., Isaiah 1-33, (Waco: Word, 1985), 51. This, and Joel 3:3-4, are the only places in the OT where blood, fire and smoke are connected to the ‘day’. 287 It can also mean ‘lifted up’, ‘exalted’ and ‘majesty’ – BDB, 144. 288 Ibid, 748. Occurs about 1000x (7x in Joel). 289 Ibid, 422. Occurs over 1000x (twice in Joel). 284 285 48 his bride and consummate the relationship in joyful, regal, majestic splendour.290 The Targum Canticles (3:6) uses the imagery of the procession coming from the desert to depict Joshua leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. Joel choose to speak of ‫ימ ֖רֹות ָע ָ ַֽשן‬ ֲ ‫( וְ ִ ַֽת‬palmette columns of smoke) accompanying the arrival of the ‫יֹום יהוה‬. The plural noun ‫ימרֹות‬ ֲ ‫ ִת‬would remind his audience of both the splendid columns and the fire and smoke of YHWH’s presence in Solomon’s temple.291 When the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬that accompanied the Exodus events are referred to as ‘plagues’, their primary purpose is deemed to be judgement-events executed because Pharaoh hardened his heart. However, YHWH takes responsibility for the hardness of Pharaoh’s heart.292 He controls all that happens293 to the end that that everyone would know that YHWH is who he says he is.294 All the words used can be understood in terms of ‘proof-of-presence’, ‘covenant / new covenant’ and ‘exodus / new exodus’. 6.4 ‫“ ה ֶש ֶמש יֵ ָה ֵפְָ֣ך ְל ָׂ֔חֹ ֶשְך וְ היָ ֵ ֖רח ְל ָ ֶ֑דם‬The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood”. ‫“ ֶׁש ֶמׁש‬sun” occurs 136 times295 in the OT and ‫“ יָּ ר ַח‬moon” 41 times.296 The words are used to designate the astronomical bodies as part of the created order, as objects 290 See the discussions in Keel, O., The Song of Songs, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994), 126-8; Murphy, R.E., The Song of Songs (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990), 150-2; Pope, M.H., Song of Songs, (New York: Doubleday, 1977), 423-51. 291 Fire from heaven consumes sacrifices in the tabernacle (Lev. 9:24) and in the first temple (2 Chron. 7:1). This is never recorded for the second temple. 292 Ex. 4:21; 7:3, 13; 9:12; 10:1, 20, 27; 11:10. 293 Ex. 7:13, 22; 8:15, 19; 9:12, 34. 294 Ex. 6:2, 6, 7; 7:17. 295 Also, ‫ ִמזְ ָרח‬is found 74x meaning sun, sunrise or east; ‫ ֶֶ֫ח ֶרס‬twice to indicate direction, towards the sun and ‫ ח ָמה‬5x of the heat of the sun. See Clines, DCH, V:211-2; III: 320; III:250 respectively. Also, ‫‘ ְל ָבנָ ה‬moon’ 3x; ‫‘ ח ֶֹדׁש‬new-moon(s)’ 21x; ‫ ש ֲהר ֹנִ ים‬moon-shaped ornaments 3x; Clines, DCH IV:515; III:165-8 and VIII:116-7 respectively. 296 49 of false worship and as a measure of time.297 On three occasions the sun and moon are used metaphorically to indicate permanence298 and therefore cataclysmic implications are presaged when inexplicable changes occur in their fundamental nature.299 The darkening of sun, moon and stars is generally associated with judgement.300 There are only eight passages in the OT that link the presence of YHWH to changes in the sun and moon. Six of these specifically mention ‫ ֶׁש ֶמׁש‬and ‫ יָּ ר ַח‬as being affected by ‫יֹום יהוה‬.301 Fig. 9. Cosmic changes associated with YHWH’s presence. Joel 3:4[2:31] Sun darkened and moon turned (‫ )הפך‬to blood. Joel 2:10 Sun and moon are darkened (‫)קדר‬, stars no longer shine. Joel 4[3]:15 Sun and moon are darkened (‫)קדר‬, stars no longer shine. Ezek. 32:7 The stars are darkened, the sun covered with a cloud and the moon does not give its light. Is. 13:10 Stars will not show their light, sun darkened and the moon will not give its light. Is. 24:23 Moon (‫)ל ָבנָ ה‬ ְ will be abashed, the sun (‫ )ח ָמה‬ashamed.302 Is. 30:26 Moon (‫)ל ָבנָ ה‬ ְ will shine like the sun (‫)ח ָמה‬, and the sunlight will be seven times brighter.303 Is.60:19-20 The sun and moon will be superfluous since the light of the glory of the Lord will be everywhere.304 E.g. a third (14x) of the occurrences of ‫ יָּ ר ַח‬indicate ‘month’. Ps. 72:5, 7; 89:38[37]. 299 Kapelrud, Studies, 141. 300 Am. 5:18, 19; 8:9; Ezek. 30:18; Zeph. 1:15; Joel 2:2. 301 See Fig. 9. This has two passages where different Hebrew words for sun and moon are used. 302 This metaphorical use suggests that when compared with YHWH’s glory the sun and moon would recognise their own insignificance. See Oswalt, J.N., The Book of Isaiah Chapters 1-39, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991, 455; Watts, Isaiah 1-33, 330. 303 This is not germane. Using hyperbole, it is part of what Watts [ibid, 400] calls “a little homily of assurance and hope ...past times have been difficult ...better times are coming”. 304 The sun and moon will be ‘put in the shadows’ by the light of the glory of the Lord when the day has come. 297 298 50 Of the five passages that speak about the cosmos darkening, Joel 3:4 is unique in three significant ways. It alone makes no mention of the stars (although 2:10 and 4:15 do). It is also the only place in the OT where the moon is said to turn to blood. This is not a common motif, even among later writers.305 Furthermore, at 2:10 and 4:15 Joel uses the verb ‫( קדר‬to darken) but at 3:4 he uses ‫( יֵ ָה ֵפְָ֣ך לְ ָׂ֔חֹ ֶשְך‬to turn to darkness), employing the same verb that is used in Exodus to describe the Nile “turning” to blood.306 If the ‘proof-of-presence’, ‘new covenant’ and ‘new exodus’ motifs are the determining factors in understanding the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫מ‬, ַֽ consideration should be given to how they apply to the cosmic ‘signs’. Oswalt correctly points out that the sun and moon were important deities in the ancient Near East.307 Perhaps Joel chose not to mention the extinguishing of star-light because the stars played little part in the religions of the region.308 Assyrian and Babylonian mythology regarded the moongod as the chief deity in the pantheon. The moon-god, Sin, is called the “father, begetter of gods and men” and alone “in heaven and earth is exalted”.309 Shamash, the sun-god, is the firstborn of Sin and together they rule everything on earth and preside over the council of the gods.310 In Egyptian mythology the sun-god, Atum, ‘The Complete One’ is the first god and creator of all gods and men. He says of 305 Only Rev. 6:12 picks up this imagery in the NT. The only other allusions are: Test. Mos. 10:5 [Charlesworth, J.H. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Vol. 1, (London: D.L.T. 1983), 932 which is dated to first three decades of the 1st C. AD, ibid, 920-1] which says the moon “will be turned wholly into blood”; Apoc. Elijah 3:6 [Ibid, 745]; Lactantius writes that on the day of the Lord the moon will change colour (Div. Inst. 7.16.8), and that “the moon will be dyed in blood” (Epitome 71). Quoted in Aune, D.E., Revelation 6-16, (Nashville: Nelson, 1998), 414. 306 Cf. Ex. 7:17,20. 307 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 455. 308 The Egyptians had a minor goddess, Sothis, who was associated with Sirius, the ‘Dog star’ and a minor god, Sah, associated with Orion. 309 “Hymn to the Moon-God” 1,16, Pritchard, J.B. (Ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 385. 310 Cf. “Prayer to the Moon-God” 9-12, ibid, 386; “Prayer to the Sun-God” 7-10, ibid, 387. 51 himself, “I am Re in his (first) appearances”311 and is said to be “more distinguished than any god”.312 He it was who summoned Thoth, the moon-god, and assigned his duties, calling him “my place-taker” and deputy.313 In this action Re elevated Thoth above the other gods who were previously greater than him. 314 The Egyptians regarded the moon as a good omen, for if someone sees the shining moon in a dream, it indicates the god’s forgiveness.315 On four occasions the OT talks about the idolatrous worship of the sun and moon. It is expressly forbidden in the context of the Sinai covenant and entering the Promised Land (Deut. 4:19; 17:3), Josiah attempted to eradicate it when he renewed the covenant (2 Ki. 23:5) and Jeremiah refers to the practice as part of the reason for YHWH sending Judah into exile (Jer. 8:2).316 As has been seen, in the wrong context blood is a most powerful pollutant.317 Joel is therefore talking about YHWH desecrating the moon as well as extinguishing the sun. The false gods worshipped both by those nations that had, in the past, oppressed Israel and by those Jews who rejected YHWH’s covenant would be “shamed” (c.f. Is. 24:23). Joel’s treatment of the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬in the heavens maintains the ‘proof-of-presence’ motif seen in the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬on the earth. The cosmic ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ַֽמ‬ reveal the sun and moon deities as both impotent and superfluous (Is. 60:19-20). These ‘proving-events’ demonstrate that YHWH alone has authority to act for his people and against their oppressors, a motif that Joel develops in chapter 4. “The Creation by Atum”, ibid, 3. The Sun was worshipped under the names of many gods, e.g. Aten, Amon, Benu, Buchis, Herishef and Khepri. 312 “A Hymn to Amon-Re”, ibid, 365. 313 “The Assignment of Functions to Thoth” ibid, 8-9. Another name associated with the worship of the moon is Khonsu (the son of Amun and Mut). 314 Ibid. 315 “The Interpretation of Dreams” ibid, 495. 316 Craigie, Kelley & Drinkard, Jeremiah 1-25, 127. 317 See §6.2. 311 52 6.5 Understanding the Second Strophe. The key to understanding Joel 3:3-4 is to see the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬as ‘proof-of-presence’. YHWH is with his people to bless them. Nothing and no one can prevent him bringing about a ‘new exodus’ and re-establishing the covenant. All the images and vocabulary are evocative of the victory of YHWH for his people. The ‫ ָ ָ֣דם‬calls to mind both the ‘Nile-to-blood’ that announced YHWH’s intentions and the blood that protected his people on Passover night. Similarly, ‫ אׁש‬and ‫ ָּע ָּׁשן‬are redolent of the fire and smoke accompanying the establishment of the covenant (Abrahamic and Mosaic) and the fire and cloud that guided the children of Israel in the desert. The ‘mushrooming’ smoke would remind them of the pillars in the temple and the smoke/fire that accompanied its dedication.318 The cosmic ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬reinforce the message that the gods of the oppressing nations are no gods; YHWH alone is supreme on the earth and in the heavens. He is calling his people to an intimacy of relationship that they have not known before. ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬are “sign(s) of a special act of salvation by Yahweh – a new exodus as it were”.319 318 319 2 Chron. 7:1-3. Prinsloo, Theology, 90. 53 7. Joel 3:5 exegesis (the third strophe). Each phrase in the verse will be briefly examined and it will be shown that the understanding of Joel 3:1-4 suggested thus far is consistent with 3:5. 7.1 ‫הו֖ה יִ ָמ ֵלֶ֑ט‬ ָ ְ‫“ וְ ָה ֵָ֗יה ֹּ֧כֹל ֲא ֶשר־יִ ְק ָ ָ֛רא ְב ֵשם י‬And everyone who calls on the name of the LORD will be saved.” ‫ה ֵָ֗יה‬, ָ from the verb ‘to be’, is a temporal indicator which should be understood as “and it will happen that…”. It does not indicate that after the ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬the survivors call on YHWH.320 To “call on YHWH’s name” (‫הו֖ה יִ ָמ ֵלֶ֑ט‬ ָ ְ‫)א ֶשר־יִ ְק ָ ָ֛רא ְב ֵשם י‬ ֲ means much more than ‘pray’; it places one under covenant obligations and covenant blessings. It expresses an exclusive relationship between the one calling and the one called.321 It is the necessary human response to YHWH’s offer of a new exodus and restored covenant. ‫ יִ ָמ ֵלֶ֑ט‬is from ‫“ מלט‬to escape”.322 It almost always refers to human activity. 3:5 is one of five occasions when it is in the passive323 and is therefore translated “will be saved”. So, Bewer, Joel, 122; Wolff, Joel, 68. Contra Crenshaw [Joel, 196] who translates, ‘henceforth’. However, for this he would need ‫י־כן‬ ֵֵ֗ ‫( ַֽא ֲח ֵר‬see Joel 3:1). 321 Crenshaw, Joel, 169; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 261. 322 BDB, 572; Clines, DCH V:297. 323 Ps. 22:6[5]; Job 22:30; Is. 49:24-5; Dan. 12:1. Cf. Hubbard, R.L. Jr., ‫מלט‬, NIDOTTE, 2:952. 320 54 7.2 ‫יטה‬ ֵָּ֗ ‫ירּוׁש ִַ֜ ִַלם ִ ָֽת ְה ֶי֣ה ְפל‬ ָּ ‫ּוב‬ ִ ‫ר־ציּ֨ ֹון‬ ִ ‫“ ִּ֠ ִכי ְב ַה‬on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be deliverance”. ‫ירּוׁש ִַ֜ ִַלם‬ ָּ ‫ּוב‬ ִ ‫ר־ציּ֨ ֹון‬ ִ ‫“ ְב ַה‬on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem”. Zion theology is a rich matrix of interrelated concepts. From Zion YHWH provides his people with security, agricultural prosperity and the intimacy of his presence. The centre of this theology is that YHWH is the supreme king who reigns, unopposed, over heaven and earth.324 The noun ‫יטה‬ ֵָּ֗ ‫ ְפל‬like its cognate verb ‫ פלט‬means ‘escape’. In Ezra and Nehemiah, it signifies the returnees from the Babylonian exile.325 7.3 ‫הוה‬ ָָּ֔ ְ‫“ ַ ָֽכ ֲא ֶׁשר ָּא ַ ֣מר י‬as the LORD has said”. The deliverance/security afforded by Zion/Jerusalem is guaranteed because YHWH has spoken. This brings to mind the guarantees given at the time of the first exodus;326 YHWH is in total control of events. 7.4 ‫הו֖ה ק ָֹֽרא‬ ָּ ְ‫ידים ֲא ֶ ִׁ֥שר י‬ ָ֔ ִ ‫ּוב ְש ִר‬ ַּ֨ “among the survivors whom the LORD calls.” The survivors (‫)ש ִריד‬ ָּ are those who have come through the exile whom Joel called ‫יטה‬ ֵָּ֗ ‫ ְפל‬earlier in this verse.327 The parallel between these two words is seen at Qumran; those outside the covenant will have neither ‫‘ שאירית ופליטה‬a remnant or survivor’ (CD 2:6-7). 324 Prinsloo, Theology, 86-7. Chance [J.B., Jerusalem, the Temple, and the New Age in Luke-Acts, (Macon: Merser University Press, 1988), 12] writes of its “universal and cosmic import”. Gowan [D.E. Eschatology in the Old Testament, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1982), 75] states that for YHWH, “Mount Zion (is) the centre of his interest”. Cf. the overview of Zion theology in von Rad, OTT II, 292-7; Strong, J.T., “Zion: Theology of”, NIDOTTE, 4:1314-21. 325 Ezra 9:8, 13, 14, 15; Neh. 1:2. BDB, 812 (‘escaped remnant’). 326 See n.296. 327 Barton, Joel¸98; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 261; Wolff, Joel, 68-9. 55 ‫הו֖ה ק ָֹֽרא‬ ָּ ְ‫“ ֲא ֶ ִׁ֥שר י‬whom YHWH calls”. ‫ קרא‬as an inclusio is not just a literary device to bind the verse together, but a theological device that reinforces YHWH’s sole authority on the earth. The ‘saved’ are able to call on YHWH (3:5a) because they are the ‘survivors’ YHWH has called (3:5d).328 There is nothing in the third strophe that does not fit well with the ‘proof-ofpresence’, ‘new exodus’ and ‘renewed covenant’ motifs of 3:1-4. 328 Bewer, Joel, 124; Hubbard, Joel, 72. Those “whose heart God had moved” (Ezra 1:5). 56 8 Conclusions. 8.1 This is what? Motifs associated with restoration dominate this pericope. YHWH is going to transform his people into a Spirit-filled community. Moses’ longing that the ‫רּוח‬ ַ would overwhelm all God’s people was about to be fulfilled. The Holy Spirit was YHWH’s gift to Israel, yet tradition has it that before the Torah was given, the Gentiles also experienced God through his Spirit. However, “After the Torah was given the holy spirit was withheld from the nations” (Seder Olam 15).329 The Holy Spirit marks out YHWH’s people as different from all others.330 Joel was looking for a ‘day’ when ‫ל־ב ָָׂ֔שר‬ ָ ‫ ָכ‬would experience this distinguishing mark. The ‫ֹופ ִָׂ֔תים‬ ְ ‫ ַֽמ‬are not eschatological portents, they are the declaration that YHWH has absolute authority over the affairs of his own nation and all nations. Symbols of his covenant activity in the ‘exodus and settlement’ are used to offer ‘proof-of-presence’, a ‘new exodus’ and a ‘renewed covenant’. YHWH shows himself to be the only God by rendering impotent the false gods of those who had previously oppressed his people. YHWH calls his people and then they call out to him in true worship and, consequently, they are settled securely in Zion. Joel 3:1-5 is a message of hope and encouragement, a pericope of salvation. 329 Quoted in McNamara, M., Targum and Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), 107. So, T.Ps-J Ex. 33:16; “…remove the spirit of prophecy from the nations and speak in the Holy Spirit to me and to your people, so that we become different from all other people”. 330 57 8.2 This is when? Placing the book of Joel about 400 BC331 it is possible to regard it as an apologetic reflection on Jewish history from c.a.600 BC to his own day.332 Indeed, from the 5th century BC onwards this kind of reworking/reflection was common. 333 “The exegete and scholar, normally of priestly descent, took over the function of the prophet.”334 For Joel, the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬is a process rather than a single event. If the suggested provenance for Joel is correct, then the locusts of 1:4 would symbolise the Babylonian army of 597BC and the first capture of Jerusalem. The first call to lament/repent was not heeded; instead Zedekiah rebelled against Babylon with catastrophic results. The devastation pictured in 2:2-11 would then be a cipher for the destruction of the temple in 587 BC.335 This was the inauguration of the ‘day’, which would only be transformed by heartfelt lament336 (2:11-17). YHWH would then look with favour on his people (2:18) and they would return and rebuild. The prophets spoke of fertile land, the wilderness blossoming and the glories of the past restored.337 However, in the decades following the return this did not materialise.338 From that perspective Joel seeks to reassure his compatriots that agricultural blessings must come if worship remains pure (2:17-27). The tri-partite covenant would be honoured by YHWH if it were honoured by the people. Everything that 331 Although this seems the most probable date for the book, the dating is not critical to the following interpretation – names and events relating to the Babylonian exile could be altered to reflect a period after the Assyrian destruction (or even after the sojourn in Egypt). 332 Lamentations is, similarly, an apologetic work exploring “the tension between Deuteronomic faith and historical adversity” during the exile, Gottwald, Studies, 53. 333 T.Cant. describes the history of Israel as three periods of exile (Egyptian, Babylonian and Roman), exodus and glorious return, the writer is encouraging his compatriots to expect the third (and final) exodus and return. See Alexander, T.Cant., 13. 334 Hengel, The Scriptures, 163. 335 Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 250 (see n.10). 336 Possibly the prayers of Daniel in response to Jeremiah’s ‘70 years’ (Dan. 9:2-19). 337 Is. 40:1-5; 41:17-20; 51:3; Ezek. 39:7-8. 338 Ackroyd, P.R. [Exile and Restoration, (London: SCM, 1972), 137] says the period was one of “disappointed hopes”. 58 had been said by earlier prophets, together with the lament of the people and the restoration of true worship indicated that, for Joel, the ‫ יֹום יהוה‬process was drawing to an inevitable climax. His “afterwards” (3:1) was not eschatological; Joel expected the imminent outpouring of the ‫רּוח‬ ַ on all (Jewish) flesh. The ‘new exodus’ and ‘proof-of-presence’ motifs of 3:1-5 meant nothing less than that the new covenant ‘community of the Spirit’ was certain to arise soon. 59 Appendix 1. The semantic range and context of ‫רּוח‬ ַ in the Old Testament. 1. God’s Spirit: a. Active in creation: Gen. 1:2; Ps. 33:6; Job 26:13; 33:4*. b. In humanity: i. Physically moves/lifts them: 1 Ki.18:12; 2 Ki.2:16; Ezek. 2:2; 3:12; 3:14a, 24; 8:3; 11:1, 24a; 37:1; 43:5. ii. Brings revelation/understanding/direction: Gen. 41:38; Job 32:8; Pr. 1:23; Dan. 4:5[8]*, 6[9]*, 18[21]*); 5:11*, 12, 14*; Neh. 9:20; 1 Chron. 12:19[18]. iii. Gives ability in craftsmanship: Ex. 28:3; 31:3; 35:31; 1 Chron. 28:12. iv. Physical strength: Jud. 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam. 11:6. v. Produces leadership ability: Num. 11:17, 25a; 27:18; Deut. 34:9; Jud. 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 13:25; 1 Sam. 16:13. vi. Inspires prophecy: Num. 11:25b, 26, 29; 24:2; 1 Sam. 10:6, 10; 19:20, 23; 2 Sam. 23:2; 2 Ki. 2:9, 15; Is. 48:16; 59:21; Ezek. 11:5a; Hos. 9:7; Joel 3:1; Mic. 3:8; Zech. 7:12*; Neh. 9:30; 2 Chron. 15:1; 20:14; 24:20. c. Can be removed: 1 Sam. 16:14a. d. Can be ‘grieved’/resisted: Is. 63:10*; Ps. 106:33. e. Is called ‘Holy Spirit’: Is. 63:10*,11; Ps. 51:13[11]. f. The ‘spirit of the holy gods’: Dan. 4:5[8]*, 6[9]*, 15[18]*; 5:11*, 14*. g. Messianic endowment: Is.11:2, 2, 2, 2, 4; 42:1; 61:1. h. Brings refreshment/restoration: Is. 32:15; 34:16; 44:3; 63:14; Ezek. 36:27; 37:9a, 9b, 9d, 10, 14; 39:29; Joel 3:1, 2; Zech. 4:6; 12:10; Ps. 104:30. i. General, ‘my / the Spirit’: Is. 30:1; 40:13; 59:19; Ezek. 1:12,20a; 11:24b; Mic. 2:7; Hag. 2:5; Zech. 6:8; 7:12*; Ps. 143:10; Ec. 11:5. j. Omnipresent: Ps. 139:7. 60 2. An evil spirit: a. Sent by God as judgement on sin: Jud. 9:23; 1 Sam. 16:14b, 15, 16; 16:23a, 23c; 2 Ki. 19:7; Is. 37:7. b. Sent by God and produces injury to another: 1 Sam. 18:10; 19:9. 3. A supernatural being: a. General, from God: 1 Ki. 2:21, 22, 23, 24; // 2 Chron. 18:20, 21, 22, 23. b. The spirit of the living creatures: Ezek. 1:20b, 20c, 21; 10:17. c. His angels/messengers: Ps. 104:4. d. Named/with specific areas of activity: i. Judgement Is. 4:4a; 28:6. ii. Fire Is. 4:4b. iii. Perverse Is. 19:14. iv. Of deep sleep Is. 29:10. v. Of prostitution Hos. 4:12; 5:4. vi. Impurity Zech. 13:2. vii. Falsehood Mic. 2.11. e. The four spirits of heaven: Zech. 6:5. f. Indeterminate Job 4:15. 4. a. b. The human/animal spirit/mind/temper: i. Human individuals: Gen. 26:35; 41:8; 45:27; Ex. 35:21; Num. 5:14, 14, 30; 14:24; 27:16; Deut. 2:30; Jud. 15:19; 1 Sam. 1:15; 16:23b; 30:12; 1 Ki. 10:5; 21:5; Is. 26:9; 29:24; 38:16; 42:5; 54:6; 57:15, 15, 16; 61:3; 65:14; 66:2; Ezek. 3:14a; 11:5b; 13:3; 20:32; Hag. 1:14a, 14b; Zech. 12:1; Mal. 2:15, 15, 16; Ps. 31:6[5]; 32:2; 34:19; 77:4[3], 7[6]; 78:39; 142:4[3]; 143:4, 7; Job 6:4; 7:7, 11; 10:12; 15:13; 17:1; 20:3; 21:4; 32:18, 20; Pr. 11:13; 14:29; 15:4, 13; 16:2, 18, 19, 32; 17:22, 27; 18:14, 14; 25:28; 29:11, 23; Ec. 3:21a; 7:8, 8, 9; 8:8, 8; 10:4; 12:7; Dan. 2:1, 3; 5:20; 6:4[3]; 7:15; Ezra 1:1; 1 Chron. 5 :26, 26; 2 Chron. 9:4; 36:22. ii. Renewed human spirit: Ps. 51:12[10], 14[12], 19[17]; Ezek. 11:19; 18:31; 36:26. iii. Groups/armies/nations: Ex. 6:9; Num. 16:22; Josh. 2:11; 5:1; Jud. 8:3; Is. 19:3; Jer. 51:11; Ezek. 21:12[7]; Hag. 1:14c; Ps. 76:13[12]; 78:8; 146:4; Est. 4:14; Ezra 1:5; 2 Chron. 21:16. iv. Animals: Ec. 3:21b. Spirit as distinct from flesh: Is. 31:3. 61 ‘Breath’ or ‘life-breath’ or ‘breath of life’: c. i. God’s breath: As ‘wind’: Ex. 15:8, 10; 2 Sam. 22:16; Is. 11:15; Ps. 18:16[15]; Job 4:9. As judgement: Is. 30:28; 40:7; Job 15:30. As life sustaining: Job 27:3; 33:4*; 34:14. ii. Human: Gen. 6:17; Is. 25:4; 33:11; Ezek. 37:5, 6, 8; Ps. 104:29; Job 9:18; 12:10; 19:17; Lam. 4:20. iii. Animal: Gen. 7:15; Jer. 14:6. iv. Either or both human and animal: Gen. 7:22; Ec. 3:19. v. Inanimate objects / false gods have no breath: Jer. 10:14; 51:17; Hab. 2:19; Ps. 135:17. 5. Wind etc. a. Lit. wind Gen. 8:1; Ex. 10:13, 19; 14:21; Num. 11:31; 2 Sam. 22:11; 1 Ki. 18:45; 19:11, 11, 11; 2 Ki. 3:17; Is. 7:2; 17:13; 27:8; 32:2; 41:16, 29; 57:13; 64:5[6]; Jer. 2:24; 4:11, 12; 5:13; 10:13; 13:24; 18:17; 22:22; 49:32, 36, 36; 51:1, 16; Ezek. 1:4; 5:2, 10, 12; 12:14; 13:11, 13; 17:10, 21; 19:12; 27:26; 37:9c; Hos. 4:19; 8:7; 12:2[1]; 13:15; Amos 4:13; Jon. 1:4; 4:8; Hab. 1:11; Zech. 2:10; 5:9; Ps. 1:4; 11:6; 18:11[10], 43[42]; 35:5; 48:8[7]; 55:9[8]; 83:14[13]; 103:16; 104:3; 107:25; 135:7; 147:18; 148:8; Job 1:19; 6:26; 8:2; 15:2; 16:3; 21:18; 28:25; 30:15, 22; 37:21; Pr. 11:29; 25:14, 23; 27:16; 30:4; Ec. 1:6, 6, 14, 17; 2:11, 17, 26; 4:4, 6, 16; 5:15[16]; 6:9; 11:4; Dan. 2:35; 7:2; 8:8; 11:4. b. Points of the compass/sides of building (e.g. the side exposed to the east wind etc): Jer. 52:23; Ezek. 42: 16,17, 18, 19, 20; 1 Chron. 9:24. c. Other similar uses: Gen. 3:8 – the cool of the day (an evening breeze?). Gen. 32:17 – interval / keep a space. Is. 26:18 – give birth to just wind. Jer. 22:14 – a spacious place. Job 41:8[16] – no air can pass between. Siglia: * Different categorization of same reference. 62 Bibliography Ackroyd, P.R. Exile and Restoration, London: SCM, 1972. Ahlström, G.W. Joel and the Temple Cult of Jerusalem, Leiden: Brill, 1971. Alexander, P.S. The Targum of Canticles, Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2002. Allen, L.C. “Joel, the Theology of”, New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis Vol. 4, VanGemeren, W.A. (Ed.), Carlisle: Paternoster, 1997, 796-98. Allen, L.C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. Ashley, T.R. The Book of Numbers, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993. Aune, D.E. Revelation 6-16, Nashville: Nelson, 1998. Austin, M.R. “The Curse of the Metaphysical Capital”, Expository Times 103 1992, 104-7. Barrett, C.K. Acts 1-14, London: T&T Clark, 2004. Barrett, C.K. Acts, A Shorter Commentary, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2002. Barton, J. 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Hosea-Jonah, Waco: Word, 1987. Thompson, J.H. The Book of Jeremiah, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980 68 von Rad, G. ἡμέρα, Kittel, G. (Ed.), Bromiley, G.W. (Trans.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. 2, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967), 943-7. von Rad, G. Old Testament Theology Vol. I, London: SCM, 1975 [1957]. von Rad, G. Old Testament Theology Vol. II, London: SCM, 1985 [1965]. Watts, J.D.W. Isaiah 1-33, Waco: Word, 1985. Watts, J.D.W. Isaiah 34-66, Waco: Word, 1987. Weingreen, J. A Practical Grammar for Classical Hebrew, Oxford: OUP, 1959. Wolff, H.W. Joel and Amos, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, E.T.1977 [1963]. 69