Ellipsis in English and Albanian

ELLIPSIS IN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN MSc. Nesrin JAHJA Universum College, Department of English Language and Literature, jahjanesrin@gmail.com Article history: Abstrac t Submission 17 January 2021 This research attempted to conduct an in-depth analysis of the text-forming elements based on the Revision 19 March 2021 fact that cohesive devices are insufficiently treated in the Albanian language, although considerable Accepted 10 April 2021 research and publications have been made in other languages. Available online 30 April 2021 Keywords: This study aims to bring evidence in recognizing, determining, and categorizing the structures of Cohesion, ellipsis and substitution which perform in English and Albanian. Comparing these important Ellipsis, elements of grammatical cohesion in two languages will bring light upon the differences and Substitution, similarities between the two languages. It will also show how frequently they are used in English Fiction, Non-Fiction, and Albanian. Particularly, the aim is to show how these two mechanisms enable the avoidance of Nominal, repetition, either by choosing other short words, phrases, and clauses or by removal of words, Verbal, phrases, and clauses. Clausal. DOI: This study involved samples of fiction and non-fiction texts of English and Albanian language, https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.222 consisting of two novels and two daily newspapers. The findings of the research indicate that in fiction texts, ellipsis is used more in the Albanian language rather than in English whereas substitution prevails more in English than Albanian. Ellipsis is used more in the Albanian language rather than in English in non-fiction texts too. Nevertheless, the frequency of substitution seems to be the same in both languages with a total of 4 items in English and 3 items in Albanian. 1. The usual task of substitution and ellipsis is to eliminate Introduction In everyday discourse, written or spoken, we rarely unnecessary repetition of words, phrases, and clauses. In general, communicate with fully completed sentences. Normally, our non-native speakers of English fail to understand something they messages contain many sentences which are structured according read or hear and this is because they do not understand words to defined linguistic rules. For this reason, in today’s linguistics, being used or words which are not being used. In both spoken and there is a unit of language which is being discussed increasingly written form, there is a great tendency to either leave out words and it is beyond sentence length. That is the word text which we think are needless or to use another word instead of another constitutes the primary linguistic tool in discourse. (Dibra, 1995) phrase. Failure to understand them can cause considerable Language is a means of communication that requires constant confusion to learners, more specifically while speaking. Based on study in both its written and spoken form. Generally speaking, it the difficulties that learners are facing, the aim is to determine the is a system made of gaps in which the speakers and writers structures of these devices in English and Albanian by comparing operate within the context by omitting and replacing parts of fiction and nonfiction texts. This study may be useful to many linguistic structures. Moreover, the omitted and replaced students and researchers who are interested to study or analyze linguistic structures are understood even though they are not further these two languages. expressed. The study of grammatical devices is a major area of 2. interest within the field of linguistics and that is why we have Literature Review selected to search two main grammatical cohesive devices: The literature review of the present study will try to provide the substitution and ellipsis. most relevant published theories on cohesion and the best elaborations of substitution and ellipsis which have attracted the 118 attention of many reputable linguists and grammarians. immigrant students. Problems relating to the use of ellipsis are Numerous studies about cohesion and coherence in ESL/EFL found more frequently in texts written by the immigrant students. writing have been done by using Halliday and Hasan's (1976) The immigrant and Turkish students’ averages for using framework. The literature review will explore the area of research substitution component are less in number and similar to each to get information from recent articles. other. The difference between group averages is not significant. In the student texts, there were no issues found with the use of substitution elements. Linguists have developed a particular interest in the study of cohesion and its devices, and a significant number of analyses of written texts have continued to concentrate on the recognition and 3. features of coherent devices that enable readers to comprehend a text. Following Halliday and Research Methodology 3.1. Research Hypotheses Hassan's work on Cohesion in Through the present study, it is hypothesized that: English, cohesion has gained popularity in discourse analysis studies. Halliday & Hassan (1976) classified cohesive devices H1: Substitution and ellipsis are used more frequently in fiction into grammatical cohesive devices (reference, substitution, than in nonfiction texts. ellipsis and conjunction) and lexical devices (reiteration and H2: In translated texts from English, substitution changes into collocation). Faigly (1981, as cited in Yoon Hee Na, 2011) ellipsis in Albanian. compared the cohesive devices in poor and good writing of H3: Ellipsis occurs more frequently than substitution in both text college freshmen and found that well-written essays had twice as types. many instances of reference, conjunction, and lexical collocation. Jabeen et al., (2013) analyzed an act play by Chekhov called “The 3.2. Research Questions Bear”. Finally, the study of the text's coherent devices showed 1. that discourse or text can only be meaningful when different English and Albanian texts? fragments are taken together to create a single whole. In another study, Azzouz (2009) looked at how grammatical cohesive 2. devices were used in students' writings. A group of 40 second- 3. their work was performed to see how often they could use cohesive devices. In conclusion, What are the differences and similarities of cohesive devices when translated from English to Albanian? year students were asked to compose essays, and a description of grammatical How frequently are substitution and ellipsis used in Which elements form the structures of ellipsis and substitution in English and Albanian? students demonstrate an ability to use a particular feature in their creative 3.3. Research Design and Methodology writing. The percentage of less use in substitution was 1.48% and This research is an effort to analyze and compare the structures of this was explained in terms of avoidance in that, students tended substitution and ellipsis in English and Albanian. The basic not to use such type because they do not know how, when, and methods used are theoretical, empirical, quantitative and where can be reached, and the percentage of more use in qualitative. Based on the findings of the analysis, the text-forming conjunctions was of 54.05% which was explained in terms of elements and their characteristics will be analyzed in detail. The awareness. overall structure of the paper consists of three parts: The first part presents a general overview of cohesion and its types with Hoang Tra My (n.d) in his study examined the frequency of the selected examples. The second part presents the structure of use of cohesive devices in reading texts in English. The total ellipsis and substitution in English and Albanian. In this part, the number of cohesion ties used in sixteen passages was 2385. The translation method will be used to show the form of ellipsis and use of lexical cohesive devices was much more than grammatical substitution in both languages. The third part will present the data cohesive devices in sixteen passages. According to him, the high analysis and interpretation of the use of substitution and ellipsis frequent use of substitution and ellipsis can make the texts more in English and Albanian. difficult and complicated to understand and without the knowledge of them, students may misunderstand and misinterpret 3.3.1. Corpus the text. The realization of our goal, accurate and clear reflection of classification, and analysis of ellipsis & substitution is based on In another study, Coskun (2011) evaluated two groups of rich literature in both languages. Materials used in comparing students. One is made up of 98 immigrants and the other made up ellipsis and substitution in English and Albanian are divided into of 103 Turkish students. It is concluded that Turkish students had corpus A presenting fiction texts and corpus B presenting non- higher averages in all of the ellipsis types compared to the fiction texts. Corpus A comprises two novels: one in English and 119 one in the Albanian language to analyse the frequency and 4.1. Results of Fiction Texts structures of ellipsis and substitution in fiction texts. We have In relation to these two cohesive devices used in fiction texts, the chosen the novels “Animal Farm” by Orwell (2009) for English following results are found: Table 1 shows that ellipsis is used and “Sikur të isha djalë” by Stërmilli (1936) for Albanian. On the more in the Albanian language rather than in English. The total other hand, corpus B comprises two newspaper articles in English number of items is 67 in Albanian and 46 in English. If we look and Albanian to analyse the use of ellipsis and substitution in non- at the division of ellipsis, we can see that nominal and clausal fiction texts. We have chosen daily newspapers “Kosova Sot” ellipsis in Albanian dominate more than in English. But the (2016) for Albanian and “The Guardian” (2016) for English. predominant one is nominal ellipsis with 34 items in Albanian. Verbal ellipsis ranking the second takes up 18 items in English 4. Research Results and 18 in Albanian. Clausal ellipsis comes the third with 8 items In this chapter, the frequency of ellipsis and substitution are in English and 15 items in Albanian. Whereas table 2 shows the analyzed through fiction and non-fiction texts. Moreover, the number (percentage) of substitution used in both texts where elements which form the structures of ellipsis and substitution in substitution prevails more in English than Albanian, with a total English and Albanian are analyzed. The texts chosen for this of 25 items in English and 5 items in Albanian. Among the three analysis were: “Animal farm and Sikur të isha djalë” for corpus types of substitution, nominal substitution is the most frequently A and “The Guardian and Kosovasot” for corpus B. These two used device with 11 items in English. Secondly, clausal corpora gave the results presented on (tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and in substitution takes up 10 items in English and 2 items in Albanian. the paragraphs below. Interestingly, verbal substitution did not occur in Albanian whereas in English with 4 items. Table 1. The percentage of ellipsis in fiction texts Number of Ellipsis Nominal Fiction Texts Number % of items Verbal Number of Clausal % items Number of % Total items Animal Farm 20 43% 18 39% 8 18% 46 Sikur të isha djalë 34 51% 18 27% 15 22% 67 Table 2. The percentage of substitution in fiction texts Number of Substitution Nominal Fiction Texts Number % of items Verbal Number of Clausal % items Number of % Total items Animal Farm 11 44% 4 16% 10 40% 25 Sikur të isha djalë 3 60% 0 0% 2 40% 5 ellipsis, verbal ellipsis is the most frequently used device with 13 4.2. Results of Non-fiction Texts In relation to these two cohesive devices used in non-fiction texts, items in Albanian. Nominal ellipsis comes the second with 8 the following results are found: Table 3 shows that ellipsis is used items in Albanian and 2 items in English. Clausal ellipsis presents more in the Albanian language rather than in English in non- the lowest frequency of use with only 1 item in Albanian and 0 fiction texts too. The total number of items is 22 in Albanian and items in English. 8 in English. As shown in table 3, among the three types of 120 Table 3. The percentage of ellipsis in non-fiction texts Number of Ellipsis Nominal Non-Fiction Number Verbal Number % of items of Clausal % items Number of % Total items The Guardian 2 25% 6 75% 0 0% 8 Kosova Sot 8 36% 13 59% 1 5% 22 The following table (4) shows the number of substitution used in substitution remains the same with 2 items in nominal and 1 item non-fiction texts. The frequency of substitution seems to be the in clausal. Whereas verbal substitution comes with 1 item in same in both languages with a total of 4 items in English and 3 English and 0 items in Albanian. Based on the results, substitution items in Albanian. The number of nominal and clausal is rarely used in non-fiction texts. Table 4. The percentage of substitution in non-fiction texts Number of Substitution Nominal Non-Fiction Number % of items Verbal Number of Clausal % items Number of % Total items The Guardian 2 50% 1 25% 1 25% 4 Kosova Sot 2 67% 0 0% 1 33% 3 Lastly, the total number of ellipsis in fiction texts is 113 and 30 fiction texts than non-fiction texts. In other words, fiction ones in non-fiction texts which proves that the highest frequency of predominate in the use of ellipsis and substitution in both ellipsis occurs in fiction texts more rather than in non-fiction languages. ones. As shown in table 5, substitution also occurs more often in Table 5. The total number of ellipsis and substitution in fiction and non-fiction texts Type of text Ellipsis Substitution Fictions text 113 30 Non-Fiction 30 7 English and Albanian in most of the cases. And it can also remain 4.3. The Differences and Similarities of in the same position. Cohesive Devices in Translation The second research question was about the differences and Sometimes, ellipsis is not appropriate in Albanian as it is in similarities of cohesive devices when translated from English to English, so, we must use the omitted word of English in Albanian Albanian. Based on the above analysis of grammatical cohesive translation. For example, in the next sentence, we cannot leave devices, it is concluded that both English and Albanian besides the noun universe in translation. Also, in the second sentence, we differences, they also show similarities in the use of cohesive cannot omit the main verb in Albanian simply because the devices. In both languages, ellipsis occurs in its nominal, verbal Albanian sentence structure does not accept ellipsis. Furthermore, and clausal form. Nominal ellipsis seems to be the same in 121 in clausal ellipsis, the modal verbs help sentences to be shortened verb attached. But the modal verb “MUND” was used to form whereas in Albanian we do not need modals at all. Another verbal and clausal ellipsis both. As in English, Clausal ellipsis is important characteristic (similarity) is the use of ellipsis in the formed with yes/no answers. Sometimes, clausal ellipsis is question-answer dialogues. Clausal ellipsis occurred mostly in formed by stopping after the main verb (see example 47 in YES/NO answers in English and Albanian. appendix B). One important characteristic in Albanian is the use of quantifiers in verbal and clausal ellipsis (see appendix B). As in English, there are just a few substitution words used in texts. The English nominal substitution words one (for singular) and Substitution was a device which was used rarely in both text ones (for plural) are very productive words in the English types. In the English language, elements which formed nominal language and their equivalents in Albanian are një/ca which do substitution were “one, ones, the same, all, both and the two”. not have a wide use as substitution devices. For this reason, they Verbal substitution was formed with the auxiliary verb do (does, turn into ellipsis in translation. On the other hand, the pronoun did, done). Clausal substitution was formed with “do and so”. On one/ones can be translated in Albanian with the help of other the other hand, Albanian nominal substitution is realized through pronouns such as atë, këtë, ato etc. So, the substitution remains as the words “njëri, tjetri, i pari, i dyti”. Verbal substitution did not substitution also in Albanian. appear in either of the text types. Lastly, clausal substitution is formed with “ashtu, kështu” which is the same as in the English language. The verbal substitution is also realized through the verb DO which is placed at the end of the clause. But in the Albanian language the verb BËJ is not so fruitful, so we directly use the Conclusively, ellipsis and substitution help in the avoidance of same main verb rather than substitution with BËJ. The verbal repetition, and they are used more in informal texts than in formal substitution DO can also become ellipsis in Albanian. In this case, texts. The need to express ideas more accurately and thus avoid you can either translate by using the main verb instead of confusion, makes us use ellipsis and substitution rarely in formal substitution or you can refer to ellipsis. Another typical occasion texts. of substitution is the adverb SO (kështu, këtë). Generally, it can substitute a clause. In the Albanian, language it becomes 5. Conclusion ASHTU/KËSHTU and they have the same use in the clauses. Generally, the study of text and its components has always been a great need for greater success in the written and spoken form of 4.4. Elements which from the Structures of language usage and it has always raised the interest of linguists. Ellipsis and Substitution in English and In this research, substitution and ellipsis have been selected as Albanian two main grammatical devices in texts. To sum up, The last research question was to find out the elements which H1: the total number of ellipsis in fiction texts is 113 and 30 in form the structures of ellipsis and substitution in English and non-fiction texts which proves that the highest frequency of Albanian, more specifically in Albanian. In the corpus in English, ellipsis occurs in fiction texts more rather than in non-fiction nominal ellipsis appeared with pronouns and nouns, adjectives ones. Substitution also occurs more often in fiction texts (30) than and determiners. Verbal ellipsis is realized through the omission non-fiction texts (7). In other words, fiction ones predominate in of the main verb, particularly after the modal verb. The verb “to the use of ellipsis and substitution in both languages. be” was the one which was left out the most in texts. Clausal ellipsis is formed through yes/no answers mostly. In clausal H3: Moreover, the study reveals that ellipsis occurs more ellipsis the relative pronoun “that” can also be left out. Moreover, frequently than substitution in both text types. Based on this, it in conditional sentences, we can stop the sentence after the “wh” can be stated that the need to omit words is higher than the need relative pronoun. to replace words in linguistic structures. The omitted linguistic structures are easily understood even though they are not It is found out that ellipsis is almost the same in English and expressed in texts. Albanian, but with a little difference. In the Albanian corpus, nominal ellipsis is realized through nouns, adjectives and Findings of the current study highlighted that H2: in translated pronouns and the element which was left out mostly in texts was texts from English, substitution changes into ellipsis in Albanian. the personal pronoun. Verbal ellipsis is formed with the removal The English substitution pronouns one (for singular) and ones of the verb “to be” most of the time, particularly in newspaper (for plural) are very productive words in English language and headlines. Different from English, modal verbs (will, would, etc) their equivalents in Albanian are një/ca which do not have a wide do not function as ellipsis in Albanian because they need the main 122 use as substitution devices. However, they turn into ellipsis in y-Explorations_in_Corpus- translation. Linguistics.pdf?1400225960=&response-content disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DExplorations_in_C On the whole, based on the analysed data of grammatical orpus_Linguistics.pdf&Expires 8. cohesive devices, it is concluded that both English and Albanian Chomsky, N. (2014). The minimalist program. The MIT Press. besides differences, they also show similarities in the use of cohesive devices. Albanian and English are two languages which 9. Coskun, E. (2011). Cohesion in compositions of Turkish belong to different families in the trunk of Indo-European and immigrant students. Journal Articles; Reports - languages. Yet, the results reveal that there are similar rules Research, which enable the phenomenon of cohesion. Consequently, in both https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ927382 languages, ellipsis occurs in its nominal, verbal and clausal form. 10. Cota, L. 11(2), 892–899. (2013). Strukturat eliptike dhe roli i komponenteve gramatikor në përcaktimin e elipsës kontekstuale në gjuhët angleze dhe shqipe. (Elliptical 5.1. Recommendations for Further Research This study will be a modest contribution in analyzing, comparing structures and the role of grammatical components in and contrasting, and presenting substitution and elliptical determining contextual ellipses in English and Albanian). structures in the Albanian language. This kind of study is also (Dissertation). significant for teachers and students in recognizing characteristic http://www.doktoratura.unitir.edu.al/wp- features of substitution and ellipsis which lead one in learning and content/uploads/2013/09/Doktoratura-Lutfije-Cota- using these two languages accurately and fluently. Fakulteti-i-Gjuheve-te-Huaja-Departamenti-i-Gjuhes- University of Tirana. Albania. 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