African Middle Stone Age

In this paper, we introduce a recently initiated research project conducted at Bushman Rock Shelter, on the northeastern edge of the Highveld plateau in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Previous excavations carried out at the site during the 1960s and 1970s exposed a deep and well-stratified sequence of c. 7 metres of archaeological deposits associated with Later and Middle Stone Age occupations (LSA and MSA). Owing to the lack of contextual information, Bushman Rock Shelter remains poorly studied despite recording cultural and palaeoenvironmental data that are key for the understanding of the South African Stone Age. Here, we propose a synthesis of the 1967–1976 excavations led by Hannes Eloff and provide general background information that will serve as a reference for future research. Our synthesis is based on previous publications by Ina Plug, as well as on Eloff ’s field diaries, which were thought to be lost. We complement these observations with data from our own 2014 field se...

Approximately 74 thousand years ago (ka), the Toba caldera erupted in Sumatra. Since the magnitude of this eruption was first established, its effects on climate, environment and humans have been debated. Here we describe the discovery of microscopic glass shards characteristic of the Youngest Toba Tuff-ashfall from the Toba eruption-in two archaeological sites on the south coast of South Africa, a region in which there is evidence for early human behavioural complexity. An independently derived dating model supports a date of approximately 74 ka for the sediments containing the Youngest Toba Tuff glass shards. By defining the input of shards at both sites, which are located nine kilometres apart, we are able to establish a close temporal correlation between them. Our high-resolution excavation and sampling technique enable exact comparisons between the input of Youngest Toba Tuff glass shards and the evidence for human occupation. Humans in this region thrived through the Toba even...

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Africa encompasses the archaeological background for the origin, early evolution and global dispersal of Homo sapiens. This dissertation project used behavioral information attained from the analysis of MSA stone artifacts, in concert with additional archaeological data and new theoretical concepts, to assess research questions pertaining to key issues in current MSA archaeology and human evolution: What is the nature of coastal adaptations during the MSA and how did they affect the evolution and dispersal of Homo sapiens? Did modern humans in southern Africa possess a less complex behavioral repertoire and inferior cultural abilities before and after the Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) as suggested by the influential “Synthetic Model”? To what extent can analyses of stone tools from the late MSA inform early migrations of Homo sapiens out of Africa? Lithic assemblages from six southern African MSA sites, dating to MIS 5 and MIS 3, provide the principle empirical basis to answer these questions. Concerning the first research topic, based on analyses on the site (Hoedjiespunt 1), regional (sub-Saharan Africa) and continental levels (Africa), the findings of this dissertation demonstrate the systematic, stable and long-term character of MSA coastal adaptations by at least MIS 5e. These behavioral adaptations had ample potential to affect the biological and cultural evolution of Homo sapiens. The ability to thrive in variable coastal ecosystems, and a general increase in behavior flexibility, constituted necessary prerequisites to disperse out of Africa along a mainly coastal route in a rapid and successful manner after ~130 ka. Lithic analyses at the main study site of Sibudu revealed the presence of distinctive, sophisticated and structured stone artifact assemblages during MIS 3 which are used to refine the concept of the “Sibudan” as a new cultural-taxonomic unit of the MSA. Comparative analyses suggest increased regionalization of lithic technology in southern Africa during MIS 3, the maintenance of advanced lithic technology and complex cultural repertoires, as well as dense populations in some areas. These findings reject the dominant Synthetic Model by showing that complex behaviors were well-established in human populations before and after the HP and SB. The results also falsify ideas of cultural regression and demographic collapses after the HP. Regarding the third major topic, the thesis shows how the phenomenon of convergence can confound the common approach by Paleolithic archaeologists to track large-scale dispersals of modern humans out of Africa by means of stone artifacts. The demonstration of an independent innovation of “Nubian” core technology during MIS 3 in southern Africa, with these artifact types having recently been used to monitor the earliest migrations of modern humans from north-eastern Africa to Arabia, provides a cautionary example that single core or tool types cannot adequately trace such dispersals on large temporal and spatial scales. Apart from providing new insights into the evolution and dispersal of modern humans, the thesis highlights the need for novel approaches in lithic analyses and a holistic bio-cultural perspective on human evolution.

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) of southern Africa is central to current discussions on the early behavioral evolution of modern humans. Recent MSA research has focused on two technocomplexes, the Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) that are associated with the early appearance of many cultural innovations. Apart from this temporal emphasis, a regional focus of research on the southern and western coasts of South Africa is largely due to taphonomic factors and research history. This research bias constituted the starting point for two PhD dissertations at the University of Tübingen, whose main findings are summarized here. The current contribution focuses on new results concerning lithic assemblages from the understudied region KwaZulu-Natal during the lesser-known period of MIS 3, and provides a general overview on recent Stone Age research by the University of Tübingen. Our main study site of Sibudu is a key locality for the chrono-cultural stratigraphy of southern Africa due to its exceptional finds, excellent preservation of organic materials, long sequence and secure chronology, though the site has long been regionally isolated. Our research thus aimed to generate a comparative regional framework for the MSA archaeology of KwaZulu-Natal, with the nearby – but mostly forgotten – sites of Holley Shelter and Umbeli Belli as ideal case studies. The MIS 3 lithic assemblages of Sibudu following the HP provide evidence of sophisticated knapping behaviors associated with technological innovations. Based upon clear techno-typological signals, these assemblages were used to define the " Sibudan " technocomplex. The large amount of diachronic variability within the sequence is mostly due to the exceptionally high temporal resolution for the MSA. Comparisons with Holley Shelter show many similarities, whereas site-specific differences can be attributed to differential access to raw materials influencing techno-economic behaviors on small scales. New archaeological work at Umbeli Belli provides insights on the technology and chronology for the relatively unknown end of the MSA on the eastern seaboard of South Africa, the so-called " final MSA. " Our research suggests that the archaeology of MIS 3 in southern Africa can be characterized by persistent cultural complexity after the HP, with a high degree of regional variability and dynamic change through time. These results have important implications for models of the early behavioral evolution of Homo sapiens. We conclude with outlining future directions of research by the University of Tübingen in the MSA of South Africa which intend to extend the spatio-temporal scope of the work presented here.

Before the 1990s, archaeologist viewed the Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Africa as a period less important for research than the Earlier Stone Age in which early Homo evolved and the Later Stone Age in which scholars envisioned a high degree of archaeological continuity with recent hunter-gatherers. With the growing realization that modern humans evolved in Africa by 200 ka, however, this period became a central topic of international research. Dating to roughly to 300–30 ka, the MSA encompasses the archaeological background for the origin, early evolution and global dispersal of Homo sapiens. Research into the MSA is thus crucial for assessing old but still unresolved questions in human evolution, such as the early cultural development of our species, whether biological and cultural evolution followed similar trajectories, the nature and causes of behavioural changes, as well as migrations out of Africa.
In the past two decades, numerous excavations, research projects and outstanding finds made southern Africa the leading region for research on the MSA and the evolution of modern humans. Based on our own research from various sites (e.g. Sibudu; Hoedjiespunt) in this region, we summarize and critically assess the state of MSA studies in South Africa. We focus in particular on models regarding the early bio-cultural evolution of Homo sapiens – exemplified by discussions of early coastal adaptations – as well as the competing models for the trajectory of cultural evolution and its underlying causes. The currently prevalent “Synthetic Model” argues that the MSA is characterized by two short-lived periods of exceptional innovation and cultural complexity (the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort) which are preceded and followed by less behaviourally sophisticated phases, potentially due to demographic collapses.  Combined with recent studies from key sites, however, our research raises doubt on the validity of this model, showing that notions of a clear cultural sequence across the entire southern African subcontinent with well-defined, short-term and largely homogeneous cultural-chronological units are too simplistic, as are models that see uniform cultural regression or dwindling populations after ~60 ka.
Based on recent high-resolution observations we argue that research is entering a phase in which a more complex and geographically variable record of the southern Africa MSA will come into clearer focus. From this basis, improved models of behavioural change and spatial-temporal variation will likely emerge to help examine the dynamics of cultural evolution during the MSA in this but also other regions of Africa.

Eastern Africa (broadly Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania) has yielded the earliest fossils of modern humans, the earliest evidence for Mode 3 technologies (Middle Stone Age), and is one of the areas in which modern humans may well have been endemic. This paper reviews the genetic, archaeological, and fossil evidence for the evolution of modern humans across MIS 6-2 in eastern Africa, and places this into the context of Middle Pleistocene human evolution, the development of the Middle Stone Age across the continent, and climatic change over the last two glacial cycles. We argue that while there is a paucity of well-dated sites that reduces the resolution of any interpretation, the available evidence indicates a major role for eastern Africa as an area of endemism, most probably related to the interaction of mosaic environments and refugia. We show that the evolution of modern humans has roots that extend well before MIS 6, and propose four overlapping stages, making this a much more prolonged process than has traditionally been described. There is a broad relationship between evolutionary history and major climatic oscillations; nevertheless , a closer examination reveals a more complex pattern. There are periods of synchrony and asynchrony in both contextual and evolutionary/behavioral changes, and these show variable links to both northern and southern Africa. Although eastern, northern and southern Africa (with central and western being largely unknown) show similarities and ultimately the same evolutionary and behavioral outcome, they also exhibit independent trajectories that require further research to throw light on the processes involved.

ABSTRACT During geomorphic reconnaissance of the Lower Cunene River near the reach of Serra Cafema, a significant accumulation of Middle Stone Age artifacts was discovered along the Namibia–Angolan border. The archaeological site is downstream of the Marienfluss–Hartmann Valley and lies along the eastern perimeter of the hyperarid Cunene erg (sandsea). Within the study area, the Cunene River is a bedrock anabranching – mixed bedrock-alluvial anabranching system with a morphology that is strongly controlled by lithology and structure and a hydrology dominated by tropical rainfall in the headwaters. A 5 m high alluvial terrace along the left bank of the perennial river is mantled with a surface lag of cobbles and gravels that includes MSA lithics. More than 30 artifacts are preserved in this open-air context. Finds include quartzite flakes, cores, and Levallois–Mousterian points with varying degrees of edge abrasion and varnish; these appear to be the first Levallois–Mousterian points found in this region of Africa. Since the archaeology of this region is poorly known, these cultural assemblages enable initial correlations across southern Africa. A replicate OSL-SAR date w220 kyr provides initial age constraints on a sand preserved within the cobble-boulder terrace fill, and constrains a maximum age for the overlying archaeological assemblage. This is the first MSA site in northern Namibia in direct stratigraphic context with a securely dated unit. The artifact assemblage underscores the importance of riparian corridors in reconstructing hominin behaviours during the Middle Pleistocene, the time frame marked by the first appearance and the dispersal of the modern human species Homo sapiens.

Bushman Rock Shelter (BRS) contains thick deposits with Middle
Stone Age (MSA) fauna. The shelter was excavated between 1965 and 1975, and large quantities of fauna were retrieved; the analysis of these is presented here for the first time. Little is known about the MSA component of BRS, despite being one of the earliest well-excavated MSA sites in the interior of South Africa. The dating of BRS was done before modern techniques were available. Nevertheless, radiocarbon dates and preliminary observations regarding lithics indicate that the
deposits of the shelter are of great antiquity. The lithics suggest
that BRS has artefacts dating to the MSA 1 (possibly), MSA 2 and
MSA 3. This suggests that some of the deposits from BRS predate 100 000 BP. The fauna from BRS shows that people selected large Bovidae as prey above medium and small antelope. Monitor lizard and tortoise remains are common. Burnt fish specimens suggest that these were caught and eaten. Large quantities of the giant African land snail
are present, and many of these were likely consumed. Ostrich eggshell beads were also present within the MSA context, as well as carbonised marula kernels. The people of BRS were successful hunters, taking down dangerous prey.

Although there are many interpretations of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA), this essay will review the relevant evidence relating to the significance of ochre use during this period. Contention regarding the MSA focusses on whether people of this period were capable of modern human cognition, especially important as the MSA period predates anatomically modern humans. In an effort to understand when behavioural modernity occurred, archaeologists examining the archaeological MSA record, such as the abundance of ochre artefacts, have resulted in differing conclusions. Ongoing debate emphasises ochre use, signifying functional behaviour and beginnings of advanced thought, or ritual behaviour and fully human cognition. Proponents for both sides concur that ochre use could have been both functional and ritualistic. Whether people of the MSA decorated objects or themselves with special colours, created tanned hides, or composite weapons, they can no longer be seen as archaic due to new evidence of growing human cognition throughout the period.

This study utilises geochemical provenancing of silcrete raw materials, in combination with chaîne op eratoire analyses, to explore lithic procurement and behavioural patterns in the northern Kalahari Desert during the Middle Stone Age (MSA). New data from the sites of Rhino Cave, Corner Cave, and sGi in northwest Botswana, combined with earlier results from White Paintings Shelter, reveal that the long distance transport of silcrete for stone tool manufacture was a repeated and extensively used behaviour in this region. Silcrete was imported over distances of up to 295 km to all four sites, from locations along the Boteti River and around Lake Ngami. Significantly, closer known sources of silcrete of equivalent quality were largely bypassed. Silcrete artefacts were transported at various stages of production (as partially and fully prepared cores, blanks, and finished tools) and, with the exception of sGi, in large volumes. The import occurred despite the abundance of locally available raw materials, which were also used to manufacture the same tool types. On the basis of regional palaeoenvironmental data, the timing of the majority of silcrete import from the Boteti River and Lake Ngami is constrained to regionally drier periods of the MSA. The results of our investigation challenge key assumptions underlying predictive models of human mobility that use distanceedecay curves and drop-off rates. Middle Stone Age peoples in the Kalahari appear to have been more mobile than anticipated, and repeatedly made costly choices with regard to both raw material selection and items to be transported. We conclude that (i) base transport cost has been overemphasised as a restrictive factor in predictive models, and (ii) factors such as source availability and preference, raw material quality, and potential sociocultural influences significantly shaped prehistoric landscape use choices.

The late Middle Pleistocene cave site of Pinnacle Point 13B (PP13B, South Africa) has provided the archaeologically oldest evidences yet known of human consumption of marine resources. Among the marine invertebrates recognised at PP13B, an isolated whale barnacle compartment was tentatively determined as Coronula diadema and regarded as indirect evidence of human consumption of a baleen whale (likely Megaptera novaeangliae). In this paper we redetermine this coronulid specimen as Cetopirus complanatus. This record significantly extends the fossil history of C. complanatus back by about 150 ky, thus partially bridging the occurrence of Cetopirus fragilis in the early Pleistocene to the latest Quater-nary record of C. complanatus. Since C. complanatus is currently known as a highly specific phoront of right whales (Eu-balaena spp.), we propose that the late Middle Pleistocene human groups that inhabited PP13B fed on a stranded southern right whale. Therefore, the whale barnacle from PP13B suggests the persistence of a southern right whale population off South Africa during the predominantly glacial MIS 6, thus evoking the continuity of cetacean migrations and antitropical distribution during that global cold phase. Interestingly, the most ancient evidence of humans feeding on a whale involves Eubalaena, historically the most exploited cetacean genus, and currently still seriously threatened with extinction due to human impact. Site PP13B (Fig. 1; geographic coordinates: S 34°12'44", E 22°05'37 ") is a sea cave overlooking the Indian Ocean in the quartzitic coastal cliffs at Pinnacle Point near Mossel Bay (South Africa). Archaeological evidence indicates that, in the midst of the predominantly glacial Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6, PP13B was inhabited by early modern human groups who fed on shellfish and other seafood: as such, Pinnacle Point preserves the oldest archaeological evidence of human use of marine resources and coastal habitats (Marean et al. 2007). Moreover, site PP13B presents evidence for an early use and modification of pigment (probably for symbolic behaviour) and products of bladelet stone tool technology (Marean et al. 2007, and references therein).

This collection of papers is dedicated to Dr Ina Plug to
celebrate her tremendous contributions to archaeozoology
(or zooarchaeology) in a career that has so far spanned
more than three decades. Worldwide, archaeozoology is a
young science which only began in earnest in the 1970s,
although earlier attempts to understand bone remains from
archaeological sites predate it by several decades. Working
in Pretoria’s Transvaal Museum with C.K. (‘Bob’) Brain
and E.A. (‘Liz’) Voigt, Ina Plug played a decisive role in
the establishment of archaeozoology as a field of research
in southern Africa. Future faunal research in the region has
the luxury of building on the solid foundations that Ina and
her colleagues have laid since the 1970s.

Fluctuations in the frequency of silcrete in lithic assemblages have been an important focus of Stone Age research in southern Africa. Here, we review temporal and spatial variation in silcrete abundance during the LSA and MSA of southern Africa and discuss mechanisms that might drive the differential acquisition and treatment of this raw material. Previous research has proposed a variety of explanations that include non-behavioural factors (sea level changes, climatic and environmental driving forces) and various behavioural determinants that range from functional constraints and economic considerations to socio-cultural preferences. In order to test these explanations and provide a systematic spatio-temporal overview of silcrete use, we performed a meta-analysis by collecting a database on silcrete abundance from a total of 25 Stone Age sites that encompass N=200 assemblages. Quantitative statistical analyses of this database reveal significant variation in silcrete prevalence among and between sites. The main temporal trajectory conforms to a bimodal pattern that features peak frequencies in MIS 4 & 3 as well as MIS 1. The results also demonstrate a significant association between silcrete abundance and technocomplexes with particularly high values for the Howiesons Poort, " post-HP " and Wilton, but not the Still Bay. Silcrete abundance is significantly correlated with the production of tools in general, and the manufacture of microlithic or backed artefacts in particular, suggesting an influence of functional considerations and potentially cultural preferences. In contrast, we found little support for the dependence of silcrete use on purely economic grounds such as procurement costs or a strong impact of non-behavioural factors such as changes in sea level or environmental circumstances. By operating on a large spatio-temporal scale with aggregated data, the results of this study can help to embed the acquisition and treatment of silcrete by Stone Age people in a wider behavioural and evolutionary framework.

From c.100 000 years ago, ochre pieces were habitually collected and used at Middle Stone Age sites in southern Africa. This earthy iron-rich rock has been continually used since then and still has many applications today, such as pigment, sunscreen or body paint for ritual purposes. Although a range of colours were collected in the past, bright red, and often sparkly, varieties were preferentially used to create coloured powder, paint and also on which to engrave designs. But why red? The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is a period of significant behavioural developments for Homo sapiens, with important cognitive inferences. The appearance of items such as perforated shells, engraved ostrich eggshell and the use of red pigments are perceived as potential symbolic, social and cultural identity indicators. Did red symbolize blood, power or love, as it does today? When considered within the context of the significant technological advances in the Middle Stone Age, social dynamics and interactions of these early modern humans may be explored. By looking at the use and applications of ochre through time in southern Africa, links are drawn between ochre use strategies, colour symbolism and social identity indicators.

Lithic technologies have been used to trace dispersals of early human populations within and beyond Africa. Convergence in lithic systems has the potential to confound such interpretations, implying connections between unrelated groups. The problem of convergence in material culture is particularly acute in lithic technologies, an essentially reductive method of tool manufacture bound by functional requirements of edge production, and by the physics of fracture mechanics. Nevertheless, the unique durability of lithic artefacts and their tendency to pattern in space and time means that they remain the basis for most assessments of population flux in the Palaeolithic. In order to limit the confounding potential of convergence, researchers focus on the most derived components of lithic assemblages, where elaborate, multi-step flaking systems reduce the probability of chance morphological similarities. The Nubian core reduction method and the spatially circumscribed techno-complex associated with this technology provide a significant recent example of the application of this approach (e.g. Rose et al. 2011; Usik et al. 2013).
Here we present data suggesting that Nubian core reduction systems associated with late Pleistocene populations in North Africa – and potentially with early human ex-migrations from Africa to Arabia – also occur in southern Africa, but much later and with no clear connection to the North African occurrence. Our surveys at Uitspankraal 7 (UPK7) and excavations at Mertenhof, both situated in south-western South Africa and about 25 km apart, have yielded a total of 36 cores with all the hallmarks of Nubian technology. These necessary technological attributes include a steeply angled median distal ridge, an opposed striking platform, a triangular core shape and a prepared main striking platform (sensu Usik et al. 2013). The cores confirm either to type 1/2 or type 2 variants of the Nubian system and are manufactured on all principle raw materials. They are small relative to those from north-eastern African and Arabia, a difference driven largely by available raw materials, but generally fall in the lower end of the size spectrum of Nubian cores. At both UPK7 and Mertenhof, Nubian-like cores and the concomitant convergent flakes occur exclusively in assemblages of the early post-Howiesons Poort and can be age bracketed to 60-50 ka. These observations constitute the first demonstration of this core reduction system from the southern part of the African continent.
The timing and spatial distribution of Nubian cores in southern Africa implies convergence, rather than diffusion or dispersal. This interpretation is consistent with the absence of documented Nubian systems in any part of the intervening space between northern Africa and South Africa, and the fact that by 60 ka the Nubian had probably disappeared from its source area. Interpreting our data as including an instance of technological convergence on the Nubian core reduction system carries several implications. Foremost, the distribution of Nubian cores cannot always be assumed to reflect information sharing networks. In cases where similar lithic systems occur in the same restricted time interval in contiguous areas, information transmission with or without attendant population movement remains a relatively parsimonious explanation: the suggestion that the Arabian Nubian techno-complex was made by populations related to those in north-east Africa is reasonable, although it should be substantiated by more detailed quantitative comparisons of relevant lithic assemblages. Having said that, where assemblages are separated by considerable intervals of time and/or space, convergence cannot be precluded on the grounds of technological complexity. While lithic technologies can be a critical guide to human population flux under favorable circumstances, their utility in tracing early human dispersals at large spatial and temporal scales thus remains questionable.

As starting activity for the Uoro Rift-Wele River Project, a 20-day exploratory trip to Equatorial Guinea was made in May 2014. During this time, the existing agreement between UNAM and the National University of Equatorial Guinea was renewed, aprovisional exploration permit from the National Institute for Forest Development (INDEFOR) was obtained, and an exploration survey was made in the Niefang region at the Uoro Rift. In these few weeks, eight new surface sites with diagnostic archaeological materials from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) were reported, and several large-format tools not previously described in existing publications were identifed, extending the typological variability range of the local MSA, including artifacts from the Sangoan-Lupemban period. The results show that the present institutional and geographic conditions are ideal for a long-term archaeological project in Equatorial Guinea.

ABSTRACT Petrographic and geochemical study of artifact-bearing fossil-spring tufas in stratigraphic contexts associated with Upper Acheulean and Middle Stone Age-to-historic artifacts provides a basis for characterizing and comparing Quaternary tufa deposition and diagenesis across the Kharga Oasis region of south-central Egypt. Analysis of tufa deposits at Refuf Pass, Midauwara Pass, A‘in ‘Amur, and Umm el Dabadib suggest that the low Mg-carbonates were precipitated by similar inorganic and biogeochemical processes operating within freshwater spring-fed alkaline stream environments throughout Quaternary time. Detailed petrographic studies suggest that the tufas are relatively pristine, with the original rock textures well preserved with minimal postdepositional alteration. Microstratigraphic details indicate that a variety of interformational facies were present within the former stream environments; understanding these contexts is valuable for interpreting prehistoric human activities.

Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa’s contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, well-dated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the chaîne opératoire approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople m...

From c.100 000 years ago, ochre pieces were habitually collected and used at Middle Stone Age sites in southern Africa. This earthy iron-rich rock has been continually used since then and still has many applications today, such as pigment, sunscreen or body paint for ritual purposes. Although a range of colours were collected in the past, bright red, and often sparkly, varieties were preferentially used to create coloured powder, paint and also on which to engrave designs. But why red? The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is a period of significant behavioural developments for Homo sapiens, with important cognitive inferences. The appearance of items such as perforated shells, engraved ostrich eggshell and the use of red pigments are perceived as potential symbolic, social and cultural identity indicators. Did red symbolize blood, power or love, as it does today? When considered within the context of the significant technological advances in the Middle Stone Age, social dynamics and interactions of these early modern humans may be explored. By looking at the use and applications of ochre through time in southern Africa, links are drawn between ochre use strategies, colour symbolism and social identity indicators.

ABSTRACT A small concentration of Acheulian cleavers and handaxes within the driest region on Earth adds to the increasing evidence that the eastern Sahara was considerably more verdant during the Middle Pleistocene than it is today. The similarities to stone artifact assemblages of Acheulian sites in sub-Saharan Africa and in the Levant support the evidence for the movement of hominids, utilizing the Kombewa lithic technology, between Africa and the Middle East during the Middle Pleistocene.

Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa’s contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, well-dated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the chaîne opératoire approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople m...

From c.100 000 years ago, ochre pieces were habitually collected and used at Middle Stone Age sites in southern Africa. This earthy iron-rich rock has been continually used since then and still has many applications today, such as pigment, sunscreen or body paint for ritual purposes. Although a range of colours were collected in the past, bright red, and often sparkly, varieties were preferentially used to create coloured powder, paint and also on which to engrave designs. But why red? The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is a period of significant behavioural developments for Homo sapiens, with important cognitive inferences. The appearance of items such as perforated shells, engraved ostrich eggshell and the use of red pigments are perceived as potential symbolic, social and cultural identity indicators. Did red symbolize blood, power or love, as it does today? When considered within the context of the significant technological advances in the Middle Stone Age, social dynamics and interacti...

Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa’s contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, well-dated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the chaîne opératoire approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople m...

This monograph (Chert Quarrying, Lithic Technology and a Modern Human burial at the Palaeolithic Site of Taramsa 1, Upper Egypt) is the final report on the excavations at the chert-quarrying site of Taramsa, located on the west bank of the Nile near Qena in Upper Egypt. The analysis of the lithic assemblages recovered at the site forms an integral and important part of this report, next to a presentation of the primary field data and the spatial analyses of some sectors. Taramsa 1 represents a unique record of lithic technological change over the entire span of the MSA in this part of Africa, until and even beyond the transition to the Upper Palaeolithic. The field evidence pertaining to a MSA child burial is reported upon here. The site is a key reference for the entire region of North and East Africa, and for Southwest Asia.