Animal Diversity

In wildlife management, sufficient information about fauna is vital for conservation of species and their habitats. Furthermore, the number of bird species in a habitat can represent an index of habitat quality. Therefore, this study was carried out to identify bird fauna on a university campus (i.e. Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan, abbreviated as ASNRUKH) in the southwest of Iran in order to determine the number of bird species, the day of their arrival, and the presence time of migratory birds on campus. Field survey and identification of birds were carried out in the study area, with an area of 72.9 ha, using binoculars from June 2017 to May 2018 in linear transects spaced 20 meters apart. We identified 62 bird species, including nine raptors, which is equal to 11.25% of bird species in Iran. In total, 19 residents, five summer visitors, 21 winter visitors and 17 passing migratory birds were identified. The lowest co-occurrence number of species (21-25) was observed from middle June to early October and the maximum number of concurrent species (38-41) were recorded from late November to early January. The Western Barn Owl Tyto alba was the only resident raptor, which is part of an integrated pest management system throughout the year. ASNRUKH's long-established persistent favorable microclimate supports both resident and migratory birds. In addition, the study area provides food and safety for migratory birds from across the globe as a stopover site.

The dietary habits of tadpoles of the Nepalese anurans have not been well studied. Here, we present an opportunistic observation of tadpoles of the Terai tree frog, Polypedates teraiensis feeding on rotten pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata). We suggest further detailed study on the feeding habits of tadpoles in the changing climate in Nepal as they could be used as model organisms to understand their trophic roles and to predict the ecological consequences of their potential loss.

The precise number of extant fish species remains to be determined. About 28,900 species were listed in FishBase in 2005, but some experts feel that the final total may be considerably higher. Freshwater fishes comprise until now almost 13,000 species (and 2,513 genera) (including only freshwater and strictly peripheral species), or about 15,000 if all species occurring from fresh to brackishwaters are included. Noteworthy is the fact that the estimated 13,000 strictly freshwater fish species live in lakes and rivers that cover only 1% of the earth’s surface, while the remaining 16,000 species live in salt water covering a full 70%. While freshwater species belong to some 170 families (or 207 if peripheral species are also considered), the bulk of species occur in a relatively few groups: the Characiformes, Cypriniformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes, the Perciformes (noteably the family Cichlidae), and the Cyprinodontiformes. Biogeographically the distribution of strictly freshwater species and genera are, respectively 4,035 species (705 genera) in the Neotropical region, 2,938 (390 genera) in the Afrotropical, 2,345 (440 genera) in the Oriental, 1,844 (380 genera) in the Palaearctic, 1,411 (298 genera) in the Nearctic, and 261 (94 genera) in the Australian. For each continent, the main characteristics of the ichthyofauna are briefly outlined. At this continental scale, ichthyologists have also attempted to identify ichthyological ‘‘provinces’’ that are regions with a distinctive evolutionary history and hence more or less characteristic biota at the species level. Ichthyoregions are currently identified in each continent, except for Asia. An exceptionally high faunal diversity occurs in ancient lakes, where one of the most noteworthy features is the existence of radiations of species that apparently result from intra-lacustrine speciation. Numerous fish-species flocks have been identified in various ancient lakes that are exceptional natural sites for the study of speciation. The major threats to fish biodiversity are intense and have been relatively well documented: overexploitation, flow modification, destruction of habitats, invasion by exotic species, pollution including the worldwide phenomena of eutrophication and sedimentation, all of which are interacting.

A survey of the chiropteran species at the Wind Cave Nature Reserve (WCNR) in the Bau limestone areas (BLA), Sarawak, was conducted from the 10th to 20th January 2008 and the 10th to 20th April 2009. A total of 297 and 367 (net 646) individuals, representing 14 and 11 (net 17) species from four families were captured in 2008 and 2009, respectively, from an effort of 143 each (net 286) sampling nights. This represents eight new recordings for the WCNR and approximately 85%, 45.9% and 17.7% of the total species recorded in the WCNR, BLA and Borneo, respectively. Over both years the most commonly captured species was by far Penthetor lucasi followed by Hipposiderous cervinus, which were comprised of 63% and 22% of the total (2008 + 2009) captures, respectively. Four and eight species were recorded as the new locality records for Wind Cave (WC) and WCNR, respectively, with Rhinolopus arcuatus*, H. larvatus*, H. coxi*, H. ridleyi, H. galeritus*, Kerivoula pellucida, Tylonycteris robustula and T. pachypus being new records for WCNR and those marked with an asterix (*) being new records for WC. This documentation is of importance for forest conservation and management in future.
KEY WORDS: Chiropteran, Limestone, Conserv

An assessment of the global freshwater crab diversity is presented. A total of 1,476 species in 14 families are currently known from all zoogeographical regions (except Antarctica), including 1,306 species in eight exclusively freshwater families (Pseudothelphusidae, Trichodactylidae, Potamonautidae, Deckeniidae, Platythelphusidae, Potamidae, Gecarcinucidae and Parathelphusidae). Estimates of true freshwater crab diversity including likely numbers of undescribed taxa suggest that the field remains largely in a ''discovery'' phase. Main ideas on the origins, diversification, and phylogeny of true freshwater crabs are briefly discussed. The economic importance of freshwater crabs is also highlighted.

Wildlife corridors connect isolated patches of habitat and support the movement of migratory species from one site to another. Human disturbances cause forest degradation and habitat fragmentation adding to the high risk of species extinction. We laid out 44 grids of 2 km × 2 km in Laljhadi Mohana Biological Corridor (LMBC). In each grid, we generated line transects ranging from 1.5 to 2 km and a systematic line transect survey was carried out with single replication to assess the distribution and relative abundance of large mammals. GPS coordinates were recorded for each direct sighting or indirect sign. Similarly, a local household survey (n=40) and key informant interviews (n=9) were conducted to explore the local perception about existing problems, major conflicting species habitat components, conservation threats and attitude towards the large mammals. A workshop was also held to discuss information about the conflicting species, possible solutions, and the ranking of threats based on a relative ranking system. A total of 51 individuals belonging to six species of large mammals were found in LMBC. Distribution was primarily confined to the south of the corridor, and the relative abundance, in descending order, is the Blue bull (29.4%), Asian elephant (25.5%), Spotted deer (21.5%), Wild boar (15.7%), Common leopard (5.9%) and Bengal tiger (2%). Major conservation threats were forest encroachment and habitat fragmentation (Very High), followed by grazing and forest product consumption (High), natural disaster (Medium) and illegal poaching, infrastructure construction, and invasive species (Low). The LMBC was found to support six large mammals, where mostly Asian elephants and Blue bull are using it for migration.

The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka comprises 120 species, including 107 (~90.0%) endemic species. They belong to five families: Bufonidae, Dicroglossidae, Ichthyophiidae, Microhylidae, and Rhacophoridae. Based on distribution, we recognized five zoogeographic zones for them, Central Hills, Dry Zone, Knuckles Range, Lowland Wet Zone, and Rakwana Hills. Fifty three species were reported from the Central Hills (48 endemics [90.6%] and 42 [79.2%] threatened species). 47 species were recorded from the Lowland Wet Zone, including 36 (76.6%) endemics and 28 (59.6%) threatened species. The Knuckles Range had 25 species, of which, 19 (76.0%) were endemics and 15 (60.0%) are threatened species. 19 species were reported from Dry Zone including seven endemics (36.8%) and four threatened species (21.1%). Out of 29 species, which inhabited in the Rakwana Hills, 26 were endemics (~89.7%) including 24 (82.8%) threatened species. Species diversity along the elevational gradient was also observed with the highest species richness in the mid-elevational localities. Family Ichthyophiidae can be considered as the least studied family. Recent rediscoveries and studies have helped to reduce the number of extinct species from 21 to 18. It is speculated that some of the other extinct species have to be rediscovered or probably were misidentified as other species. About 90% of Sri Lankan amphibians occur in the regions with the highest human populations where there are established agricultural lands. Loss of habitats, competition due to anthropogenic species and invasive species, pollution (cause for malformations, parasites, and other diseases), and climate change appear to be major threats.

Much of the research on venoms has understandably focused on clinical implications of human envenomation and detailed molecular studies of toxins. However, as with any biological trait, venom exists in an evolutionary context and must be considered as such if we are to gain a full understanding of the biology of animal venoms. Consequently, this chapter aims to provide an overview of the diversity of venom and venomous animals and also a set of evolutionary principles which are particularly applicable here. There has been substantial variation in the definition of "venom" and "venomous" in the literature, so this is discussed first with the aim of giving a definition which encompasses a number of important features of venoms. A survey of the functional diversity of venoms and taxonomic diversity of venomous animals is then provided as an introduction to the evolutionary drivers of venom and how it is distributed across the animal tree of life. The last three sections consider three principles that are important to venom evolution:

<p>Results of hypothesis tests are listed in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0194336#pone.0194336.s001" target="_blank">S1 Table</a>. Statistically significant departures p < 0.05 from equal observed and expected components (45°_ line) are indicated by an asterisk. Vertical error bars are 2 SE of the mean of the observed sample distribution, and horizontal error bars are the critical upper and lower values that encompass 95% of the null distribution obtained from 999 randomizations. Inset: enlarged view of rodent partitioning. X-axis of estimated Shannon diversity is on a log scale.</p

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is on an increasing trend and has become one of the most challenging problems for the rural communities of developing nations like Nepal. There is limited information available on HWC in Kailali district, Nepal. The objective of our study was to explore the different incidents and the perceptions of local people on HWC within four different sites in Kailali district. To collect information three different methods were used, a questionnaire survey (n= 80), key informant interviews (n= 10) and focus group discussions (n= 4); all during February and March 2018. Different records of HWC incidents were collected that occurred during the period of one year in 2017, except for information on human attacks which were collected from 2015 to 2017. Of the total of 102 HWC incidents, crop damage was the most severe problem followed by property damage (15) and livestock depredation (9). The Asian elephant (n= 54) was the most conflicting species for crop damage, followed by the Rhesus macaque (n= 23) and the wild pig (n= 14). Similarly, property damage was mostly caused by elephants (n= 10) and other animals (n= 5). Rice (43%) was the most damaged crop type by the conflicting species, followed by wheat (28%) and then maize (9%). For property damage, 19% of respondents reported suffering house damage while 11% suffered damage to stored food. Shouting and hitting drums was the most applied measure during HWC's but other measures for human-wild animals coexistence and resolution are suggested.

We present a natural history account of the first record of probable predation on the Indian bull frog, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus by the Asian House Shrew, Suncus murinus from Morang district, Nepal. The present communication provides an example of a nearly equal-sized predator-prey interaction in a natural ecosystem and provides interesting information on the natural history of these taxa.

Page 1. FRESHWATER ANIMAL DIVERSITY ASSESSMENT Global diversity of fish (Pisces) in freshwater C. Lévêque Æ T. Oberdorff Æ D. Paugy Æ MLJ Stiassny Æ PA Tedesco ... Global species and taxonomic diversity Fresh, brackish and saltwater fishes ...

Bangladesh is a country of rich biological diversity. Bangladesh Sundarbans is the home to Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris). The different ecosystems support about 3 Gymnosperms, 1700 Pteridophytes and 5700 Angiosperms plants species. Approximately 53 species of amphibians, 158 reptiles (including 19 marine species), 690 birds (380 residents, 209 winter visitors, 11 summer visitors and 90 vagrants) and 121 species of mammals (including 5 marine species) found in Bangladesh. But this stunning biodiversity both plants and animals are declining at an alarming rate from the wilderness.  Only proper conservation and management initiatives can save them from extinction.

Wildlife corridors connect isolated patches of habitat and support the movement of migratory species from one site to another. Human disturbances cause forest degradation and habitat fragmentation adding to the high risk of species extinction. We laid out 44 grids of 2 km × 2 km in Laljhadi Mohana Biological Corridor (LMBC). In each grid, we generated line transects ranging from 1.5 to 2 km and a systematic line transect survey was carried out with single replication to assess the distribution and relative abundance of large mammals. GPS coordinates were recorded for each direct sighting or indirect sign. Similarly, a local household survey (n=40) and key informant interviews (n=9) were conducted to explore the local perception about existing problems, major conflicting species habitat components, conservation threats and attitude towards the large mammals. A workshop was also held to discuss information about the conflicting species, possible solutions, and the ranking of threats based on a relative ranking system. A total of 51 individuals belonging to six species of large mammals were found in LMBC. Distribution was primarily confined to the south of the corridor, and the relative abundance, in descending order, is the Blue bull (29.4%), Asian elephant (25.5%), Spotted deer (21.5%), Wild boar (15.7%), Common leopard (5.9%) and Bengal tiger (2%). Major conservation threats were forest encroachment and habitat fragmentation (Very High), followed by grazing and forest product consumption (High), natural disaster (Medium) and illegal poaching, infrastructure construction, and invasive species (Low). The LMBC was found to support six large mammals, where mostly Asian elephants and Blue bull are using it for migration.

The precise number of extant fish species remains to be determined. About 28,900 species were listed in FishBase in 2005, but some experts feel that the final total may be considerably higher. Freshwater fishes comprise until now almost 13,000 species (and 2,513 genera) (including only freshwater and strictly peripheral species), or about 15,000 if all species occurring from fresh to brackishwaters are included. Noteworthy is the fact that the estimated 13,000 strictly freshwater fish species live in lakes and rivers that cover only 1% of the earth's surface, while the remaining 16,000 species live in salt water covering a full 70%. While freshwater species belong to some 170 families (or 207 if peripheral species are also considered), the bulk of species occur in a relatively few groups: the Characiformes, Cypriniformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes, the Perciformes (noteably the family Cichlidae), and the Cyprinodontiformes. Biogeographically the distribution of strictly freshwater species and genera are, respectively 4,035 species (705 genera) in the Neotropical region, 2,938 (390 genera) in the Afrotropical, 2,345 (440 genera) in the Oriental, 1,844 (380 genera) in the Palaearctic, 1,411 (298 genera) in the Nearctic, and 261 (94 genera) in the Australian. For each continent, the main characteristics of the ichthyofauna are briefly outlined. At this continental scale, ichthyologists have also attempted to identify ichthyological ''provinces'' that are regions with a distinctive evolutionary history and hence more or less characteristic biota at the species level. Ichthyoregions are currently identified in each continent, except for Asia. An exceptionally high faunal diversity occurs in ancient lakes, where one of the most noteworthy features is the existence of radiations of species that apparently result from intralacustrine speciation. Numerous fish-species flocks have been identified in various ancient lakes that are exceptional natural sites for the study of speciation.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is on an increasing trend and has become one of the most challenging problems for the rural communities of developing nations like Nepal. There is limited information available on HWC in Kailali district, Nepal. The objective of our study was to explore the different incidents and the perceptions of local people on HWC within four different sites in Kailali district. To collect information three different methods were used, a questionnaire survey (n= 80), key informant interviews (n= 10) and focus group discussions (n= 4); all during February and March 2018. Different records of HWC incidents were collected that occurred during the period of one year in 2017, except for information on human attacks which were collected from 2015 to 2017. Of the total of 102 HWC incidents, crop damage was the most severe problem followed by property damage (15) and livestock depredation (9). The Asian elephant (n= 54) was the most conflicting species for crop damage, followed by the Rhesus macaque (n= 23) and the wild pig (n= 14). Similarly, property damage was mostly caused by elephants (n= 10) and other animals (n= 5). Rice (43%) was the most damaged crop type by the conflicting species, followed by wheat (28%) and then maize (9%). For property damage, 19% of respondents reported suffering house damage while 11% suffered damage to stored food. Shouting and hitting drums was the most applied measure during HWC's but other measures for human-wild animals coexistence and resolution are suggested.

The precise number of extant fish species remains to be determined. About 28,900 species were listed in FishBase in 2005, but some experts feel that the final total may be considerably higher. Freshwater fishes comprise until now almost 13,000 species (and 2,513 genera) (including only freshwater and strictly peripheral species), or about 15,000 if all species occurring from fresh to brackishwaters are included. Noteworthy is the fact that the estimated 13,000 strictly freshwater fish species live in lakes and rivers that cover only 1% of the earth's surface, while the remaining 16,000 species live in salt water covering a full 70%. While freshwater species belong to some 170 families (or 207 if peripheral species are also considered), the bulk of species occur in a relatively few groups: the Characiformes, Cypriniformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes, the Perciformes (noteably the family Cichlidae), and the Cyprinodontiformes. Biogeographically the distribution of strictly freshwater species and genera are, respectively 4,035 species (705 genera) in the Neotropical region, 2,938 (390 genera) in the Afrotropical, 2,345 (440 genera) in the Oriental, 1,844 (380 genera) in the Palaearctic, 1,411 (298 genera) in the Nearctic, and 261 (94 genera) in the Australian. For each continent, the main characteristics of the ichthyofauna are briefly outlined. At this continental scale, ichthyologists have also attempted to identify ichthyological ''provinces'' that are regions with a distinctive evolutionary history and hence more or less characteristic biota at the species level. Ichthyoregions are currently identified in each continent, except for Asia. An exceptionally high faunal diversity occurs in ancient lakes, where one of the most noteworthy features is the existence of radiations of species that apparently result from intralacustrine speciation. Numerous fish-species flocks have been identified in various ancient lakes that are exceptional natural sites for the study of speciation.

Recent conservation history of Cervus corsicanus Erxleben, 1777 is reviewed and future prospects discussed in the framework of increasing knowledge of its evolutionary history. This unique deer is definitively not native to Sardinia and Corsica but owes its survival to a protohistoric assisted colonization by humans. Accordingly, populations in Sardinia (and Corsica) should be managed to maintain maximum genetic diversity while minimizing ecological and economic damages in an unbalanced island ecosystem that must be perceived as "ex situ" from the evolutionary history of the deer. It is increasingly important that steps are taken to reintroduce Cervus corsicanus back to the Italian Peninsula.

The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka comprises 120 species, including 107 (~90.0%) endemic species. They belong to five families: Bufonidae, Dicroglossidae, Ichthyophiidae, Microhylidae, and Rhacophoridae. Based on distribution, we recognized five zoogeographic zones for them, Central Hills, Dry Zone, Knuckles Range, Lowland Wet Zone, and Rakwana Hills. Fifty three species were reported from the Central Hills (48 endemics [90.6%] and 42 [79.2%] threatened species). 47 species were recorded from the Lowland Wet Zone, including 36 (76.6%) endemics and 28 (59.6%) threatened species. The Knuckles Range had 25 species, of which, 19 (76.0%) were endemics and 15 (60.0%) are threatened species. 19 species were reported from Dry Zone including seven endemics (36.8%) and four threatened species (21.1%). Out of 29 species, which inhabited in the Rakwana Hills, 26 were endemics (~89.7%) including 24 (82.8%) threatened species. Species diversity along the elevational gradient was also observed with the highest species richness in the mid-elevational localities. Family Ichthyophiidae can be considered as the least studied family. Recent rediscoveries and studies have helped to reduce the number of extinct species from 21 to 18. It is speculated that some of the other extinct species have to be rediscovered or probably were misidentified as other species. About 90% of Sri Lankan amphibians occur in the regions with the highest human populations where there are established agricultural lands. Loss of habitats, competition due to anthropogenic species and invasive species, pollution (cause for malformations, parasites, and other diseases), and climate change appear to be major threats.

In the present study, we studied the development and morphology of different larval stages of Pelophylax bedriagae (Camerano) at two rearing temperatures (20 and 24 °C). Eggs were collected from a breeding site in western Iran. Diagnostic morphological characters are provided for Gosner (1960) larval stages 1–46. The larvae hatched about seven days after egg deposition in the laboratory. A principal diagnostic feature, the formation of the funnel-shaped oral disc, became discernible about ten days after hatching at Gosner stage 21 and degenerated at Gosner stage 42. Based on our results, the longest metamorphosis time was observed at 20 °C whilst the shortest metamorphosis time occurred at 24 °C. The largest body length of larval P. bedriagae measured about 54 mm in 70 days after egg deposition. Compared with the majority of other Palearctic anurans, it appears that embryonic and larval development is usually slow in P. bedriagae.

An assessment of the global freshwater crab diversity is presented. A total of 1,476 species in 14 families are currently known from all zoogeographical regions (except Antarctica), including 1,306 species in eight exclusively freshwater families (Pseudothelphusidae, Trichodactylidae, Potamonautidae, Deckeniidae, Platythelphusidae, Potamidae, Gecarcinucidae and Parathelphusidae). Estimates of true freshwater crab diversity including likely numbers of undescribed taxa suggest that the field remains largely in a ''discovery'' phase. Main ideas on the origins, diversification, and phylogeny of true freshwater crabs are briefly discussed. The economic importance of freshwater crabs is also highlighted.

The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka comprises 120 species, including 107 (~90.0%) endemic species. They belong to five families: Bufonidae, Dicroglossidae, Ichthyophiidae, Microhylidae, and Rhacophoridae. Based on distribution, we recognized five zoogeographic zones for them, Central Hills, Dry Zone, Knuckles Range, Lowland Wet Zone, and Rakwana Hills. Fifty three species were reported from the Central Hills (48 endemics [90.6%] and 42 [79.2%] threatened species). 47 species were recorded from the Lowland Wet Zone, including 36 (76.6%) endemics and 28 (59.6%) threatened species. The Knuckles Range had 25 species, of which, 19 (76.0%) were endemics and 15 (60.0%) are threatened species. 19 species were reported from Dry Zone including seven endemics (36.8%) and four threatened species (21.1%). Out of 29 species, which inhabited in the Rakwana Hills, 26 were endemics (~89.7%) including 24 (82.8%) threatened species. Species diversity along the elevational gradient was also observed with the highest species richness in the mid-elevational localities. Family Ichthyophiidae can be considered as the least studied family. Recent rediscoveries and studies have helped to reduce the number of extinct species from 21 to 18. It is speculated that some of the other extinct species have to be rediscovered or probably were misidentified as other species. About 90% of Sri Lankan amphibians occur in the regions with the highest human populations where there are established agricultural lands. Loss of habitats, competition due to anthropogenic species and invasive species, pollution (cause for malformations, parasites, and other diseases), and climate change appear to be major threats.

Recent conservation history of Cervus corsicanus Erxleben, 1777 is reviewed and future prospects discussed in the framework of increasing knowledge of its evolutionary history. This unique deer is definitively not native to Sardinia and Corsica but owes its survival to a protohistoric assisted colonization by humans. Accordingly, populations in Sardinia (and Corsica) should be managed to maintain maximum genetic diversity while minimizing ecological and economic damages in an unbalanced island ecosystem that must be perceived as “ex situ” from the evolutionary history of the deer. It is increasingly important that steps are taken to reintroduce Cervus corsicanus back to the Italian Peninsula.

The distribution of Cantor's Kukri Snake Oligodon cyclurus has been poorly documented in its geographic range from Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam. We provide confirmed locality records with notes on some aspects of natural history information for O. cyclurus. Although the species is designated as Least Concern according to IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, the species is facing multiple threats like roadkills and vindictive killing. We suggest a more detailed inventory to better understand its biology, distribution patterns, population status and molecular identity to aid in a more comprehensive global conservation action.