Arousal

Little is known about why clinical depression feels so bad, perhaps because optimal neural circuit-based animal models of depression do not yet exist. Our goal here was to develop a strategy of inducing and measuring depressive-like states in the rat using neural circuits as both the independent and major dependent variables. We hypothesized that repeated electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) within the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) aversion circuits would lead to a long-lasting suppression of 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), a validated measure of positive social affect. Fifteen consecutive daily 10 min sessions of intermittent PAG-ESB reduced systematically evoked 50 kHz USVs for up to 29 days following termination of ESB treatment, along with altering traditional measures of negative affect, including behavioral agitation, sucrose intake, and decreased exploratory behavior. These findings suggest a new affective circuit-based preclinical model of depression.

This study was meant to investigate the psychometric properties and clinical utility of the Lehrer Woolfolk Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire (LWASQ), an instrument for assessment of somatic, behavioral and cognitive aspects of anxiety. Confirmatory factor analysis on data from social phobics (n = 108), normal adults (n = 103) and normal adolescents (n = 650) showed that the three original factors were strongly replicated in each sample. The three subscales appeared to have high internal consistency, while data on convergent and divergent validity were satisfactory. In addition, the subscales did very well in discriminating between phobic patients and normals, and were able to detect treatment effects. In the discussion the instrument is compared with other self report measures of anxiety dimensions, like the Cognitive Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ) and the Worry-Emotionality Scale (WES). It is suggested that similar questionnaires, adjusted to the separate anxiety disorders, should be developed.

Art and Pornography presents a series of essays
which investigate the artistic status and aesthetic
dimension of pornographic pictures, films, and
literature, and explores the distinction, if there is
any, between pornography and erotic art. Is there
any overlap between art and pornography, or are
the two mutually exclusive? If they are, why is
that? If they are not, how might we characterize
pornographic art or artistic pornography, and how
might pornographic art be distinguished, if at all,
from erotic art? Can there be aesthetic experience of
pornography? What are some of the psychological,
social, and political consequences of the creation and
appreciation of erotic art or artistic pornography?
Leading scholars from around the world address these
questions, and more, and bring together different
aesthetic perspectives and approaches to this widely
consumed, increasingly visible, yet aesthetically
underexplored cultural domain. The book, the first
of its kind in philosophical aesthetics, will contribute
to a more accurate and subtle understanding of the
many representations that incorporate explicit sexual
imagery and themes, in both high art and demotic
culture, in Western and non-Western contexts. It is
sure to stir debate, and healthy controversy.

Rapid activation of central serotonergic systems occurs in response to the social stress of aggression in dominant lizards. The most rapid expression of serotonergic activity occurs in nucleus accumbens, hippocampus and brainstem. To compare previously measured responses induced by social stressors with those provoked by physical stress, serotonergic activity was examined following restraint stress (handling) and forced physical exertion. After handling, some male Anolis carolinensis were placed on a race track and either run until there was no movement following 1 min of prodding, or half that time. Controls were killed without treatment. Lizards stressed by handling showed rapid (25 s) increases in serotonergic activity (5-HIAA/5-HT) in striatum, dorsal cortex, locus ceruleus, and nucleus accumbens. Other changes in serotonergic systems caused by stress occurred in raphe and hippocampus. Serotonergic changes induced by handling stress were reversed by exercise (to 50% maximal exertion time) in subiculum, striatum and nucleus accumbens. The serotonergic profile of lizards run until they would no longer respond to prodding (maximal exertion time) was significantly different from that for more acute exertion in hippocampus, subiculum, striatum, medial amygdala, locus ceruleus, area postrema, and raphe. Physical stress (handling) mimicked social stress by producing rapid serotonergic changes in hippocampus, subiculum, nucleus accumbens and locus ceruleus. In contrast, the medial amygdala, which has previously been demonstrated to respond serotonergically to social stress only after a temporal delay, did not show a rapid response to restraint stress.

Background: Recent evidence indicates that individuals who are homozygous for the short (s) allele in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene have higher rates of depression and other psychiatric disorders as a function of exposure to increasing levels of stressful life events than do individuals who have one or two copies of the long (l ) allele. Despite the reliability of this association, the mechanism by which this polymorphism confers risk for psychopathology in the presence of stress is not understood. This study was designed to examine the formulation that individuals who are homozygous for the s allele are characterized by a greater biological reactivity to stress than are their counterparts who have one or two copies of the l allele.

Bipolar disorder has been conceptualized as an outcome of dysregulation in the behavioral activation system (BAS), a brain system that regulates goal-directed activity. On the basis of the BAS model, the authors hypothesized that life events involving goal attainment would promote manic symptoms in bipolar individuals. The authors followed 43 bipolar I individuals monthly with standardized symptom severity assessments (the Modified Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression and the Bech-Rafaelsen Mania Rating Scale). Life events were assessed using the Goal Attainment and Positivity scales of the Life Events and Difficulties Schedule. As hypothesized, manic symptoms increased in the 2 months following goal-attainment events, but depressed symptoms were not changed following goal-attainment events. These results are congruent with a series of recent polarity-specific findings. Bipolar disorder exacts a devastating toll from affected individuals. Most strikingly, this disorder leads to suicide in almost one out of every five diagnosed individuals (Isometsa, 1993). With adequate blood serum levels of lithium, one third of bipolar individuals relapse within 3 years (Keller et al., 1992), but in naturalistic studies with varied levels of patient compliance, two thirds of patients relapse within 2 years (Silverstone, McPherson, Hunt, & Romans, 1998). Given these high rates of relapse and the sustained unemployment rates following each episode of mania (Harrow, Goldberg, Grossman, & Meltzer, 1990), it is not surprising that bipolar disorder has been ranked as the sixth leading cause of disability among both physical and psychiatric disorders worldwide (Murray & Lopez, 1996). Fiscal costs for adult Americans with the disorder were estimated in 1991 at $45 billion (Wyatt & Henter, 1995). Although the modal course is severe, bipolar individuals experience substantial heterogeneity in symptom expression. For instance, as many as 25% of bipolar I individuals will never experience a depressive episode (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990). Further,

The main purposes of the present study were to substantiate the existence of the four types of performance categories (i.e., optimal-automatic, optimal-controlled, suboptimal-controlled, and suboptimal-automatic) as hypothesised in the multi-action plan (MAP) model, and to investigate whether some specific affective, behavioural, psychophysiological, and postural trends may typify each type of performance. A 20-year-old athlete of the Italian shooting team, and a 46-year-old athlete of the Italian dart-throwing team participated in the study. Athletes were asked to identify the core components of the action and then to execute a large number of shots/flights. A 2 × 2 (optimal/suboptimal × automated/controlled) within subjects multivariate analysis of variance was performed to test the differences among the four types of performance. Findings provided preliminary evidence of psychophysiological and postural differences among four performance categories as conceptualized within the MA...

Young male subjects, labeled Type A or Type B by means of the Bortner Scale and the Jenkins Activity Survey, first estimated the passage of five different intervals of time under one of three levels of distraction and then solved math and spelling problems. Autonomic nervous ...

The hyperpnea that accompanies arousal at the end of obstructive apnea is believed to be due to the progressive build-up in chemical drive during the apnea and a state-related decrease in upper airway resistance. We postulated the existence of a third component: a state-related transient increase in neural drive to the ventilatory pump muscles. To quantify this contribution, we measured the ventilatory response to arousal (VRA) in eight patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) during continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy, applied at individually titrated levels. CPAP application reduced total pulmonary resistance (RL) to approximately normal levels, stabilizing ventilation and sleep state. Transient arousal from stage 2 sleep was induced using 5-sec tones (60-90 dB). Mean inspiratory flow increased above control on the second and third post-arousal breaths (P B 0.05), with a peak increase of 7.89 2.9 L/min while the accompanying changes in RL were significant. The time-course of VRA measured in three normal subjects under CPAP was similar to that observed in the OSA patients. However, elimination of CPAP prolonged the VRA time-course. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that: (1) during arousal, the increase in state-related neural respiratory drive is short-lived but not substantial; and (2) the resulting VRA time-course is shaped by the dynamics of the upper airway response to arousal.

Two questions were addressed in the present study: (1) Do autistic and normally developing children exhibit regionally specific differences in electroencephalographic (EEG) activity? (2) Do subgroups of autistic children classified according to Wing and Gould's (1979) system which emphasizes degree of social impairment exhibit distinct patterns of EEG activity? Twenty-eight children with autism (5 to 18 years of age) and two groups of normally developing children (one matched on chronological age and the other on receptive language level) participated. EEG was recorded from left and right frontal, temporal, and parietal regions during an alert baseline condition. Compared to normally developing children, autistic children exhibited reduced EEG power in the frontal and temporal regions, but not in the parietal region. Differences were more prominent in the left than the right hemisphere. Furthermore, subgroups of autistic children based on Wing and Gould's system displayed distinct patterns of brain activity. Compared to autistic children classified as “active-but-odd,” “passive” autistic children displayed reduced alpha EEG power in the frontal region.

In a cross-validated mediational model, the authors examined characteristics of memories formed in response to rape and other intense unpleasant and pleasant experiences. Data were responses to a mailed survey of women medical center and university employees. Measurement models of memory and symptom factors and a structural model with pathways among cognitive appraisal, emotional valence, memory characteristics, and health outcomes were developed in Sample 1 (N = 1,307 ) and confirmed in Sample 2 (N = 2,142). Rape had substantial direct effects on 2 memory factors (Clarity and Affect) and indirect effects through the construal of victimization. Rape was associated with memories described as more emotionally intense but less clear and coherent and less often thought of or talked about. Most effects on physical symptoms were nonsignificant. Implications of findings for neurohormonal and multiple representation models of emotional memory and to cognitive avoidance are discussed.

Neuroimaging experiments have revealed that the visual cortex is involved in the processing of affective stimuli: seeing emotional pictures leads to greater activation than seeing neutral ones. It is unclear, however, whether such differential activation is due to stimulus valence or whether the results are confounded by arousal level. In order to investigate the contributions of valence and arousal to visual activation, we created a new category of "interesting" stimuli designed to have high arousal, but neutral valence, and employed standard neutral, unpleasant, and pleasant picture categories. Arousal ratings for pleasant and neutral pictures were equivalent, as were valence ratings for interesting and neutral pictures. Differential activation for conditions matched for arousal (pleasant vs neutral) as well as matched for valence (interesting vs neutral) indicated that both stimulus valence and arousal contributed to visual activation.

Subjects watched either an emotional, neutral, or unusual sequence of slides containing 1 critical slide in the middle. Experiments 1 and 2 allowed only a single eye fixation on the critical slide by presenting it for 180 ms (Experiment 1) or 150 ms (Experiment 2). Despite this constraint, memory for a central detail was better for the emotional condition. In Experiment 3, subjects were allowed 2.70 s to view the critical slide while their eye movements were monitored. When subjects who had devoted the same number of fixations were compared, memory for the central detail of the emotional slide was again better. The results suggest that enhanced memory for detail information of an emotional event does not occur solely because more attention is devoted to the emotional information.

We tested whether the physiological effects of smoking a cigarette under standard conditions in a laboratory are similar to those seen in a room at home. On two separate test days ten healthy smokers were prepared with a small physiological recorder and were then requested to carry out a protocol requiring them to smoke one of their cigarettes in their usual way either (1) in the laboratory where they had never smoked previously, or (2) at home, alone in a quiet room where they regularly smoke. The experiment which counterbalanced the order of testing showed that in both test situations smoking produced a clear increase in heart rate (HR) and in skin conductance (SC); however, when testing was carried out in the home environment the increase in the HR was significantly less than in the laboratory. No significant differences were found for the baseline HR values in the two environments and there were no significant situational effects in the SC data. It was concluded that under conditions of normal smoking, data on the physiological effects of a cigarette in the laboratory may not be fully general&able to those seen in the natural smoking situation. Several possible mechanisms of this situationally-specific effect of smoking were discussed.

Six adults with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus participated in a laboratory procedure to determine the effects of an acute stressor, mental arithmetic, on blood glucose, cardiovascular, and subjective indices of stress. They then completed 12 days home monitoring of stressful events, subjective stress, and blood glucose. Diet and activity were controlled to evaluate the direct effects of stress on blood glucose in the natural environment. Laboratory results showed significant increases in blood glucose, cardiovascular (HR and SBP), and subjective stress ratings during the mental arithmetic task when compared to a resting condition. Home monitoring data were consistent with the laboratory findings; blood glucose range tended to be greater on high vs low stress days, especially when the difference between high and low stress was greatest. These findings suggest that the laboratory stress induction procedure was externally valid and that in the natural environment, stress has a hyperglycemic effect on blood glucose. INTRODUCITON Diabetes mellitus has ranked among the ten leading causes of death since 1932, and is associated with increased risk for new blindness, renal failure, and cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease (Kovar, Harris; & Hadden, 1987). Although the biochemical mechanisms responsible for such complications are not entirely clear, it is generally believed that they result from chronic hyperglycemia (high blood glucose levels), and that they can be prevented or delayed if adequate control of blood glucose levels is achieved and maintained (Pohl, Gonder-Frederick & Cox, 1984). Factors that disrupt diabetic control are, thus, a major concern for individuals with diabetes. In the present study, we investigated the effects of psychological stress on blood glucose control among adults with Type II (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus. Data from varied sources support the hypothesis that stress disrupts diabetic control and causes hyperglycemia. Animal models, for example, have implicated stress in the development of Type I (insulin dependent) diabetes (Carter, Hemnan, Stokes & Cox. 1987). and in causina a hvneralvcemic resuonse in Type II diabetes (Surwit, Feinglos, Livingston, Kuhn & McCubbin,' 1984): Epinephrine infusion s&dies also support the-hypothesis that stress disrupts metabolic processes leading to hyperglycemic episodes (Gerich, Lorenxi, Tzalikian & Karam, 1976). Finally, studies measuring naturally-occurring life strcssors have shown that higher levels of stressful events are reported among newly diagnosed diabetics vs nondiabetic controls (Robinson & Fuller, 1985). and among poorly-vs well-controlled diabetic patients (Schwartz, Springer, Flaherty UC Kiani, 1986). It is theorized that such stress effects occur via enhanced sympathetic nervous system and neuroendocrine activity

The consolidation of newly formed memories occurs slowly, allowing memories to be altered by experience for some time after their formation. Various treatments, including arousal, can modulate memory consolidation when given soon after learning, but the degree of time-dependency of these treatments in humans has not been studied. Thus, 212 participants learned a word list, which was followed by either a positively or negatively valenced arousing video clip (i.e., comedy or surgery, respectively) after delays of 0, 10, 30 or 45 min. Arousal of either valence induced up to 30 min after learning, but not after 45 min, significantly enhanced one-week retrieval. The findings support (1) the time-dependency of memory modulation in humans and (2) other studies that suggest that it is the degree of arousal, rather than valence that modulates memory. Important implications for developing memory intervention strategies and for preserving and validating witness testimony are discussed.

Emotional intelligence (EI) and morningness-eveningness (M-E) preference have been shown to influence mood states. The present article investigates the way in which these two constructs may interact, influencing morning and evening mood levels. A sample of 172 participants completed a multidimensional mood scale measuring energetic arousal (EA), tense arousal (TA), and hedonic tone at 7:00 and at 22:00. As expected, morning and evening types experienced higher EA at their preferred time of day; effects of M-E on other mood dimensions were weaker. EI was found to correlate with lower TA, but the association was stronger at 22:00, perhaps reflecting the role of EI in managing the social events characteristic for the evening hours. An interactive effect of EI and M-E was found for both diurnal changes and morning levels of EA. Namely, in individuals higher in EI, there appeared a more marked synchrony effect between chronotype and EA, which was absent in those low in EI; individuals higher in EI showed more pronounced diurnal changes in EA characteristic for their chronotype (i.e., higher EA at morning hours in morning chronotypes; higher EA at evening hours in evening chronotypes), while in participants low in EI, diurnal changes in EA were smaller. Moreover, the characteristic positive association between morningness and EA during morning hours was apparent only in those high in EI. These findings suggest that individual differences in circadian variation in mood reflect several factors, including an endogenous rhythm in energy, the distribution of social activities throughout the day, and the person's awareness of their own energy level.

The effects of seasonally adjusted 24-h exposure to cold and darkness on cognitive performance in urban circumpolar residents was assessed in 15 male subjects who spent three 24-h periods in a climatic chamber at 65 ° latitude during the winter (January-March) and/or summer (August-September). Each subject was exposed to three different environmental conditions in random order: (1) 22 ° C temperature and 500 lx lighting; (2) 10 ° C temperature and 500 lx lighting; and (3) 10 ° C temperature and 0.5-l lx lighting. Accuracy on an addition-subtraction task was significantly greater in the summer than in the winter (p = 0.038), while accuracy on a repeated acquisition task was significantly greater in the winter than in the summer (p < 0.001). Independent of season, exposure to cold and darkness was significantly associated with a decline in response time on five cognitive tests, an improvement in accuracy on three tests measuring complex cognitive tasks, and a decline in accuracy on two tests measuring simple tasks. Increased performance on complex tasks may result from increased arousal in response to the combination of cold temperatures and dim light characteristic of the winter in urban circumpolar settings.

Introduction: We reviewed the psychological and interpersonal dimensions of female sexual function and dysfunction. Methods: We identified articles published in 1970-2013 using the keywords 'female sexual dysfunction', 'sexual desire', 'sexual arousal', 'female orgasmic disorder', 'sex therapy', 'psychotherapy', 'behaviour therapy' and 'Internet therapy'. Over 200 articles were reviewed (Level of evidence 2b). Results and conclusions: We identified the major psychological variables affecting female sexual function. The outcomes of psychological treatment interventions are reported. A collaboration between healthcare practitioners from different disciplines is necessary in the evaluation, treatment and education of female patients with sexual dysfunction. The assessment of female and couples' sexual dysfunction should ideally include an enquiry about the predisposing, precipitating, maintaining and contextual factors. ª 2013 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Arab Association of Urology.

Heart Rate Variability (HRV) reflects the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. Slower HRV rhythms (LF) indicate increased sympathetic and/or lower vagal activity, wakefulness characteristics, while faster HRV rhythms (HF) indicate lower sympathetic and/or increased parasympathetic and vagal activity, sleepy characteristics. In this work we demonstrate that power spectral analysis of drivers' heart rate can report driving errors caused by sleepiness. Furthermore, variation of Fractal Dimension (FD) can aid significant information for the assessment of the driving situation.

Development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis was examined using salivary cortisol levels assessed at wake-up, midmorning, midafternoon, and bedtime in 77 children aged 12, 18, 24, 30, and 36 months, in a cross-sectional design. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses were used to characterize cortisol production across the day and to examine age-related differences. Using area(s) under the curve (AUC), cortisol levels were higher among the 12-, 18-, and 24-month children than among the 30-and 36-month children. For all five age groups, cortisol levels were highest at wake-up and lowest at bedtime. Significant decreases were noted between wake-up and midmorning, and between midafternoon and bedtime. Unlike adults, midafternoon cortisol levels were not significantly lower than midmorning levels. Over this age period, children napped less and scored increasingly higher on parent reports of effortful control. Among the 30-and 36-month children, shorter naps were associated with more adultlike decreases in cortisol levels from midmorning to midafternoon. Considering all of the age groups together, effortful control correlated negatively with cortisol levels after controlling for age. These results suggest that circadian regulation of the HPA axis continues to mature into the third year in humans, and that its maturation corresponds to aspects of behavioral development. ß 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 45: 125-133, 2004.

Background: There is accumulating evidence for a link between trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and diminished health status. To assess PTSD-related biological burden, we measured biological factors that comprise metabolic syndrome, an important established predictor of morbidity and mortality, as a correlate of long-term health risk in PTSD.

Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of breast feeding on autonomic nervous system (ANS) response to stressors. Methods: Sympathetic and parasympathetic activities were examined before, during, and after standard laboratory stressors in women who were either exclusively breast feeding (n = 14) or nonexclusively breast feeding (n = 14), and in nonpostpartum controls (n = 15). Results: Mothers who breast fed exclusively showed greater levels of parasympathetic cardiac modulation and slower heart rate (HR) throughout the session and less HR increase and preejection period (PEP) shortening to mental arithmetic (MA) than did nonexclusive breast feeders and controls.

In schizophrenia, blink rates are frequently elevated and the peak of the electroencephalographic alpha rhythm is often absent or of a lower frequency. Emerging evidence suggests that both blinks and the alpha rhythm may be controlled by a linked neuroanatomical circuit that begins in rostral pons and involves several subcortical structures as well as the occipital cortex. Blink-alpha abnormalities in schizophrenia further suggest that this blinkalpha neurocircuit may be a locus of the pathophysiological process of this disorder. Lateral Geniculate Bodies (LGB). Discharges in the LGB soon after a blink, suggest that blink-related signals ascend through rostral pons and midbrain to the LGB (Cohen and Feldman 1968). As noted below, Reprint requests should be sent to Dr.

This study examined the modulatory function of Duchenne and non-Duchenne smiles on subjective and autonomic components of emotion. Participants were asked to hold a pencil in their mouth to either facilitate or inhibit smiles and were not instructed to contract specific muscles. Five conditions-namely lips pressing, low-level non-Duchenne smiling, high-level non-Duchenne smiling, Duchenne smiling, and control-were produced while participants watched videoclips that were evocative of positive or negative affect. Participants who displayed Duchenne smiles reported more positive experience when pleasant scenes and humorous cartoons were presented. Furthermore, they tended to exhibit different patterns of autonomic arousal when viewing positive scenes. These results support the facial feedback hypothesis and suggest that facial feedback has more powerful effects when facial configurations represent valid analogs of basic emotional expressions. I thank Nathalie Fontaine for her assistance in the data collection. I am grateful to Patrick Mollaret for helpful comments concerning the design of this research. I also thank Paul Gendreau, Benoist Schaal, and Rita Compatangelo for valuable comments on an earlier version of this article.

Background: No objective measure of the level of sedation is universally accepted. However, bispectral index monitoring is currently used to objectively measure sedation levels in several clinical settings. This study compares the temporal relationship of bispectral index levels versus the Observer's Assessment of Alertness/Sedation (OAA/S) scale for sedation during endoscopy and proposes a functional bispectral index range for endoscopic procedures. Methods: Fifty consecutive adults undergoing endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, colonoscopy, or esophagogastroduodenoscopy by a single endoscopist were studied. Intravenous sedation was achieved with diazepam and meperidine. Bispectral index levels (0 to 100) and OAA/S scores (1 to 5) were recorded every 3 minutes by a single trained observer. Results: There were significant temporal correlations between bispectral index levels and OAA/S scores (r = 0.59, p < 0.0001). Bispectral index levels and OAA/S scores corresponded with the need for additional sedation as determined clinically by the endoscopist. An OAA/S score of 3 corresponded to a bispectral index level of 81.49 ± 9.78. Conclusions: Bispectral index monitoring temporally correlates with the OAA/S scale and therefore provides an objective measure of sedation during endoscopy. This preliminary, observational study suggests that a bispectral index level near 82 corresponds with sufficient and functional sedation levels for endoscopy. (Gastrointest Endosc 2000;52:192-6.)

On the basis of literature that suggests that child sexual abuse (CSA) survivors with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have higher baseline sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity than healthy controls and research that suggests that the SNS plays a critical role in female physiological sexual arousal, we examined the impact of SNS activation through intense exercise on sexual arousal in women with CSA and PTSD. We measured physiological and subjective sexual arousal in women with CSA (n = 8), women with CSA and PTSD (n = 10), and healthy controls (n = 10) during exposure to nonerotic and erotic videos. After exercise, women with CSA and women with CSA and PTSD showed no significant differences in the physiological sexual response compared with no exercise, which was different from the increased physiological sexual response after exercise observed in control women.

Background: The amygdala plays a central role in the human response to affective or emotionally charged stimuli, particularly fear-producing stimuli. We examined the specificity of the amygdala response to facial expressions in adults and children.Methods: Six adults and 12 children were scanned in a 1.5-T scanner during passive viewing of fearful and neutral faces using an EPI BOLD sequence. All scans were registered to a reference brain, and analyses of variance were conducted on the pooled data to examine interactions with age and gender.Results: Overall, we observed predominantly left amygdala and substantia innominata activity during the presentation of nonmasked fearful faces relative to fixation, and a decrease in activation in these regions with repeated exposure to the faces. Adults showed increased left amygdala activity for fearful faces relative to neutral faces. This pattern was not observed in the children who showed greater amygdala activity with neutral faces than with fearful faces. For the children, there was an interaction of gender and condition whereby boys but not girls showed less activity with repeated exposure to the fearful faces.Conclusions: This is the first study to examine developmental differences in the amygdala response to facial expressions using functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Several studies have shown that male subjects report lower pain intensity to female compared to male experimenters. The present experiment examined whether experimenter gender also modulated autonomic pain responses. Sixty-four students (32 females) participated in a 2 Subject gender · 2 Experimenter gender · 15 Pain Tests mixed design. Six experimenters, three females and three males collected data. Heat pain was +48°C induced to the right volar forearm. Subjective measurements consisted of pain intensity, pain unpleasantness, stress, arousal and mood. Autonomic responses were heart rate variability and skin conductance levels. The results revealed significant interactions between experimenter gender and subject gender on pain intensity and arousal, but there were no interactions in the physiological data. In conclusion, the lower pain report in male subjects to female experimenters is not mediated by changes in autonomic parameters, and the effect of experimenter gender is probably due to psychosocial factors. Ó

This paper is concerned with the problem of evaluating goodness-of-fit of a path analytic model to an interregional correlation matrix derived from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. We argue that model evaluation based on testing the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix predicted by the model equals the population correlation matrix is problematic because P values are conditional on asymptotic distributional results (which may not be valid for fMRI data acquired in less than 10 min), as well as arbitrary specification of residual variances and effective degrees of freedom in each regional fMRI time series. We introduce an alternative approach based on an algorithm for automatic identification of the best fitting model that can be found to account for the data. The algorithm starts from the null model, in which all path coefficients are zero, and iteratively unconstrains the coefficient which has the largest Lagrangian multiplier at each step until a model is identified which has maximum goodness by a parsimonious fit index. Repeating this process after bootstrapping the data generates a confidence interval for goodness-of-fit of the best model. If the goodness of the theoretically preferred model is within this confidence interval we can empirically say that the theoretical model could be the best model. This relativistic and data-based strategy for model evaluation is illustrated by analysis of functional MR images acquired from 20 normal volunteers during periodic performance (for 5 min) of a task demanding semantic decision and subvocal rehearsal. A model including unidirectional connections from frontal to parietal cortex, designed to represent sequential engagement of rehearsal and monitoring components of the articulatory loop, is found to be irrefutable by hypothesis-testing and within confidence limits for the best model that could be fitted to the data.

Little research has addressed McNally's hypothesis [(1996). Anxiety sensitivity is distinguishable from trait anxiety. In: R. M. Rapee (Ed.), Current controversies in the anxiety disorders (pp. 214 ± 227). New York: The Guilford Press.] that anxiety sensitivity (AS) should be negatively associated with the use of arousal-increasing substances. In the present study, we examined the relationship between AS and the self-reported use of two widely available stimulants Ð nicotine and caffeine Ð and exercise frequency in a sample of 256 university students. A measure of trait anxiety was also incorporated within the design. The associations between use of both substances and levels of AS and trait anxiety were weak and nonsignificant. Although inconsistent with McNally's hypothesis, some significant findings were found when the lower-order components of AS (i.e., fears of physical, psychological, and publicly observable symptoms of anxiety) were examined. The associations between exercise frequency and the anxiety measures, indicating a negative relationship, were generally consistent with McNally's hypothesis. Implications of these findings are discussed with reference to future investigation. D

Women sleep objectively better than men and the sleep of young women is more resilient to external stressors: effects of age and menopause SUMMAR Y The aims of this study were to: (i) assess gender differences of objective sleep patterns in a general population sample; (ii) evaluate the effects of menopause and hormone treatment (HT) on the sleep of the same cohort; and (iii) examine gender differences in sleep resilience towards external stressors. The participants were (i) 1324 subjects without sleep complaints, recruited from the general population of Central Pennsylvania that spent one night in the sleep laboratory and (ii) 66 young, healthy volunteers whose sleep was disturbed during night four by an external stressor, i.e. 24-h blood drawing (average of nights 2 and 3 versus night 4). Women compared with men in the general population sample had significantly higher percentage of sleep time, lower percentage of stage 1, and higher percentage of slow wave sleep. Also, menopause, in the absence of HT, was associated with prolonged sleep latency and decreased deep sleep. Finally, young, healthy women compared with men experienced less sleep disturbance because of blood draws as indicated by a significantly smaller change in per cent sleep time, and percentage of stage 1 sleep. These findings suggest that women without sleep complaints sleep objectively better across age than men and the sleep of young women is more resistant to external stressors. Also, gonadal hormones exert a beneficial effect on womenÕs sleep. This gender dimorphism in sleep regulation may have been to protect women from the demands of infant and child care, and in part, might contribute to womenÕs lower cardiovascular risks and greater longevity.

The current review presents the empirical findings on varying definitions of nonrestorative sleep (NRS). Despite lacking a standard, operational definition, NRS is investigated in research studies and included in diagnostic manuals. However, because of the absence of standardization, the conclusions that can be drawn about NRS based on the current body of empirical literature are limited. A feeling of being unrefreshed upon awakening that is not accounted for by lack of sleep may occur among a substantial percentage of the population. This experience is correlated with daytime impairment, pain, fatigue, and electroencephalogram (EEG) arousals in non-REM sleep but causal links are unsubstantiated. An immediate converging of researchers toward NRS standardization is needed. We conclude that conceptualizing NRS as a primary symptom of insomnia on par with difficulty initiating sleep and difficulty maintaining sleep is empirically unsubstantiated. We recommend defining NRS as a report of persistently feeling unrefreshed upon awakening in the presence of a normal sleep duration, occurring in the absence of a sleep disorder.

Background: Previous studies demonstrated the effects of progressive muscle relaxation training (PMRT) on improvements in the health outcomes of cardiac patients. This study examined the effects of PMRT on the psychologic status and symptoms of older Chinese patients with heart failure. Methods: In a longitudinal, randomized, and controlled study, 59 patients were allocated to receive a PMRT program and 62 were provided with the attention placebo. The PMRT program included two PMRT sessions, one revision workshop, twice-daily PMRT home practices, and a biweekly telephone follow-up call. The attention placebo included a regular telephone call at a schedule similar to that made by the interventionist of the PMRT program with the intervention group. Main outcome measures, including psychologic distress, dyspnea, and fatigue, were taken at baseline, the 8th week, and the 14th week. Results: A medium effect on psychologic distress in favor of the PMRT program was detected.

Neuroscience is witnessing growing interest in understanding brain mechanisms of memory formation for emotionally arousing events, a development closely related to renewed interest in the concept of memory consolidation. Extensive research in animals implicates stress hormones and the amygdaloid complex as key,interacting modulators of memory consolidation for emotional events. Considerable evidence suggests that the amygdala is not a site of long-term explicit or declarative memory storage, but serves to influence memory-storage processes in other brain regions, such as the hippocampus, striatum and neocortex. Human-subject studies confirm the prediction of animal work that the amygdala is involved with the formation of enhanced declarative memory for emotionally arousing events.

Prolonged sleep loss impairs alertness, vigilance and some higher-order cognitive and affective capacities. Some deficits can be temporarily reversed by stimulant medications including caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil. To date, only one study has directly compared the effectiveness of these three compounds and specified the doses at which all were equally effective in restoring alertness and vigilance following 64 h of wakefulness. The present study compared the effectiveness of these same three stimulants ⁄ doses following a less extreme period of sleep loss (i.e., 44 h). Fifty-three healthy adults received a single dose of modafinil 400 mg (n = 11), dextroamphetamine 20 mg (n = 16), caffeine 600 mg (n = 12), or placebo (n = 14) after 44 h of continuous wakefulness. After 61 h of being awake, participants obtained 12 h of recovery sleep. Psychomotor vigilance was assessed bi-hourly during waking and following recovery sleep. Relative to placebo, all three stimulants were equally effective in restoring psychomotor vigilance test speed and reducing lapses, although the duration of action was shortest for caffeine and longest for dextroamphetamine. At these doses, caffeine was associated with the highest percentage of subjectively reported side-effects while modafinil did not differ significantly from placebo. Subsequent recovery sleep was adversely affected in the dextroamphetamine group, but none of the stimulants had deleterious effects on postrecovery performance. Decisions regarding stimulant selection should be made with consideration of how factors such as duration of action, potential side-effects, and subsequent disruption of recovery sleep may interact with the demands of a particular operational environment.