Gender Roles

Author: Kirsten Laurel Guidero
Publisher: CBE International

Evangelicalism can find a foothold in renewed practices of reading Scripture. This article first illustrates the larger problems haunting evangelical patterns of reading Scripture by analyzing as a test case two prevalent evangelical interpretations of Gal 3:26–29.2 Next, I offer a better interpretive method and spell out how it treats this passage. We will see that, far from viewing the biblical texts too reverently, with a proposed correction of qualifying textual authority—an approach some evangelicals who struggle with difficult elements of Scripture have adopted—both of the earlier approaches may fail to respect the text enough.

This was a research paper for a course entitled Feminist and Multicultural Theologies. I unpack what gender complementarianism is, examine its history, and compare it to how Scripture and earlier Christian Tradition understood gender. This allows me to establish that gender complementarianism is a recent innovation in secular and Christian thinking about gender, and that it can be described as a "trajectory" from Scripture and Tradition on gender, influenced by social, ideological, and intellectual developments in secular societies. I then pursue a critique of gender complementarianism, arguing that it is an "unsatisfactory trajectory" because it has troubling implications for orthodox theology, is not borne out by empirical experience and observation, and has harmful effects on human beings and societies and on ethical development.

This cross-sectional study tested a conceptual model of women's HIV/AIDS protective behaviors using gender roles, relationship power strategies, and precautionary sexual self-efficacy as predictors in a predominantly Black and Latina community sample of heterosexual women (N ϭ 125). Results revealed no support for the full model, but partial confirmation for several components of the model. Education significantly predicted gender roles, and gender roles and use of direct power strategies were significant predictors of sexual self-efficacy. Most of the participants were married or partnered and were unconcerned about contracting HIV, suggesting that if women perceive that they are at low or no risk, their gender roles, power strategies, and precautionary sexual self-efficacy will be inconsequential to their HIV/ AIDS risk reduction practices. In 1982, a year after HIV/AIDS was first identified, 67 cases of AIDS in women were reported to the Centers for Disease Control [CDC] (1983). Sixteen years later, the CDC recorded 106,059 cases among women and adolescent girls nationwide (CDC, 1998), making women the fastest growing group of people with the disease. Between 1991 and 1995, the number of women diagnosed with AIDS increased by 63% (Wortley & Fleming, 1997).

This research examines the mutual influence of race and victim drinking on college students' domestic violence attributions. Participants were 200, predominately White, middle-class college students. They read a vignette depicting a domestic violence incident. Manipulated within ...

A community sample of psychologically abused women (N = 93; 83 Anglo, 4 Hispanic, 4 African-American, 1 Native American, 1 "Other") in 3 groups (psychological abuse only, with moderate violence, with severe violence) received payment for completing lengthy questionnaires and interviews. This study concerns women's perceptions of their own and their partners' gender roles and gender role attitudes. Women in all 3 groups rated themselves feminine and egalitarian, as hypothesized. Ratings of their partners were near the midpoint of the scales on masculinity and traditionalism, contrary to hypotheses. Women experiencing psychological abuse with severe violence had more negative perceptions of their partners and believed their partners had more negative views of them than did women who shared the common experience of psychological abuse but sustained less or no violence.

Personal humorous remarks may be avoided in certain conversations out of fear of introducing and reinforcing undesirable assumptions. Teases directed at others and self-targeted humor are perhaps the most vulnerable in this regard. Unless participants know each other well, a tease intended as kidding could be heard as an insult, and a self-directed remark could be read as a confession. When humor is not expected, speakers may have to rely more heavily on presentational cues, such as prior humorous context or exaggeration to mark humorous intent, or pretense.

Several studies have shown that male subjects report lower pain intensity to female compared to male experimenters. The present experiment examined whether experimenter gender also modulated autonomic pain responses. Sixty-four students (32 females) participated in a 2 Subject gender · 2 Experimenter gender · 15 Pain Tests mixed design. Six experimenters, three females and three males collected data. Heat pain was +48°C induced to the right volar forearm. Subjective measurements consisted of pain intensity, pain unpleasantness, stress, arousal and mood. Autonomic responses were heart rate variability and skin conductance levels. The results revealed significant interactions between experimenter gender and subject gender on pain intensity and arousal, but there were no interactions in the physiological data. In conclusion, the lower pain report in male subjects to female experimenters is not mediated by changes in autonomic parameters, and the effect of experimenter gender is probably due to psychosocial factors. Ó

The current studies were conducted to examine two questions regarding the development of an ethic of care versus an ethic of justice, where the former is associated with being female and the latter is associated with being male. First, does gender role orientation in adolescence predict the ethical orientation one adopts better than gender itself does? Second, does adolescents' ethical orientation predict their volunteering behavior? To answer these questions, two studies were conducted. In Study 1, adolescents completed Bem's Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and Jensen's World View Questionnaire (WVQ) which assesses ethical orientation. Girls and individuals high in femininity were higher on the ethic of care than were boys and individuals high in masculinity. In addition, individuals with a feminine gender orientation received higher care scores than individuals with an androgynous orientation. Regression analyses indicated that gender orientation accounted for more of the variance in the ethic of care than did gender. In Study 2, older adolescents completed Jensen's WVQ and were subsequently asked to volunteer in one of two settings: a personal setting or an impersonal setting. Individuals high in the ethic of care were more likely to volunteer and volunteered for more hours, but volunteered equally often in the two types of settings. Individuals who "apologized" for being unable to volunteer were higher on caring. The results are discussed in the context of Gilligan's theory of socialization to morality.

Boys and girls establish relatively stable gender stereotyped behavior patterns by middle childhood. Parentreport questionnaires measuring children's gender-related behavior enable researchers to conduct large-scale screenings of community samples of children. For school-aged children, two parent-report instruments, the Child Game Participation Questionnaire (CGPQ) and the Child Behavior and Attitude Questionnaire (CBAQ), have long been used for measuring children's sex-dimorphic behaviors in Western societies, but few studies have been conducted using these measures for Chinese populations. The current study aimed to empirically examine and modify the two instruments for their applications to Chinese society. Parents of 486 Chinese boys and 417 Chinese girls (6-12 years old) completed a questionnaire comprising items from the CGPQ and CBAQ, and an additional 14 items specifically related to Chinese gender-specific games. Items revealing gender differences in a Chinese sample were identified and used to construct a Child Play Behavior and Activity Questionnaire (CPBAQ). Four new scales were generated through factor analysis: a Gender Scale, a Girl Typicality Scale, a Boy Typicality Scale, and a Cross-Gender Scale (CGS). These scales had satisfactory internal reliabilities and large effect sizes for gender. The CPBAQ is believed to be a promising instrument for measuring children's gender-related behavior in China.

In scores of experimental animal studies on sex-di-Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (N Å 31) and their unaffected sisters or female cousins (N Å morphic behavioral development, the effects of exoge-15) participated in a study of psychosexual developnous administration of prenatal and perinatal gonadal ment. All participants were §18 years of age (mean age, hormones (e.g., with respect to dosage and timing) have 25 years; range, 18-40). Comparisons were also made been examined extensively. Although there is both between the CAH women with the salt-wasting (SW) within-and cross-species variation, the basic principle form of the disorder and those with simple virilization that the prenatal or perinatal hormonal milieu orga-(SV). A psychosexual assessment protocol examined nizes subsequent sex-dimorphic behavioral patterns six variables: (1) sex assignment at birth (probands has marshaled a great deal of empirical support (e.g., only); (2) recalled sex-typed behavior during childhood; Beatty, 1992; Goy and McEwen, 1980). Such studies (3) gender identity and gender role identification in have been instrumental in leading researchers to examadulthood; (4) relationship status; (5) sexual orientation in fantasy; and (6) sexual orientation in behavior. Salt-ine the potential influence of prenatal sex hormones on wasting status and sex assignment at birth were also human psychosexual differentiation (Collaer and ascertained for the CAH women who either refused to . participate in the study (N Å 10) or could not be traced At least three aspects of human psychosexual differ-(N Å 13). Compared to the controls, the women with entiation show substantial sex differences (dimor-CAH recalled more cross-gender role behavior and less phisms): gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientacomfort with their sense of ''femininity'' during childtion. Regarding gender identity, it is obvious that most hood. The two groups did not differ in degree of gender female children experience themselves as ''girls'' and dysphoria in adulthood, although the probands showed most male children experience themselves as ''boys.'' more cross-gender role identification. Three of the non-On average, girls and boys also show marked differparticipant probands were living, as adults, in the male ences in gender role behavior, particularly with regard social role (2 reared from birth as boys and 1 who to the markers of peer affiliation preference, toy interchanged from the female to the male social role during adolescence). The CAH women and the controls did ests, roles in fantasy play, and rough-and-tumble play not differ in relationship status (married/cohabiting vs.

This study used content analysis to examine if themes related to ambivalent sexism emerged when female students wrote an essay answering the question "What does it mean to be a woman?" and examined the relationship between Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) scores and content analysis.

RESUMEN Mientras me encontraba desarrollando mi tesis doctoral, aprecié que el tradicional re-parto de tareas seguía apareciendo en muchas ocasiones a pesar de encontrarnos en unas décadas de grandes avances en la representación de personajes masculinos y fe-meninos en las películas de animación. Los espectadores aprendemos y asumimos comportamientos de los personajes con los que nos sentimos identificados, esto es aún más intenso si el espectador se encuentra en sus primeros años de vida. Éste fue el motivo para revisar algo más que las relaciones laborales que los personajes de Pixar establecían con sus compañeros (de su propio sexo o del otro) y más allá de analizar cuáles eran las profesiones más representadas en función de si el personaje era mas-culino o femenino. Poco a poco fueron surgiendo nuevas preguntas en torno al cui-dado, a las tareas del hogar y al trabajo emocional con hijos, parejas, abuelos, herma-nos... los tres ámbitos en los que dividimos las tareas no remuneradas. Desde los años 90 es común encontrarse personajes masculinos que no ocultan sus emociones y que cuidan y mantienen relaciones familiares, amistosas y amorosas, sin embargo, ¿cuáles de estas actividades forman parte del trabajo reproductivo y no re-munerado? ¿en cuántas películas ellas sí desarrollan ese trabajo y ellos no? ¿hay personajes masculinos que cuiden de niños (sin ser su padre biológico), realicen tareas del hogar y den apoyo emocional a sus parejas? El análisis propuesto en este trabajo se basa en descubrir si se ha representado y en qué medida lo han hecho, si del lado de la masculinidad, de la feminidad o de ambos por igual.

In the present study we analyzed cultural variations of managerial gender typing, i.e., that managers are perceived as possessing traits that are part of the masculine stereotype. Management students of both sexes from three different countries-Australia, Germany, and India-estimated the percentage to which one of three stimulus groups, i.e., executives-ingeneral (no gender specification), male executives, or female executives, possesses personoriented and task-oriented leadership traits. Participants also rated the importance of these characteristics for the respective group. Furthermore, another group of participants described themselves regarding the two types of traits and their importance for themselves. Altogether, the results indicate a less traditional view of leadership compared to previous findings, which is very similar in all three countries. Nevertheless, there exists an interculturally shared view of a female-specific leadership competence according to which women possess a higher person orientation than men. The self-descriptions of the female and male management students regarding person-and task-oriented traits were found to be very similar.

is a widely shared notion that gender stereotyping is the root cause of the disadvantage women face in their advancement to managerial positions, and this situation is more pronounced in societies with low levels of femininity or gender egalitarianism. Other studies suggest that a society’s cultural tightness influences the acceptance and advancement of women in leadership positions. However, the existing literature in this area of research is scattered and offers inconsistent findings. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the extant literature on the prevalence of gender stereotyping in different cultures and explore how cultural characteristics of masculinity, gender egalitarianism and cultural tightness-looseness are related to gender stereotyping in leadership roles. Our review suggests that gender-stereotyping plays an important role in limiting women’s career progression both in masculine/feminine, tight/loose and in high and low gender-egalitarian societies. We however noted that the empirical research offers a slightly more consistent support for gender egalitarianism and cultural tightness-looseness proposition compared to that of masculinity. The paper identifies areas of concern and offers suggestions for future research.

Author: Amos Yong
Publisher: CBE International

Is there a way forward beyond the dominant complementarian discourse at this nexus where a predominantly white North American evangelical Christianity has met racial and ethnic others, especially East Asians in the contemporary milieu?

This article reviews all published studies reporting tests for sex differences in well-being. Women were found to report greater happiness and life satisfaction than men. This sex difference was explained in terms of men's and women's social roles: The female (vs. male) gender role specifies greater emotional responsiveness. Furthermore, past role-related experiences provide women with appropriate skills and attitudes. Women's (vs. men's) greater well-being was also found to hold for married but not unmarried Ss: For both sexes the married state (vs. unmarried) was associated with favorable well-being, but the favorable outcomes proved stronger for women than men. Given that most Ss were married, the overall sex difference in well-being can be attributed to Ss' marital status. These findings were discussed in the context of prior research on sex differences in negative well-being.

Despite dramatically narrowing gender gaps, women remain underrepresented in mathematics and math-related fields. Parents can shape expectations and interests, which may predict later differences in achievement and occupational choices. This study examines children’s early mathematical environments by observing the amount that mothers talk to their sons and daughters (mean age 22 months) about cardinal number, a basic precursor to mathematics. In analyses of naturalistic mother–child interactions from the Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES) database, boys received significantly more number-specific language input than girls. Greater amounts of early number-related talk may promote familiarity and liking for mathematical concepts, which may influence later preferences and career choices. Additionally, the stereotype of male dominance in math may be so pervasive that culturally prescribed gender roles may be unintentionally reinforced to very young children.

A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.

Abstract: This study explores how young women's definitions of empowerment relate to their reception of The Girls Next Door, a popular reality show that documents the life and fun times of Hugh Hefner's three sexy, live-in girlfriends. Specifically, we examine whether young women's general attraction to reality television relates to their endorsement of different views of women and empowerment, how these endorsements relate to the women's own sexual permissiveness, and finally how these views relate to perceptions of The Girls Next Door. Results suggest that reality television preferences relate to greater endorsement of sexual empowerment and traditional feminine roles. However, sexual permissiveness is elevated only when sexual empowerment is endorsed, and perceptions of the show appear to be most positive only when sexual permissiveness is elevated.
Citation: Cato, M., & Dillman Carpentier, F. R. (2010). Conceptualizations of female empowerment and enjoyment of sexualized characters in reality television. Mass Communication and Society, 13, 1-19.

This study examines the relationship between the Evangelical gender role ideologies termed Complementarianism and Egalitarianism and conversation-and conformityorientation communication patterns stemming from the general theory of family communication. A nonrandom group (N ¼ 124) of Evangelical parents were surveyed using a cross-sectional, self-report survey design. Specific differences were discovered in the perceptions of communication in families for individuals holding conservative Complementarian and progressive Egalitarian gender role ideologies. Evangelical parents who endorsed a more Egalitarian family gender role ideology reported greater use of conversation-oriented communication patterns in their families whereas respondents holding a more Complementarian family gender role ideology reported more use of conformity-oriented communication patterns in their families.

Although previous findings indicate that frequent television viewing is associated with holding more stereotypical attitudes about gender, no studies have examined this connection among Latino youth, who are frequent viewers of both English-and Spanishlanguage programming. The present study attempted to rectify this situation by examining connections between exposure to this content, viewer involvement, and the gender role beliefs of Latino adolescents. Surveying 186 Latino high school students, we found that girls who watched more television and who perceived it to be realistic exhibited more traditional gender role attitudes. Similar contributions were seen from the viewing of specific genres of English-and Spanish-language programming, underscoring the importance of investigating associations by language, sex, and genre.

In this study we explored the effects of respondent gender and the specific gender combination (i.e., cross-and same-gender dyads) on perceptions of a sexual encounter between a teacher and an adolescent student. Respondents (120 male and 120 female undergraduates) read a brief scenario and answered questions about their perceptions of the encounter. Significant interactions emerged between teacher gender and student gender. For example, the male teacher/male student dyad was viewed as the least normative, and the female teacher/male student dyad was perceived as the most normative. Significant interactions also were found between teacher gender and respondent gender. Results generally were consistent with gender role stereotypes.

El análisis realiza un breve recorrido por las principales teorías de evolución socio-cognitiva y su relación con la creación de las normas, instituciones, la cultura y la moral. La relación entre los roles sociales y la moral crean los estereotipos femeninos de género a través de los cuales se sanciona y se autorregula la conducta femenina transgresora de los valores establecidos por la colectividad.

The purpose of this study was to examine gender role socialization as a function of parenting experience in an actual toy play situation and as a function of adults' perceptions of typically gender-stereotyped children's toys. Each of 48 children (24 boys and 24 girls) played with 3 adults: either his or her own mother or father, a matched mother or

This study investigated whether television domestic comedies' depictions of gender roles within the family have changed in the past 40 years. Ten domestic comedies were selected based on their popularity and the inclusion of siblings. These series were divided into two groups-pre and post 1984, given the time span covered by the series and the series' setting. College students screened three representative episodes and made subsequent judgments on the portrayals of similarity, equality, and dominance, family satisfaction and family stability in the spousal, sibling, and familial relationships. Results indicated the depictions of gender roles fluctuated throughout the period, with peaks in satisfaction and stability ratings in the 1950s and mid-1980s. More recent domestic comedies contained less positive depictions, specifically displaying more dominance and less satisfaction and stability. Subjects reported families that were more distressed were less desirable and less like their own.

Open and Distance Learning could not only help in gender equality and women empowerment, but also may facilitate the effectiveness and strengthening of women education. However, there is little knowledge on how gender roles affect performance of girls/women education. The paper set out to examine whether inequality in gender roles affect womens education, find out types of domestic chores that women normally engage with and how they affect their academic progress and assess whether women have assistance in performing domestic chores or not. The study was carried out at The Open University of Tanzania, Tanga Regional center. Fifty-one (51) Female students pursuing Diploma in Primary Teacher Education were involved. Questionnaire survey and documentary review methods were employed in data collection. A quantitative data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 20 th version). While qualitative information was analyzed using content analysis. The study observed that majority of the respondents (71%) agreed that inequality in division of household roles affect their academic carriers. Food preparation, washing clothes, house cleanness and family care mentioned as the main domestic chores that attribute to poor academic progress among DPTE female students at the OUT. The study concludes that division of household roles should be restructured so as to refrain women from domestic chores that constraints their participation in education. Keywords: open and distance learning, inequality in gender roles, impact of gender roles to women education

This study applied the gender role model of socialization theory, the developmental aging theory, and the topic salience perspective to the investigation of parent-child value transmissions. Specifically, we examined whether the bi-directionality and selectivity of value transmissions differed as a function of parents' and children's gender and children's developmental phase (adolescence versus emerging adulthood). Transmissions between parents and children from 402 Dutch families on the topics of work as duty and hedonism were studied across a 5-year period using structural equation modeling. As expected, we did not find convincing support for the general models of gender socialization and developmental aging. Instead, parent-child value transmissions appeared to be qualified by value salience. Particularly, high salience of work as duty for fathers was related with great paternal involvement in transmissions on this value orientation and high salience of hedonism for sons and adolescents was linked to transmissions from these groups to parents. Ó

The data are in; women are still insignificant. Even after more than a decade of experience with UNSCR 1325, women have made only insignificant gains in peace processes. While the UN has repeatedly renewed its commitment to “mainstream” gender, most notably with its Millennium Goals and the creation of UN Women, all of these exhortations have thus far counted for little. The lens of this paper is focused on the conflict and post conflict terrain, because it, in theory at least, provides multiple opportunities for transformation on many different levels – including accountability for human rights violations committed during hostilities, reforming local and national laws, reintegration of soldiers, rehabilitation and redress for victims, the establishment or re-establishment of the rule of law, the creation of human rights institutions and new governance structures, alteration of cultural attitudes, the improvement of socioeconomic conditions and transformation of gender roles and wom...

A szakdolgozat középpontjában Margaret Mitchell Elfújta a szél című regénye és a belőle készült filmváltozat áll. Laura Mulvey Vizuális élvezet és narratív film című tanulmányán keresztül azon narratívpoétikai technikák megvalósításának módjait vizsgálja, melyek a tradicionális női szerepkonstrukciók és a vizuális hierarchia modelljének felülírásához vezetnek.

{Ashley Little, Franklin and Marshall College} Notions of mothering, nurturing, and providing are often equated with the "nature" of women. This "nature" designation conflates biological function with expression, thus restricting women to roles as mother, nurturer, provider.

Background: There has been interest in the relationship between homosexuality, gender role and suicide risk. Though homosexuals are more likely to identify as cross-gender, research has not simultaneously examined sexual orientation and gender role in assessing suicide risk. In the current study, the unique and interactive effects of sexual orientation and gender role were assessed in regard to suicidal ideation, related psychopathology and measures of coping. Methods: 77 participants were recruited from an undergraduate psychology subject pool (n = 47) or from gay, lesbian and transgender student organizations (n = 30) and assessed on measures of gender role, homosexuality, and psychopathology. Results: Consistent with expectations, cross-gender role (i.e., personality traits associated with the opposite sex) is a unique predictor of suicidal symptoms. Moreover, gender role accounted for more of the overall variance in suicidal symptoms, positive problem orientation, peer acceptance and support, than sexual orientation. After accounting for gender role, sexual orientation contributed little to the variance in suicidal symptoms, associated pathology and problem-solving deficits. There was no support for gender role by sexual orientation interaction effects. Limitations: The cross-sectional nature of the data limits statements regarding causality. Conclusions: Cross-gendered individuals, regardless of sexual orientation, appear to have higher risk for suicidal symptoms. Researchers and clinicians should assess gender role in evaluations of youth samples. D

Empirical research supports the existence of sex differences in pain; yet these differences are poorly understood. Although biological mechanisms have been posited to explain variability, results of pain modeling manipulations suggest social learning may be a stronger influence on pain response. In this report we use the term sex to refer to the biological category of male or female. We use the term gender to refer to the socially acquired aspects of being male or female sometimes referred to as femininity and masculinity. This study investigated a new measure, the Gender Role Expectations of Pain questionnaire (GREP), which was designed to measure sex-related stereotypic attributions of pain sensitivity, endurance, and willingness to report pain. Subjects were 156 male and 235 female undergraduates at a southeastern university. Psychometric investigation of the questionnaire revealed a 5-factor solution that closely mirrored the theoretical construction of the items. Test-retest reliability was also shown for individual items on a separate sample of 28 subjects. Results supported hypotheses about gender role: both men and women rated men as less willing to report pain than women (F 1,389 = 336, P < .001); both men and women rated women more sensitive (F 1,389 = 9.5, P < .05) and less enduring of pain (F 1,389 = 65.7, P < .001) than men; and men rated their own endurance as higher than the typical man (F 1,389 = 65.7, P < .001). Sex accounted for 46% of the variance in willingness to report pain. Results suggest that the GREP distinguished between the socially learned reactions to pain for men and women. It is recommended that the influence of genderrelated expectations for pain be assessed in all studies investigating human sex differences in pain.

This study examines the relationship between the Evangelical gender role ideologies termed Complementarianism and Egalitarianism and mothering and career aspirations among Evangelical female college students. We surveyed 134 women from two colleges in the United States, one in the Midwest and one in the South. Using a cross-sectional, selfreport survey design, we examined the interaction between career aspirations and mothering aspirations as well as the impact of Evangelical gender role ideologies on both types of aspirations. Results indicated that career and home aspirations were negatively correlated. Mothering aspirations were shown to be significantly affected by conservative gender role ideology. These findings suggest that aspirations for one's mothering role may be influenced by ideological positions.

Gender-related aspects of self-perception were explored for 24 anatomical males consisting of three matched groups of transsexuals, heterosexuals, and homosexuals. MacKenzie's Diagnostic Criteria Scale ratings were used to confirm group membership. Instruments used were the Repertory Grid Technique,