Bronze And Iron Age In Mediterrarranean (Archaeology)

GeoarchaeologIcal perspective to the reconstruction of coastal landscapes and settlement strategies of the Bronze Age Salento - Investigations of coastal landscape archaeology conducted over the last 10 years on the Adriatic and Ionian coastlines of the Salento allowed us to map many geoarchaeological markers of relative sea level changes; these data can give us accurate information on late Holocene phenomena of marine transgression offering a good opportunity to submit some fresh proposals of paleogeographic reconstructions of these territories. A particular attention was paid to the analysis of spatial, chronological and functional data of a group of archaeological markers (sunken and not) connected with forti ed and open settlements dated to the  rst half of the II millennium BC. Torre Santa Sabina, Torre Guaceto-Scogli di Apani and Scalo di Furno-Porto Cesareo stand out among long-lived settlements for the relevance of the research outcomes. Many archaeological evidences (forti cation walls, moats, pavements, occupation layers, dwelling structures, etc.) mark the ancient position and height of the relative sea level, but postholes have a leading role. The mapping and recording of these structural elements allow us to reconstruct the real extension of Bronze Age inhabited areas.

Very little, practically nothing has been written about the Submycenaean period in Western Achaea, a fact reflecting the belief that this stage was not particularly developed or that it had nothing significant to offer. 1 Moreover, in the few reports the word "Submycenaean" defines objects that do not fall stylistically into the Mycenaean period and, at the same time, cannot be classified as EPG, without taking into consideration their cultural environment, as usually happens elsewhere. 2 The simple definition "probably Submycenaean" is the most common in these cases and it refers exclusively to objects, so that the phase is merely being insinuated, without the slightest effort to place these objects in a general cultural frame, if there should be one. It seems that the existence of this hypothesis does not leave room for further analysis and for thorough examination so that the subject is finally overlooked and not discussed. This situation is due to objective difficulties related to the region, but also to the numerous and often different and contradictive views which are still pertinent to the use of the term Submycenaean. 3 This fact gives the impression that there are only few and isolated objects, mostly pottery, in Achaea that probably belong to the Submycenaean Style, which is either rare or confused with the local LH III C Late/Mature Achaean pottery Style. 4 As a result this particular phase, stage, period or whatever it is, is practically considered to be non-existent. However, this perspective is not exclusively related to pottery but it partly includes bronze items as well. If the classification of bronze or other objects in the Submycenaean period is correct, and given that the Submycenaean is not exclusively associated with a certain pottery style only, then the presence of other features, which so far have been overlooked or regarded as insignificant, must be expected. Below we are going to propose that in Achaea there is not only a particular or local Submycenaean style but features which define a Submycenaean Period. These features are beyond changes in the settlement but also beyond fashion in dressing, like the appearance of new bronze accessories, as we shall see below.

El hipogeo XXI de Calascoves es una cámara funeraria excavada en la roca del acantilado de Biniadrís. Las excavaciones llevadas a cabo, a pesar del expolio a que estaba siendo sometido, han permitido obtener una visión general de las prácticas funerarias en Menorca entre finales del siglo IX aC hasta el siglo IV aC La recuperación de numerosos restos de muebles funerarios de madera y otros elementos arqueológicos permiten entrever la gestión que hacían las comunidades prehistóricas, no sólo de sus prácticas funerarias, sino del paisaje vegetal de la isla. Destaca la recuperación de varias puntas de jabalina, brazaletes de bronce y de un pendiente de plata, que nos señalan los contactos con diferentes puntos del sur de Europa así como la llegada de los primeros objetos fenicios a la isla. En conjunto, el hipogeo XXI nos ayuda a comprender mejor la sociedad prehistórica menorquina antes del siglo IV aC

Kotsonas, A. 2015. Showcasing new Trojan Wars: Archaeological exhibitions and
the politics of appropriation of ancient Troy, Z. Theodoropoulou Polychroniadis and
D. Evely (eds), Aegis: Essays in Mediterranean Archaeology presented to Matti Egon by the scholars of the Greek Archaeological Committee UK. Oxford, Archaeopress, 235-242.

La présente contribution vise à préciser les aspects géographiques et chronologiques liés à l’apparition, au développement et au déclin d’un type de construction en pierre sèche localement appelée « torre ». Ces édifices monumentaux, qui présentent une forme de tour tronconique, sont élevés selon un cahier des charges architectural précis, et trouvent leur strict équivalent en Sardaigne avec les milliers de nuraghi monotorre du Bronze ancien et moyen. La publication du détail du maigre corpus des torre de Corse, ainsi que la révision des données chronologiques fournies par les fouilles et les prospections opérées ces cinquante dernières années, seront également l’occasion de souligner l’importance prise par ces monuments dans l’évolution de la construction du discours archéologique depuis les années 1960 et les travaux de Roger Grosjean.

In ancient history there are few certainties, like putting together a puzzle without all the pieces.1 When excavating a burial ground with poor skeletal preservation such as the Toumba cemetery at Lefkandi what knowledge can actually be gained by assigning sex to a deceased person based on gendered material remains, i.e. spindle whorls for girls and swords for boys. Which society is truly being reflected in our interpretations, theirs or our own? When atypical artifacts are found in contexts that challenge our stereotypes, we often treat them as anomalies and they rarely leave any significant impact on our assumptions regarding gender.2 As archaeologists we have a huge responsibility when interpreting and reconstructing the past because the plausibility of our reconstructions can have serious political and social implications.3 Interpretation of material recovered from burial grounds is used to make assumptions regarding ownership, control of wealth, social organization, and ultimately, power and status.4 The question of traditional gender identification based on material remains is therefore an important one to consider, especially when looking at periods in history with little or no surviving texts, as is the case for Dark Age Greece.

I recenti scavi della Missione archeologica a Mozia della Sapienza nella Zona C hanno individuato il primo stanziamento fenicio, con una serie di pozzi e l'Edificio C8, i cui resti fotografano i momenti iniziali di vita della colonia fenicia nel secondo quarto dell'VIII secolo a.C.

From 2009 to 2013 renewed archaeological excavations were carried out at the Ophel under the directorship of Dr. Eilat Mazar on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
This volume includes the report of the Herodian (First century CE) buildings, many of which were planned to satisfy the needs of the large and growing number of pilgrims that arrived at the magnified newly constructed Temple and its breathtaking compound. These buildings, crowdedly built in the Ophel, included a large number of Purification Baths (Mikva'ot), ranging from single-sized baths to the “Jerusalemite” type, where a multitude of pilgrims could immerse at the same time, thus enabling easy access to the nearby gates and their underground passageway directly leading into the sacred area of the Temple. By the end of the Second Temple period, as stated by Josephus, the Ophel area also served as a hiding place for the rebels against Rome, and this is corroborated by the findings within the buildings unearthed during the
excavations.
The volume also includes reports on the impressive remains of First Temple Period buildings discovered at the Ophel’s Solomonic Royal Quarter, together with a large amount of pottery vessels, glyptic finds, weaponry, cultic objects, ivories and figurines discovered within them, many of which attest to the far-reaching international contacts Jerusalem enjoyed at that time.
This volume comprises the report of the unique Fortified Enclosure, the earliest structure ever found in the Ophel, dating from the time of King David (early tenth century BCE) and most likely identified with the “Far House,” a structure he used while escaping from Avshalom (2 Samuel 15:17).
In this volume is also the report of a stratified assemblage dumped from the Building of the Royal Bakers, which included the bulla (seal impression) of King Hezekiah himself, and maybe also the bulla of the prophet Isaiah, as well as dozens of finds found with them.
The Ophel discoveries dramatically alter previously held conceptions of the development of ancient Jerusalem and provide striking tangible evidence for its Biblical and Second Temple period narratives.
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En el siglo XIX se encontró en los alrededores de Vélez-Málaga un cilindro-sello de origen próximo-oriental, actualmente perdido, que se ha interpretado por parte de un sector de la investigación como prueba de los contactos entre el Levante mediterráneo y la Península Ibérica durante el Bronce Final, a través de navegaciones micénicas o de otros agentes orientales anteriores a la presencia fenicia. La pieza es la más occidental de todos los cilindros-sellos conocidos. En su decoración se combinan elementos mitannios, sirios y chipriotas, que fechan su producción en torno al año 1350 a.C. Sin embargo, sellos similares aparecen en tumbas de Cartago y Tharros fechadas en el siglo VII y VI a.C. e incluso en enterramientos de época romana. Esto nos hace considerar la pieza con prudencia, por lo que manejamos la posibilidad de su hallazgo en una tumba fenicia arcaica en la zona de la desembocadura del río de Vélez, dado el largo periodo de amortización de este tipo de piezas.

Short critique on the presentation and preliminary publication of the Early Bronze Age village buried by the Avellino eruption of Somma-Vesuvius. For an updated bibliography on the site, see the website of the principal excavator: http://alborelivadie.eu/, with downloads, and at academia.edu: http://cnrs.academia.edu/ClaudeAlboreLivadie

"In this article is presented a proposal of seriation
of bronze artifacts votive groups and hoards from
Nuragic Sardinia, on the basis of statistic-combinatory
analysis, in a chronological span between
Recent Bronze Age and Early Iron Age.
The specimen includes only fully published contexts.
Results show that the frequentation of the
nuragic sanctuaries and the habit of assembling
hoards are well documented phenomena until the
latter phases of Italian Early Iron Age. The
chronological seriation proposed for nuragic contexts
is easily comparable with the Italian continental
sequence, on the basis of several typological
comparisons."

THE BRONZE AGE IN WESTERN SICILY. - Many cultures developed during bronze age in western Sicily. Sometime they were contemporary showing the presence of very interesting ethnical dynamics bringing to acculturation phenomena like in the case of Bell Beaker mainly diffused in south west regions.
During early bronze Castelluccio culture was diffused also in western Sicily, but it developed slowly towards what was called Rodì Tindari Vallelunga facies and that now we think is a process of typological as cultural change between Castelluccio and Thapsos. During this last phase we encounter the origin of some
regional differences among the same culture that will be more evident during late bronze age. We see that there are aspects more tied with a Mediterranean tradition, such as Mokarta. But we also see that there areas where it is strong a Tyrrhenian tradition and also a continental one with Ausonian affinities.

Though it is generally agreed upon that the Greeks borrowed (and modified) the alphabet from the Phoenicians, there is no consensus about the moment when this took place. Over the years, several dates have been proposed, ranging from the 14 th to the 8 th / 7 th century BCE. In classical studies the prevalent opinion is that the alphabet was introduced in or shortly before the 8 th century BCE, when the first attestations of Greek alphabetic writing appear. There are, however, quite a number of indications (from existing and new evidence) that plead for a much earlier date. In this article, a detailed analysis of the presently available archaeological, epigraphic and linguistic data will be presented to argue the case for an introduction in the 11th century BCE at the latest.

During the Early Iron Age (ca. 950–720 bc) Nuragic Sardinia experienced the rise of monumental public sanctuaries. This study addresses the formation of the votive record in sanctuaries in order to explore the relationship between socio-economic control and the ritual dynamics of legitimation of authority. In Nuragic sanctuaries, large amounts of wealth were collected in the form of significant accumulations of bronze objects. The accumulation of metal objects in sanctuaries probably reflects a model of elite-controlled wealth redistribution. It is argued that the rise of sanctuaries is part of a planned ‘ritual strategy’, put in action by Nuragic elites, in order to pursue ideological legitimation to their claims for hegemony. The subject is set within a proposal of a general redefinition of the Nuragic Early Iron Age, making it possible to propose a contextualization of the local phenomenon within the contemporary western Mediterranean framework.

This study investigates the identity of the female Adorant depicted before two female deities in the “Room of the Fresco” (Room 31) of the Cult Center Mycenae. It is argued that the Adorant is accompanied not by a griffin, but a guardian lion (or a lioness), traditional symbol of power at Mycenae. Certain Egyptianising features of artistic style (symbolic size, registers) are combined with an Egyptianising formula for royal offerings to the gods to create an internationalizing iconography of elite social status and sacred communion with the divine. It is suggested that the Adorant represents a female member of the royal family at Mycenae (perhaps even a queen) acting as priestess. Yet the painted platform of Room 31, which includes a low step and the three ash-filled disks, imply that the Adorant, like the two deities above, also received offerings. This apparent contradiction is resolved when the Adorant is understood as a priestess of elite (royal?) social status who honoured the gods and was herself also the object of veneration. Such a reading explains the size disparity among the painted figures (the Adorant, as elite human, is smaller and less important than the deities) and, intriguingly, hints at ruler cult at Mycenae.

Late Bronze and Early Iron Age handmade pottery, predominantly of utilitarian character, represents a section of material culture least prone to be affected by elite exchange and changing fashions, thus allowing a glimpse at the every-day life of households in Mycenaean and post-Mycenaean Greece. The sudden occurrence of handmade wares in the late Mycenaean period, their chronological coincidence with major destructions of Mycenaean citadels, and their presence within the following, formative period leading to the emergence of a new political system in the polis, have led to examinations of the social status and ethnic affiliation of the makers of these types of pottery. The present study considers these issues by, first, discussion of the material evidence, and second, interpretation of the findings in the context of the social and economic changes marking the transition from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age.

Chapter I introduces the history of scholarship and past foci of research, in addition to outlining the aims and methods of the present study. Chapter II discusses the Bronze Age ‘Handmade Burnished Ware’, a type of pottery found predominantly in Mycenaean citadels and associated with levels pertinent to the end of the palaces, but unrelated technologically and stylistically to Mycenaean wares. Subsequent to identifying the ware’s typological, technological and functional characteristics, and discussing earlier interpretations of the ware, an attempt is made to advance understanding by placing the ware and its makers
within the picture of late Mycenaean society as characterised by social mobility, population movement, and substantial changes in the character of its external relations. Chapter III examines the Early Iron Age material, within broad geographic sections encompassing the Aegean islands and Euboea, the northeast Peloponnese, Attica, and Central Greece. The chapter’s main foci are establishing a cogent typology, based on shapes as much as on fabric and function, outlining the chronological and regional distribution of wares and shapes, and elucidating the inter-regional and intra-regional dynamics of the area under study. Case studies of individual sites and assemblages in Chapter IV illustrate the functions filled by handmade wares in domestic, funerary, and ritual contexts, while highlighting the regional differences and diachronic development in the use and distribution of the material. Chapter V explores the social and economic changes observable at the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age transition, and discusses the scope of handmade pottery for elucidating issues such as the ethnic or cultural composition of communities, organisation of labour, changes in household economics, and the degree of cultural continuity between the Mycenaean period and the following ‘Dark Ages’. Chapter VI summarises the results of the previous chapters by bringing together the material evidence with contextual and socio-economic considerations. By elucidating basic domestic functions, such as cooking and storage habits, handmade pottery contributes substantially to recognising changes in the cultural makeup of communities, as well as their internal organisation. The consideration of Late Bronze and Early Iron Age household economics furthers the understanding of the dynamics of Greece’s society in this crucial period, and offers a new perspective focusing on the base of the social pyramid, rather than on elite dynamics and politics.

Early Greek alphabetic writing has received extensive attention in the literature. Yet such writing is often treated as immaterial, both literally and metaphorically. My study addresses this problem by offering a systematic investigation of the material properties of nearly 300 inscribed objects, mostly ceramic, that date from ca. 750-600 BCE and originate from seven sites across the Greek world. Inspired by work on classical art and text, and on the materiality of writing, I use a quantitative approach to investigate the ways in which early inscriptions interact with the fabric, the shape, and the decoration of the vessels on which they are rendered, reflecting also on the ramifications of this interaction for the socialization of early Greek inscribed objects in diverse contexts. The investigation exposes a range of hitherto neglected patterns attesting to the preferential inscribing and use of particular types of vessels in specific sites or contexts, and to the association of certain types of text with the material properties of the medium that carries it. More broadly, I argue that Greek epigraphy would benefit from methodologies that promote the documentation and interpretation of not only the textual but also the material properties of inscribed objects.

Available on: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102579

In the recent past, the archaeological community in European countries has drawn attention to a unique find of bronze ornithomorphic plastic artworks (11th-10th cent. BC), coming from the extensive hoard from the territory of the Liptov Basin (Central Slovakia), belonging in terms of art to the crucial artefacts of the European Bronze Age. A detailed GC/MS analysis of the vessel has also contributed to the scientific discussion of the exceptionally significant data on the signals of animal fat with a prehistoric origin, which confirms the earlier hypothesis on the use of this type of vessels as ceremonial lamps. Although the view of the item is limited by the fragmentary nature of the archaeological research, we now have, 150 years since a similar finding, further evidence of advanced spiritual thinking and sophisticated ritual activities that point to a fascinating mythological universe of the Bronze Age.

The collection "Art and Religion of Ancient Societies" is a continuation of the series of the scientific publications which is devoted to the problems of study of the spiritual culture in the primitive societies. The previous edition "Art and Ritual of Ice Age", that was published in 2005, covered a circle of questions directly connected with the theory and practice of study of the Paleolithic Art. In this collection we also address to the same problematic. However, taking into account that the understanding of the most ancient culture stages of the human society is connected to a wide circle of questions of the study of the traditional communities, we think it is necessity to expand the edition’s subjects. Therefore we have tried to capture not only questions directly connected with field and basic study of the ancient art, but also practical analysis of the cultural and ethnographic facts. The questions of the aesthetics and theory of development of the early forms of art are considered as separately subjects in works. The published materials enable the reader to familiarize with the questions and methods of their analysis more in details, which are submitted in works of the researchers from Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Hungary, Germany, Canada, USA, Australia.

Die ältesten eisengegenstände treten in Ägypten, Mesopotamien und anatolien sowie im raum zwischen der pontischen steppe und südsibirien im späten 4. und 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. auf. Bei diesen frühen eisengegenständen handelt es sich oft um Meteoriteisen. im nachfolgenden 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. ist eisen vor allem aus anatolien überliefert. Die ausbreitung der eisenmetallurgie im Vorderen orient, im ostmittelmeerraum und in der Ägäis im späten 2. und frühen 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. wird eingehend behandelt und im hauptteil die einführung des neuen Metalls im südeuropäischen arbeitsgebiet detailliert beschrieben (portugal, spanien, italien, westliche und zentrale Balkanhalbinsel, rumänien, Moldawien, Ukraine bis zur Dnjepr). Die frühen eisenfunde im zentralen und westlichen Mittelmeerraum zeigen eine küstennahe Verbreitung, u.a. in südwestalbanien, im Karst/Soča-Gebiet Sloweniens, in Süditalien, in Südostsizilien, in Sardinien, in den Balearischen Inseln und in Zentralportugal. es erscheint plausibel, dass eisen im 11./10. Jahrhundert v. Chr. zunächst von ägäischen und/oder ostmediterranen seefahrern dorthin vermittelt wurde. im raum nördlich des schwarzmeers wird eisen ungefähr gleichzeitig vor allem für Messer und Dolchmesser eingeführt. etwas unklar ist immer noch die Frage nach dem möglichen frühen Beginn der Eisenverarbeitung bzw.-gewinnung in Rumänien und der Slowakei, wo einige Fundstücke schon vor das 11. Jahrhundert v. Chr. datiert werden. in der abschließenden Diskussion wird der historische Kontext der ausbreitung des neuen Metalls im 12./11. Jahrhundert v. Chr. erörtert und die früheste Verwendung des eisens – z.B. als " special purpose metal " – diskutiert.

Available on: https://doi.org/10.1515/pz-2020-0011

This paper synthesises and analyses archaeological data on the Nitrianska Blatnica II hoard of metal artefacts (Ha C1a; 800–725 BC) from the hilltop settlement of Marhát. Currently, this is the largest metal deposit from the Final Bronze Age in Slovakia, providing a fundamental chronological synchronization of the Ha C1a sub-phase with Northern Italy and Central and Southeastern Europe. A spectral analysis of the serial circular jewellery shows a uniform origin from a unique metallurgical workshop and contributes to the scientific discussion with important data on economic operations in the Carpathian Basin. The closest analogies to the bronze vessels and gold cylindrical earrings come from the most important contemporary sites of the Hallstatt and Mezöcsát cultures and stimulate the notion of a large intercultural trade in prestigious goods and the practices of the aristocratic population of the Final Bronze Age in Central Europe.

This article re-examines a circular ivory pyxis lid from Tharros, which-despite its fine craftsmanship-has been little studied and remains almost unknown. After a short history of studies on the Near Eastern ivories of the 1st millennium bc and their problematic association with the Phoenicians, this find is thoroughly investigated and is compared to some fragmentary examples from Nimrud and a circular pyxis from Tell Halaf dating to around the 10th-8th century bc. Among the various hypotheses that have been formulated to explain the function of these pyxides, the more compelling argument is that they originally contained expensive spices and condiments to be used as drink or food additives, as their association with the banquet is supported by the few available iconographic sources. Finally, the question remains open whether this lid should be considered a Near Eastern ivory heirloom or -as some discrepancies with the Levantine examples would indicate-a later artefact manufactured in a western Mediterranean centre, with Tharros itself and Carthage being the most likely candidates.

The origins and ethnogenesis of a cultural entity, people, and territory referred to as "Phoenician" in later biblical and Classical sources and modern scholarship remain a topic of debate. This chapter examines the textual and archaeological sources relevant to the northern and central Levantine littoral during the Proto- (Late Bronze) and Early (Iron I) Phoenician periods (ca. fourteenth-eleventh centuries BCE). What emerges out of the ruins of the Late Bronze Age is a resilient Early Iron Age coastal culture centered on the commercial interactions of maritime city-states, which survived the demise of the Hittite and Egyptian empires, as well as the collapse of international trade at around 1200 BCE. Autochthonous Canaanite traditions dominate Iron I Phoenician cultural assemblages, but intrusive Aegean-style "Sea Peoples" and Cypriot influences are also present. Together they reflect the dynamic interplay of maritime cultural and commercial exchanges characteristic of the northern and central Levantine littoral during the final centuries of the second millennium BCE.

This research deals with the economic and commercial Phoenician networks during the early Iron Age in the southern Levant. Optical Mineralogy (petrography) analysis was conducted on a large scale on three categories of early Iron Age ceramic vessels. The first category includes transport and storage vessels, mainly pithoi, jars, and small lentoid flasks; the second category comprises Phoenician decorated ware, namely Phoenician Monochrome and Phoenician Bichrome; and the third category are open vessels of various types selected as a control group in order to better understand local fabrics and technological aspects of productions in the different sites. Lastly a unique assemblage of Egyptian imports from Tel Dor offer an addition view of relation of Egypt and Phoenicia during this period. 
Vessels for analysis were collected from both Phoenician and non-Phoenician sites: the Phoenician sites include Tel Achziv, Tell Keisan and Tel Dor. Non-Phoenician sites include Tel Dan, Tel Rehov, Tel Megiddo ‛En-Haggit, Tell Qasile and Nahal Patish in the Negev; altogether, about 450 vessels.
In general, three main petro-fabric groups were identified that represent ceramic production centers on the Phoenician coast: petro-fabric group A is produced in sites along the coast between Haifa and Achziv; petro-fabric group B originated on the southern Lebanese coast between Tyre and Sidon; and petro-fabric group C represents the Carmel Coast.
Three main commercial circles of Phoenician involvement in trade were identified in the early Iron Age. The first one is the inner Phoenician circulation of ceramics between Phoenician sites along the sea routes of the Levantine coast. Movement of Phoenicians transport vessels of various types were identified up and down the coast: this includes mainly carinated jars and Phoenician decorated wares.
The second commercial circle is characterized by overland trade between the Phoenician coastal centers and sites that fall within their immediate hinterland. Vessels made in Phoenicia, especially small lentoid flasks and Phoenician decorated ware found deep inland and southwards in the land of Philistia. The Phoenician Carmel Coast shows a particular connection with the Jezreel Valley and the southern Lebanese coast shows ties to Rehov and Dan. The realization of this close connection is solidified in the local production of Phoenician Bichrome ware in the Jezreel Valley and Dan in the northern Hula Valley. In reciprocity, transport vessels, mainly oval jars of inland production travel to the Phoenician coast. In addition to that, jars of various types (but not carinated) were found to travel from Philistia and the Sharon Coast to Phoenician sites especially during the 10th century BCE; this is the first time this phenomenon is identified.
The third commercial circle is the traffic that existed between the Phoenician coastal cities and their old political master, now turned large consumer, Egypt. In the void left by retreating Egypt at the end of the 12th century, the Phoenician marinners step-in, building and negotiating a large multi-leveled commercial network, with themselves in the center. These networks in the so-called Dark Age of the 11th to early 9th centuries BCE mark the beginning of the Phoenician's market economy.
 

"""""Abstract
Aspects of regionalism and globalism are especially noticeable in the Orientalising phenomenon during the Iron Age, a cultural transformation that touched various, coastal areas of almost the entire Mediterranean but that resulted in diverse adaptations per region. In this context, the transition of Iron Age banqueting traditions is discussed that incorporated features of the Levantine marzeah, a social institution with upperclass male meetings, music and the consumption of meat and wine. In addition, the marzeah has a correlation with death and funerary rituals. Certain tombs with male weapon burials from the 10th to 8th centuries BC in the Levant, Greece and Italy combine characteristics of warrior ideology, ancestor cults and funerary banquets. Both in Greece and Italy, formal aspects of the marzeah were singled out, eventually resulting in the symposion and symposium customs of Classical antiquity, which are better understood. These specific Iron Age gatherings as documented in tombs, but which also took place at trading sites, in the homes of the elite and around sanctuaries, were conducive for the Orientalising phenomenon, a period in which various goods and ideas from the Levant were selected and accommodated, especially in those areas of the Mediterranean that became urban during the 7th and 6th centuries BC.

Published in: F. DE ANGELIS (ED.). 2013. Regionalism and Globalism in Antiquity; Exploring Their Limits. Colloquia Antiqua, 7. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, pp. 95-125.

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VORWORT DER HERAUSGEBER Die Reihe "Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie" soll einem in der jüngeren Vergangenheit entstandenen Bedürfnis Rechnung tragen, nämlich Examensarbeiten und andere Forschungsleistungen vornehmlich jüngerer Wissenschaftler in die Öffentlichkeit zu tragen. Die etablierten Reihen und Zeitschriften des Faches reichen längst nicht mehr aus, die vorhandenen Manuskripte aufzunehmen. Die Universitäten sind deshalb aufgerufen, Abhilfe zu schaffen. Einige von ihnen haben mit den ihnen zur Verfügung stehenden Mitteln unter zumeist tatkräftigem Handanlegen der Autoren die vorliegende Reihe begründet. Thematisch soll darin die ganze Breite des Faches vom Paläolithikum bis zur Archäologie der Neuzeit ihren Platz inden. Ursprünglich hatten sich fünf Universitätsinstitute in Deutschland zur Herausgabe der Reihe zusammengefunden, der Kreis ist inzwischen größer geworden. Er lädt alle interessierten Professoren und Dozenten ein, als Mitherausgeber tätig zu werden und Arbeiten aus ihrem Bereich der Reihe zukommen zu lassen. Für die einzelnen Bände zeichnen jeweils die Autoren und Institute ihrer Herkunft, die im Titel deutlich gekennzeichnet sind, verantwortlich. Sie erstellen Satz, Umbruch und einen Ausdruck. Bei gleicher Anordnung des Umschlages haben die verschiedenen beteiligten Universitäten jeweils eine speziische Farbe. Finanzierung und Druck erfolgen entweder durch sie selbst oder durch den Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, der in jedem Fall den Vertrieb der Bände sichert. Herausgeber sind derzeit: Für meine Familie VORWORT Bei der hier vorliegenden Untersuchung handelt es sich um die durchgesehene und ergänzte Fassung meiner im April 2013 von der Philosphischen Fakultät der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster angenommenen Dissertation. Eine Realisierung dieser Studie wäre ohne die Unterstützung einer Reihe von Personen, denen ich an dieser Stelle ganz herzlich danken möchte, nicht in der vorliegenden Form möglich gewesen. Hier gilt mein Dank an erster Stelle meinem Doktorvater Prof. Dr. Albrecht Jockenhövel, der den Fortschritt meiner Arbeit begleitete und mir stets mit Rat, Kritik und Hilfe zur Seite stand. An der Entstehung dieser Untersuchung nahmen verschiedene Kollegen in unterschiedlichster Weise mit . und Christine Winkelmann M.A., die darüber hinaus die Bürde auf sich nahmen, den Text zu korrekturzulesen und mir dadurch halfen, eine druckfähige Fassung herzustellen. Zum Schluß gilt mein ganz besonderer Dank meinen Eltern, Bernhardine und Eberhard Schulz, die durch ihre großzügige Übernahme der Druckkosten ein Erscheinen dieser Studie in der vorliegenden Form ermöglichten und meiner Gemahlin, Kristina Hein, die mich weit über das Fachliche hinaus ermutigte und unterstützte, auch wenn es gerade schwer voranging. Münster, im August 2014 Christian Eberhard Schulz INHALTSVERZEICHNIS Einleitung

Updated attached exel file only, 3.09.2024. Updated to include corrections of mirrors. One mirror carries the name TIRANAII (Tyrhenni).  It is the oldest extant document containing the name Herodotus referred to and may predate Herodotus' "Histories." The Etruscan Glossary A spreadsheet presents 2,800 individual words from the major extant Etruscan texts. The texts contain a total word count of 6,000+ words, about 4,000 of which are repetitious. The Etruscan Glossary also sheds light on Etruscan declension and conjugation patterns that are similar to Latin, French & Italian. The glossary accounts for all of the 6,000+ words in the texts, including  the Zagreb Mummy wrapping and important grammatical and mythological data contained in Etruscan mirrors. Each word in the glossary has alphanumeric locators showing exactly where they are used in the cited texts.