Civil Procedure at 18th and 19th Century

هذا البحث يحاول تسليط الضوء على أهم وأبرز القواعد التي يقوم عليها الإعلان القضائي التقليدي، ومدى إمكانية تطويعها في استخدامات البريد الإلكتروني كأحد الوسائل الحديثة للإعلان القضائي، من ناحية القواعد الشكلية المقررة في الإعلان، وقواعد العلم اليقيني أو الحكمي بمضمون الإعلان، وقواعد الموطن بطبيعة الحال، وهو ما نتناوله في ثلاثة مباحث، على أن يسبقها مبحث تمهيدي يشكل مدخلاً مفاهيمياً لإعلان الأوراق القضائية عبر البريد الإلكتروني في ظل التطورات التكنولوجية الحديثة.

Principles of judicial notices via e-mail: An analytical study of Bahrain's civil and commercial procedure law

Published in: The Constitutional Court journal - Bahrain
volume(2), issue(4), January 2015

Who should prove the existence or nonexistence of some fact in a judicial proceeding? Should the Claimant help the Defendant to prove asserts of truth of particular facts or vice versa? Is there a new rule within all the rules governing the presentation of facts and proof in proceedings before courts? Those are issues of a great importance studied by scholars and courts in the last years relating to the law of evidence and this essay which provides a framework for further research gives a particularly and critic point of view influenced by a vision of the process as an instrument of freedom or as a right that point to protect freedoms.

The “savage” constitutes a distinctive category of French Enlightenment thought, because it engendered polarity in French social commentary. French philosophers during the eighteenth century articulated their views using descriptions of “savages” taken from exploration accounts.  In writing about the “savages,” the French saw themselves as more advanced in culture and civilization than the indigenous populations they encountered in their travels. At the same time, many philosophers of France used descriptions of the lifestyle, the mores, and the culture of indigenous populations in their discourses in order to critique their own social and cultural system.  Through the eighteenth century, this sense of both cultural superiority and amenability to learning from the merits of “savage” societies proceeded in tandem in philosophic discourse and travel literature. However, by the end of the eighteenth century, there was a decline in describing the merits of savages and the image of the “ignoble” savage began to eclipse the “noble,” although romanticizing the idea of the savage did not disappear entirely.  Ultimately, the combined sense of cultural and civilized superiority would justify the civilizing mission in the nineteenth century.

muss der Gesetzgeber (bzw. der Staat) zur Entscheidung jeder (zivil-rechtlichen) Streitigkeit den Parteien zunächst einen Richter zur Verfü-gung stellen und alsdann auch einen weiteren –nicht nur zur erneuten Entscheidung  sondern– zur Kontrolle des ersten Gerichtsurteils?  An-ders ausgedrückt: welches soll das „Normalschema“ eines Zivil-prozesses bzw. welcher der Standard einer „guten“ Justizge-währung sein ? Oder: wie behandelt (bzw. wie verdeckt) man am besten das Problem der „Unentscheidbarkeit“, die jedem Ent-scheidungsverfahren innewohnt , wenn nicht durch Verfahrenszüge?  Und nach alledem: ist das Verlangen der Rechtssuchenden nach einer dritten Instanz berechtigt?

La aparición del paternalismo industrial durante el siglo XIX fue una causa distintiva en muchas empresas norteamericanas y europeas como consecuencia de la Segunda Revolución Industrial. El presente artículo tiene por objeto aclarar cuáles fueron las principales características de las prácticas paternalistas de George Mortimer Pullman, luego de haber intensificado la difusión de los coches-cama en la industria ferroviaria de pasajeros y la posterior creación de una ciudad para sus empleados.

Los anhelos de ascenso social mostrados tanto por los trabajadores de origen afroamericano como por los sectores de la naciente clase media posibilitaron que Pullman tuviese éxito en su empresa ferroviaria apelando a las mejoras en la calidad de vida y haciendo una propaganda altamente efectiva que le garantizó el apoyo de notables empresarios locales, en un tiempo en el que la Segunda Revolución Industrial se hallaba en su apogeo.

"Se queremos que tudo fique como está
é preciso que tudo mude."


O leitmotif da obra de Tomasi de Lampedusa, imortalizada no grande ecrã pela objectiva de Visconti, sintetiza a sua ideia central, acerca do declínio das antigas elites, em particular da aristocracia, a favor da ascensão das classes médias, a partir da segunda metade do século XIX e a forma como uma facção daquela procurou, sem sucesso, manter a sua posição.
O tema da presente dissertação é precisamente o da evolução da Aristocracia em Portugal, em concreto da Casa Palmela, no contexto do Liberalismo, com maior precisão, no período que medeia entre 1810 e 1887, datas que, como veremos, reflectem a cronologia ditada pela própria evolução da Casa e também pelos rumos da nacionalidade.


"If we want everything to stay as it is
everything must change."


The leitmotif of Tomasi de Lampedusa's work, immortalized on the big screen by Visconti's lens, sums up his central idea of the decline of the old elites, particularly of the aristocracy, in favor of the rise of the middle classes from the second half of the century, and the way a faction of it sought, unsuccessfully, to maintain its position.
The theme of this dissertation is precisely that of the evolution of the Aristocracy in Portugal, specifically of Casa Palmela, in the context of Liberalism, with greater precision, in the period between 1810 and 1887, dates that, as we shall see, reflect the chronology dictated by own evolution of the House and also by the paths of nationality.

On désignait autrefois, sous le nom de faïenciers, les membres d'une corporation qui comprenait les verriers et les émailleurs, ceux, en un mot, dont les travaux avaient pour but de transformer, par l'action du feu, les terres siliceuses et alumineuses et les oxydes métalliques.

G.W.F. Hegel delineates two functions of the police (Polizei). The modern, narrow conception is a security institution, characterized as a law enforcement body dedicated to the prevention, detection, and punishment of crime. The historical, generalized conception was a welfare institution, whose functions were limitless. Hegel is wary of the increased stress given to security. Hegel’s distrust is best represented by his dismissive criticism of J.G. Fichte. Despite his own suspiciousness, Hegel refuses to limit the security purview of the police. On the other hand, Hegel is an enthusiastic spokesman of welfare provisions. Hegel’s devotion to a robust, activist state is a veiled critique of Adam Smith’s free-market liberalism. The greatest danger to the security of the state is the inescapable inequality produced by the market, the threat of disorderly impoverished masses and the possibility of a breakdown in the general welfare of civil society. Despite his zeal and apprehension, Hegel admits the alleviation of poverty can never be fully guaranteed. Hegel wants to limit the security-state and expand the welfare-state, but between these two poles, he can do neither. Hegel is caught in a trap of his own making: reluctantly permissive regarding the increasing security-state and enthusiastically powerless to provide for the general welfare of the population.

Pierrette CANDELOT est passée à la postérité en tant que faïencière Marseillaise sous le nom de « Veuve PERRIN », mais son mari Claude PERRIN peintre faïencier de Nevers venu travailler chez Fauchier, puis maître faïencier vers 1743, est beaucoup moins connu…

The article analyses the limits of res judicata in the French, Italian and Belgian legal systems, with references to the German and English systems. The changes in the case-law of these countries are conditioned by the unstable equilibrium between several fundamental principles, such as contradiction, legal certainty, party disposition, procedural economy, fairness, and the relations between civil proceedings and substantive law. The necessity to safeguard the stability of judgments (e.g. claim preclusion and issue preclusion) and to save judicial resources at all costs creates reciprocal influences between the different systems. These influences are essential not only in foreseeing the possible evolutions of these procedural models, but also from the perspective of the European Code of Civil Procedure imagined by the European Parliament, which tasked the Commission with presenting a legislative proposal regarding the shared minimum standards for civil proceedings. According to the Parliament, these standards should constitute the core of the future Code.
The abandonment of the Eventualmaxime and the introduction even in France and in Belgium of the principle of orality on the one hand and the application of the preclusion of Zeuner, although in an improper manner, in Italy, Germany and Austria on the other hand may pave the way for the construction of the said European Code starting from an indispensable unitary notion of the “subject matter of the litigation".

The Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople went through a series of changes in the eighteenth century. By 1763 gerontismos was established, and the Patriarchal seal was divided into four. As such, the metropolitans of the Holy Synod gained considerable power in the administration of the Patriarchate vis-à-vis the Patriarchs. The so called “reform of the Synod” was more than a mere internal struggle among the clergymen of the Patriarchate and the Phanariots. It was rather related to the Empire-wide economic developments in connection to the transformation of social roles in the Ottoman society. In the eighteenth century the collaboration between the Ottoman administration and ecclesiastical institutions was in rise, and by the time gerontismos was established, the institutionalization of the Orthodox Church as part of Ottoman administration had been culminated.

The present chapter discusses the superior courts in continental Europe and their procedure in civil matters. The terminology ‘superior court’ will be used for the whole period studied, even though this terminology actually presupposes a strict hierarchy of courts that only came into being in the 19th century within the context of the nation state. ‘Superior’ is used instead of ‘supreme’ since although the courts discussed here were the highest courts in the realm, their judgments could at times be attacked by extraordinary legal remedies. For this reason it is wrong to refer to them as ‘supreme’. The use of ‘central court’as an alternative is also problematic, since often the ‘superior courts’ of the early modern period were not competent for the whole territory of the powers in whose name they administered justice, as a result of which they cannot be qualified as ‘central’. In addition, it should be noted that even though this chapter concentrates on civil litigation, until relatively late in history civil and criminal procedure were not strictly separated from each other. Nevertheless, the chapter will – slightly anachronistically – concentrate on litigation as regards issues that are currently qualified as civil matters.

Libel and Lampoon shows how English satire and the law mutually shaped each other during the long eighteenth century. Following the lapse of prepublication licensing in 1695, the authorities quickly turned to the courts and newly repurposed libel laws in an attempt to regulate the press. In response, satirists and their booksellers devised a range of evasions. Writers increasingly capitalized on forms of verbal ambiguity, including irony, allegory, circumlocution, and indirection, while shifty printers and booksellers turned to a host of publication ruses that complicated the mechanics of both detection and prosecution. In effect, the elegant insults, comical periphrases, and booksellers' tricks that came to typify eighteenth-century satire were a way of writing and publishing born of legal necessity. Early on, these emergent satiric practices stymied the authorities and the courts. But they also led to new legislation and innovative courtroom procedures that targeted satire's most routine evasions. Especially important were a series of rulings that increased the legal liabilities of printers and booksellers and that expanded and refined doctrines for the courtroom interpretation of verbal ambiguity, irony, and allegory. By the mid-eighteenth century, satirists and their booksellers faced a range of newfound legal pressures. Rather than disappearing, however, personal and political satire began to migrate to dramatic mimicry and caricature-acoustic and visual forms that relied less on verbal ambiguity and were therefore not subject to either the provisions of preperformance dramatic licensing or the courtroom interpretive procedures that had earlier enabled the prosecution of printed satire.

The theme of this poem is freedom. In America, people work on their own rules. This is what Walt Whitman described in his poetry. He described that everyone has their own kingdom. On the other hand, in America, everyone is important as described by Walt Whitman through his poem. It is the major theme of this poetry.

Published on Revista Eletrônica de Direito Processual – REDP., Rio de Janeiro. Ano 10. Volume 17. Número 2. Julho a Dezembro de 2016.  SUMÁRIO: 1. Introdução 2. Princípio da legalidade na gestão do processo: origens históricas 3. Garantias constitucionais do processo civil 4. Distinção entre congnição plena e cognição sumária 5. Características fundamentais do “rito ordinário” 6. Modelos de rito ordinário 7. Alternativas 8. Segue: um ou mais modelos de tratamento 9. Segue: prazos legislativos ou judiciais, rígidos ou elásticos 10. Distinção entre cognição plena e cognição sumária: conclusão 11. Situação italiana. No original: Rigidità e flessibilità del processo ordinario di cognizione. Traduzido para o português por Michele Pedrosa Paumgartten, doutoranda em Direito Processual na UERJ, professora de Direito Processual Civil no IBMEC/RJ. O texto constitui a base da intervenção do Professor Remo Caponi na XXV Jornada Iberoamericana de Direito Processual e XI Jornada Brasileira de Direito Processual sobre a “Formação, deformação e transformação do direito processual”, em homenagem à Professora Ada Pelegrini Grinover, Recife , 15-17 de setembro de 2016. As pesquisas que conduziram à elaboração desta contribuição foram convertidas no painel PRIN 2012, 2012SAM3KM, “A codificação do procedimento da União Europeia” (“La codificazione dei procedimenti dell’Unione europea”),  coordenado pelo prof. Jacques Ziller, Università degli studi di Pavia, financiado pelo MIUR.

Les divers atermoiements, au moment d la conquête britannique du Québec, des législateurs sur la bonne forme de procédure qui devait être choisie, soit la procédure française, soit la procédure de common law. In fine, c'est une procédure mise qui apparait en creux de ces décennies.

One of the main purposes of private international law is the resolution of conflicts of jurisdiction in civil matters. In the European Union (EU), this goal is pursued by an articulate body of Regulations, forming part of what is usually labelled as ‘European procedural law’ or ‘European civil procedure’. In criminal law, by contrast, no such system exists: although Eurojust aims at resolving conflicts of jurisdiction by facilitating the identification of the jurisdiction that should prosecute cross-border crimes,  no hard-law instrument regulates this matter in a binding fashion.
Having noted this legislative gap, in January 2013 the European Law Institute accepted a project proposal dealing with the prevention and settlement of conflicts of jurisdiction in criminal law. One of the tasks of the Working Group focusing on this project was a comparison between private international law and criminal matters, so as to assess whether and to what extent the solutions adopted in the former field could be successfully transposed to the latter. This Chapter presents some reflections of the topic, triggered by the Working Group’s meetings and discussions.
The Chapter proceeds in three parts. The first part preliminarily highlights some fundamental differences between civil and criminal justice, which must be taken into account. As the Chapter will show, the differences at hand constrain, to a certain extent, the feasibility of a cross-sectoral comparative exercise, but they by no means make it impossible. The second part looks at private international law in general and argues that some of its basic principles should be adopted in the field of conflicts of jurisdiction in criminal law too. Finally, the third part draws some specific lessons from European civil procedure in particular.

Die Eventualmaxime in der Prozessaufnahmeverhandlung der Plósz'schen Zivilprozessordnung

Laut der ersten ungarischen Zivilprozessordnung (GA I von 1911) war die mündliche Verhandlung ein einheitliches Ganzes, welches sich nicht im Rahmen nach der Anzahl bestimmter, formeller Prozessreden bewegt, sondern solange fortzusetzen war, die An- gelegenheit zur endlichen Entscheidung geeignet war. Im Allgemeinen hat das Gesetz die Eventualmaxime nicht angewendet. Natürlich gab es Situationen, wenn die Anwen- dung dieses Prinzips notwendig war. Die prozesshindernden Einreden waren die wich- tigsten Beispiele dafür, die in der Regel in der Prozessaufnahmeverhandlung erledigt werden mussten. Noch vor Beginn der meritorischen Verhandlung musste in erster Linie die Frage entschieden werden, ob der Prozess unter den vorliegenden Umständen zustande gekommen ist. Im Mittelpunkt der Studie stehen zwei Hauptfragen. Einerseits untersucht es, wie die prozesshindernden Einreden vorgebracht werden mussten. Ein Element der Eventualmaxime war der gleichzeitige Vortrag, was hier auch bemerkt werden konnte. Andererseits war die Form der Entscheidung fraglich. In dem Verfahren vor dem Gerichtshofe entschied das Gericht diese Frage jedes Mal mittels Urteil, in welchem auch der Tatbestand festzustellen war. Das Gericht hatte in diesen Urteilen in Ansehung des Ersatzes der Prozesskosten von Amts wegen Verfügung zu treffen, deshalb untersucht die Studie prozessköstliche Fragen auch.

Over the last few centuries witness testimony in civil procedure has evolved, in the main civil law jurisdictions, from a written formality towards live interrogation that guarantees immediacy. International arbitration, in contrast, seems to be taking the reverse route. Originally conceived as an informal, flexible process, in the last few decades it is producing procedural features that increasingly rely on the written element. My project aims to explore whether contemporary international arbitration may benefit from the experience and knowledge accumulated over centuries to avoid the drawbacks of rigid written procedural formalities and restore oral witness testimony to its quintessential role and purpose.

Sommario: 1. La mai sopita diatriba tra pubblico e privato nella giustizia civile. Una notazione di metodo. 2. Attualità del dibattito nel diritto comparato (specie con riferimento al contesto statunitense). 2.1. (Segue). Brevi note sulla privatizzazione della giustizia civile. 3. Interessi privati e valori pubblici nelle funzioni della tutela civile. 4. Interessi privati e valori pubblici nella struttura della tutela civile. Sull’ “autoritarismo” processuale. 4.1. Dovere di verità e poteri del giudice (case-management). 5. Conclusioni. L’innegabile valore pubblico del processo, oggi (alcuni parallelismi inaspettati tra common law e civil law).

We can argue that the hospital, as an institution, is probably one of the oldest creations of mankind. Intertemporal hospitals fulfill a twofold function: On one hand, they operate as healing centers applying the contemporary principles of medicine, philosophy, and technology and on the other hand, they work following the dominant social values and hierarchies, ideologies and perceptions about health and sickness. Hospitals provide us with complex and concise manner glimpses of the principle values of each civilization and its transformations at a specific time and place. In each different geographical and historical context, hospitals are the symbols of social solidarity and acceptance forms of public policy concerning healthcare. The concepts and limits of healthcare are dynamic rather than static and are constantly reshaping according to changes in the social, cultural, political and economic fabric of every society.
During the 19th-century structural reforms and changes took place in the Ottoman Empire. These changes in the Ottoman province of Crete (Vilayet-i Girit) were enhanced due to local factors like the various political and economic concessions of the Ottoman government to the local population or the gradual empowerment of the Christian population over the Muslim. The sectors of medicine, public health, and healthcare, in general, were deeply affected by these changes. The focal point of this paper will be the first civil hospital that operated on the island, the Christian hospital of the city of Heraklion (Kandiye in Ottoman) during the 19th century. The basic source of this paper will be four regulations and laws that regulated the function of this particular hospital: the first known Internal Regulation of the hospital (1863), the Regulations for the Social Institutions of Heraklion (1876) and the First (1879) and Second (1888) Municipal Law of Crete. These four chief sources will be supplemented with other relevant archival documents.

Charles Brockden Brown's American Gothic is distinctly American in its dealings with Revolutionary-era culture and distinctly Gothic in its subversion of the foundational aspects of this culture. Brown draws upon his own revolutionary experience, to first connect, then criticize the two main tenents of the transatlantic migration of ideologies to America. The two, seemingly opposite, ideologies in question being radical German-Protestant theology and the political and socio-economic philosophies of the Enlightenment. Brown creates an obvious commonality between the two opposing concepts through the common thread of, “seeking illumination,” or in other words, the assertion of ultimate truths about man and society. He will use this blind, but clearly present, contradiction to allude to the greater stage of early American socio-politics as a whole and the bi-partisan system emerging in the 1790s. He makes the point that that most of these ideologies—including the alluded to partisan politics of Federalism and Jeffersonian Republicanism—express dissatisfaction with Old-World politics, while
operating by the same social undercurrent of economic motivation and individualism. General scholarship on Charles Brockden Brown and the American Gothic indeed focuses on his Quaker upbringing, revolutionary experience, and lack of discernible partisan allegiance, but also seems to be missing a larger picture. That is, an unlikely kinship can be traced through Marxist ideological theory to the time of early America and what Brown was noticing in his society. Charles Brockden Brown is among the first to view American history objectively and self-consciously, challenging these emerging narratives and becoming critical of the American democratic process' proneness to manipulation.

Most of the contemporary texts dealing with the war year 1866 contain mentions of the course and consequences of the cholera epidemic brought to Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia by the Prussian army of occupation. In the sources we examined, certain thematic frameworks or figures were repeated, which can be summarized as follows: 1) Metaphorical names for cholera or its symptoms; 2) Speculation about the  causes; 3) The causal connection between the epidemic and the Prussian army’s lack of moderation as regards diet; 4) Relationship with the social status of the infected (deceased); 5) Metaphorical designations for the spread of the epidemic in the given localities; 6) Previous „epidemics” of panic fear and anxiety; 7) Methods of prevention and treatment; 8) Lay notions of symptoms; 9) High mortality and its impact on church activities.