Coffee Processing

Coffee: A Comprehensive Guide to the Bean, the Beverage, and the Industry offers a definitive guide to the many rich dimensions of the bean and the beverage around the world. Leading experts from business and academia consider coffee’s history, global spread, cultivation, preparation, marketing, and the environmental and social issues surrounding it today. They discuss, for example, the impact of globalization; the many definitions of organic, direct trade, and fair trade; the health of female farmers; the relationships among shade, birds, and coffee; roasting as an art and a science; and where profits are made in the commodity chain. Drawing on interviews and the lives of people working in the business—from pickers and roasters to coffee bar owners and consumers—this book brings a compelling human side to the story.

The authors avoid romanticizing or demonizing any group in the business. They consider basic but widely misunderstood issues such as who adds value to the bean, the constraints of peasant life, and the impact of climate change. Moving beyond simple answers, they represent various participants in the supply chain and a range of opinions about problems and suggested solutions in the industry. Coffee offers a multidimensional examination of a deceptively everyday but extremely complex commodity that remains at the center of many millions of lives. Tracing coffee’s journey from field to cup, this handbook to one of the world’s favorite beverages is an essential guide for professionals, coffee lovers, and students alike.

Contributions by: Sarah Allen, Jonathan D. Baker, Peter S. Baker, Jonathan Wesley Bell, Clare Benfield, H. C. "Skip" Bittenbender, Connie Blumhardt, Willem Boot, Carlos H. J. Brando, August Burns, Luis Alberto Cuéllar, Olga Cuellar, Kenneth Davids, Jim Fadden, Elijah K. Gichuru, Jeremy Haggar, Andrew Hetzel, George Howell, Juliana Jaramillo, Phyllis Johnson, Lawrence W. Jones, Alf Kramer, Ted Lingle, Stuart McCook, Michelle Craig McDonald, Sunalini Menon, Jonathan Morris, Joan Obra, Price Peterson, Rick Peyser, Sergii Reminny, Paul Rice, Robert Rice, Carlos Saenz, Vincenzo Sandalj, Jinap Selamat, Colin Smith, Shawn Steiman, Robert W. Thurston, Steven Topik, Tatsushi Ueshima, Camilla C. Valeur, Geoff Watts, and Britta Zeitemann

During coffee fermentation, different physical, chemical and sensory changes occur in the substrate, the mucilage, which occur due to the microorganisms present such as lactic acid bacteria and yeasts, which depend on the ambient temperature and the conditions of the substrate. The temperature can be controlled to achieve consistent production of coffee beans and specialty coffee beans.

L'histoire de la société « Plantations du Congo oriental », fondée en 1926 par Fernand Delmotte en Ituri, dans la province orientale du Congo belge, s'inscrit dans l'histoire de cette colonie mais aussi dans l'histoire d'un produit tropical et d’un marché mondial : le café. Fernand Delmotte a d’abord été fonctionnaire dans les chemins de fer puis aux Mines d’or de Kilo et Moto jusqu’en 1926, date à laquelle il fonde la Planco avec, comme actionnaires, des membres de sa famille et des amis à Tournai en Belgique, siège administratif de la société. La propriété contenant 450 hectares de caféières avait comme superficie 1185 hectares en 1943 et comprenait aussi un village pour les travailleurs, des routes, un barrage hydraulique sur la rivière Awo et une usine de traitement pour la préparation du café. Alors que la production de café débute réellement en 1929, la société subit de plein fouet la crise des années trente. Elle fait face à de nombreuses vicissitudes, climatiques, organisationnelles et conjoncturelles jusqu’en 1939, date à laquelle le directeur est remplacé par une personne extérieure. En 1940, elle perd la totalité de la production de 1000 tonnes, la plus importante, à cause de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Elle est alors obligée de recourir à un emprunt pour survivre. Les données et les chiffres des archives, déposées à l’université catholique de Louvain, montrent que le café produit était de la meilleure qualité. L’apport scientifique de ce travail historique est de montrer la vie des colons au Congo belge dans la première moitié du XXe siècle. Ce sujet est oublié et peu abordé dans l’historiographie de l’Etat indépendant du Congo et du Congo belge qui lui a succédé en 1908. Il se fonde sur des faits précis, objectifs et donne la parole aux colons pour comprendre quelle fut leur situation dans la colonie.

"Purpose - Purpose This cross-country study compares Colombia and Vietnam, two of the major coffee exporting countries in the world, in terms of their infrastructures, the roles of external shocks, technology adoption at different stages of production, added value, positioning in both domestic and global markets, internationalisation patterns, marketing and branding innovations, regulatory frameworks, and policy environments. This study also explores other aspects linked to production, and marketing strategies that open niche markets like speciality coffees, and socially-, labour- and environmentally- responsible trade. Furthermore, it identifies opportunities of cooperation and competition between these two countries.

Design/methodology/approach - Using value chain analysis as primary research method, this paper identifies links and dynamics in the value chains that have been developed in the coffee industry in both countries to improve competitiveness, increase sustainability, and respond to market demands.

Findings - Using value chain analysis, it was found that Colombia and Vietnam produce different types of coffee, they both have implemented diverse strategies in order to be more competitive in domestic and foreign markets via product differentiation. These differences make explicit room for cooperation between these two countries in an international environment where fierce competition persists.

Research limitations/implications - This cross-country study is limited to compare Colombia and Vietnam, and it is limited to identify links and dynamics in the value chains that have been developed in the coffee industry in both countries to improve competitiveness, increase sustainability, and respond to market demands.

Originality/value - Cooperation between producing countries is an under-researched subject. These findings will be useful both for policy makers in coffee producing countries and agribusiness researchers."

This work was conducted to study the predictive ability of a range of rapid scanning methodologies to estimate raw material composition and processing variability for freezedried soluble coffee. To this purpose a series of soluble coffee samples were evaluated by a range of techniques (Chemsensor, Raman, FT-IR, NIR) and the resulting individual spectra evaluated for their predictive ability.

In this research concentrations of total sugars, reducing sugars, acidity and alcohol of coffee mucilage during 74 hoursfermentation at ambient temperature were quantified. With these experimental data, equations, kinetic coeficients were found. The changes in the concentrations of sugars, acids and ethanol in the fermentation of coffee mucilage varied through time, thus, initially the speed was slow, thenfaster until it reached a maximum value, then this rate decreased until the concentrations of substrate and products remainedalmost constant. After 20 hours, 15.9% of initial reducing sugars werefermented and 20% of total sugars were degraded; between 45 and 47 h the maxima speed of fermentation was reached and the concentration of sugars in the substrate decreased nearly to half its initial value.

Central Composite Design (CCD) was used to optimise temperature and time of Robusta coffee beans roasting. Current method of roasting was able to give good quality beans in term of flavour but the formation of acrylamide was not studied. In this study, optimization was based on high quantity of flavour compounds (pyrazines) with low level of acrylamide resulted in roasting temperature and time of 180ºC and 26 minutes, respectively. The coffee beans produced using the optimized conditions have the following characteristics: colour; L* 10.47-15.45, a* 2.78-4.69and b* 6.11-10.95; flavour compounds: 2,3,5 trimethyl pyrazine (0.832mg/100g), 2,3 dimethyl pyrazine (1.69mg/100g), 2 methyl pyrazine (0.49mg/100g) and 2,5 dimethyl pyrazine (0.62mg/100g) and low concentration of acrylamide (0.23mg/100g). This proposed roasting condition will be very useful for coffee manufacturers in order to produce high quality coffee beans.

In this research concentrations of total sugars, reducing sugars, acidity and alcohol of coffee mucilage during 74 hours fermentation at ambient temperature were quantified. With these experimental data, equations, kinetic coefficients and the rates of degradation and production in fermentation of coffee mucilage were found. The changes in the concentrations of sugars, acids and ethanol in the fermentation of coffee mucilage varied through time, thus, initially the speed was slow, then faster until it reached a maximum value, then this rate decreased until the concentrations of substrate and products remained almost constant. The following kinetic coefficients were found, 0.055 h -1 for reducing sugars, 0.048 h -1 for total sugars, 0.076 h -1 for acidification and 0.064 h -1 for the production of ethanol. After 20 hours, 15.9% of initial reducing sugars were fermented and 20% of total sugars were degraded; between 45 and 47 h the maxima speed of fermentation was reached and the conc...

Both postprandial hypotension and hypertension are associated with arteriosclerosis and hypertension. We aimed to review the effects of coffee and tea on postprandial hemodynamic, in light of the pharmacokinetic of phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds of coffee and teas improve flow-mediated dilation, hypotension or hypertension after meal. O-methylation, microbial metabolism and food matrix effects could account for some contrasting results after meal. In the postprandial reviewed studies, the absence of relationship between cardiovascular and oxidative stress do not support the hypothesis that phenolic compounds improve the cardiovascular changes by increasing the bioavailability of nitric oxide. On the other hand, phenolic compounds and their metabolites could affect sympathetic nervous system, angiotensin I-converting enzyme and postprandial insulin. In conclusion, the beneficial effects of phenolic compounds from coffee and tea on postprandial hemodynamic could be more likely due to pharmacological rather than to antioxidant effects.

In the context of the current, flourishing specialty coffee industry, the processing of the coffee bean at the origin is increasingly becoming the main differentiation tool for specialty coffee producers around the world. The processing method of coffee at the origin may be one of three main types, depending on how the fleshy parts of the coffee fruit are removed and how the coffee bean is dried. The three main processing methods are often referred to as the washed process, pulped natural process and natural process.
The natural process consists of drying the whole coffee fruit like a prune prior to removing the pulp. It is the oldest processing method known and is currently gaining interest from the specialty coffee industry. The reasons for this are threefold – the ‘characteristic’ flavour of natural coffee is sought as a means for differentiation; natural coffee is a key ingredient of high quality espresso blends, and it is generally considered as more sustainable than other methods as it does not require water. The specialty coffee industry often describes the characteristic flavour of naturals as ‘fruity’ or ‘winey’, which is a profile sometimes called ‘Mocha’. The flavour of natural coffee is thus currently in the focus of the specialty coffee industry. However, little is known of how the flavour is formed, the compounds responsible for it and how the process might be controlled so as to allow a reproducible expression of that flavour. Thus, the overall aim of this research was to understand the flavour of Arabica natural coffee as a product class and to understand the main formation pathway during the post-harvest drying process. This aim was achieved through a series of studies, to address 5 specific objectives.
The first objective was to develop a rapid flavour-profiling method based on the analysis of coffee cupping (coffee tasting) data. The second objective was to determine the effect of post-harvest processing methods (washed, natural and pulped natural) on the sensory profile of coffee. Both objectives were addressed in Chapter 3, where the effect of the main post-harvest processing methods on the sensory profile of coffee was investigated. Coffee tasting data from previous, unpublished research was analysed using a novel technique called Descriptive Cupping. The cupping data pertained to coffee cherries from 22 farms in the state of Guerrero, Mexico, which were processed using four post-harvest treatments: natural process, pulped-natural process and two variations of the washed process including fermentation under water and dry fermentation. The samples were then hulled and assessed by licensed Q Graders (certified coffee tasters) using the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) cupping (coffee tasting) protocol. The qualitative descriptors provided by the cuppers were used to investigate differences in the sensory profile of the coffees produced from the four methods. Descriptor categories used by the cuppers (descriptor subgroups) were consolidated and integrated into a frequency table. Global chi-square (χ2), χ2 per-cell and non-symmetric correspondence analysis (NSCA) were performed on the frequency table.
The third objective was to characterise the sensory profiles of coffee processed using natural post-harvest methods. This objective was addressed in Chapter 4. Samples (22) of natural coffee, received from different origins, were assessed by a cupping panel trained at the University of Otago, and flavour profiles were generated using Descriptive Cupping. Chapter 4 also addressed the second objective by assessing washed coffee samples (9, coming from the same farms as 9 of the natural coffees) as points of reference.
The fourth objective was to identify flavour compounds responsible for key flavours of coffee processed using natural post-harvest methods. It was addressed in Chapter 5, where the same samples used for Chapter 4 were characterised using analytical methods. The headspace of the roasted coffee beans was analysed using Solid-Phase Extraction-Gas Chromatography coupled to Olfactometry and Mass Spectrometry (SPE-GC-MS/O) and Static Headspace- Gas Chromatography coupled to Olfactometry and Mass Spectrometry (SH-GC-O/MS). The headspace of the green coffee beans was analysed as supplementary data using Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometry (PTR-MS). The analytical results and the Descriptive Cupping results were analysed together using Multiple Factor Analysis (MFA).
The fifth objective was to investigate the effect of different natural post-harvest processing treatments (by favouring different fermentative populations) on flavour profiles and specific flavour compounds. This objective was addressed in Chapters 6 and 7. In Chapter 6, different natural coffee processing treatments (7) were compared, using the same raw material. The processing treatments were designed to vary the drying rate of different sections of the drying curve to favour fermentation by different kinds of microbial populations. A washed coffee sample was also produced as a witness from the same raw material. The resulting samples were characterised using Descriptive Cupping by a cupping panel from New Zealand and another cupping panel from Mexico. The results from both panels were compared using MFA. In Chapter 7, these samples were characterised by the analytical methods (GC-MS/O and PTR-MS) used for the previous studies and both analytical and Descriptive Cupping data were integrated in an MFA.
An effect of the processing method on the flavour profile was found in Chapter 3, whereby the natural samples were characterised by tropical-fruity, dried-fruity, red-fruity or fermented flavour notes. Washed samples showed floral, spicy, or nutty flavour notes, while pulped-naturals tended to have a flavour profile that could range from natural to washed coffee. In the case of Chapter 4, the effect of the country of origin on coffee flavour was found to be more important than the effect of processing. This was linked to different geographically-concentrated factors, including the drying technology. Only when natural coffees showed a ‘Mocha’ character (fruitiness or wineyness) did they become clearly different from washed coffees. Moreover, the absence or presence of the ‘Mocha’ character was also found to be one of the main sources of variation within the natural coffees as a group.
In Chapter 5, thermal degradation products of sugars and Maillard reaction products were found to have an important role in the differentiation of samples. However, the main factors explaining the ‘Mocha’ character were associated with both amino acid catabolism (of valine, isoleucine and leucine) and ethanol fermentation. The esters produced by the ethyl esterification of 2- and 3-methylbutanoic acid were linked to a fresh, red-fruity character (strawberry, blueberry), which is the most common description of specialty natural coffees.
In Chapter 6 similar product spaces were obtained by the New Zealand and Mexican panels and coherence in the use of descriptors such as fermented was achieved. Overall, Descriptive Cupping was shown to be a rapid method for profiling coffee flavour with satisfactory levels of discriminating power and satisfactory panel-to-panel agreement.
In Chapters 6 and 7, the most distinct natural drying treatment was found to be the one termed ‘honeying’ treatment for the purpose of this thesis, which involved suspending the drying for the first two days. This resulted in an intense fermentation with a high production of ethanol, which confirmed ethanol plays a key role in the formation of fruity esters.
This research achieved its objectives by characterising the flavour of natural coffee from the sensory and analytical points of view. Findings from this research contribute to the field of coffee science by providing the industry and future researchers with an explanation for the formation of characteristic fruity and winey flavours in natural coffee. Based on the findings of this research, coffee producers will be able to better control the flavour outcome of natural coffee. Further research is needed to characterise the role of non-volatile constituents of natural coffee, as well as to understand the role of specific fermentation types in the development of natural coffee flavour. Generally speaking, further research is needed to understand how to better control the coffee flavour outcome.

Coffee is a complex product currently transitioning from the commodity paradigm to the specialty product paradigm, for which flavor is increasingly important as the characteristic that determines the value of a lot of coffee. This chapter examines the concept of coffee quality in the light of both paradigms: traditional coffee grading systems are compared to the specialty coffee grading system. The importance of cupping (sensory evaluation) of cupping as a decision-making tool along the coffee value chain is discussed. A novel methodology to analyze cupping results – termed Descriptive Cupping – is presented, as a rapid descriptive sensory analysis method that uses data from specialty cuppings. To exemplify the Descriptive Cupping methodology, an applied case is included: a comparison of the flavor profile obtained using different processing methods in farms located in Yunnan, China, in which Descriptive Cupping is applied to understand the effect of natural, washed or honey process on the flavor character of Yunnan coffees.

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The coffee processing agro-industry generates large quantities of wastewater requiring systematic treatment prior to disposal. For this reason, the aim of this study was to evaluate the hydraulic retention times (HRT) in treatment of coffee processing wastewater (CPWW) using a laboratory scale Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) bioreactor at different HRT (3 to 9 days). The EGSB was evaluated in mesophilic condition (26 ± 2 • C) with an average pH of 7.5 ± 0.2 to determine the chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency. According to the results, the COD removal efficiency increases from 94 to 98% when the HRT increase from 3 to 9 days; the α factor remained stable (0.98) throughout the evolution of the bioreactor. The HRT´s between 7-9 days generated effluents capable to be dischargeable into water bodies with a permitted COD concentration according to World Health Organization (WHO) and Official Mexican Environmental Regulations permissible limits. Results evidenced that the HRT of 9 days was the one that greater COD removal generated, so the EGSB bioreactor can be a sustainable alternative to solve the environmental problems, compared to other conventional methods to CPWW treatment.

Ethiopia is the origin of Arabica coffee. This study was conducted to see the influence of green coffee processing methods and roasting temperatures on sensory and physical quality of brew. Wet and dry processed coffee samples were separately roasted with three different temperatures (190 C, 210 C and 230 C). The physical and sensory quality attributes of coffee were evaluated. Green coffee processing methods and roasting temperatures; separately and in combination, had significant effect on both the sensory and physical properties of the beans and brews. The wet processing method significantly enhanced coffee quality over the dry one. Dry processed coffee samples had only fuller body test than wet processed coffee samples. The highest roasting temperature (230 C) significantly enhanced coffee quality over the other roasting temperatures. The interaction effect of processing method and roasting temperatures was also significant. The general finding of the present study was that wet ...