Earthen Architecture

Earthen mortars from Cremona are a mixture of soil and/or sand and lime. Three types of earthen mortars have been identified. Between the XVII and the XVIII centuries a technology change took place. Organic and inorganic additives were used to improve the performances of earthen mortars. a b s t r a c t Earthen architectures were widespread in the town of Cremona (Northern Italy) until the first decades of the XX century. An archaeometric study of earthen mortars from buildings of different ages in Cremona allowed investigating the evolution throughout centuries of a well-established masonry tradition. Three typologies of earthen mortars were identified, differing in the amount of added lime. A two-step change in the technology of earthen mortars manufacturing has been inferred. Since the XVII century, lime was added in larger amounts to the mixtures. During the XVIII–XIX centuries, organic additives were employed to further improve the performances of the earthen mortars.

The main purpose of this thesis is to prove that Earthen Architecture is a feasible, affordable, durable, cost-effective, environmentally-friendly, alternative to modern time's construction materials, and to all the related methods, techniques, and practices. As the negative impact of the modern construction materials has without doubt many dimensions, by systematically criticizing Modern Architecture in all its aspects, we discover the numerous ensuing problems that can be quite diverse of nature, theoretical, technical, social, economic, environmental, cultural and scientific.

Through another viewpoint, an in-depth examination of the modern construction side effects which helps us realize the challenges that Modern material causes at a global level; this examination makes clear that the modern times construction materials are unsustainable, and so are most of the techniques involved. That is why, it would be very important to understand that environmental damages are not caused only in the building phase, and that the use of modern construction materials causes a troublesome amount of pollution in both, the pre-building and the post-building phases.

Earthen Architecture is nowadays viewed as an alternative construction method that involves diverse materials and incorporates a wide range of modern techniques and technologies; however, Earthen Architecture is not really something 'new' to the mankind. Earthen Architecture is a construction method that goes back to thousands of years and reflects a universal architectural tradition that was used in both, early cultures of the Neolithic Age and all the important historical civilizations in Asia, Africa, Europe and America. The study of historical examples (whereby wood, stone, thatch and earth were used as architectural material) does offer to today's architects and scholars an insight into how the historical architectural knowhow can be re-employed and be at the same time very well adapted to the particular characteristics of each locality and habitat, while also facilitating and ameliorating the construction process due to modern technology.

In addition, this thesis is a selected models or types of Earthen Architecture used in diverse projects carried out in different places offers to today's architectural scholarship the most persuasive argument for the need of Earthen Building as an environmentally-friendly, sustainable and cost-efficient alternative to modern construction. The use of Earthen Architecture in today's world can be quite extensive and address the needs of many economic sectors, namely Education, Culture, Health, Public Administration, Tourism, Trade, and Construction (residential districts).

Key words: Construction, Earthen Building, Environment, Sustainable, cost-effective

In molti contesti preistorici e protostorici italiani sono largamente rinvenuti resti strutturali in terra e conglomerati architettonici combusti o parzialmente cementati. La loro caratterizzazione tecnologica è un passo importante per ottenere dati rigurdanti la paleoeconomia,  lo sfruttamento delle risorse e l’esistenza di tradizioni costruttive su scala locale o regionale. L’integrazione al protocollo di analisi tecnologica di osservazioni effettuate ad occhio nudo o con microscopio ottico su sezioni levigate può aiutare ad una migliore comprensione dei resti in una fase intermedia dello studio, successiva alla loro caratterizzazione morfologica ed al riconoscimento di classi di impasto, ma preliminare all’approfondimento dello studio per mezzo di analisi specialistiche. La realizzazione su alcuni campioni di una sezione rettificata e polita (sezione levigata) permette infatti di descrivere con maggiore completezza l’organizzazione e la natura dei componenti, nonché le alterazioni subite dal materiale, ad esempio in caso di esposizione al calore. Si tratta dunque di associare le caratteristiche osservate ai meccanismi di deformazione della materia e a gesti specifici, che una volta messi in sequenza potranno permettere di ricostruire materie prime utilizzate, tecniche e catene operative. Qualche osservazione rilevante può riguardare anche le dinamiche di funzionamento delle strutture o il loro ingresso nel record archeologico. Sono qua presentati alcuni casi studio e chiavi di lettura preliminari, da completare ed affinare con l’avanzamento delle ricerche. Le prime applicazioni di tale tecnica hanno fornito risultati incoraggianti, soprattutto per il rapporto positivo tra massa di dati prodotta e costo finanziario ridotto.

Guaranteeing protection against the climatic elements no longer represents the single purpose of a building. Thermal comfort and well-being of its occupants has become increasingly important as living standards of modern societies have risen considerably, mostly made possible by a constant and inexpensive supply of energy from fossil fuels. This energy used to heat and cool our buildings, is now recognised as a major contributing factor for climate change, caused by greenhouse gas emissions in the environment. There is hence, an urgent need to move towards environmentally sustainable buildings which maintain comfort while reducing their dependence on fossil fuels, to minimise and counter this threat posed by climate change. Earth, represents a low environmental impact building material and has been used for centuries, in traditional and vernacular architecture to provide comfort by responding to local climatic conditions. Revisiting those techniques and applying current knowledge and skills to earth architecture, has the potential to contribute towards reducing the environmental impact of present day buildings while still maintaining comfortable conditions for the occupants. Previous research has mostly studied the technical aspects of earth construction, with limited focus on thermal performance of earth buildings and especially, its relation to the thermal comfort of the occupants. Within this context, this study tests the viability of employing earth construction in low rise dwellings with a particular emphasis on its thermal performance. This paper reflects the study carried out within the framework of an MSc thesis, on the analyses of the thermal performance of contemporary earth houses, focusing on three case studies located in the southern area of Alentejo in Portugal. The methodology used combines thermal modelling of the houses with real data collection of internal temperatures during both the summer and the winter periods. It is accompanied with occupant surveys to assess the users' perception of internal conditions within the house. The study hence focuses on both the 'hard' quantifiable data and the less identifiable but equally important 'soft' qualitative information from the surveys, to holistically evaluate the role of earth construction in achieving thermal comfort in contemporary dwellings in Portugal as well as its possible contribution towards a more sustainable future. The findings from this research work led to the conclusion that rammed earth, when used with no insulation, although it shows a very effective thermal behaviour during the summer fails to provide comfortable thermal conditions during the coldest periods of the year. However, this problem can be overcome when insulation is used, thus providing thermal comfort both during the winter and during the summer.

Università degli Studi Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria - Dipartimento DARTE - Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Architettura U.E. - A.A. 2013/2014
DESERTI E KASBEH
L’oasi di Skoura. Un progetto di rappresentazione
Tesi di Laurea in Architettura
Laureanda: Pietropaolo Chiara
Relatore: Prof.Arch. Gaetano Ginex
Correlatore: Arch. Giuseppe Mazzacuva

La mobilisation des matières premières « terre » et « fibre végétale » dans la construction, utilisées séparément ou ensemble, relève de longues traditions à  travers tous les continents. De multiples techniques utilisant ces ressources  ont  été  développées  en  fonction  de particularités  qui  dépendent  de  contextes  géologiques, géographiques, climatiques et culturels, mais aussi de la nécessité de faire avec les moyens disponibles sur place.

Aujourd’hui, le recours aux énergies fossiles doit être réduit drastiquement en raison des émissions de gaz à effet de  serre  (GES)  et  du  réchauffement  climatique  qu’il  induit.  Devant  l’urgence  actuelle  de  réduire  l’impact environnemental  du  secteur  du  bâtiment,  on  assiste  à  un  intérêt  mondial  croissant  pour  des  matériaux  peu consommateurs de ressources non-renouvelables, à la fois pour leur fabrication et pour leur mise en œuvre.

Cette  attention  particulière  pour  les  matériaux  «  bas  carbone  »  croise  celle  d’une  meilleure  efficience énergétique pendant la phase d’utilisation du bâti, notamment par une isolation thermique adaptée. Dans de telles perspectives, il a été prouvé que l’utilisation de matériaux biosourcés peut impacter très efficacement la consommation  énergétique  des  bâtiments  (C&B,  2012).  Par  ailleurs,  un  retour  à  la  construction  de  murs régulateurs  du  confort thermique  et peu  énergivores  est également  primordial,  car  il  constituerait  l’une  des réponses  à  adopter  face  à  l’évolution  actuelle  des  exigences  en  termes  de  confort  thermique  et,  de  façon générale, pour un environnement bâti sain.

Au Sénégal, le roseau Typha australis est devenu envahissant, notamment dans les fleuves et lacs du nord du pays. Jusqu’à présent, il était considéré à juste titre comme nuisible. L’exploitation raisonnée de cette plante, transformée en ressource-matière, constitue ainsi une opportunité en vue de contribuer à un développement local durable au Sénégal. C’est dans ce cadre qu’a été lancé le Projet PNEEB / TYPHA :
« Transfert de technologie : Projet de production de matériaux d’isolation thermique à base de Typha ». Afin de le mettre en œuvre, le projet a  engagé  CRAterre  pour  des  services  de  Recherche  et  Développement  qui  concernent  la  production  et l’utilisation, au Sénégal, de matériaux de construction à base de Typha et de terre.

Qu’il s’agisse de maçonnerie en terre avec des matériaux denses et monolithiques, ou d’éléments légers et de petites dimensions, ou encore d’isolants  thermiques en doublage de parois existantes, ces stratégies doivent être pensées de manière globale à l’échelle de l’habitat (elles doivent par exemple inclure une réflexion sur la gestion des protections solaires, de la ventilation et de l’humidité).

La réflexion menée sur la production des éléments de construction en terre et en Typha a donc été menée dans ce sens :
•      rechercher de modes de construction économiques,
•      utiliser de matériaux moins dépendants des énergies fossiles,
•      redécouvrir des qualités urbaines et architecturales du patrimoine et des savoirs y afférents,
•      mettre à profit des propriétés thermomécaniques inhérentes aux matières premières naturelles.

Ce  rapport  constitue  donc  tout  d’abord  une  capitalisation  des  recherches  bibliographiques  et  des expérimentations  menées  sur  les  matières  premières  «  Terre  »  et  «  Typha  »,  ainsi  que  sur  les  éléments constructifs qui ont été produits dans le cadre du projet. Il propose ainsi :
•      un aperçu de l’état actuel des connaissances sur  les propriétés mécaniques et hygrothermiques du Typha australis, ainsi qu’un panorama d’applications sur le Typha et les mélanges de Typha et de terre, réalisées dans plusieurs pays et dans différents laboratoires de recherche,
•      un compte-rendu du travail effectué et des activités organisées durant les deux années du projet.

La synthèse globale des résultats atteints est présentée en trois parties et huit chapitres :
•    La première partie constitue la dimension « recherche en amont » sur les matières et les matériaux Typha et Terre-Typha
  o  dans le chapitre 1 nous présenterons le cadre de la recherche, les antécédents à la phase actuelle de R&D, les livrables rendus en accord avec les termes de références,
  o  le chapitre 2 nous permettra d’exposer quelques prérequis et définitions préalables sur les propriétés que nous recherchons dans les éléments de construction que nous avons développés  et,  à  cet  égard,  pourquoi  les  matériaux  à  base  de  «  Typha  »  sont particulièrement intéressants,
  o  le chapitre 3 constituera un aperçu des méthodes suivies pour initier et développer la démarche de recherche-développement ancrée à la fois sur une prospection théorique et pratique ainsi que sur une recherche participative.
•    La deuxième partie présente les résultats de la R&D, tant sur la mise au point de méthodes spécifiques que sur les objectifs atteints. Elle suit la logique de « Recherche et Développement », à savoir une démarche qui débute avec l’analyse des « matières premières »  et qui va jusqu’à la proposition de « systèmes constructifs » :
  o  le chapitre 4 dresse un bilan des activités ainsi qu’une synthèse des livrables exigés pour la R&D,
  o  le chapitre 5 restitue les résultats du volet d’identification des
« matières premières » afin de les transformer en « matériaux »,
  o  le chapitre 6 présente la mise au point des « éléments de construction » ainsi que le développement  des  «équipements  »  et
« outils  »  spécifiques  nécessaires  à  leur production.
  o  le chapitre 7 décrit les modalités de mise-en-œuvre des éléments de construction et comment  ils  s’intègrent  aux  « systèmes  constructifs »  existants  et/ou  comment  ils permettent d’en constituer de nouveaux,
•    La troisième partie est consacrée à l’évaluation des performances des matériaux produits (Typha et Terre-Typha). Cette partie est d’abord basée sur une synthèse de la littérature, puis sur les premiers résultats actuels de la caractérisation des matériaux réalisés :
  o  le  chapitre  8  présente  les  premiers  résultats  des  essais  de  caractérisation hygrothermiques et mécaniques réalisés en laboratoire,
  o  une discussion sur l’ensemble des résultats obtenus est ensuite proposée, permettant de mettre en lumière les résultats probants, les pistes de recherche à poursuivre, ainsi que les compléments d’action nécessaires.
Tous les éléments présentés dans ce rapport constituent des
« propositions » pour le contexte Sénégalais. Les résultats de R&D testés lors des différents essais de mise-en-œuvre ont été sélectionnés et validés par l’équipe PNEEB-Typha. Si ce travail donne déjà des résultats permettant de passer à une phase opérationnelle, il est bien entendu que d’autres équipements de production et d’autres matériaux pourraient être développés par la suite.

Earthen built materials are one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. However, due to the nature of the earthen materials, they are susceptible to deterioration. In this entry, the components, properties and preparation techniques of the earth materials are covered. The pathologies of the earthen materials, including non-structural and structural damages, as well as the factors that lead to the deterioration of earthen materials, including environmental factors, human and animal activity and external factors are discussed in detail.

En contextos arqueológicos es habitual la documentación de estructuras inmuebles en las que se emplea la tierra como material constructivo. Entre las técnicas constructivas con tierra que emplean elementos modulares se encuentran el adobe, el amasado de barro y el terrón. No obstante, a pesar de ser técnicas reconocidas y haber sido empleadas hasta la actualidad, en los estudios arqueológicos se encuentran importantes dificultades para su reconocimiento. La importancia de su correcta identificación reside, sobre todo, en las implicaciones económicas y sociales que se derivan de su aplicación y desarrollo. Con este trabajo abordamos la caracterización de las distintas técnicas señaladas, con el objetivo de contribuir a una mejor diferenciación entre ellas. A través de su descripción y análisis, atendiendo principalmente a sus características macroscópicas, y de la presentación de un caso de estudio específico de la Edad del Bronce de la península ibérica, se aporta una serie de consi...

In spite of the published information concerning earth architecture,its techniques, and its state of art, little attention has beengiven to the area of conservation practice based on the theory ofconservation. This article aims at reviewing conservation theoryprinciples and reasons and their analyses through the earth architectureperspective. In the first part of the article, there is an approachto the Cultural Heritage, followed by conceptual definitions andconservation actions, as well as documental references related tothe “restoration” bases, international charts and Brandi’s Theory.Subsequently, Values and Significance are also analysed, as wellas the factors that enhance them and the Principles for ConservationRecommendations. Some of the Pathologies and Diagnosisare enhanced, followed by some examples of Methodologies ofintervention, and finally, Heritage Management Plans.

Escondida sob espessos e caiados rebocos, ou à vista na sua aparência mais pura, a construção em terra tem na região do Alentejo a sua maior expressão e difusão.
Seja na simplicidade e altivez da arquitectura rural, dos montes ou herdades, ou na implacável serenidade das aldeias e centros urbanos, esta arquitectura assenta no território na forma de uma tradição milenar.
Por todo o Alentejo, e neste caso particular no Concelho de Avis, a arquitectura de tradição popular e vernácula vai aos homens e ao terreno buscar o saber e o material da sua essência e existência.
É neste domínio que o trabalho de investigação da arquitecta Inês Fonseca, fruto da sua tese de mestrado em Recuperação de Património, vem agora, nesta edição, tornar-se um contributo para a melhor compreensão e salvaguarda de uma herança cultural fortíssima, partilhada em todo o mediterrâneo.

Questo intervento intende riportare parte dei risultati ottenuti da una ricerca svolta nella Valle del Drâa (Marocco), nata da un progetto di cooperazione decentrata della regione Toscana (Italia), e sviluppatasi poi nel tempo.
Al progetto di cooperazione hanno partecipato i Dipartimenti di Tecnologia (Prof. S. Mecca e E. Baglioni) e Costruzioni (Prof.ri L. Rovero e U. Tonietti) dell’Università degli Studi di Firenze, la Scuola Professionale Edile di Firenze e l’Istituto per la Conservazione e la Promozione del Patrimonio del Centro Nazionale per la Ricerca di Firenze (Geologo F. Fratini), insieme alla ONG marocchina ADEDRA1, allo scopo di studiare le tecniche costruttive tradizionali della Valle del Drâa e preservarne la conoscenza.

"Home to a recently designated world heritage site, the city of Al Ain in Abu Dhabi Emirate contains many significant archaeological sites dating from the Bronze and Iron ages. Reflecting the historic importance of Al Ain’s oases as crossroads of trade between Oman and the Arabian Gulf, the sites range from large earthen residential settlements to fortified mud brick towers. Archaeological excavations begun in the 1960s left earthen remains exposed, with minimal protection or conservation measures put in place.

Facing the ongoing loss of a number of important sites, the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture and Heritage has undertaken a program of protection, documentation and conservation at two archaeological areas: Hili Archaeological Park and Rumeilah. A comprehensive conditions assessment and site management plan was developed to prioritize critical needs for more than 30 individual structures. The site management planning process was developed with the involvement of conservators, local archaeologists, government officials and the community. This paper describes the management planning and conservation measures implemented at three high priority sites: Hili 8, a fortified mud brick tower from the third millennium BCE; and the Iron Age settlements of Rumeilah and Hili 17. Conservation measures have included emergency reburial of critical features, laboratory characterization to develop compatible conservation materials, laser scanning, and testing and implementation of conservation treatments such as grouting and loss filling. Shelters at selected sites, as well as interpretation schemes including walking paths, signage, and a visitor center, are among the long-term goals of the project at Hili; while continued archaeological and conservation research is the focus at Rumeilah.

"

In the framework of Cultura 2000 – Education and Culture, European Union Programme, a first project named “Terra Incognita – Conservation of European Earthen Architecture” was approved and implemented in 2006-2007. The project provided a general state of the art concerning earthen architecture, particularly in Italy, France, Spain and Portugal. A referenced publication was edited with two scientific books focused on discovering and preserving a common heritage (Guillaud, 2008) (1). With the conclusion of the project, it became relevant to complete an assessment of the state of art of earthen architecture in the European Union, but also to promote initiatives to raise public awareness for earthen architecture, its heritage and its current applications. These aims provided the need for the development of a new project untitled “Terra InCognita – Earthen Architecture in Europe”. The project was approved in the framework of Cultura Programme 2007-2013. It started in November 2009 and wa...

Doğal kaynakların sürdürülebilir yöntemlerle değerlendirilmesini amaçlayan ve günümüzün sağladığı olanaklarla desteklenip geliştirilen toprağa dayalı yapım sistemleri, önemli ekolojik ve ekonomik avantajlar sağlamaktadır. Yaşadığımız dönemde, bir yandan çevre sorunları, etkin enerji kullanımı gereksinimleri, sağlıklı ve konforlu yaşam istekleri, diğer yandan ekonomik açıdan sürdürülebilir inşaat yöntemi arayışları toprak yapı konusunu güncelleştirdi. Bugün dünyanın hemen her ülkesinde toprak yapıları iyileştirmeyi ve geliştirmeyi amaçlayan çalışmalar yürütülmekte iken, çok ileri düzeyde geleneksel toprak yapı teknolojisine ve kültürüne sahip olan Türkiye’de bu yöndeki çalışmaların kısıtlı kaldığını söyleyebiliriz. Bu kitap, gerek bireysel projeler bağlamında, gerekse de ülkemizde konut sorununa bir çözüm yöntemi olarak, toprağa dayalı, küçükölçekte ve yerel kaynaklara bağlı mimarlık pratiklerini önceleyen bir yapı modeli önermektedir. Çağdaş Yapı Malzemesi Toprak ve Alker, toprak yapı malzemesi ve teknolojisi konusundaki bilgi birikiminin kapsamlı bir sunumunu içeriyor. Aynı zamanda, yapım aşamasında ve kullanım sürecinde olabildiğince az enerji tüketen, çevre kirliliği yaratmayan, yapay donatı gerektirmeden sağlıklı yaşam koşullarını kendi bünyesinde gerçekleştiren bir malzeme olan Alker’in (alçı ve kireçle stabilize edilen toprak) mekanik ve fiziksel niteliklerini belirleyen deneylerin sonuçlarını sunuyor; üretimi ve inşaat süreci konusundaki araştırma ve deneyimlerimizi bütünlüklü olarak ortaya koyuyor.
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Earthen building technologies that introduce novel interpretations of traditional building methods provide significant ecological and economical advantages. They offer possibilities for the sustainable use of natural resources, and for the development of appropriate building technologies that favor small scale, energy-efficient, and environmentally sound architectural practices utilizing local resources. Behind the current rise of interest in earthen building technologies in various areas of the world are increasingly visible environmental concerns, requirements for efficient energy use, and the desire for creating healthy and comfortable living environments. While earthen building has emerged as a topic of research in diverse academic environments, in Turkey, a country with a rooted tradition of adobe construction, the topic has attracted relatively less attention.

This book offers a model for sustainable architecture based on earthen building. It offers a comprehensive overview of the use of earth as a building material, detailing historical and contemporary earthen building technologies, methods of construction-oriented soil selection, and techniques of erosion resistant soil stabilization. At the same time, it presents the first book-length treatment of Alker, produced by the addition of gypsum, lime, and water to earth with the appropriate granulometric structure and with a cohesive property. Unbaked and produced on-site either as adobe blocks or by the rammed earth technique, it offers important economical and environmental advantages, and has been used in a number of small and middle-sized projects in various locations in Turkey. Alker is characterized by its quick setting time, hence preventing clay shrinkage and eliminating the need for curing and drying processes. Unlike traditional unbaked earthen building materials, it exhibits high resistance to water-related erosion. Çağdaş Yapı Malzemesi Toprak ve Alker details the investigations on the mechanical and physical properties of this building material, and presents the research and experiments on its production and its use in construction.

High Altitude Houses is a  first comprehensive study on the domestic architecture of Ladakh which analyses its many and varied aspects. The monograph is based on the master thesis: “A Fading Legacy: Ladakh’s Vernacular Architecture” and a 8 months mission in Ladakh over two years. The research starts from an overview of the environmental, socio-cultural and historical factors which has influenced life in this Himalayan region. Settlements and buildings were accordingly shaped and evolved in this cross-cultural area through the centuries. The house is a multifunctional artefact, which materializes people’s needs and which has been in a process of transformation. The house is therefore examined not only in relation to the past, but according to the many changes, particularly hastened in the last three to four decades. The domestic spaces are investigated according to their functions, different usages and location. The house as a whole is also read through its symbolical meanings. A large section of the research is dedicated to the study of the construction techniques and materials, to the structural elements and building components supported by a corpus of interviews carried out in several Ladakhi villages with local masons and on building sites.

The permanence of the constructive tradition in Mazamitla, Jalisco is alive thanks to the preservation of the few vernacular dwellings that are located in this mountain town. As any other traditional architecture in the world, the constructive technique in Mazamitla has been disappearing due to the inclusion of new buildings constructed based on industrialized materials and designs of a modern architectural style.
Against this background, a research was developed to record the characteristics of this constructive tradition in extinction. Through a study of countryside in the village of Mazamitla and surrounding communities, was the lifting of ten cases of study, which identifies the attributes, and particular elements of this constructive tradition located in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico.
Analysis of built heritage sets that the constructive tradition in Mazamitla, responds to an architectural typology in common, that he expanded into other populations located in the Sierra del Tigre. Despite having little significant alterations in the buildings, the owners have understood the importance of this constructive tradition and have preserved their architectural and construction values.

Este artigo propõe a discussão do conforto ambiental da habitação edificada com terra, de maneiraholística, tratando do conforto do corpo físico e do conforto da alma enquanto prazer, bem estar, cultural e psíquico. Discute as questões subjetivas que envolvem o conforto do ser humano e o prazer de estar em um lugar. A revisão bibliográfica dos objetos da análise, conforto, habitação e terra, foi realizada em diversas áreas, como arquitetura, filosofia, história, medicina, biologia, química e psicologia. O artigo foi desenvolvido em quatro "dimensões", tratando o conceito de conforto de forma ampla e apresentando seu envolvimento com a memória, percepção,  fisiologia, espacialidade e conforto físico e psicológico. Essas dimensões são: a) natural / genética: trata o homem enquanto
elemento da natureza, como a terra, através da memória genética relacionada à origem e intuição; b)
espacial: trata da habitação enquanto espaço do descanso, da segurança, do prazer; c) psicológica:
aborda a percepção e a apropriação do espaço através da identificação simbólica da habitação em
terra; d) fisiológica: abrange questões fisiológicas do corpo humano e o conforto possibilitado pelas
edificações em terra através de suas propriedades físicas. Verificou-se que a habitação construída
com terra proporciona mais do que a neutralidade ("não desconforto") oferecida pelas construções
convencionais atuais: proporciona aos moradores o prazer, bem-estar, expansão e expressão de seu
corpo e cultura e expansão de suas emoções e sentimentos. Conclui que a habitação de terra
ultrapassa a função de moradia do corpo: ela evoca os sentidos e sentimentos humanos e emociona.

¿Puede una técnica constructiva local convertirse en recurso para el desarrollo de arquitectura contemporánea? Esta experiencia narra el camino desde la codificación del sistema constructivo Quincha con Brea en la Región de Atacama, Chile, en un contexto de ejercicio de pregrado de la carrera de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Chile, hasta el desarrollo de un proyecto, actualmente en construcción, de una vivienda unifamiliar en dicha tecnología en la ciudad de Copiapó.

This article examines construction techniques of earthen vernacular architecture, with a particular focus on traditional construction processes of mud brick vaults and domes in contemporary Iran. The village of Esfahak, in South Khurasan, is selected as a case study due to its unique historical circumstances, traditional buildings and construction methods, and recent restoration activities carried out by villagers. The village was damaged by an earthquake in 1978 and abandoned for 30 years until a group of Esfahakis decided to restore their ruined earthen houses. This marked

This paper approaches earth as an effective and useful building material with various characteristics that separate it from other materials
used in construction. Earth is amongst the first known materials to man that had been used in building. This material has many notable and
distinguished properties together with some flaws and imperfections that must be assessed, studied and reduced to enable working with
it. Methods have varied when it came to using this material in construction both in the past and the present, which depended mainly on
environmental determinants including climate, soil quality, and obtainable materials in addition to the nature of available expertise. Nowadays, earth has received ample attention acting as a solution for different issues in industrial and developing worlds alike, where the industrial world suffers from pollution and energy problems and the developing world suffers from housing and unemployment problems. The main objective of this paper is to go over the properties of earth and its application in the new field of architecture in Jordan, while pinpointing the main aspects to develop this material to make possible using it to the highest degree conceivable in present and future architecture.

Developing new energy efficient building materials to reduce the carbon footprint is now the core of sustainability in construction and an essential factor of life cycle assessment (LCA). The extensive and increasing usage of conventional concrete, mortar, plasters and various cement based materials is only one of the many factors contributing towards urban thermal discomfort caused by urban heat island phenomena and the poor thermal insulation of ordinary cement mortar. Not only this, the wide use of concrete and mortar in construction increases the consumption of their primary components mainly -Portland cement- requiring a large consumption of energy and causing a significant rise in CO2 emissions. Embedding natural and artificial cementitious/pozzolana materials in today`s cement-based building materials has become a common practice. Cementitious and Pozzolanic materials are known to provide an added value to mortar/concrete not only in terms of mechanical and durability properties but also in energy efficiency and enhancing sustainability. Sarooj is a local term describing an artificial cementitious and pozzolana material obtained by traditional calcining of the raw clayey soil. Although its usage is nowadays very limited, Sarooj has been used in Oman and other neighboring countries for centuries, in various buildings and defense into an engineered binding material and hence investigating its physico-mechanical and thermal properties. The raw soil used to produce the traditional Sarooj was employed to engineer a modern “Sarooj” under controlled energy processing (grinding and calcination) conditions. The raw clay minded from specific location was ground first to a fine powdered material and then subjected to full characterization. The physical and chemical characterization indicated that the raw soil is suitable for producing a cementitious/pozzolanic calcined clay. The thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis of the clay used reveal that only a moderate temperature of around 800 °C is required for its calcination which preserves energy and reduces CO2 emissions compared to 1600 °C to produce clinker cement. The strength development showed a slow early-age reactivity but an appreciable enhancement in long-term which demonstrates a remarkable latent hydraulic potential of the clay used. It was also found that adding an optimum amount of the calcined clay enhances the thermal properties. The annual energy performance of a typical housing in the hot climate of Muscat, Oman, was evaluated using DesignBuilder software, a whole-building simulation tool. The simulation results showed insignificant savings in annual energy consumption when the developed mixes are used as plastering materials. The clay alkali-activated with NaOH has, however, showed great potential to enhance the mortar`s long-term strength. Using locally engineered cementitious material in a partial replacement of Portland cement can further enhance durability and sustainability by reducing the manufacturing energy of the produced building material such mortars and plasters

La arquitectura vernácula es parte de nuestro patrimonio. En la actualidad, a pesar de enfrentarse a una sociedad cada vez más global y homogénea, en la que no se entiende que precisamente en la diversidad recae el equilibrio del sentido de la vida de los seres humanos y el territorio; la arquitectura vernácula nos permite conocer alternativas del cómo habitar a través de la historia de la humanidad ha sido posible en congruencia y siendo parte del medio en el que se edifica, a partir de un vasto conocimiento y entendimiento de lo que la naturaleza y el contexto ha brindado a grupos y comunidades, para construir su hogar, su morada y entorno cultural e identidad.

A tese sob o título “A cultura construtiva do adobe em Portugal” tem como primeiro objetivo o colmatar de uma lacuna na história da arquitetura e da construção em Portugal: o estudo da arquitetura, do material e dos sistemas construtivos em adobe no território português e mais especificamente da habitação construída com esse material. Pretendeu-se com este objetivo responder onde, quando e como se construiu com adobe e que arquiteturas resultaram dessa cultura construtiva no nosso país.
O segundo objetivo da investigação versou a atualidade da arquitetura de adobe em Portugal, quer do ponto de vista do material construtivo quer da conservação da arquitetura existente. Trata-se de uma investigação em arquitetura especialidade arquitetura e construção que pretendeu aferir se existe a possibilidade, onde e como, de produção mecanizada e industrial deste material e se de facto a construção contemporânea em adobe tem lugar no atual panorama arquitetónico e construtivo português. A investigação não se limitou apenas ao problema produtivo e tecnológico da construção contemporânea, mas essencialmente, à identificação e reflexão sobre a importância e pertinência em conservar os edifícios existentes em adobe e quais. Os objetivos enunciados apesar de se cingirem ao território português são enquadrados e contextualizados num panorama histórico/geográfico mundial enquanto a arquitetura, objetivo central da investigação é abordada num âmbito mais vasto onde a paisagem, a geografia e a antropologia são fatores determinantes para o seu entendimento.

This article will attempt to investigate Jordanian Vernacular Architecture which distinguishes itself by the use of various architectural typologies and materials according to the various geo-morphological features of the country. Travelling throughout Jordan, it becomes evident that not much has remained of this architec-ture which until a few decades ago represented the cultural identity of the local civilization and its bond with the territory. It is therefore vital to document said architecture and attempt to activate recovery and re-habilitation programs of what remains.

This research was conceived during a trip to Jordan. A local guide was employed to travelled across the country in order to discover, observe and analyse various traditional architectures with an aim to better comprehend construction processes and differences between settlements. Next, a search and study of what little existing scientific literature remains was performed in order to compare, extend and confirm the col-lected information.

The following thesis focuses on the development and analysis of a new composite material for the production of construction components made of stabilized and pressed raw soil incorporated with dispersed Kraft paper’s fibers. Its main goal is the hypothesis verification that dispersed Kraft paper’s fibers, resulted from the recycling process of cement sacks, can be used as a stabilizer in order to improve the characteristics and mechanical properties of compressed earth blocks (CEBs). In other words, this research puts to test and analysis a new composite material, the Kraftterra. After several laboratorial experiments and comparative analyses between the new composite material and cement-soil, a better performance by the Kraftterra was noted when regarding axial and diagonal compressive strength (before and after accelerated aging cycles), shrinkage and fire resistance of both materials. However, the Kraftterra presented a tendency to absorb more water than the cement-soil. The final conclusion considered the Kraftterra as another economical and sustainable alternative for the production of quality construction elements and materials.

This paper will present the method and manner of earth building structures, which are
still in use, mostly in Africa, but also in Australia, South America, Spain, India. The characteristics
of each building will be displayed, according to the climate, and some modernized methods, the use
of compressed blocks in African countries, as well as the earth bags in Australia, the objects of
rammed earth in New Mexico, and Germany. In our area throughout Serbia earth made housing
have been built in several ways; on the south and central part, half-timbered system-supporting
timber structure with loam infill, residential buildings with earthen blocks, mainly in Vojvodina,
residental buildins of rammed earth. Each of the presented method of construction is a feature of
the climate, used building materials from the present environment.

La presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo la comprensión de la formación de los yacimientos arquetípicos de la Edad del Bronce en la meseta norte, los "campos de hoyos" del grupo arqueológico Cogotas I. Se trata de grandes extensiones de terreno en las que fueron excavados en la Prehistoria hoyos de diferentes profundidades, pero de similares perfiles cónicos y rellenados, insistentemente de tierras que envuelven los restos desechados y fracturados de la vida cotidiana de estas comunidades. Frente a este insistente tipo de estructuras que aparece en el registro arqueológico, los restos de viviendas son prácticamente desconocidos, apenas unos cuantos hoyos de poste con poca capacidad expresiva. Se plantean así varias preguntas que han intentado ser contestadas en la disertación ¿Todo lo que está en las subestructuras excavadas era "basura"? ¿Por qué algunos animales, piezas cerámicas o restos humanos se colocaron completos? ¿Cómo puede explicarse esta carencia de restos habitacionales? ¿Se debió al azar o medió la acción humana prehistórica? ¿Por qué algunos restos constructivos de barro -las denominadas "pellas"- aparecen quemados?
Para emprender este estudio se ha partido, por un lado, de un marco teórico esbozado desde preceptos posprocesuales de la academia anglosajona, que pretenden alejarse de las lógicas occidentales cartesianas y acercarse más a enfoques antropológicos. Por otro lado, metodológicamente, se ha recurrido a análisis arqueométricos (DRX y petrografía) para hallar las condiciones y temperaturas de cocción de los barros de construcción y a la revisión de las estratigrafías de los yacimientos y a estudios tafonómicos de miles de fragmentos cerámicos custodiados en varios museos para comprender su historia pre- y posdeposicional y poder inferir pautas de comportamiento.
De todo ello, se infiere que las comunidades de Cogotas I mediatizaron el registro arqueológico con sus acciones en la Prehistoria, de acuerdo a pautas de conducta regidas por la moral y las creencias supramateriales y a conceptos como visibilidad-invisibilidad u ocultación-monumentalidad.