Fair Trial

This chapter for the Oxford Handbook of Criminal Process offers a critical, comparative account of pretrial evidence disclosure laws in common law jurisdictions. Disclosure law was once minimal throughout the common law world; the longstanding norm was that one party need not aid the other's preparation by sharing evidence prior to trial. Substantial pretrial disclosure duties are comparatively recent, and reflect several developments. One is the fact that trials are now exceptional as the process by which to resolve prosecutions; guilty pleas are the norm. Evidence can face adversarial scrutiny, and facilitate negotiated resolutions, only if parties have pretrial access to it. Another is changes in the nature of evidence; expert analysis, for example, often cannot be confronted effectively without advance preparation. Moreover, pretrial disclosure has gradually become understood to make both trials and negotiated resolutions more efficient, and—despite some dissent—to improve the truth-finding capacity and fairness of criminal process.
Common law jurisdictions show considerable similarity on disclosure rules. In the last half-century, there emerged a strong consensus that the government must disclose relevant evidence in its possession that does not support the prosecution's case and thus that it would not present at trial. Rules also typically impose greater duties on the defense to disclose significant portions of its evidence before trial. The critical exception to this international consensus relates to inculpatory evidence. Rules in England, Canada, and elsewhere outside the United States generally require the prosecution to disclose evidence it will rely on to prove guilt. Many U.S. jurisdictions, however, have resisted this trend, mandate very little prosecution disclosure, and even limit judicial authority to compel such disclosure.
As a framework for critical assessment, the chapter examines structural choices that adversarial justice systems must make in disclosure schemes and their rationales doing so. Those choices include how much to empower judges rather than parties to control disclosure, and how to enforce parties' obligations to disclose when their partisan interest counsels otherwise. Those decisions reflect assessments about how to balance competing epistemic and non-epistemic goals including the goal of accurate truth-determination and divergent interests of the parties, constitutional principles, and the security or privacy victims and witnesses.

Zmiany prawa w zakresie organizacji sądownictwa, a tym samym sposobu sprawowania wymiaru sprawiedliwości, mają przełożenie na rzeczywistą realizację prawa do sprawiedliwego i jawnego rozpatrzenia sprawy w rozsądnym terminie przez niezawisły i bezstronny sąd. Natomiast sposób realizacji prawa do sprawiedliwego sądu wpływa na realizację wszystkich praw podstawowych, których ochrony można dochodzić przed sądem. Poza tym skuteczność prawa Unii Europejskiej w dużej mierze polega właśnie na zapewnieniu skutecznej ochrony sądowej w dziedzinach objętych prawem Unii. Dlatego funkcjonowanie prawa Unii Europejskiej zależy w dużej mierze od istnienia niezależnych sądów w państwach członkowskich. Stąd pogląd o dopuszczalności arbitralnych kierunków zmian prawa krajowego regulującego wymiar sprawiedliwości jest ze wszech miar błędny.

Resumo: O presente artigo analisa a existência de regras de exclusão da prova derivadas da Convenção Europeia dos Direitos Humanos, concluindo pela afirmativa no que respeita à exclusão da prova obtida em violação da proibição de tortura e de tratamentos desumanos e degradantes (art. 3.º), em violação do direito contra a auto-incriminação (6.º, n.º 1), em violação do direito à assistência por advogado na fase anterior ao julgamento (art. 6.º, n.º 3, c), e n.º 1) e em violação da proibição de provocação indevida (6.º, n.º 1). É ensaiada ainda uma sistematização das regras de exclusão em causa, analisando-se as implicações desta para a conclusão sobre a existência de regras de exclusão da prova e para a aplicação da CEDH pelas instâncias nacionais.

Abstract: This contribution analyses whether there are exclusionary rules of evidence deriving from the European Convention on Human Rights. It conlcudes in the affirmative in what regards the exclusion of evidence gathered in violation of the prohibition of torture and inhuman and degrading treatment (Art. 3), in violation of the right against self-ncrimination (Art. 6 § 1), in violation of the right to pre-trial legal assistance (Art. 6 §§ 3 c) and 1) in violation of the prohibition of incitement (Art. 6 § 1). The author attempts to systematize these exclusionary rules and to identify the implication of her categorization for the conclusion on the existence of exclusionary rules of evidence and for the application of the ECHR by the national instances.

This article briefly discusses the rights and responsibilities of media and its functioning as a
fourth pillar in India’s democracy. A major part of this story highlights the free run of Media
trials and how fatal it is to the freedom of speech and expression.
Further, a few quotes have been extracted from various judgments of the High Courts and the
Supreme Court to bring a common intention of criticism for unwarranted media trials. Lastly, a
recommendation on ways to proceed to strengthen the existing structure of the fourth pillar.

This article takes an in-depth look into sentencing and into a concept that seems to be inherent within it, that is, the trial penalty. It seeks to answer the question " Should there be a trial penalty? ". In doing so, it begins by analysing the pros and cons of plea bargaining and argues that the weight of the disadvantages of the process, taken together with the need to respect entrenched constitutional rights regarding the presumption of innocence and the right to a fair trial, mean that a trial penalty should not exist. It is then argued that while the intuitive existence of an explicit trial penalty is accepted by many within the system, there is a lack of empirical evidence to prove said existence. The article concludes by offering possible solutions to various problems associated with the plea process, as it is currently practised.

Are the 1949 Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols antiquate regulations, respect the new post-modern warfare methods? What international regulations States and organized armed group must observe, when conducting armed conflicts in a transnational context?
The paper wants to address the issue above, with a tripartite approach: the first section discusses the textual analysis of the Geneva Convention; the second section investigates over two leading cases (USA Supreme Court and ICTR) which extensively offered a legal qualifications to the conducts at stake; in the third section I illuminate the position of the most authoritative scholarship, and finally proposing an original interpretation.

L’arrêt LM1, rendu par la Cour de justice de l’Union européenne le 25 juillet dernier, se prononce sur l’épineuse question du sort à ré- server à un mandat d’arrêt européen (ci-après « M.A.E. ») émis par un État — la Pologne — dont le système judiciaire est en proie à des défaillances systémiques qui menacent, entre autres, son indépendance. Sous-tendu par le principe de confiance mutuelle, le mécanisme du mandat d’arrêt européen organise une recon- naissance quasi automatique des décisions des autorités judi- ciaires nationales, au sein de l’Union européenne, aux fins de l’exercice de poursuites pénales ou de l’exécution d’une condam- nation dans un État membre. Selon l’arrêt commenté, la mise à mal par un État membre de l’indépendance de son pouvoir judi- ciaire justifie de limiter, sous certaines conditions, le principe de confiance mutuelle et, par voie de conséquence, l’obligation d’exé- cution quasi automatique du M.A.E. qui en découle.

This article explores the right of access to a lawyer in criminal proceedings as a fundamental right in the European area. After noting the divergence of national legal systems in respect to the scope and practical exercise of this right, it discusses the ECtHR’s recent case-law on Article 6(3) c of the Convention and the EU-Directive, which was recently adopted. The lengthy debate over the Commission’s ambitious Proposal has highlighted five major issues, which are critically addressed in the text: time and scope of the right of access to a lawyer, derogations, confidentiality of communications, remedies, European Arrest Warrant proceedings. The article concludes that the Directive, though less strong than desirable in some respects, is a step forward on the long road to achieving effective defence in Europe.

This article argues that the notion of ‘victim’ primarily refers to the position of the person who, in the course of a (sacred, religious, legal, etc.) procedure, is ritually sacrificed to avert the wrath of the gods or to preserve peace in the community. In early modernity the Latin victima (sacrificial animal) was also used as a reference to Jesus Christ. Christ was seen as the lamb of God, the innocent sacrificial lamb which, after an unfair trial, was crucified and died for the sins of the world. In the eighteenth century, under influence of the Enlightenment, the victim concept has been secularized and come to refer to every casualty of bad luck, crime, or disaster. Art history, however, offers interesting examples of pictures of mythical figures such as Sisyphus and Prometheus, representing early images of secularized victimhood in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the present day, the concept of victimhood is often used to define the position of the injured party in
criminal proceedings. In this frame, the injured victim, looking for legal recognition, is juxtaposed against the position of the accused who is characterized as the possible culprit. However, reflection on the history of the victim concept reveals that it primarily refers to the position of the wrongly or falsely accused or condemned in the course of legal (or pseudolegal) proceedings. A state governed by the rule of law (‘rechtsstaat’) can be defined as a legal form of society which does its utmost to avoid the justice system producing its own victims. In this
approach, a victim-oriented criminal justice system is fully aware of the need to protect precisely those who are threatened by the power of the state and public opinion because they are in the dock.

SUMARY:
The protection of intimidated witnesses appears as one of the most relevant issues in the context of the Organized Crime Control. For this purpose are regarded as “witnesses” the persons whose statements or declarations are used as evidence in the procedure (including co-defendants, victims and experts). The reason to protect witnesses is not only connected with the need to assure proof in complex criminal procedures, but mostly a constitutional anchored imposition – a “reciprocal duty of protection” emerges from the witness duty to collaborate in the enforcement of law. 
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the measures introduced in the Portuguese law in compliance with this “State protection duty”, when confronted with the defendant rights.
The most serious and complex problems concerning the defensive guarantees (confrontation, cross examination) arise, naturally, from the admissibility of “anonymous witnesses”.  To compensate the handicaps under which the defence labours, the law imposes corroboration – i. e. a conviction should not be based either solely or to a decisive extent on anonymous statements. This paper aims also to dissect and explain this somehow new “corroboration rule”.

CONTENTS:
I. Conceptualization. The concept of “witness” and the sources of danger
II. The State Duty of Protection. Evidence protection or witness protection?
III. Witness protection in the battlefield of conflicting interests. Analysis of the “Witness protection law”
a) Administrative or police protection. Between sparse protection measures and witness protection programs
b) Procedural protection. Prelude to a new equilibrium between defensive guarantees and effectiveness of criminal justice?
c) Appreciation of the protected witnesses’ statements. Corroboration and free appreciation
IV. Witness protection and “fair trial”. Insufficiency of the model?

This article critiques the impact of the European Convention on Human Rights, as interpreted in the jurisprudence of the Strasbourg court, on the criminal trial jury. It argues that thus far the Convention has had a limited effect on jury trial, and that the Court tends to proceed with undue caution when confronted with issues affecting the key attributes of this mode of trial. It further argues that this caution may be influenced by non-legal considerations which should have no place in human rights adjudication.

Statutory offences criminalising failures by citizens to disclose information that may assist in law enforcement have proliferated in recent years. The constitutionality of these types of crimes had not been determined until the decision of the High Court, and subsequently the Supreme Court, in Sweeney v Ireland. 1 Offences of withholding information represent interferences with a number of constitutional and human rights including freedom of expression and the right to privacy. The privilege against self-incrimination may also be affected, depending on the scope and operation of the obligation to disclose. It is also arguable that the state should not be permitted to compel people to speak more generally, in violation of the autonomy of the individual. On the other hand, there are public policy arguments that requiring people to disclose their knowledge of the criminal wrongdoing of others is necessary in the interests of the common good. The divergent views of Baker J in the High Court and the unanimous Supreme Court in Sweeney demonstrate the diversity of perspectives that withholding information offences can engender. The Supreme Court decision is also notable for its position on the question of conducting constitutional challenges in advance of criminal trials.

Biljana Plavšić, the former president of Republika Srpska, was indicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. After she plead guilty and issued a remorseful statement, the prosecution dropped the genocide charges and she was sentenced to 11 years in prison, and subsequently granted early release. While in prison, she published lengthy memoirs in which she retracted her confession. In this article, I take a look back at Plavšić's ICTY case to put forward three principal arguments. First, the Plavšić case demonstrates signifi cant inconsistencies in ICTY procedures and sentencing, which have important ramifi cations for other international justice cases. Second, the expectation and hope displayed by many international justice promoters that war crimes trials may lead to truthful confessions, apologies, or acknowledgments of abuses is not borne out by evidence. Finally, the Plavšić case demonstrates that the international justice focus on individualizing accountability for mass atrocity is ill equipped to deal with the collectivist nature of such crimes.

15 Juni 2016, sidang perdana kasus pembunuhan Mirna dilakukan. Namun, sejak Januari 2016, pemberitaan media massa mengarahkan opini publik bahwa pembunuh Mirna adalah Jessica. Bahkan sebelum polisi menetapkan Jessica sebagai tersangka, media memberitakan Jessica membuang celana yang dikenakannya saat bertemu Mirna (20 Januari 2016; CNN Indonesia, Tribun News, Tempo, Liputan6, Kompas.com, Sindo News), pernyataan Ayah dari Mirna, Dermawan, yang menuduh Jessica sebagai pelaku pembunuhan putrinya (Februari 2016; Tribun News, Detik, Sindo News, Kompas.com), perilaku “mencurigakan” Jessica (27 Januari-Februari 2016; Tempo, Bintang, Liputan6) hingga perkiraan motif Jessica membunuh Mirna (Februari-Maret 2016; Kompas.com, Liputan6, Okezone).

Pemberitaan media massa sejak sebelum polisi menetapkan tersangka dan sebelum keputusan resmi pengadilan ditetapkan seputar kasus ini menciptakan opini bahwa pelaku pembunuhan Mirna adalah Jessica (Sordame Purba dalam Putera, Kompas.com, 15 Juni 2016).

Vonis atas Jessica yang dilakukan media bertentangan dengan Undang-Undang (UU) Pers Pasal 5 Ayat 1 serta Pasal 3 Kode Etik Jurnalistik tentang kewajiban pers untuk menerapkan asas praduga tak bersalah serta tidak merilis fakta dan opini yang menghakimi. Guna menelaah masalah ini lebih lanjut, laporan ini disusun.

The massacre of the protesters and the police during the “Euromaidan” mass protests on February 18-20, 2014 in Ukraine contributed to the overthrow of the Ukrainian government and ultimately to a start of the civil war in Donbas, Russian military interventions in Crimea and Donbas, the annexation of Crimea and an international conflict between the West and Russia. However, in spite of its importance to the politics of Ukraine and global politics this mass killing have been central subject of only a couple of studies. These studies concluded that the Maidan massacre of the protesters was a false flag operation and that far right organizations were involved in the mass killing of both police and the protesters. However, the dominant narrative promoted by the governments and the media in Ukraine and the West attributed the Maidan massacre of the protesters to the government forces and mostly ignored killings of the police. The official investigation by the Prosecutor General Office of Ukraine charged Berkut special police commanders and members with the massacre of the Madian protesters on Viktor Yanukovych orders and publicly stated that Berkut policemen and Internal Troops servicemen were killed by unknown persons of unknown allegiance.

The research question is as follows: What does a large volume of various evidence made public for the first time by the Maidan massacre trials and government investigations reveal about which of the political forces were involved in this politically crucial case of mass killing? This paper analyzes more than 350 hours of video recordings of the Maidan massacre trials and information concerning investigations of this massacre in over 2,000 official court decisions in Ukraine, media interviews of prosecutors, Maidan and Berkut lawyers, and Ukrainian media reports about these trials and investigations. It examines court testimonies of wounded protesters and relatives of the killed protesters, results of forensic ballistic and medical examinations and investigative experiments, and videos and photos of the Maidan massacre shown during the trials. A video appendix includes brief relevant videos of the Maidan massacre and information from the recordings of the Maidan massacre trial. The 55 minute long online video appendix with added English-language subtitles is compiled from brief synchronized segments of on-site reports by American, Belgian, Belarusian, British, Finish, French, Dutch, German, Polish, Russian, Spanish, and Ukrainian TV correspondents and social media videos by various Maidan protesters who filmed this massacre on February 20, 2014.

The study finds that the Maidan massacre investigations and trials revealed a variety of evidence, such as results of forensic examinations and testimonies of many wounded protesters, which shows that at least the absolute majority of the protesters were killed and wounded from Maidan-controlled locations and that the investigation and trials were for this reason stonewalled. The analysis  shows patterns of ineffective and delayed Maidan massacre trials and the GPU investigations, trumped-up charges, and ignoring, reversing, and covering-up of the evidence, which was revealed by the GPU own investigation and which pointed to the massacre of the protesters and the police by “snipers” in the Maidan-controlled buildings and not by the Berkut police. The paper discusses implications of this study for understanding the Maidan massacre and the conflict in Ukraine and the international conflict over Ukraine.

Katika sura zilizopita tuliona hali ya utawala na kisiasa katika nchi ya Israeli na namna makundi mbalimbali ya kisiasa, kidini na kiutawala yalivyokuwa na uadui na Yesu. Pia tuliona namna Yesu alivyoingia Yerusalemu kwa kishindo, na siku chache baadaye kukamatwa na kupelekwa mbele ya Baraza ya Wayahudi, kabla ya kufikishwa mbele ya mahakama rasmi ya Kirumi. Katika Sura hii tutaangazia kwa undani namna kesi dhidi ya Yesu ilivyoendeshwa na utawala wa kirumi, sheria zilizotumika na uzito wa hoja na mashtaka dhidi ya Yesu. Endelea… Yesu mbele ya Pilato Usiku wa kuamkia kesi yake, Yesu hakupata wasaa wa kusinzia kabisa. Ilipokuwa asubuhi, siku ya Ijumaa, viongozi wa Kiyahudi walimpeleka Yesu kwa Pilato. 1 Viongozi wa Kiyahudi walikuwa wameandaa mashitaka yatakayopelekea adhabu ya kifo na si adhabu nyingine. Kitendo cha viongozi wa Kiyahudi kuita mashahidi na kumhoji Yesu kwanza kabla ya kumpeleka kwa Pilato kinafanana na utaratibu wa Uchunguzi wa Awali ("Preliminary Inquiry") katika mfumo wa kimahakama wa siku hizi.

Il principio di legalità non è rivolto soltanto al diritto penale, ma guarda anche al processo ed attraverso il rispetto delle regole del procedimento probatorio intende assicurarne la giustizia. Se la circolazione degli elementi di prova acquisiti nell’esercizio dei poteri istruttori costituisce un limite ai principi di oralità e del contraddittorio, l’art. 220 disp. att. c.p.p. pone un controlimite all’utilizzabilità delle risultanze acquisite in sede amministrativa dal momento in cui emergono indizi di reato. Tra le diverse funzioni esercitate, l’art. 220 disp. att. garantisce, a livello di legislazione ordinaria, alcuni diritti fondamentali internazionalmente riconosciuti e costituzionalmente tutelati, in particolare, dall’art. 111 della Costituzione a norma del quale “la giurisdizione si attua mediante il giusto processo regolato dalla legge”.

Sommario: 1. Premessa. – 2. Il principio di legalità e l’interazione tra diritto penale e processo. – 3. Poteri istruttori in materia tributaria, diritti fondamentali ed applicabilità della Convenzione edu. – 4. Le attività a finalità mista e le funzioni dell’art. 220 disp. att. c.p.p.. – 4.1. Raccordo tra legislazione speciale e codice di procedura penale. – 4.2. Regola di graduazione comportamentale tra sospetti ed indizi di reato. – 4.3. Norma di garanzia: l’inutilizzabilità come applicazione della legalità probatoria. – 5. La notizia di reato quale collegamento tra diritto penale e processo.

Abstract.
“Your Brain is the Hardware of your Soul. It is the Hardware of your Very Essence as Human Being. You cannot be who you really want to unless your brain works right. How your brain works determines how happy you are, how effective you feel, and how well you interact with others. Your brain patterns help you with your marriage, parenting skills, work, and religious beliefs, along with your experience of pleasure and pain”.
Daniel G. Amen, M.D.
This paper is about the potential understanding of the development of Information and Communication Technology (origin and meaning of information and communication technology, internet and e-commerce). The paper will further assess the development of online business in Tanzania from traditional means to modern means that is electronic business system, and the law governing these exchanging of information. Then lastly the roles and impacts of information and communication technology in conducting various online businesses and conclusion will be cemented.

The dock has been an iconic structure of the criminal justice system of Sri Lanka since its reception to the criminal courtroom during the British Colonial era. Making all suspects and accused of criminal cases stand in the dock during trial continues to be an unchallenged practice. This article evaluates the significance of the dock in trial courts from the perspective of a multi-disciplinary approach concerning law, criminology, psychology and architecture. It presents the arguments that the dock is not a legal requirement of a criminal trial, it violates the Constitution in terms of the rights conferred upon an accused, it cannot be supported by the criminological theory of deterrence and may instead contribute to an increase of criminality by the applicability of labeling theory, it does not consort to modern architectural concept of spatial justice and it may be detrimental to the mental wellbeing of an accused from a psychological viewpoint. Having identified the controversies inherent in the traditional construction of the dock, recommendations are made to bring in reforms to the physical structure of the dock as well as to the manner and criteria it is to be utilized in a trial to achieve a balance between interest of justice and interest of the accused.

Ethno-nationalist politicians and criminals in Mostar espoused a discourse of ethno-exclusionist sociocultural relations as a superstructure for the public in order to establish ethnocratic kleptocracies where they concealed their criminal colonization of residential and commercial property through manipulating the pre-Bosnian War discourse on property relations. This is not to argue that some or most of these politicians and criminals did not believe in their virulent nationalist rhetoric, but instead that the effects of the discourse created well-used pathways to personal, not community, wealth.

I would rather have a completely free press with all the dangers involved in the wrong use of that freedom than a suppressed or regulated press.‖1 Trial by Media is a phrase popular in the late 20th century and early 21st century to describe the impact of television and newspaper coverage on a person's reputation by creating a widespread perception of guilt regardless of any verdict in a court of law. India is a democratic state and democratic indicates that everyone has right to speak and express their motion according law. Moreover there has to be active participation of public in all the affairs of governments and state. Media is considered as pillar of democracy. Now a day media playing vital role in changing the opinion of public and day to day discuss the recent issues like crime, corruption, political, economy finance etc. and through this enable them to consider forming broad opinion in which they are being managed, tackled and administered by the government and their functionaries. Media is requiring protecting the privacy of individual. But in the interest of democracy, it is better to have self-regulated and self-disciplined media in comparison to a media regulated by the court and the state.

This constitutes the largest empirical study of the use of previous sexual behaviour evidence in sexual offence trials in the courts of England and Wales ever conducted. It is impossible to understand how such evidence is handled in trials merely from reading reported judgments, because these reflect only cases which the defence has appealed to the Court of Appeal on the basis that such evidence was wrongly excluded by the trial judge, since the prosecution does not have an equivalent right to seek leave to appeal. The data collected from criminal barristers examines, in depth, 377 cases involving 565 complainants, which proceeded to trial in 105 Crown Courts centres in the 24 months immediately prior to November 2017. This study is unique in collecting data on applications to use previous sexual behaviour evidence in respect of all sexual offences, not just rape, and without any restrictions on complainants as to gender or age. Many children and adolescents feature in the sample. So too do many historical complaints, and many cases involving multiple complainants. Perhaps most importantly, it is unique in eliciting information from the 140 anonymous barristers who were directly involved in prosecuting or defending these cases in the sample, and who know best what happened, not only in the public court room but also in the closed court room and in the robing room. They in turn are highly unusual in adversarial legal systems in ‘walking both sides of the street’, possible only due to the existence of the independent Bar, available to be instructed by the Crown Prosecution Service or by the defence in any case. They therefore have a uniquely balanced view of the criminal justice system.

This is the complete text of the commissioned Report. A refereed article entitled "Cross-examination of sexual assault complainants on previous sexual behaviour:
views from the barristers’ row" further analysing the results will be published in the Jan 2019 issue of the Criminal Law Review. The article will only be available on Westlaw to non-subscribers to the Crim LR.

Giriş
AİHM’nin, adil yargılanma hakkını tanımlarken kullandığı iki temel unsur çelişme ve silahların eşitliğidir.  Bu nedenle bu iki temel ilkenin, adil yargılanma hakkının özünü oluşturduğunu söylemek yanlış olmaz. AİHM tarafından, AİHS’nin 6. maddesinde geçen “fair hearing” (adil bir şekilde dinlenilme) kavramından türetilen ve Sözleşme’de açıkça yer verilmeyen bu iki ilke, hukuk dalından bağımsız olarak her türlü muhakemede ve hatta bireyin devlet otoritesiyle karşılaştığı muhakeme dışı safhalarda büyük önem taşımakta, kişinin iddia ve savunma hakkının korunmasına ve muhakemeye yön vermesine hizmet etmektedir. Bu ilkelerin somut birer güven-ce haline gelmesinde, AİHM’nin bu ilkelere yüklediği anlamın katkısı büyüktür. Anayasa Mahkemesi’ne bireysel başvuru yolunun Türk hukuk sistemine girmesiyle, adil yargılanma hakkının çekirdeğinde yer alan çelişme ve silah-ların eşitliği ilkeleri çok daha önemli hale gelmiştir. Anayasa Mahkemesi’nin de bireysel başvuru içtihadında, büyük ölçüde AİHM tarafından çizilen yolu izlediği görülmektedir.

Bu çalışma, insan hakları hukukuyla doğrudan ilişkili bir ceza muhakemesi hukuku monografisidir. Aslına bakılırsa, bugünün hukuk dünyasında, en azından adil yargılanma hakkı konusunda, insan hakları hukuku ile muhakeme hukukuna ilişkin kuralları birbirinden ayırmak mümkün değil-dir. Eğer bir farktan söz etmek gerekiyorsa, olsa olsa insan hakları hukuku-nun genel ilkeleri belirlediği, ceza muhakemesi hukukunda ise bu ilkelerin somut kurallara dönüştüğü söylenebilir.
İnsan hakları hukuku konusunda yapılan bireysel başvuruları karara bağlayan AİHM ve Anayasa Mahkemesi, adil yargılanma hakkı konusunda önemli bir içtihada sahiptir. Bu içtihat, Türkiye’deki ceza muhakemesi hu-kuku standardının yükselmesine yönelik pek çok değişikliğin de temel ge-rekçesidir. Ancak belirtmek gerekir ki bu durum, bu çalışmanın yapılmasını bir yandan desteklerken, bir yandan da oldukça güçleştirmektedir. Zira in-san hakları hukuku bakımından adil yargılanma hakkına ilişkin çizilen kav-ramsal çerçeve ve oluşturulan terminolojiyi, temelde iç hukuku konu alan bir monografiye oturtmak her durumda kolay değildir; ancak, gereklidir.

Öte yandan AİHM’nin ve Anayasa Mahkemesi’nin içtihadı, uygulama için her zaman yeterli ölçüde somut değildir. Zira uygulamada temel sorun, var olan kuralın ne şekilde uygulanacağıdır ve bu konu öncelikle yerel mahkemeleri ilgilendirmektedir. Bu nedenle bu çalışmada, bir sorunu tartışırken, bireysel başvuru yolunda verilen ihlal kararlarının yanında, konu-nun kanun yollarında ne şekilde ele alınması gerektiğini de tartışacağız. Ümit ediyoruz ki bu çaba, iç hukuk yolları tüketilirken, bazı sorunların da tükenmesine katkıda bulunacaktır.

Ceza muhakemesinde çelişme denildiğinde, akla ilk gelenin “çelişme yöntemi” olduğunu söylemek yanlış olmaz. Ancak bu çalışmanın konusu, çelişme yöntemiyle sınırlı değildir. AİHM ve Anayasa Mahkemesi tarafından verilen anlam bağlamında, çelişme ilkesinin hukukumuzdaki yansımaları üzerinde bir tartışma yürütmek, bu çalışmanın temel amaçlarından biridir. Çelişme; maddi içeriği olan, dolayısıyla bünyesinde birtakım haklar barındı-ran bir ilkedir. Ceza muhakemesinde, çelişme ilkesine doğrudan veya dolay-lı yoldan hizmet eden pek çok hak ve teminat vardır.  Bunlar, CMK’nın so-ruşturma ve kovuşturma evresine ilişkin hükümlerine dağılmış vaziyettedir.

Çalışmanın birinci bölümde daha çok adil yargılanma hakkı bağlamında çelişme ve silahların eşitliği ilkeleriyle, bunlarla ilgili kavramlar üzerinde durulacaktır. Burada öncelikle ele alınması gereken kavram, şüphesiz ki adil yargılanma hakkıdır. Zira adil yargılanma hakkına ilişkin temel esaslar ortaya konulmadan, bu hakkın altında yer alan hiçbir teminat anlaşılamaz. Konunun adil yargılanma hakkıyla ilişkisi ortaya konulduktan sonra, çeliş-me ve silahların eşitliği önce ayrı ayrı, sonrasında ise karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenecektir. Böylelikle zaman zaman AİHM ve Anayasa Mahkemesi içti-hatlarında dahi birbirine karışabilen bu ilkelerin, birbirinden net bir şekilde ayrılması amaçlanmaktadır. Bölümün devamında çelişme ve silahların eşitliği ilkeleriyle, ceza muhakemesinde geçerli olan diğer hak ve ilkeler arasın-daki ilişki ele alınarak, ceza muhakemesi hukukunun sistemi bağlamında bilgi verilecektir. Birinci bölüm, söz konusu ilkelerin, tarihsel olarak ceza muhakemesi sistemlerinin gelişiminde sahip olduğu rolün ele alınmasıyla son bulmaktadır.

İkinci ve üçüncü bölümde ise, Türk ceza muhakemesi sisteminde yer alan çelişmeye ilişkin kurallar, mümkün olduğunca sistematik bir şekilde ele alınacaktır. Bu yapılırken, çalışmanın diğer yapı taşı olan silahların eşit-liği ilkesine başvurularak, incelenen kuralın taraflar arasında mevcut olması gereken adil dengeyi bozup bozmadığı gözetilecektir. Zira çelişmenin gerektiği gibi olmasını sağlayan ilk teminat, silahların eşitliğidir. Nadiren ise bunun tam tersi yapılacak ve konunun neden çelişme ilkesiyle ilgili olmadı-ğı, ancak silahların eşitliği ilkesini hangi sebeple ilgilendirdiği açıklanacaktır.

İkinci bölümde ele alınan temel konular arasında soruşturma evresi bağlamında; isnadın bildirilmesi hakkı, müdafi yardımından faydalanma hakkı, dosya inceleme hak ve yetkisi, tutuklama talebi halinde adil yargı-lanma hakkı ve özgürlük ve güvenlik hakkı kesişiminde doğan sorunlar, tercüman yardımından faydalanma hakkı, erken dinleme ve iddianamenin değerlendirilmesi süreci yer almaktadır.

Üçüncü bölüm kovuşturma evresine ayrılmıştır. Burada muhakemenin yürüyüşüne paralel olarak; duruşma hazırlığı, duruşma ve kanun yolları şeklindeki sıra izlenecektir. Duruşma hazırlığında ele alınan konular, iddia-namenin tebliği, erken dinleme, ve bu süreçte delil toplanması talepleridir. Bölümün önemli bir kısmı, duruşma devresine ve bu devrede delillerin or-taya konulması ve tartışılmasına ayrılmıştır. Delillerin ortaya konulması bağlamında tek veya belirleyici delil ölçütü, duruşmaya getirilemeyen tanık-ların durumu, gizli tanıklık, kırılgan tanıklar, devlet sırlarına ilişkin tanıklık konuları ele alınan önemli konular arasındadır. Buna ek olarak yine üçüncü bölümde kovuşturma evresinde kendi kendini savunma, müdafi yardımın-dan faydalanma ve duruşmada hazır bulunma hakları, SEGBİS kullanımının duruşmaya katılma ve müdafiin hukuki yardımından faydalanma konu-sunda ortaya çıkarttığı dezavantajlar, asliye ceza mahkemelerinde Cumhuriyet savcılarının duruşmaya çıkmamaları, son sözün sanığa verilmesi ve ek savunma hakkı üzerinden durulan önemli konular arasında sayılabilir. Kanun yollarına ilişkin olarak konu, hem olağan hem de olağanüstü kanun yolları bağlamında ele alınacaktır.

Tüm bu incelemeyi yaparken özellikle AİHM ve onu izleyen Anayasa Mahkemesi’nin bireysel başvuru içtihatlarını doğru biçimde aktarabilmeyi ve bunlarla iç hukuk arasında tutarlı bir ilişki kurabilmeyi amaçlıyoruz. Çalışmada yer alan AİHM kararlarının tamamı, AİHM’nin resmî içtihat karar veri tabanı olan HUDOC’da (https://hudoc.echr.coe.int) yer alan İngilizce ve Fransızca kararlardan Türkçeye çevrilmiştir. Bazı yerlerde ise, Fransızca ve İngilizce metinler karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmiş ve var olan anlam farklılıkları üzerinde durulmuştur.

Son dönemde Türkiye hakkında verilen kararların önemli bir kısmı Fransız dilinde olduğundan; İngilizceye kıyasla daha az kişi tarafından bili-nen bu dilde verilen kararlar, Adalet Bakanlığı tarafından Türkçeye çevril-mediği sürece, hukukçuların büyük bir çoğunluğu, kararlarda ortaya çıkan gelişmelerden uzak kalmaktadır. Bu nedenle çalışmada, mümkün olduğun-ca bu kararlara öncelik verilmesine gayret gösterilmiştir. Sonuç olarak ka-rar veya sözleşme çevirilerinde bir hata olmuşsa, bu hata da yazara aittir.

İlgili yerlerde mümkün olduğunca çok AİHM kararına gönderme yapa-rak; bu kararların, adil yargılanma hakkına ilişkin ihlallere yönelik Anayasa Mahkemesi ve AİHM önünde yapılacak başvurulara katkıda bulunmasını arzu ediyoruz. Ancak asıl önem verilmesi gereken husus, bu kararların de-rece mahkemeleri önünde kullanılarak, ihlalin ortaya çıkmasının önlenme-sidir. Bu bağlamda çalışma, sadece bireysel başvuru yapacak veya kanun yoluna başvuracak kişilere değil, tüm hukukçulara hitap etmektedir. Zira söz konusu kararlarda ortaya konan ilkeleri bilmesi ve buna uygun dav-ranması gerekenler, öncelikle yargılama makamı ve savcılıktır.

Son olarak bu çalışmanın, yalnızca AİHM ve Anayasa Mahkemesi’nin kararlarıyla çizdiği çerçeveyle sınırlı olmayacağını ifade etmek gerekir. Bu bağlamda, söz konusu mahkemeler önüne gitmemiş ancak Türk hukukunda sorun yaratmaya aday pek çok düzenleme de ele alınacaktır. Böylelikle ihlal konusu uygulamaların ilk derece mahkemeleri önünde veya kanun yolla-rında ileri sürülmesine ya da yapılacak yeni bireysel başvurulara destek olmak, başlıca dileğimizdir.

L’ordinamento tributario italiano prevede che le sanzioni amministrative non siano irrogate qualora sussista incertezza normativa oggettiva. Tale rimedio, disciplinato sin dall’inizio del XX secolo, ha grande rilevanza pratica. Ciononostante sembra tuttora irrisolta la problematica processuale concernente la configurabilità, in capo al giudice tributario, del potere di rilevare ex officio il vizio di omessa disapplicazione delle sanzioni amministrative da parte dell’ufficio procedente.

The Italian tax system excludes the infliction of administrative penalties when there is the objective regulatory uncertainty. Such a remedy, ruled since the beginning of the 20th Century, has a great practical significance. However, it seems still unresolved the procedural question whether the issue is liable to be raised ex officio by the Tax Court.

Il saggio introduttivo all’«Apologia di Socrate» di Platone presenta la figura di Socrate non solo come grande filosofo, ma anche come esperto avvocato, investigando il metodo dialettico da lui applicato al processo del 399 a.C.
Nella traduzione italiana, che si affianca al testo greco a fronte, si è tentato di rispettare il più possibile lo schema processuale e lo stile giudiziario del racconto platonico.
Il glossario aiuta il lettore a comprendere le parole chiave del pensiero e della difesa di Socrate di fronte ai giudici di Atene.

This article considers the extent to which the exclusionary common law rules relating to hearsay and bad character, which existed for hundreds of years in England and Wales and still apply in Ireland, were informed by distrust of jury capabilities. It will be demonstrated that the rationales for the radical reform of these rules in England and Wales were partly couched in terms of increased faith in juror competence. The exclusionary rules relating to hearsay and bad character in Ireland and the reformed English law, which is inclusionary in effect, will be analysed in light of empirical jury studies examining the ability of jurors to evaluate these two types of evidence. The capacity for different approaches to certain types of evidence to reflect varying conceptions of the jury and its perceived competence is a central theme of this article, as is the importance of testing juror performance empirically.

Recenti vicende giurisprudenziali hanno riportato al centro del dibattito, dopo anni di relativo oscuramento, il giudizio incidentale e le sue categorie. Si tratta però di un ritorno sulla scena segnato dalla messa in discussione di quelle categorie fondative, in particolare la rilevanza, la non manifesta infondatezza e la pregiudizialità. La presente ricerca, muovendo dall'idea che il giudizio incidentale non sia un modello ma un canone segnato da insopprimibili margini di flessibilità, si interroga sulla logica dell’incidentalità e sulla sua persistente razionalità nell'attuale fase di cambiamenti della giustizia costituzionale.