Family Farming

Abstract: In the context of the crisis of industrial modernity, adaptive capacity to new climatic and social-economic risks depends on the study of the perceptions and understan- ding that the involved actors have of those risks. Through interviews with family farmers from Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, this paper describes how they perceive and respond to social-economic and climatic risks. Results confirm that social and perceptive barriers limit the understanding of climatic risks, which are experienced gradually and in the long term. Accordingly, farmers are not farseeing (“clarividente”) actors, and are thus unable to accurately foresee future climatic scenarios. On the other hand, beef producers from the South American Pampas do perceive family, economic and institutional risks threatening their productive activities and their livelihoods in a more direct, short-term manner, and do act to face them. This study confirms that the passage from risky situations to an effective  p...

This article discusses developmental strategies on one of the Slovenian family farms specialized in cattle breeding (bull-calves) through reflections that are emphasized by recent and current studies of anthropology of risk and uncertainty. The authors of these studies have gradually established their particular approach by applying or rejecting the risks’ models by the scholars from other scientific disciplines, mostly economists and cognitive psychologists. However, the anthropologists themselves did not take the uniform paths in this endeavour. The majority of social and cultural anthropologists have adopted the argument on cultural embeddedness of risk-uncertainty perception. Yet in the last decade, there are strong appeals towards new research directions of both investigating the governing of risk and uncertainty through the techniques and technologies of their management, and, besides danger dimensions of risk and uncertainty, including into the study agenda also their productive potentials.
The article discusses the interplay of desired and undesired potentials of risk and uncertainty in decision-making on vital developmental investments by the members of the Ferenc family farm. It is argued that risky and uncertain decision-making of family members about future investments and farming directions does not involve only cost-benefit calculations. On the contrary, risk and uncertainty in decision-making can act as a source of their productivity, (self)placing in a community, (self)identification, sociality or a source which underlies fear of failure.
Prispevek presoja strategije razvoja na eni od družinskih kmetij v Sloveniji, ki je specializirana za rejo govejih pitancev, z vidikov, ki jih poudarjajo nedavne in aktualne študije antropologije tveganja in negotovosti. Prispevek potrjuje, da sprejemanje tveganih in negotovih odločitev družinskih članov o prihodnjih investicijah in smereh razvoja kmetovanja ne vpleta zgolj izračunavanja denarnih vložkov in izkupičkov. Nasprotno, tveganje in negotovost odločanja sta lahko vir njihove ustvarjalnosti, umeščanja v skupnost, (samo)opredeljevanja in socialnosti oziroma osnova strahu pred neuspehom.

Resumen Este artículo revisa los avances en la construcción de un sistema de indicadores que evalúa los procesos de in/sustentabi-lidad de los sistemas de producción lecheros familiares en Uruguay. Se presenta brevemente el concepto de sustentabilidad del cual se parte, para luego avanzar sobre la propuesta que se ha venido desarrollando. Se revisan tres casos concretos de su aplicación hasta el presente en distintos momentos y territorios en el departamento de San José. Por último, se identifican las potencialidades y restricciones que hasta ahora han emergido de dicho proceso de trabajo y se da cuenta de algunos resultados obtenidos con la aplicación de la metodología propuesta.


This article reviews the progress in building a system of indicators to evaluate un/sustainability processes of family dairy production systems in Uruguay. It briefly introduces the concept of sustainability from which we start, and then moves forward on the proposal that has been developed. We review three specific experiences of its application at various times and territories in the region of San José. Finally, we identify the potential and limitations that have emerged during the work process, and present some results obtained with the implementation of the proposed methodology.

Family studies is a developing field in Southeast Asia. Scholars attempt to touch on family relations as they cover issues on national identity, state policies, gender division of labor, migration, agriculture, and modernization. It is important to give particular focus on the farming families in the region because, of all types of families, they are the ones who face and adapt to most changes in political, economic, cultural, and social terms. By reviewing literatures done in relation to farming families in Malaysia and the Philippines, this paper argues for the importance of (1) acknowledging the convergence in the definition and usage of the terms "family" and "kinship" in studying different forms of families, (2) exploring contemporary sociocultural perceptions on the family farm, and (3) ensuring that scholarly works go beyond focusing on development approaches and wife-husband dyad relations. Towards the conclusion, this work highlights the possibility of exploring Geertz and Ellen's ecological approach in studying the role of the land in the strengthening or weakening of family relations. It also recommends Agarwal's bargaining approach be extended to Southeast Asia and that siblingship and generational positionalities be considered.

Nesta tese, investiga-se o agronegócio como fenômeno político. Com esse objetivo, analisam-se o surgimento e as mobilizações da noção de agribusiness nos Estados Unidos, de 1955 até a década de 1970, nas dimensões acadêmica, corporativa, midiática e estatal. Em um segundo momento, estudam-se os meios pelos quais a noção foi exportada ao Brasil e as formas com que ela começou a ganhar proeminência no país, também levando em consideração as dimensões citadas acima. Posteriormente, aborda-se a constituição, no Brasil, de um projeto político-econômico fundamentado no resgate da noção original de agribusiness, tal como formulada na Harvard Business School. Em seguida, trata-se dos modos como esse projeto ganhou materialidade no que se intitula concertação política do agronegócio. Procuram-se compreender, a partir desse ponto, as distintas configurações dessa concertação ao longo dos últimos 25 anos – incluindo tanto suas proposições e estratégias quanto as controvérsias em que foi inserida – até chegar à centralidade que detém atualmente no processo político brasileiro.

In 2017 the United Nations declared 2019-2028 to be the Decade of Family Farming in an attempt to popularized it as a factor in achieving sustainable development in rural areas and create pro-family farming policies. In Bulgaria agriculture is still a main source of livelihood for local people in these areas which face number of challenges such as recession, risk of depopulation, aging population, etc. Along with these issues European funding is available, as well as support from NGOs that import ideas and models for sustainable development. The article aims to outline and analyze rural livelihood strategies based on the sustainable use of natural resources. It examines traditional rural livelihood-agriculture along with other activities-the development of guest houses and alternative tourism as attempts to transition to multifunctionality and post-productivism in the Bulgarian rural areas. The study follows Ian Scoones sustainable livelihoods framework which includes 5 elements-context, conditions and trends; livelihood resources; institutional process and organizational structures; livelihood strategies; and sustainable livelihood outcomes. Family as a human resource also plays a significant role for building, sustaining and developing livelihoods. The research argues that there is a discrepancy between the ideas which the NGOs are trying to implement as models for sustainable rural development and the real results that people archive in their attempts to build sustainable livelihoods.

En el año 2006 fue creado, en el seno de la Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca de la Nación, un espacio destinado al diseño y la ejecución de políticas públicas orientadas a un sector de la agricultura del país que durante años había sido minimizado, tanto por el Estado como por la sociedad en su conjunto: el sector de la agricultura familiar. La creación de la Subsecretaría de Agricultura Familiar en el año 2006 y de la Secretaría de Desarrollo Rural y Agricultura Familiar, a fines de 2008, sin embargo, no parecen haber sido una iniciativa aislada del Estado Nacional. Por el contrario, su surgimiento se enmarca en la instalación y desarrollo de la Reunión Especializada de Agricultura Familiar del MERCOSUR, creada en 2004 e integrada por Argentina, Brasil, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay. En el presente trabajo indagaremos acerca de la influencia –por cierto, mutua– que, como describen algunos autores, existe entre los planos nacional y regional al interior de todo proceso de integración. Para dar cuenta de ello, partiremos de la aproximación a esta área o dimensión, que resulta nueva y novedosa, tanto a nivel del MERCOSUR como a nivel de algunos de los Estados que forman parte del bloque.

Dans un contexte d’interrogation sur les modèles agricoles et de profondes transformations des agricultures et des marchés, cet ouvrage s’attache à revisiter la diversité des formes familiales de production et leurs mutations de par le monde.  Dès lors, l’analyse intègre les liens aux marchés, aux territoires et à l’Ailleurs - par le fait migratoire - les enjeux d’autonomie et de sécurité alimentaire, les stratégies de survie et d’accumulation ainsi que les formes d’action collective et politique.

L’ouvrage est construit autour de dix-huit études de cas, menées dans les cinq continents. Elles ont toutes été conduites avec un cadre méthodologique, identique et original, inspiré du Sustainable Rural Livehoods (cadre d’identification des moyens de subsistance durables en milieu rural). Revisitée pour cet ouvrage, cette méthode d’observations et d’analyses permet aux auteurs de préciser finement « ce qui fait famille », d’analyser les adaptations du travail des actifs familiaux et les mettre en perspective avec le contexte territorial et les politiques publiques de chaque pays.

Écrit à plusieurs mains, par un réseau de chercheurs, cet ouvrage contribue autant à l’approfondissement des savoirs scientifiques sur les agricultures familiales dans le monde qu’à la mise à l’épreuve d’un cadre méthodologique d’analyse et d’observations en milieu rural.

Il vise un public de chercheurs, d’enseignants et d’étudiants, agronomes, économistes, sociologues et historiens. Les experts du développement agricole et rural y trouveront un grand intérêt. Plus largement, toute personne qui s’intéresse aux agricultures familiales et à leurs évolutions dans divers contextes sociaux trouvera avantage à cette lecture.

The possibility of an agroecological transition? An analysis of the economic, ecological and institutional determinants of alternative farming practices adoption in a family farmers community in Brazil.

The aim of this thesis is to explore the issue of changes in ways of production of family farmers communities facing economic and ecological crisis. To what extent are they able to carry out a transition to more sustainable ways of production?
The thesis focuses on a rural region of Nova Friburgo (Brazil) with family farmers organized in communities. First of all, we identify the environmental, economic and institutional factors allowing family farmers to substitute agroecological practices to practices that emerged during the "green revolution".
Based on a farming systems model, we then highlight the weakening of family structures since the 1970s, both in terms of economic performances and exploitation of ecosystem services. This context facilitated the emergence of "environmental desservices" that had undermined the sustainability of these structures. In addition, the reintroduction of a full set of agroecological practices in the current family farming system does not appear as a viable economic alternative for farmers.
Using scenarios, we however show that it is possible to identify the missing capabilities of producers that would enable them to initiate basic transformations. In addition, by focusing our analysis on the community level, we show the existence of endogenous forms of coordination – institutional arrangements – which could turn the current farming system toward an agroecology-based system.

Integración de aportes de los co-autores en torno a varias facetas de la agroecología, incluyendo su relación con los agroecosistemas y la agrobiodiversidad; los sistemas territoriales de agricultura familiar; la naturaleza territorial y relacional de las agriculturas familiares; la sustentabilidad del desarrollo y cadenas de valor en territorios, y los sistemas y redes de innovación en territorios rurales y sistemas de agricultura familiar. Se aborda asimismo la relación entre agroecología y productividad de la agricultura familiar, incluyendo sus aspectos agropecuarios y económicos, relacionados con el reciclaje de los subproductos de los subsistemas vegetal, animal y bosque; la bioodiversidad productiva y funcional, y la productividad energética y agroecológica del sistema en su conjunto, con una ejemplificación a partir de la experiencia de una finca familiar en Matagalpa, Nicaragua, y una valoración de las contribuciones del INTA a la investigación e innovación agroecológica en esa región. 􏰒􏰊􏰅 􏰔 􏰘􏰇􏰂􏰯􏰆􏰁

la production de biodiesel est une bonne opportunité de diversification des
revenus des sociétés cotonnières et des exploitations agricoles familiales qu’elles encadrent mais sa rentabilité en tant que projet industriel est trop incertain. Un tel projet n’est pas bancable sans une incitation fiscale de l’État. Il ne peut non plus supporter une réduction de 1% du prix du biodiesel que pourrait entraîner la baisse des cours du pétrole. Le recours au crédit carbone permet certes d’en faire une bonne affaire tout en renforçant ses impacts socioéconomiques mais l’avenir du marché du carbone, après 2012 qui marque la fin du Protocole de Kyoto, est encore incertain. Ainsi, l’une des recommandations majeures de la présente
étude est la mise en place d’une association des producteurs de biocarburants afin que les promoteurs de tels projets puissent bénéficier d’un environnement fiscal favorable. L’association négicociera aussi la participations active des pétroliers dans la distribution des biocarburants. Mais jusqu’où ira la volonté politique des États Ouest Africains de réduire
l’hémorragie sur les réserves de devise due à la facture pétrolière et la dépendance énergétique de la sous région ? L’avenir des premiers projets de production de biodiesel qui seront mis en oeuvre dépendra pour beaucoup de la réponse à cette question.

As políticas públicas iniciadas para agricultura familiar a partir do Pronaf em 1996 trouxeram inovações ao setor ao inserir estratégias intersetoriais em busca do desenvolvimento rural. A criação do Programa de Aquisição de Alimentos (PAA), em 2003, e a reformulação do Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar (PNAE), em 2009, fazem parte dessas estratégias ao estabelecerem mercados institucionais aos agricultores familiares e também acesso de alimentos de qualidade às entidades socioassistenciais, equipamentos públicos de alimentação e escolas públicas. Com a criação desses programas, uma nova realidade socioeconômica para os beneficiários fornecedores envolvidos tem emergido. Assim, compreender os efeitos destas políticas passa a ser uma importante forma de conhecer a capilaridade dessas ações em nível local. Desse modo, as perguntas que direcionaram a análise da pesquisa foram: Quais os efeitos gerados na agricultura familiar com a operacionalização dos programas PAA e PNAE? Mais especificamente, como a agricultura familiar e os agricultores familiares de Espera Feliz-MG estão mudando seus processos, dinâmicas e produtos em função das políticas de compra governamental? Os dados desta pesquisa foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas a 61 beneficiários produtores do PAA e PNAE associados à Cooperativa da Agricultura Familiar Solidária de Espera Feliz-MG (COOFELIZ). Foi adotada a análise de conteúdo como método de interpretação, considerando quatro categorias da noção de multifuncionalidade da agricultura familiar: econômica, social, ambiental e segurança alimentar. A pesquisa permitiu diagnosticar vários efeitos dos programas junto aos seus beneficiários no município, entre eles: i) Econômico: aumento de produção, trabalho e renda; diversificação produtiva e acesso a novos mercados ii) Social: fortalecimento das organizações associativas locais, ampliação das relações institucionais entre órgãos públicos e privados, maior envolvimento familiar na produção iii) Meio ambiente: o incentivo a uma agricultura familiar livre de agrotóxico iv) Segurança alimentar: melhoria na alimentação das famílias, valorização dos alimentos regionais e aumento da qualidade dos produtos. Verifica-se que a operacionalização do PAA e PNAE imprimiu uma nova dimensão e significado para a agricultura familiar no município, onde o esforço conjunto entre entidades públicas e privadas foi importante nesse processo. Os programas no município encontram alguns desafios que influenciam nos impactos para os beneficiários produtores, como: a limitada assistência técnica de órgãos governamentais, falta de continuidade do PAA de um projeto para o outro, longo prazo de pagamentos aos produtores, preço defasado em relação ao mercado local e falta de demanda institucional para suprir toda a oferta de alimentos produzidos. Resguardados os desafios, conclui-se que a identificação de implicações em todas as 4 categorias analisadas indica que os programas têm contribuído em múltiplos efeitos para a agricultura familiar. Além disso, os resultados positivos e sinérgicos desses dois programas confirmam o caráter inovador dos mesmos por impactarem em diversas frentes do cotidiano da agricultura familiar e promoverem efeitos que contribuam para novas dinâmicas sociais, econômicas e ambientais voltadas aos atores que estão envolvidos no fornecimento de alimentos.

La necesidad de una agricultura más sustentable y equitativa ha sido expresada en diferentes instituciones que trabajan con el sector. Frente a este desafío es estratégico el rol que desempeñan los productores familiares. Conocer las características de la agricultura familiar, su importancia en el ámbito económico productivo y socio cultural, así como sus estrategias de supervivencia es central para orientar acciones políticas de desarrollo regional y nacional.
El libro que aquí presentamos recopila 12 estudios de caso producidos por investigadores de distintas unidades del INTA y de Universidades. En los mismos se analizan -desde diversas perspectivas, dimensiones y marcos teóricos- las características de este actor social y las estrategias de supervivencia que adopta como sujeto agrario para producir y reproducirse, a partir de las condiciones de escasez histórica que afrontan
en cuanto al acceso y tenencia de medios de producción (tierra y capital), pero también de otros recursos (como el agua), de infraestructura social básica y productiva, de financiamiento
y asistencia técnica, entre otras.

Resumen
El presente trabajo se propone desde una perspectiva centrada en el actor estudiar la dimensión psicosocial de la interfaz extensionista rural – pequeño productor agropecuario en el contexto de los procesos de extensión rural que tienen lugar en la provincia de Formosa. La investigación de tipo exploratorio-descriptivo incluyó la toma de entrevistas abiertas, semi-estructuradas y encuestas a agricultores familiares y extensionistas rurales. El análisis del material se basó en la perspectiva teórico-metodológica de la Teoría Fundamentada.
En los resultados se desarrollan las características del conocimiento tecnológico local y se analiza cuáles son los saberes que extensionistas y productores se reconocen a sí mismos y al otro actor. A su vez se estudian las formas en las que se caracterizan mutuamente y las distintas racionalidades que se ponen de manifiesto en torno a distintas propuestas técnicas. Por otro lado, se enumeran las motivaciones y dificultades vivenciadas por los extensionistas en su trabajo. Para finalizar se plantean una serie de propuestas dirigidas a los extensionistas rurales, a las instituciones que los forman y a las organizaciones que diseñan y ejecutan programas orientados a la agricultura familiar, con el objetivo de generar aportes que permitan maximizar el impacto de las iniciativas orientadas al desarrollo.

Palabras clave: Interfaz social - Extensión rural –Agricultura familiar - Conocimiento tecnológico local

Abstract

This thesis addresses the psychosocial dimension of the interface rural extensionist - small farmer from an Actor Oriented Approach (AOA) in the context of the rural extension processes that take place in the province of Formosa, Argentina. The research was exploratory and descriptive, and included open and semi-structured interviews as well as surveys to family farmers and rural extension workers. The material was analyzed using the theoretical and methodological support of Grounded Theory.
The results section describes the characteristics of the technological local knowledge, and analyzes which type of knowledge extensionists and farmers acknowledge owning and recognize as characteristic of the other. Likewise, the study also addresses how extensionists and farmers describe each other and the rationales that underlie different productive proposals. Additionally, motivations and difficulties experienced by rural extensionists during their daily work are listed. Finally, proposals for rural extension agents and institutions, and for organizations that train them are presented, with the aim of increasing the impact of development proposals.

Key words: social interface – Rural extension – family farming - technological local knowledge

Résumé :
Cet article consiste en la critique de synthèses récentes sur la démographie antique et en la présentation de réflexions alternatives. Est donc présenté le schéma historiographique, d’inspiration néo-malthusien, selon lequel l’accroissement démographique des sociétés antiques aurait été bloqué par l’archaïsme et l’immobilisme de l’agriculture et la « loi » des rendements décroissants. Entravées par le « piège malthusien » que font peser sur elles l’accroissement de la population, elles seraient demeurées à un état stationnaire, déterminé par leur niveau technologique et l’optimum de peuplement des territoires. Pour ce modèle économique, la capacité productive des terroirs est souvent considérée comme une donnée exogène, dépendant essentiellement de leurs caractéristiques naturelles.
Il lui est opposé les idées d’Esther Boserup qui considère que la pression démographique peut être à l’origine de l’intensification agricole et de la mise en culture de nouveaux terroirs. Ce paradigme est mobilisé pour analyser les conquêtes agricoles de quatre terroirs du nord des Gaules. Elles ont en commun d’être réalisées par des exploitations familiales, au moyen d’aménagements de l’ager et de l’amélioration des capacités agricoles des sols. En conclusion, on s’interroge sur les conditions sociales et économiques de ces processus et sur les capacités des sociétés gallo-romaines à « fabriquer des terres agricoles ».


Abstract :
This article is a critical reappraisal of recent syntheses on ancient demography and it aims at presenting some alternative reflexions. First, the neo-Malthusian historiographic outline, according which the demographic growth of ancient societies would have been blocked by the archaic and non-evolving character of the agriculture and by the law of diminishing returns, is presented. These societies, because they were hampered by the low equilibrium trap, would have remained at a steady state determined by their technological level and by their carrying capacity. According to this economic model, the production capacity of the land is often considered as an exogenous factor and is thought to be determined mainly by its natural characteristics.
To this outline are opposed the ideas of Esther Boserup, who considers that the demographic pressure may be the cause of the agricultural intensification and of the exploitation of new land. This paradigm is used to analyze the expansion of agriculture in four areas of northern Gaul. In these four cases, family farms are responsible for the expansion, by means of adjustments of the ager and improvements of the soil agricultural capability. In conclusion is offered a reflexion on the social and economic circumstances of these processes and on the capacity of the Gallo-Roman societies to « make agricultural lands ».

In order to expand the productive options of the rural sector, Mexican public institutions have promoted the use of specialty livestock such as ostrich (Struthio camelus); from 1991 to 2015, there have been 320 companies dedicated to commercial production throughout Mexico and only about 30 remain active in 2017. The purpose of the study is to identify the factors related to the permanence and performance of these companies; for this purpose, 20 active and six closed companies were studied. From the concepts of strategy, business model and business network, indicators were constructed to determine those factors that were later contrasted with company performance indicators, through correlation tests and comparison of means. It was found that the permanence and superior performance of the ostrich producing companies in Mexico are related to strategies of differentiation and targeting in niche markets, business models based on the promotion of the qualities of the meat and the diversification of products, as well as with a higher linkage of the companies with competitors and specialized players.

L’ouvrage Políticas públicas y agriculturas familiares en América Latina y el Caribe : balance, desafíos y perspectivas présente la diversité des agricultures familiales en Amérique latine ainsi que celle des politiques publiques qui lui sont dédiées. Il rassemble les résultats d’une étude menée par le DP PP-AL, associant le Cirad et vingt partenaires latino-américains. Il constitue un des socles des débats organisés dans le cadre du séminaire international Politicas publicas y agricultura familiar en América Latine y el Caribe qui se tient du 2 au 5 novembre 2014 à Santiago du Chili. En Amérique latine, l’agriculture familiale revêt une très grande diversité. Quatorze millions d’exploitations agricole sont de type familial. Une récente étude permet d’apprécier les caractéristiques des politiques publiques qui lui sont dédiées. Elle confirme la grande diversité des contextes nationaux, des situations agraires ainsi que des définitions apposées à l’agriculture familiale. L’étude démo...

Não há dúvidas de que a principal fonte de alimentos da Humanidade são as atividades agrárias, que hoje enfrentam o problema de necessidade de expansão, eis que a população crescente exige cada vez mais alimentos, como também precisa encontrar uma forma de satisfazer a essas necessidades sem comprometer as futuras gerações. É necessário analisar essa encruzilhada do ponto de vista jurídico, eis que o Direito pode contribuir com uma orientação mais ética, essencial para solucionar o problema da fome. O presente artigo busca, a partir de pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, sobre legislação nacional, estrangeira e internacional, verificar se o Direito Agrário brasileiro tem sido útil para a solução da questão da segurança alimentar. Conclui-se em sentido negativo, mormente porque as normas jurídicas ainda não acompanham os vários desafios que essa busca demanda, principalmente no cenário nacional, sendo necessário empreender modificações com o intuito de colocar a segurança alimentar como objetivo central de todo o Direito Agrário, rumo a um Direito Agroalimentar. Nesse sentido, são feitas diversas sugestões para modificações no ordenamento jurídico, almejando soluções concretas ao tema.

Las huertas familiares son sistemas socio-ecológicos que cumplen un importante papel en la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad y de procesos socio-culturales locales. Con base en distintas fuentes bibliográficas, se compiló y analizó la información existente sobre las huertas familiares en Chile, especialmente los datos referidos a composición, riqueza y usos de especies vegetales. Se analizó la información según zona geográfica norte (N), centro-sur (CS) y sur (S) del país. Se encontraron 46 estudios, los cuales reportaron 125 especies cultivadas pertenecientes a 46 familias a nivel nacional. Del total, predominaron las plantas usadas en la alimentación (54%) y medicina (23%). Mediante el Índice de Jaccard se obtuvo una mayor similitud entre las familias de plantas cultivadas en las zonas CS y S (47%), seguido por N y S (31%). Quince familias de plantas fueron exclusivas para la zona N, nueve para la zona CS y tres para la S. De las 125 especies registradas, al menos 25 (20%) se cultivaban desde épocas pre-hispánicas (previo a 1541). Algunas especies como Chenopodium quinoa, Zea mays, Phaseolus coccineus, Solanum tuberosum y Capsicum annuum, fueron ampliamente reportadas a la llegada de los españoles, junto a otras ya extintas como Madia sativa y Bromus mango. Existe un bajo conocimiento sobre la diversidad de plantas cultivadas dentro de las huertas en Chile. En la huerta familiar se genera activamente una trama de conocimientos que permiten la mantención de especies vegetales y procesos culturales asociados. La actual disminución de la pequeña agricultura en Chile podría producir una erosión cultural y, en consecuencia, de la agrobiodiversidad asociada a las huertas familiares.

Resumen
La soja es, actualmente, el principal producto agrícola de Paraguay, siendo producida predominantemente por brasileños en grandes propiedades en los departamentos limítrofes con Brasil. Pero, en algunas regiones, como Caaguazú, la soja también es cultivada por productores paraguayos en pequeñas fincas. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la participación de la agricultura familiar campesina en el cultivo de la soja y comprender los factores que llevan a ella a producirla en el distrito de Yhú (Departamento de  Caaguazú – Paraguay). Esta investigación utilizó un conjunto de procedimientos y técnicas de investigación, como revisión bibliográfica y levantamientos de datos secundarios. En paralelo se aplicó una encuesta estructurada a 20 campesinos que producían soja en el distrito de Yhú. La forma que el mercado está establecido y el modo con que los agricultores familiares se relacionan con las empresas crea una condición de mucha dependencia y vulnerabilidad a ellos, con un altísimo riesgo de endeudarse y perder las tierras para la empresa que ofrece los productos y servicios.
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Abstract
Soy is currently the main agricultural product in Paraguay, being grown predominantly by Brazilian producers over large areas in neighboring departments to Brazil. However, in some regions, such as Caaguazú, soy is produced by Paraguayan farmers on small farms. The purpose of this article is to analyze the role of family farmers in soybean cultivation, and understand the factors affecting this production in Yhú district (Department of Caaguazú - Paraguay). This research used a set of procedures and investigation techniques, such as literature review and research of secondary data. At the same time, a questionnaire was applied to 20 farmers soybean producers in the district of Yhú. The way the market is established, and how the relationships between growers and companies are built creates a condition of great dependence and vulnerability to family farmers, with a high risk of going into debt, and lose their land in favor of the company that offers the products and services.

Ce mémoire a pour but d’évaluer les politiques publiques de développement rural au Brésil afin de proposer un équilibre entre l’agriculture familiale et l’agrobusiness. Cet équilibre peut être capable de réduire l’exode rural et par conséquent les impacts sociaux négatifs sur le pays lié à la croissance désordonnée des villes. Pour effectuer la recherche, les populations cibles sont les agricultures familiales organiques liées à l’ONG « Orgânicos Sul de Minas », localisées au Sud du Minas Gerais au Sudest du Brésil. Pour l’évaluation sont utilisées des données quantitatives et qualitatives afin de mesurer les points forts et les faiblesses des politiques de développement rural.

This master thesis aims to evaluate public policies of rural development in Brazil to propose a balance between family farming and agribusiness. This balance may be able to reduce the rural exodus, and consequently the negative social impacts on the country directly related to the disorderly growth of cities. To carry out the research, the target population are organic family farmers linked to the NGO "Orgânicos Sul de Minas", located in the south of Minas Gerais in the south of Brazil. For the evaluation, quantitative and qualitative data are used in the sense of measuring the strengths and weaknesses of rural development policies.

In federalist nations, the specific institutional structure that articulates autonomy and unity (or self-rule and shared-rule, according to Elazar’s definition in 1987) has been appointed as an obstacle to the expansion of social policies and to its intergovernmental coordination. As stated by Pierson (1995), although highly interdependent, the public policies in federalist countries are only modestly coordinated. Deil Wright (1978), indicates that intergovernmental relations in federalist nations may be organized through a pattern that reinforce hierarchy and dependence of subnational governments or as patterns of negotiation and interdependence. Brazilian researchers on the theme have pointed out that the specific authority structure in terms of fiscal resources, political autonomy, and constitutional jurisdiction in each policy area have an important role on defining the IGR pattern. Besides, although Brazilian municipalities having been able to gain political autonomy, increment its fiscal share and receive constitutional jurisdiction over a wide set of policy areas, the decision on major policies regulatory milestones often remains centralized in the federal level.
From this theoretical approach, in the present study we review the vertical distribution of authority in Brazilian National School Meals Program (PNAE) to then assess the coordinating federal ability in the program. This evaluation was conducted based on the case study of the implementation of a federal regulation that stipulated that at least 30% of federal resources should be spent with purchases from family farmers, preferably locals. This was, as we see it, the regulation that have most hardly revealed that a centralized decision structure in the program remained even after the decentralization that took place in 1994, when states and municipalities have started executing the program.
The data analysis of 4992 municipalities (90% of the total of Brazilian local governments) from 2011 to 2014 shows that the municipalities’ adaptation to the regulation devolved in a stable and growing pattern, in local governments of all sizes and of all national regions. Although around 60% of municipalities have not reached the minimum target of 30% by 2014, there is a clear progress towards that. We thus conclude that there is a high federal coordinating capacity on the program. This capacity is built upon a centralized authority structure with little room for a cooperative approach, which determines a “inclusive authority” pattern of IGR. On the other hand, there is interdependence in the policy implementation and we could as well find situations of negotiation and cooperation, even with less institutional basis, which adds elements of Wright’s “overlapping authority model” of IGR.
Finally, we recommend that the institutional design of the National School Meals Program (PNAE) should evolve to a more cooperative status, including states and municipalities in the policy decision making though negotiating arenas, creating flexible incentives, supporting local innovation, improving the role of states in local coordination and reaching for equalizing regional inequalities.

Keywords: school meals; cooperative federalism; coordination; family farming; descentralization

Nos países federalistas, o arranjo específico que articula autonomia e unidade –ou self rule e shared rule, na formulação de Elazar (1987) – tem sido apontado como um obstáculo à expansão de políticas sociais e à coordenação intergovernamental em sua produção. Para Pierson (1995), apesar de altamente interdependentes, as políticas públicas nos países federalistas são apenas modestamente coordenadas. Deil Wright (1978), por sua vez, observa que as relações intergovernamentais no federalismo podem tanto estruturar-se a partir de padrões que reforçam hierarquia e dependência dos entes subnacionais como a partir de padrões sob a égide da negociação e interdependência. A literatura nacional tem apontado, ainda, que a forma como está estruturada a distribuição vertical de autoridade nos campos fiscal, político e de competências em cada área de política pública é importante definidor do padrão de relações intergovernamentais. Identifica ainda que, após 1988, apesar de os municípios terem recebido autonomia política, competências constitucionais sobre amplas áreas de políticas públicas e crescentes parcelas da receita tributária disponível, o poder de decisão sobre os grandes marcos normativos das políticas públicas vem sendo retomado pelo nível federal, no que pode ser considerado tanto um movimento de recentralização quanto de tentativa de coordenação.
A partir desta problemática teórica, analisamos a distribuição vertical de autoridade no Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar (PNAE) nos dias atuais para, em seguida, avaliar a capacidade de coordenação federal no programa. Esta avaliação foi realizada com base no estudo de caso da implementação em nível nacional da obrigação criada pelo art. 14 da lei 11.947/09 que determina o dispêndio de, no mínimo, 30% dos recursos repassados pelo governo federal com compras diretamente da agricultura familiar. A forma de implementar a previsão legal foi, ao nosso ver, o processo que mais claramente evidenciou o caráter ainda centralizado do programa, em que pese a descentralização da execução ocorrida em 1994.
Analisando os dados referentes a 4992 municípios entre os anos de 2011 e 2014, percebe-se que o processo de adequação dos municípios à lei ocorreu de forma crescente e estável em todas as categorias de municípios e em todas as regiões do país. Concluímos que há grande capacidade de coordenação do FNDE sobre a ação dos municípios no PNAE. Concluímos que esta ampla capacidade de coordenação apoia-se em um modelo centralizado e pouco cooperativo, que se traduz em um padrão de relações intergovernamentais de “autoridade inclusiva” (Wright, 1978). Observa-se, no entanto, que há interdependência na implementação da política e que também estiveram presentes elementos de cooperação e negociação, ainda que menos formais, o que agregou às relações intergovernamentais do programa a presença de elementos do modelo de “autoridade superposta”, configurando uma situação que mistura ambos padrões. Ao fim, recomendamos que o desenho institucional do PNAE avance para uma institucionalidade mais cooperativa, incluindo os municípios e estados na formulação das regras gerais por meio de espaços de negociação, estabelecendo estruturas mais flexíveis de incentivo, revendo o papel atribuído aos estados, apoiando a inovação e buscando equalizar as desigualdades regionais.

Palavras-Chave: PNAE; federalismo cooperativo; coordenação; agricultura familiar; descentralização

The development of family farming is an important strategic option to support the food needs of the rural and urban populations. This is the reason it has been the subject of several studies which is based on characterization and typology to better orientate agricultural and rural development interventions. This study was conducted to characterize family farm in Mali and to determine the strategies to satisfy the country's needs in rapport with the implementation of rural development. In doing this, field data were first collected in the family farms at Niono County (Niger River valley) and the Banamba County. After data collection, it was then analyzed in a systemic way. This analysis helps to characterize the family farm of Mali as a " Traditional peasant farm ". In Niono County, 'peasant family farm' which ensures its food self-sufficiency is centered on the production unit with an option of diversification. In Banamba County, " peasant family farm' centered on unity of consumption develops food security strategy through pluri-activity. Thus, despite the intensity of government intervention, particularly in the area of Niger River Valley, malian " peasant family farmg " did not turn into " Modern family farm business ". In doing this, intervention for agricultural and rural development should move based on its strategies and practices from a sectorial approach to a systemic approach. This passage from the deterministic and holistic paradigm to the systemic and interactionist paradigm, should better redefine agricultural education and agricultural subsidy in relation with the structure of production.