Lusatian Culture

In this paper the settlement of the Záhorie region in western Slovakia during the Urnfield period is described and analyzed. Our main interest lies in the Final Bronze Age, for this is the period in which finds of Lusatian culture have been discovered in the studied area. We present the known locations of Lusatian culture in the region and try to set them into a broader context of supraregional relations. A link between the Lusatian settlement of Záhorie region, possible trade routes and Mezőcsát group burials is proposed.

On highest highths and deepest depths, the depositional context of
Late Bronze Age ring hoards in Central Europe.

In Late Bronze Age (Reinecke Bz D—Ha A) Upper Lusatia and adjoining landscapes, bronze hoards were deposited in the ground according to clear rules. Depositions of hoards exclusively containing arm rings, but also depositions of female dress accessories, take place in the hidden and dangerous liminal-chthonian environment of pest bogs and marshes. Characteristically, female neck and arm/leg spiral depots are mainly found on hilltops of landscapes bordering to the west These deepest depths and highest heights of the land-scape are an antithesis to the human-induced arable land in which the males of that time sacrificed their collections of axes. This gender-specific sacral geography can be corn-pared to traditional sacrificial practices of the ancient world, where women in particular preferred to practise chthonic sacrifices in wild, often wet contexts outside the polis. The purifying power of water is the leitmotif of this practice, which allowed women, who were socially marginalised by allegations of impurity, to re-enter society.

Problematyka rozwiązań architektonicznych we wczesnej epoce żelaza na ziemiach polskich jest ciekawym tematem w badaniach pradziejowych. Sama architektura nie jest tak częstym problemem badawczym w porównaniu do osadnictwa, gdzie budownictwo prehistoryczne jest jedynie częścią całego zagadnienia. W niniejszej pracy chciałbym przedstawić zależność architektury kultury łużyckiej od wpływów kultury wschodniohalsztackiej.

Za elementy noszące najsilniejsze piętno oddziaływań kultury halsztackiej przyjmuję: ogrodzenia palisadowe w osadach otwartych (Milejowice 19, Stary Śleszów 17, Zabrodzie 8) oraz konstrukcje komór grobów (Domasław 10, 11, 12, Kietrz 1).
W pracy uwzględnię pochówki, ponieważ są nierozerwalnie związane ze zróżnicowaniem społecznym tego okresu oraz ukazują silne powiązania z kręgiem kultury halsztackiej. Ramy chronologiczne dla pracy obejmują okres halsztacki C (700-550 p.n.e.) i D (550-400 p.n.e.) – czas największego wpływu kultury halsztackiej na ziemie polskie. Ramy terytorialne stanowić będzie historyczny Górny i Dolny Śląsk,
w szczególności obecne województwo dolnośląskie i śląskie. Uwarunkowane jest to tym, iż te regiony odznaczają się największym wpływem kręgu halsztackiego oraz liczbą stanowisk podlegających procesowi halsztatyzacji.

Niniejsza praca przygotowana została dla GDDKiA, jako opracowanie wyników z badań ratowniczych, które odbyły się na st. 13 w Krzeczynie Wielkim w sezonie 2015. Zawiera opis zabytków ruchomych (głównie ceramiki i narzędzi metalowych) z okresu wczesnego średniowiecza oraz niewielki inwentarz ceramiczny z okresu "łużyckiego". Na stanowisku znaleziono również jeden fr. ceramiki nowożytnej.
Stanowisko w Krzeczynie Wielkim 13 badane było w kilku etapach, a niniejsza praca dotyczyć będzie wyłącznie etapu ostatniego. Przedstawienie wyników z wcześniejszych sezonów badań będzie tematem odrębnych opracowań.

Opracowanie jest wynikiem pracy zespołu badaczy, którzy są wymienieni jako autorzy określonych rozdziałów. Redaktorem opracowania oraz autorem większości tekstu, jak i planów i tablic obiektów był mgr Aleksander Danecki.

Trwająca przez blisko tysiąc lat kultura łużycka, mimo że stosunkowo dobrze rozpoznana i funkcjonująca od ponad stu lat w obiegu naukowym, ciągle stanowi niezwykle interesujący problem badawczy. Zjawisko przemocy i nagłych wypadków z udziałem tej społeczności, jak do tej pory rzadko było ujmowane w sposób syntetyczny.
Celem tej pracy jest przedstawienie wybranych śladów, jakie pozostawiają po sobie krwawe i gwałtowne wydarzenia w materiale archeologicznym oraz podsumowanie różnych hipotez dotyczących reliktów wydarzeń w grodach łużyckich. Omawiane osiedla znajdują się na terenie ziem polskich, jednak nie sposób pominąć analogii z obszarów sąsiednich. Być może to właśnie dzięki nim uda się lepiej zrozumieć wydarzenia sprzed wieków. Bliższe przyjrzenie się śladom, jakie mogły one pozostawiać pozwoli wyobrazić sobie, czego mogła obawiać się ludność epoki brązu i wczesnej epoki żelaza.
Do rozważań wybrane zostały grody znajdujące się na terenie Kujaw (Biskupin, Gzin, Kamieniec, Kruszwica, Sobiejuchy), Wielkopolski (Słupca), oraz Dolnego Śląska (Wrocław-Osobowice, Wicina).

"Fortifications in the Lusatian culture hill-forts constitute an excellent proof of the progress the people of that culture made in building. Building fortifications was a complicated and complex enterprise, requiring immense resources. It demanded good organisation of work and appropriate engineering skills on the part of its creators.

However, the long research conducted in hill-forts since the 19th century leaves much to be desired. The lack of uniform terminology, which would identify various elements and constructions recognized in the examined defensive walls, seems rather striking in this context. It influenced the state of documentation and carried out reconstructions (graphic) which, in many cases, are difficult to comprehend. The basic principles used in building seem sometimes to have been ignored when creating the reconstructions. In other cases “Lusatian” defensive constructions were given the largest possible size, vastly transgressing the level of technical skills displayed by the builders of that culture. Such reconstruction should be based primarily on the structures (layout of wooden beams, characteristic embankments) registered in the defensive wall, and ought to observe the building rules both applied currently and those applied by the Lusatian culture engineers. In the case of wooden constructions one can refer to analogies in housing. Nevertheless, moderation is also advocated here, since such buildings should be located in close proximity to the hill-fort and refer to similar chronology. Therefore, the methodology of research on Lusatian culture fortifications should still be improved, and the detailed work carried out in Biskupin should undoubtedly serve as a model here.

Using only natural resources (timber, stone, clay), “Lusatian” builders were able to erect solid defensive structures, really economical as far as the used material was concerned. Among such constructions there were ramparts, gateways and fortifications on the outskirts and along shoreline. In the context of the rampart structure, its foundation (which was not itself a defensive structure) stabilising the base in various natural conditions, served an important function. The fortification core in the Lusatian culture hill-forts was the proper rampart. Depending on the material used for its construction, it could have been a timber, stone or earthen rampart or a “combined” form.

Log walls of the palisade or stockade (shoring) type belong to forms of rather simple construction. For that reason such fortifications were regarded as having the lowest defensive value. It did not mean, however, that more elaborate forms of those wall were not built, the evidence of which can be found in the younger phase (IV) of the fortification in Łubowice (Chochorowski 1976, 71-72; 1977, 112-115). We have already encountered complex structures in the case of box or interlayer timber ramparts. Box ramparts are among the most numerous versions of fortifications encountered in the Lusatian culture hill-forts. Moreover, they belong to the definitely best examined mainly owing to intensive research conducted in Biskupin for many years (Piotrowski 1991). Rarely have we encountered samples of stone or earthen ramparts. Particularly the latter could not really constitute a sufficient defensive measure. We encounter very interesting forms of fortifications in the context of “combined forms”. They were structures in which a combination of various constructions (e.g. timber box) and building materials were used.
The key part at the initial stage of the proper rampart construction was selection of an appropriate form for its foundations. Depending on the environment in which the hill-fort functioned, it used to be a timber structure in marshy areas, while a kind of earthen pedestal was used in drier regions (Niesiołowska-Hoffmann 1963, 109). Similarly as in the case of the proper ramparts, considering the kind of construction material used, we can distinguish timber, stone or earthen foundations and the “combined forms”.

The part played by gateway complexes in the defensive system of the Lusatian culture hill-forts remains shrouded in mystery. Such a construction could have been a roofed-over watchtower, which offered an excellent vantage point of the hill-fort approach. It is, however, one of many reconstruction concepts which, on the basis of the preserved ground-floor sections of those buildings, can be neither confirmed nor ruled out. The situation is further aggravated by the poor state of recognition of gateway complexes, based solely on the excavations in Biskupin, Izdebno, Jankowo and Nieder-Neundorf. Nevertheless, considering significant communications functions, it should be assumed that that such a construction ought to have been found in each hill-fort, and its part in defensive activities seems highly likely.
The Lusatian culture hill-forts were located on naturally defensive sites. Therefore one can mention “natural defensive factors”, which conditioned the form and complexity of the fortification system. Let us consider the dependence of the selected construction materials on the natural environment in which the hill-fort functioned. Stone walls occurred in hilly areas where this material was plentiful, while huge amounts of timber were used in the lowlands.

One cannot evaluate the effectiveness of the Lusatian culture fortifications in their defensive function with absolute certainty. However, considering the conditions of running a military campaign in those times, such constructions, even if not of impressive size, could have provided effective protection against invaders. Their value was additionally enhanced by natural features of the area which complemented the defensive system of the hill-fort."

The subject of this study is the issue of the cultural changes at the end of the Hallstatt period and at the beginning of the Early Pre-Roman period observed in the territory of western Lesser Poland. For this period of prehistory, this area was where a boundary between the influences from the north and south of Europe lay. The chronological range of the study covers the period of frequent occurrence of the Final Phase Lusatian Culture and the Pomeranian Culture. The article also presents the question of a strong influence from the Early La Tène Culture. The present text consists of detailed characteristics of the late Lusatian and Pomeranian Culture metal finds from the western part of Lesser Poland. These finds prove beyond any doubt that there was a clearly visible chronological hiatus between the Lusatian and Pomeranian Culture settlement and the La Tène Culture settlement. Currently, there are no artefacts from the discussed part of Lesser Poland that could be dated reliably to stages LT B1b-B2a. Research on the settlement in Lesser Poland clearly reveals permanent degradation of local settlement structures beginning in Ha D. The settlement of the Pomeranian Culture and the end phase of the Lusatian Culture is marked by a major demographic crisis, which resulted in a gradual depopulation of the discussed area. For many years, it has been suggested in the literature that the transformations that occurred in the Early Iron Age were caused by serious climate changes. In the recent literature, the researchers have severely criticised this hypothesis, explicitly pointing out that there are no grounds to associate the Pomeranian Culture migration with the climate changes observed in this period. The Celts, who arrived in the area of the basin of the Upper Vistula River towards the end of the Early La Tène period, inhabited areas devoid of permanent settlement structures and most probably completely depopulated for approx. 120-130 years.

The book is divided into three chapters which revolve around human attempts to penetrate and overcome the porous interfaces between the world experienced by mortal humanity and the other-worlds they envision. The first chapter, Drinking against Death, which is also the title of the book, is divided into two chapters.
In the first, From libation to symposium, the gradual emergence of complex drinking sets in graves in the western Carpathian Basin is traced from the 13th to the 6th century BC and related to transformative ritual anchored in Dionysian concepts of immortality. In the second part, Performing death, related vessel sets in Hallstatt Period graves from Upper Lusatia are contextualized and interpreted within the dynamic sequence of cremation ritual and the complex topography of the furnished chambered tomb. Libation and feasting are seen as crucial elements which accompany the death of the individual and the birth of the ancestor.
The second chapter – The violent interface – explores ritual violence as an aspect material sacrifice. In the first contribution – Rent asunder – the remarkable tradition of scrap-hoarding: violently destroying bronze artifacts, curating the shattered remains and finally burying them, is seen within the context of ecstatic ritual destruction. Analogous customs accompanying cremation rituals are explored with reference to Early Urnfield Period elite graves in the sub chapter – Sparagmos. They are seen within the unfolding ritual drama which spans the gap between the death and apotheosis.
The last chapter, Images as agents, examines the context and meaning of three very different late prehistoric iconographies which are enmeshed in the ritual use of vessels. Wild décor which occurs on pottery vessels from the Middle Bronze Age to the advent of the Late Iron Age represents a radical break with decorative norms and is seen within the context of female agency and domestic magic. The second subchapter – Myths in translation – explores engendered patterns of iconographic interchange at the interface between Central Europe and Scandinavian in the Late Bronze Age. In particular it reveals the crucial importance of women and female-denoted ritual in the cultural communication between north and south. Finally in Scythian eagles with Ionic honeysuckle the iconography of libation in late 6th to 5th century BC grave contexts the northern Pontic steppes is explained within the context of a highly original attempt to amalgamate Greek and Scythian concepts of sacrifice, immortality and communication between earth and eternity.

Costume of prehistoric cultures represents not only textile parts of clothes but also clothing fittings and ornaments, including jewels decorating different parts of the body by which the cultures and groups vary from each other.  People of the Slovak branch of the Lusatian culture used only cremation, so it is hard to say how they wore the personal ornaments or clothing fittings. Providing that person had these objects with him on the funeral pyre, many times the objects had been damaged so much that it was impossible to define their number or original appearance. For this reason the hoards of the bronze ornaments are important help for creating idea about kinds of the things completing mainly ceremonial costumes. Only few graves were anthropologically determined, so first we had to determine the graves where women were buried. To determine which jewels and clothing fittings from hoards had been component parts of the female costume, we used results acquired by comparing the objects from graves.

At the end of the Hallstatt and in the beginning of the La Tène period (Lt A), a gradual depopulation of Silesia can be observed. In the mentioned time, the region was inhabited by local Lusatian and Pomeranian culture communities, which were in contact with the La Tène cultural zone. This is indicated by the presence of Celtic craft products in the area. The available archaeological sources do not allow any conclusions concerning the coexistence of indigenous societies and Celtic settlers. The earliest burial finds, which might reflect the influx of Celtic settlers to Silesia can be dated to the phase Lt B1a. However, they were only recorded in Lower Silesia, while graves of Lt B1b were found in the whole region. Settlement finds from the early La Tène period are scarce and might suggest that the population inhabiting the area at that time was not numerous.

Sixty years after similar discovery author brings an information about new hoards of the Liptov-type swords recently discovered in Bošáca (Western Slovakia), in which tens of bronze artefacts with rich typological-chronological features appeared. This knowledge can help to clarify long-distance contacts in the transitional horizon Trenčianske Bohuslavice/Somotor – Lúčky (Ha A2/Ha B1), e.g.  which passes have been used in the  Western Carpathians, and to increase knowledge of an exchange of social and cultural influences in the Late and Final Bronze Age. Illegally stolen hoards from Bošáca, site Špania dolina, are probably related to the massive hilltop settlement Zemianske Podhradie, site Hradiská, and it seems that this place  as a significant and strategic place of the Lusatian culture – a centre of concentrated military forces and the elites of the society.

Lusatian cuLture and Pomeranian cuLture in Gniezno – an outLine of the research issues abstract: The purpose of this article is to re-analyse and verify the current arrangements for the settlement of the Lusatian and Pomeranian cultures on Lech Mountain in Gniezno. An attempt to interpret the phenomenon which was the settlement from the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age was made based on the repeated, more detailed analysis of the archival material and new finds. The article focuses on the issues of the role of Gniezno in the era of the formation and development of both archaeological cultures, inter alia it stresses the connections between the societies of the Lusatian culture in the middle and younger Bronze Age with the western Wielkopolska groups, and also stresses the connections between the Lusatian culture and the Pomeranian culture in the early Iron Age, while putting new research questions and issues about this subject.

The assessment of the level of technical advancement of textile production in the Bronze and Iron Age in the territory of modern Poland presents many difficulties. They result from the limited number of preserved textiles. The majority of textile products were destroyed in prehistoric times or under the influence of soil-related factors affecting organic substances deposited in the ground. At best, textiles are found in the territory of modern Poland as preserved in a very poor condition, very small, stiff and permanently attached to metal objects.
For these reasons, any pieces of preserved fabric present great importance for Polish historians of textile production. Therefore the large group of textile products found in the biritual cemetery of the Lusatian culture of the Hallstatt period in Świbie, district Gliwice, was more than a fortunate discovery. During the several excavation seasons, as many as 576 graves were found. In the 63 inhumation graves, remains of ca. 180 fragments of textile products were discovered, as preserved on bone remains and bronze, iron and wooden objects. Found were fragments of fabrics, plaited ribbons, threads and cords. The significance of the discovery is huge. It constitutes more than 50% of the Bronze and Iron Age textile finds from the territory of modern Poland.
The cemetery in Świbie were used by the community belonging to the Upper Silesia-Little Poland group of the Lusatian culture which occupied the south-western area of modern Poland. The group was one of regional groups of the Lusatian culture which emerged in the 2 nd Millennium BC and lasted until the HaD period. It covered almost the entire territory of modern Poland, Volhynia as well as eastern areas of Germany and northern parts of Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia.
The grave goods included numerous bronze and iron objects produced locally, as well as imports from the East-Alpine, Pannonian and North-Italian regions. Besides, fabrics and other textile products were discovered in the graves. Unfortunately, they have only been preserved as remnants in inhumation graves. The vast majority of them were tabbies made of vegetable material. On the basis of their location in the graves and on particular metal artefacts, one could assume that they are remains of shrouds or headscarves, or elements of garments. Their original dimensions are also difficult to establish. They could have covered the bodies entirely or only partially. Another portion of textile products are remains of plaited ribbons made of vegetable material. They were likely elements that joined together metal decorative items, together forming a kind of necklace. In the examined set from Świbie, fragments of threads and cords have been identified. These were parts of diadems, which is indicated by the fact that they were found under bronze buttons.
The archaeological evidence from Świbie is by now the largest discovered and examined group of textile products from the Hallstatt period in the territory of Poland.

Celem pracy jest monograficzne opracowanie 81 obiektów archeologicznych oraz licznych materiałów ruchomych pochodzących z badań wykopaliskowych prowadzonych w 2015 roku na wielokulturowych stanowiskach osadowych nr 1 (AZP 03-42/32) oraz 4 (AZP 03-42/35) w miejscowości Gnieżdżewo, gmina Puck, powiat pucki, województwo pomorskie. W wyniku przeprowadzonej analizy wszystkich pozyskanych w trakcie badań źródeł archeologicznych udało się wyodrębnić pięć faz osadniczych oraz częściowo rozpoznać układ przestrzenny zespołu osad w Gnieżdżewie. Zdecydowaną większość materiałów powiązano z osadnictwem społeczności łużycko-pomorskiego cyklu kulturowego z późnej epoki brązu i wczesnej epoki żelaza.

The paper reports on the analysis of an osteological sample from cremation graves of Lusatian culture recovered at Stobrawa site 25D, distr. Opole. The rescue excavation covered an area of ca. 800 m2 and uncovered 81 graves and three shallow settlement pits dated to Bronze Age IV-V and older Hallstatt Period. Skeletal remains submitted for osteological analysis came from 43 graves. The analysis was carried out to ascertain cremation efficiency, total weight of the bone, number of individuals to an urn, age and sex of the individuals, approximate body height, presence of animal bone. Most urns held skeletal remains that were completely oxidised (88.4 %; 40, 4/50, 50). Except for skeletal remains from two urns (graves nos.: 39, 53; 4.7%) all other vessels held uniformly cremated bone. The two exceptions presumably result from the construction of the pyre providing some insight on the features of the burial rite practiced by the investigated population. How the body was handled after cremation is intimated also by the quantity of skeletal remains deposited inside the urns. Their largest quantity was found in grave no. 10 – 1855.35g, the smallest – 2.45g - in one of the vessels from double grave no. 77. There were 39 single (90.7%) and 4 double burials (nos.: 52, 53, 64, 69). Closer age determination could be made for 16 burials (30.8%): two individuals were qualified as category infans I, one as category infans I/II, four as infans II, two as iuvenis, two as adultus, four as adultus/maturus, and one as category maturus. For 15 cases, owing to their preservation status, only a broad classification was used in which the individuals were described as “adult” (13 individuals) and “child” (2 individuals). In 19 cases assessment of bone age was not possible. Six male (11.5) and five female individuals were identified. In other cases sex determination was not possible (78.8%). In four cases (7.7%) estimation of approximate body height could be made -  for individuals from graves 4, 29?/64?, 65 and 69.

At graveyards in lowlands, windthrows there are unwished features
since roots of trees might destroy the inventory of the graves. As a result,
pottery assigned to such features is usually ignored and is not taken into
consideration for estimating the number of graves. Such methodology,
from a statistical point of view, is not problematic at sites which consist
of many graves, but it is a big problem in the case of the graveyards which
are marked by poor archaeological sources. Such a situation is typical
for the graveyards in highlands. Consequently, in the following paper,
I would like to show, that the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age graveyards
in mountain regions, with proper digging methods and detailed
studies of the potteries’ taphonomy and technology, might be based
on such features as a source of very valuable information. The following
study, conducted on the urnfield graveyard in Janowice, located
in the Western Carpathians is even more important when one considers
the cultural background of this site. In the researched area we
are dealing with the fusion of cultural traditions of three subgroups
of the Lusatian Culture. The analyzes of the stylistic traditions of ceramic
grave inventories are a very compelling (but surely not sufficient)
factor in describing cultural tradition and transition of past communities
in the Dunajec river valley.

The presented article deals with the settlement finds from Senica, site Sedlička, excavated during development–led excavations in 2011. The finds and contexts are analysed, processed, and the settlement remains are evaluated. The recognised features comprise of 8 pits and 2 find concentrations. Material from these features can be dated to the phase Reinecke HaB or Late Bronze Age and belongs to the Silesian phase of the Lusatian culture. Only some finds can be dated more precisely to the HaB1 and HaB2-3 respectively. Radiocarbon dates are being prepared and will be published separately. We propose that the settlement in Senica is connected to the network of routes and might have served as a sort of hub. This proposition is supported, among other things, by the presence of Mezőcsát group burials, often found near presumed trade routes.

In this paper the exceptionally heavy loom weights originating from three Final Bronze and Early Iron Age sites (Wierzchosławice, Wojnicz, Janowice) are compared with “standard” Hallstatt A loom weights known from Kraków- Bieżanów 11 (all sites in Lesser Poland). Most of the discussed objects were found in features whose morphology and fill suggest they were the relics of warp-weighted looms or, alternatively, waste pits situated within houses, into which the remnants of such looms were secondarily thrown. The loom weights were subjected to multi-factor analysis, carried out based on a detailed technological and metrical database containing the information on artefacts from all the 4 sites. The aspects examined included, among others, the diversity of temper type in clay paste from which the loom weights were made in relation to local raw materials, or the relationship between the position of the hole in a loom weight and the shape and weight of the latter. Although heavy loom weights (approx. 3 kg) are relatively common in this part of Europe, no analogy could be found for artefacts as heavy as those from Wierzchosławice (some of which weigh nearly 6 kg). Their function has not been definitively explained, but it is little likely that they were used as typical weights for stretching the warp.

One of the features of Scythian archaic blade weaponry is the use of bronze, often in the combination with iron. This technologe of Early Scythian bimetallic akinakai goes back to “Cimmerian scheme”. Within the framework of that scheme Prescythian daggers of Kabardino-Pjatigorsk type were manufactured.  The most later daggers of this type are likely were used until the middle 7th c. BC, so they could be treated as prototypes for Scythian akinakes. Bimetallic technology of Scythian smiths was inspired by previous tradition and the first exemplars of Gudermes akinakai appeared at the turn of 8th–7th c. BC in the Caucasus. In the Carpathian basin archaic Scythian akinakai made wholly or partly from bronze are also well-known. These akinakai of Posmuş type are closely related to the next tradition — of Kelermes type — which also penetrated to Northern Pontic region from the territory of Caucasus region. Posmuş type was probably an intermediate combining old technology of bronze casting and new morphology. A number of features shows a genetic link between Gudermes and Kelermes types. Among them are: three-part handle and the bight under the pommel. So, the bimetallic akinakes is the product of the further evolution of bladed weaponry producted by “Caucasian laboratory” and it could be assumed that for a while it was coexisting with Kabardino-Pjatigorsk type daggers, perhaps in the 1st half of 7th c. BC. Further development of the Scythian akinakai and their distribution in Black Sea region probably provoked the renouncement of the use of bronze due to the excessive complexity of or limited access to raw materials. However, the morphology of this new product was more stable, as a result new types of swords and daggers appeared. In the Danube-Carpathian region a creative rethinking of Gudermes and Kelermes traditions is registered for Early Scythian period. These processes led to the emergence of such types as Posmuş in Transilvania and Ferigile in Wallachia — local phenomena of the Carpathian-Danube. The singularity of distribution of the first akinakai allow us to conclude that Scythian akinakes entered this region two main routes: initially, along the northern border of forest-steppe to Transilvania and later — along the southern border, to Bărăgan Plain.

Celem poniższego tekstu jest próba zaprezentowania zmian w rozmieszczeniu brązowych i żelaznych szpil na obszarze zajmowanym przez ludność TKŁ. Na podstawie tych zmian autor będzie się zastanawiał nad zmianami w sposobie podejścia do żelaza. Zasadniczo dokładniejsze spojrzenie na szpile może dać tu bardzo interesujące wyniki, gdyż jest to jedyny przedmiot w TKŁ który był na szerszą skalę wykonywany zarówno z brązu i jak żelaza. Stąd rozpatrzenie tego nie wątpliwie ważnego przedmiotu pod kątem archeologii osadnictwa, jak również spojrzenie na jego kulturowe uwarunkowania, może dać ciekawe informacje odnośnie zmian jakie wprowadzało pojawienie się żelaza.  Do tego autor dokona tutaj podziału szpil na poszczególne podgrupy. Zastanowi się też czy nie istniał związek między typem szpili oraz jej wielkością a wiekiem i płcią osoby zmarłej. Zostaną tu więc poruszone zarówno kwestie zmian jakie wprowadzało pojawienie się żelaza jak i związek samych szpil z wiekiem oraz płcią ich użytkowników.



The purpose of the text below is an attempt to present changes in the distribution of bronze and iron pins in the area occupied by the
population of the Tarnobrzeg Lusatian culture. Based on these changes, an issue of iron will be investigated. Pins are the only objects in the Tarnobrzeg Lusatian culture TLC, which were made on a larger scale from both bronze and iron. Therefore, considering this issue in terms of settlement archaeology, as well as a view at its cultural conditions, it may provide interesting information about the changes introduced by the appearance of iron. In the course of the research the division of pins into individual subgroups was made and the relationship between the type of these pins together with their size in the light of age and gender of the deceased was analyzed. The article will discuss both the issues of changes that were caused by the appearance of iron, and the relationship of the pins with age and the gender of their users.

The division between the dimensional groups of blade weapons is conditional and, probably, the boundary between them can vary from one epoch to another. The analysis of variation series of such features as “total length” and “blade length” showed the heterogeneity of the sample (more than 800 ex.) and the existence of several functional standards. Five groups were distinguished: daggers (with a blade length of up to 21 cm), short swords (21-37 cm), average swords (38-53 cm), long swords (54-75 cm) and extra-long swords (with a blade length in excess of 75 cm). Mapping of spearheads and axes also made it possible to reveal some regularities. It became obvious that it is possible to build a typological grouping of regions on the basis of the contents of weaponry and move from small cultural groups to cultural blocks, enclaves, communities of people who preferred similar types of weapons. The counting of the degree of similarity by the method of classification by unequal features was demonstrated by several such enclaves: “Carpathian” one, where the greatest degree of similarity was manifested between Western Podolian, Transylvanian and Moldavian groups. The main types for this enclave are a dagger or a short sword and an axe. The next, “Steppe” block includes the Lower Danube, Lower Dniester, South Carpathian and South Danubian groups, in which the spearheads and average or long swords are widely distributed. The third, “Western” block united the Hungarian and Polish groups, for which the axes and spearheads are more characteristic.

Das östliche Sachsen-Anhalt ist der archäologischen Fachwelt in den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren vornehmlich durch Publikationen zum Mittelalter und der Reformationszeit weithin bekannt geworden. Die Funde aus der Vorgeschichte dieses Gebietes haben dagegen über das gesamte 20. Jahrhundert hinweg bis heute eine geringere Beachtung gefunden. Insbesondere das überaus reiche Fundmaterial der Lausitzer Kultur aus der mittleren bis jüngsten Bronzezeit war und ist der überregionalen Forschung bislang weitgehend verschlossen geblieben. Die wissenschaftliche Bearbeitung der großen Gräberfelder auf dem Buroer Feld bei Coswig, die durch Ausgrabungen zwischen 1994 und 2008 untersucht werden konnten, soll diesem Desiderat begegnen. Die Altfunde des Gebietes, lokalisiert und mit neu rekonstruierten Fundkontexten vollständig erfasst, sollen zusammen mit einem forschungsgeschichtlichen Abriss den Auftakt für die Gesamtvorlage bilden.
Forschungsgeschichte der Region, Besiedlungsabfolge, Buroer Feld, Brandgräberfeld, Hügelgräber, Kammergräber, Lausitzer Kultur, Saalemündungsgruppe, Hausurnenkultur, Mittelbronzezeit, Jungbronzezeit, Jüngstbronzezeit, frühe Eisenzeit, Slawen

history of reserch, excavations of the 19th and 20th centuries, catalog of the finds, cemetary, cremation burials, barrows, flat graves, Lusatian Culture, Middle Bronze Age, Younger Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, House Urns Culture, Slavs

Il saggio storico, ricco di illustrazioni e comprensivo di riferimenti all’ambiente naturale, ripercorre 2600 anni di presenza veneta in Friuli. Crocevia di culture, centro di circolazione di idee e commerci, la regione friulana già dall’800 a.C. manifestava interessanti collegamenti dei Veneti locali con il Centro Europa. Il libro evoca il travagliato Medioevo della Patria del Friuli, attraversa le cruente rivolte contadine del Rinascimento e le faide tra i nobili udinesi, per giungere alla logorante Guerra di Gradisca – non senza la descrizione delle innovative tecniche militari del Seicento. Nel destinare particolare attenzione agli aspetti biografici dei personaggi friulani, emergono vicende inaspettate, come quella di Romeo e Giulietta "udinesi", ripresa da Shakespeare, o l’appassionato carteggio letterario di Maria Savorgan con il Bembo. La parte più documentata, uscendo il libro nel bicentenario della morte di Napoleone Bonaparte, resta senz’altro la disamina degli ultimi due anni della Serenissima e del doge friulano Ludovico Manin: finalmente vengono chiarite le dinamiche della caduta mettendo nella giusta luce quella che fu la causa decisiva, ovvero “la congiura dei Savi”.  
 
Il libro è provvisto di mappe, tabelle cronologiche e nove pagine di bibliografia internazionale.

The book takes up the question of the relationship between hoards of metal goods (deposits, collective finds) and a settlement network. Applying a novel research approach, the study covers cultural phenomena along the south Baltic coast and lakelands (Pomerania and north part of Greater Poland). This area was selected because of the state of research, cultural situation and special landscape characteristics. The phenomena are associated with the communities that shared similar economic and social systems and represented the Lusatian and Pomeranian Cultures (Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age).

This monograph is made up of an introduction, three chapters and conclusion. The catalogues and illustrations (maps used for research of settlements and figures presenting bronze and iron artefacts) that constitute an integral part of this work can be found in other files.

The first discusses theoretical questions that underpin further interpretations. The second analyzes the relationships between the composition of metal goods deposits and the topography of deposit sites, as well as the special nature of their relationships to the settlement network. The analyses make use of settlement geography methods and statistical tools. The third presents a model explaining the functions of collective finds, reasons for their deposition and the principles of selecting deposition sites. It shows that they were intentionally located along the borders of the known (settled) area and emphasizes their significance for the cultural landscape. The relationship between the symbolism of metal and a border is stressed.

Recent years have brought many significant changes when talking about research on the Early Iron Age in Poland, also in terms of the chronology method applying to most essential artifacts. Typology schemes and basis of dating process of metal objects, especially so-called Kujawy bronzes, also called ornaments in the Stanomin style are which belong to one of the most important groups that kind, undoubtedly need to be refined and verified. That was the purpose of my museum queries. The presented text is a proposal of new systematic of analyzed Stanomin style ornaments, based on their metric values and clearly defined features collected and described on the ground of these museum research. The proposed typological divisions are based on basic statistical methods and multivariate cluster analysis. The research also uses analysis of the distribution of particular types of bronze artifacts. The text also includes comments about use-wear traces visible on some bronze artifacts and the research potential resulting from the use of these observations in studies on the periodization of the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age.