SCORPIONS

Although the majority of serious cases in the world are concerned with snake bite envenomation, but those which are caused by scorpion stings are also famous for causing extreme pain. The present view is an attempt to enlist scientifically ignored medicinal plants of Pakistan exhibiting anti-scorpion venom activity. In this review data of 35 medicinal plants is collected with their families, parts used, distribution in Pakistan, and major constituents present in plant. Amaranthaceae, Astraceae and Euphorbiaceae represent 3 species. Anacardiaceae, Asclepidaceae and Liliaceae represent 2 species. Araceae, Capparidaceae, Ceasalpinaceae, Cyperaceae, Labiatae, Lamiaceae, Meliaceae, Menispermaceae, Oleaceae, Oxalidaceae, Pinaceae, Polygonaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, Valerianaceae and Zingiberaceae represented single medicinal plant with anti scorpion potential. According to literature, all parts are used in anti scorpion envenomination. Leaves exhibit 30%, whole plant 9%, fru...

When low dispersal ability of an organism meets geographical barriers, the evolution of inter-and intraspecific differentiation is often facilitated. In the Atlas massif of North Africa, the genus Buthus splits into several species and diverges into numerous genetic lineages, often following the orographic structures of mountain systems. Such high mountain ranges often act as barriers for species with reduced mobility even on small spatial scales. To study the effect of orographic structures on organisms with low dispersal ability, we collected 61 individuals of the scorpion species Buthus elmoutaouakili at 18 locations around the southwestern foothills of the High Atlas and Antiatlas and in the Sousse valley (western Morocco). We analyzed intraspecific differentiation patterns within this geographically restricted area of about 100 Â 50 km using 452 bp of the cytochrome oxidase I mitochondrial gene. We detected 5 distinct genetic lineages. In a second analysis, we added 61 previously published sequences from Buthus species from Europe and North Africa. Using a molecular clock approach, we detected old splits (4-5 Ma) separating the samples from 1) the western High Atlas and north of these mountains, 2) the Sousse valley and adjoining mountain areas, and 3) the southwestern Antiatlas. Further differentiation happened in the first 2 geographical groups about 3 Ma. Thus, the divergence time estimates based on a Bayesian approach support the onset of differentiation into these main clades along the Pliocene (5-2.3 Ma) when climatic oscillations started and a constant global cooling preceded the glacial-interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene. Further genetic splits into parapatric groups are detectable for the Sousse valley main group in the early Pleistocene. The climatic oscillations of the Pliocene and early Pleistocene might have caused repeated range shifts, expansions, and retractions leading to repeated vicariance, hereby producing the hierarchical structure of genetic differentiation in B. elmoutaouakili. A taxonomic revision, including morphological and molecular data, is needed to assess the status of each of these Buthus scorpion lineages.

Paleozoic scorpions (Arachnida: Scorpiones) have been widely documented from the Carboniferous Period; which hosts a remarkable assemblage of more than sixty species including both putative stem- and crown-group fossils. By contrast the succeeding Permian Period is almost completely devoid of records, which are currently restricted to a trace fossil from the early Permian of New Mexico, USA and some limb fragments from the late Permian of the Vologda Region, Russia. ?Opsieobuthus tungeri sp. nov. from the Petrified Forest of Chemnitz, Germany represents the first complete body fossils of scorpions from the Permian. Explosive volcanism preserved these remarkable specimens in situ as part of the palaeosol horizon and bedrock of the Petrified Forest, immediately beneath the Zeisigwald tuff horizon. This dates to the early Permian (Sakmarian) or ca. 291 Ma. Intriguingly, the specimens were obtained from a palaeosol horizon with a compacted network of different-sized woody roots and thus...

From the venom of the scorpion Androctonus australis, we have isolated a new bioactive polypeptide termed AaBTX-L1. When tested on the insect voltage-gated Na+ channel (para) of the fruit fly, this toxin was able to induce a clear shift in activation (V1/2), resulting in the opening of the channel at more negative membrane potentials. Furthermore, AaBTX-L1 was totally devoid of toxicity when injected into mice intracerebroventricularly and did not compete with radiolabeled voltage-gated K+ and Na+ channel toxins in binding experiments on rat brain synaptosomes. Using its N-terminal amino acid sequence to design degenerate primers, several clones were amplified by PCR from the A. australis venom gland cDNA library. As a consequence, seven full oligonucleotide sequences encoding “long-chain” polypeptides with only three disulfide bridges have been cloned for the first time and are described here. Remarkably, they share high similarity with the anti-insect toxin Birtoxin from Parabuthus transvaalicus.

Les piqûres de scorpion représentent la première cause d'intoxication avec une incidence de 30 à 50 % de l'ensemble des intoxications déclarés au centre antipoison du Maroc (CAPM). Conscient de l'ampleur de ce problème, nous avons réalisé des études rétrospectives et prospectives qui ont montré la nature et la chronologie des événements cliniques dans l'envenimation scorpionique, ainsi que les facteurs de gravité épidémiologiques, cliniques et thérapeutiques. Sur cette base, nous avons élaboré une conduite à tenir nationale pour la prise en charge des malades piqués. Cette conduite à tenir avait pour objectif d'uniformiser la prise en charge dans tout le pays, de diminuer la létalité par envenimation et de rationaliser les dépenses économiques inhérentes aux prises inutiles de médicaments, au transfert et à l'hospitalisation des malades. Cette standardisation de la conduite à tenir était une composante de la stratégie nationale de lutte contre les piqûres et les envenimations scorpioniques. Ses autres composantes étaient la formation, la sensibilisation et l'instauration d'un système d'information pour suivre les indicateurs de morbidité et de létalité. Après un recul de cinq années, les indicateurs ont montré qu'il y a eu une diminution du taux de létalité et une rationalisation des dépenses. Cette conduite à tenir repose sur un algorithme permettant la distinction entre un patient piqué sans envenimation et un patient envenimé. Les malades piqués font l'objet d'une surveillance jusqu'à un temps postpiqûre de quatre heures, alors que les patients envenimés seront mis en condition et transférés à un service de réanimation pour leur prise en charge.

A brief overview of currently known depictions of arachnids – namely, ticks, scorpions, and spiders - in ancient Egyptian art, including some tentative observations regarding their cultural reception. Arachnids provide an interesting case study as they highlight the iconographic choices made by the Egyptians, allowing exploration of their wider meaning and the motivation behind their representation.

Vestiges of scorpion symbolism in medieval and early modern European culture, largely mediated through astrological, astro-medical, and occult doctrines, and promoted in religious iconography, were further influenced by the revival of classical precedents, often reinterpreted and newly adopted in contemporary contexts. Depictions of the scorpion symbol in early modern Italian art reflect this accumulated complexity, with its contrasts between, or combinations of, positive and negative meanings. A unique example will be studied here in the portrait of Elisabetta Gonzaga (1471-1526) wearing a scorpion pendant  on her forehead. My aim is to demonstrate that this scorpion jewel is not only a significant element of her portrait, in that it relates to meaningful aspects of Elisabetta's life, character, and public image, but also constitutes evidence of prevalent beliefs and attitudes.

Patterns of segmentation and tagmosis are reviewed for Chelicerata. Depending on the outgroup, che-licerate origins are either among taxa with an anterior tagma of six somites, or taxa in which the appendages of somite I became increasingly raptorial. All Chelicerata have appendage I as a chelate or clasp-knife chelicera. The basic trend has obviously been to consolidate food-gathering and walking limbs as a prosoma and respiratory appendages on the opisthosoma. However, the boundary of the prosoma is debatable in that some taxa have functionally incorporated somite VII and/or its appendages into the prosoma. Euchelicerata can be defined on having plate-like opisthosomal appendages, further modified within Arachnida. Total somite counts for Chelicerata range from a maximum of nineteen in groups like Scorpiones and the extinct Eurypterida down to seven in modern Pycnogonida. Mites may also show reduced somite counts, but reconstructing segmentation in these animals remains challenging. Several innovations relating to tagmosis or the appendages borne on particular somites are summarised here as putative apomorphies of individual higher taxa. We also present our observations within the concept of pseudotagma, whereby the true tagmata e the prosoma and opisthosoma e can be defined on a fundamental change in the limb series while pseudotagmata, such as the cephalosoma/ proterosoma, are expressed as divisions in sclerites covering the body without an accompanying change in the appendages.

This communication revises the state of the art concerning antivenoms against snakes, spiders and scorpions. An overview of the historical facts that preceded the therapeutic use of antibodies is mentioned. A brief list of the major protein components of these venomous animals is revised with a short discussion of what is known on the proteomic analysis of their venoms, but the emphasis is placed on the type of antivenoms available commercially, including pertinent literature and addresses of the companies that prepare these antivenoms. The final section revises and discusses current research on the field and new potential applications that are being developed geared at obtaining new therapeutic antibodies or fragments of antibodies for neutralization of toxic components of venomous animals.

The many years of research that led to the present paper on the so-called Ring of Nestor (CMS VI, nο. 277), with the documentation of its authenticity, have offered me the opportunity to discuss the cases of erroneous identifications of some Creto-Mycenaean gold rings as fakes . This tendency, underpinned by the obscure – even legendary – circumstances in which these rings were found, not only the Ring of Nestor but also the Ring of Minos, has been reassessed completely in favour of their authenticity. This revision has been significantly reinforced by recent finds of iconographic subjects of comparable resonance (wall-paintings, gold rings, figurines, ivories, and so on), as well as by more thorough study of the techniques and craftsmanship of these unique signet rings of the first centuries of the Late Bronze Age (16th-15th century BC). The key pictorial unit of the Ring of Nestor examined in this paper is Evans’s “watch-dog” or “dragon”, namely the guardian of the old “tree of the world”, whose branches host the most populous scene in Aegean glyptic art. This motif is here identified as a scorpion, a major apotropaic symbol in Bronze Αge Aegean iconography, which kills the “Μinoan Dragon” of the ring and offers a sound interpretation of the ring’s iconography.

Scorpion toxins are common experimental tools for studies of biochemical and pharmacological properties of ion channels. The number of functionally annotated scorpion toxins is steadily growing, but the number of identified toxin sequences is increasing at much faster pace. With an estimated 100,000 different variants, bioinformatic analysis of scorpion toxins is becoming a necessary tool for their systematic functional analysis. Here, we report a bioinformatics-driven system involving scorpion toxin structural classification, functional annotation, database technology, sequence comparison, nearest neighbour analysis, and decision rules which produces highly accurate predictions of scorpion toxin functional properties. #

The kappa-KTx family of peptides, which is the newest K + -channel blocker family from scorpion venom, is present in scorpions from the families Scorpionidae and Liochelidae. Differently from the other scorpion KTx families, the three-dimensional structure of the known kappa-KTxs toxins is formed by two parallel ␣-helices linked by two disulfide bridges. Here, the characterization of a new kappa-KTx peptide, designated kappa-KTx 2.5, derived from the Liochelidae scorpion Opisthacanthus cayaporum, is described. This peptide was purified by HPLC and found to be identical to OcyC8, a predicted mature sequence precursor (UniProtKB C5J89) previously described by our group. The peptide was chemically synthesized and the circular dichroism (CD) spectra of both, native and synthetic, conducted at different temperatures in water and water/trifluoroethanol (TFE), showed a predominance of ␣-helices. The kappa-KTx 2.5 is heat stable and was shown to be a blocker of K + -currents on hKv1.1, and hKv1.4, with higher affinity for Kv1.4 channels (IC 50 = 71 M). Similarly to the other kappa-KTxs, the blockade of K + -channels occurred at micromolar concentrations, leading to uncertainness about their proper molecular target, and consequently their pharmacologic effect. In order to test other targets, kappa-KTx2.5 was tested on other K + -channels, on Na + -channels, on bacterial growth and on smooth muscle tissue, a known assay to identify possible bradykinin-potentiating peptides, due to the presence of two contiguous prolines at the C-terminal sequence. It has no effect on the targets used except on hKv1.1, and hKv1.4 expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Since the only plausible function found for kappa-KTx2.5 seems to be the blockade of K + -channels, a discussion regarding the analysis of structure-function relationships is included in this communication, based on sequence alignments of members of the kappa-KTx toxin family, and on computational simulation of a structural model of the kappa-KTx2.5-Kv1.2 complex.

A new class of toxin acting on potassium channels and cross-linked by four disulfide bridges instead of three has been recently described. Two peptides, Pi1 and Pi7, purified from the venom of the scorpion Pandinus imperator belong to this new class. Structural features of one of these new toxins, Pi1, have been investigated by proton nuclear magnetic resonance using a new technology that allows to work with very small amount of compound, in the nanomole range. It is shown that it is possible to collect high quality data set in terms of resolution, lineshape and sensitivity with nanomolar amount of compound using this technology. Preliminary results on Pi7 are also presented. The approach described here is quite attractive for the study of natural compounds such as toxins often available at low amounts.

Pectines are unique, midventral sensory appendages that help direct mating and food-finding behaviors in scorpions. Dense two-dimensional arrays of bimodally sensitive (chemical and mechanical) peg sensilla form the primary sensory structures on pectines. Several qualities of peg sensilla make them well suited to electrophysiological investigation, including accessibility, stability of extracellular recordings, and the ease with which spiking cells can be identified and categorized. Cross-correlations of spontaneous neural activity show signs of synaptic interactions between sensillar neurons in all species examined to date (Paruroctonus mesaensis, Hadrurus arizonensis, Centruroides vittatus) representing three families and two superfamilies. Both excita-tory and inhibitory interactions have been observed, as well as possible dyadic synaptic arrange-ment. Computer simulations of cross-correlograms are consistent with experimental data and may help provide additional insight into fun...

Despite scorpions being locally abundant in many parts of the world, scorpion sting is a poorly defined clinical condition. It
is an overwhelming & an endemic public health problem in some part of the India. Scorpion sting can result in a wide range
of clinical effects such as neurotoxicity, cardiotoxicity and respiratory dysfunction including pulmonary edema. Ayurveda
recommend several medicinal preparations for the management of scorpion sting but so far very little statistical data is
available regarding the efficacy of these medicines. This Paper focuses on the efficacy of one of such preparations,
Dashanga Agada which was a part of research as internal medication. Clinical study was conducted in 2005 at Pappinissery
Visha Chikitsa Kendra, Kannur. Total 10 subjects suffering from Scorpion sting satisfying inclusion criteria were selected
and after obtaining informed written consent, treated with Dashanga Agada for four days. Thorough clinical assessment was
done before and after the treatment. The result was analyzed statistically with paired t-test which was found highly
significant in reducing the cardinal symptom, pain, erythema & inflammation in scorpion sting (P<0.001). Drug also proved
effective in reducing other associated symptoms like burning sensation & itching sensations in Scorpion sting.

Scorpion sting is a particularly devastating and an endemic public health problem in some part of the India. 50 species out of 700 in India can cause
serious illness. Most of the studies have focused on the clinical and epidemiological aspects of scorpion stings. Ayurveda has explained numerous
medicinal preparations for the management of Vrishchika Damsha (Scorpion sting) but so far very little statistical data is available regarding the
efficacy of these medicines particularly in the management of pain. This Paper is focused on efficacy of one of such preparations, Bilwadi Agada
which was a part of research for internal medications. A clinical study was conducted in 2005 at Pappinissery Visha Chikitsa Kendra, Kannur. Total
10 subjects suffering from Scorpion sting satisfying inclusion criteria were selected and after obtaining consent, treated with Bilwadi Agada for 4
days. Thorough clinical assessment was done before and after the treatment. The result was analyzed statistically with paired t-test which was found
highly significant in reducing the cardinal symptom, pain, erythema and inflammation in scorpion sting (P<0.001). Drug also proved effective in
reducing other associated symptoms like burning sensation and itching sensations in Scorpion sting

Specialised structures that enable males to grasp females during sexual interactions are highly susceptible to selection and thus diverge relatively rapidly over evolutionary time. These structures are often used to test hypotheses regarding sexual selection such as sexually antagonistic co-evolution and sexual selection by female choice. In the present study, we determine whether there is a relationship between a novel record of scorpion sexual dimorphism, the sexual dimorphism of chelicerae (CSD), and the presence of the mating behaviour termed ''cheliceral grip'' (CG). The presence of both traits in the order Scorpiones is also reviewed from a phylogenetic perspective. The results confirm a strong relationship between CSD and the presence of CG. The morphological and behavioural patterns associated with ''CSD-CG'' are opposed to the predictions postulated by the hypothesis of sexually antagonistic co-evolution. However, if the female shows resistance after the deposition of the spermatophore, the possibility that the male exerts pressure as a ''cryptic form'' of coercion to prevent the interruption of mating cannot be ruled out completely. Female choice by ''mechanical fit'' could be another explanation for some aspects of the CG's contact zone. The possibility that the ''CG-CSD'' complex has evolved under natural selection in order to ensure sperm transfer is also considered.

The Colombian scorpion Tityus pachyurus is toxic to humans and is capable of producing fatal accidents, but nothing is known about its venom components. This communication reports the separation of at least 57 fractions from the venom by high performance liquid chromatography. From these, at least 104 distinct molecular weight compounds were identified by mass spectrometry analysis. The complete amino acid sequences of three peptides were determined and the partial sequences of three others were also identified. Electrophysiological experiments conducted with ion-channels expressed heterologously on Sf9 cells showed the presence of a potent Shaker B K + -channel blocker. This peptide (trivial name Tpa1) contains 23 amino acid residues closely packed by three disulfide bridges with a molecular mass of 2457 atomic mass units. It is the third member of the sub-family 13, for which the systematic name is proposed to be a-KTx13.3. The mice assay showed clearly the presence of toxic peptides to mammals. One of them named Tpa2, containing 65 amino acid residues with molecular mass of 7522.5 atomic mass units, is stabilized by four disulfide bridges. It was shown to modify the Na + -currents of F-11 and TE671 cells in culture, similar to the beta scorpion toxins. These results demonstrate the presence of toxic peptides in the venom of T. pachyurus and confirm that accidents with this species of scorpion should be considered an important human hazard in Colombia. D

The venom from the Brazilian scorpion Tityus stigmurus was fractionated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the corresponding components were used for molecular mass determination using electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry. One hundred distinct components were clearly assigned showing molecular masses from 216.5 to 44,800.0 Da. Fifteen new components were isolated and sequenced, four of them to completion: Tst-3 (similar to Na + channel specific scorpion toxins), Tst-17 (a K + channel blocking peptide similar to Tc1), TstβKTx (a peptide with identical sequence as that of TsTX-Kβ toxin earlier described to exist in T. serrulatus venom) and finally a novel proline-rich peptide of unknown function. Among the eleven components partially sequenced were two enzymes: hyaluronidase and lysozyme. The first enzyme has a molecular mass of 44,800.0 Da. This enzyme showed high activity against the substrate hyaluronan in vitro. Amino acid sequence of the second enzyme showed that it is similar to other known lysozymes, with similar molecular mass and sequence to that of bona fide lysozymes reported in public protein data banks. Finally, this communication reports a correlation among HPLC retention times and molecular masses of folded scorpion toxins as well as a comparative structural and physiological analysis of components from the venom of several species of the genus Tityus.

Background: Most scorpion venom peptides adopt a single structural scaffold around four strictly conserved cysteines. Results: Two K ϩ channel-blocking peptides from Tityus venoms share this cysteine spacing but fold into a distinct cystinestabilized helix-loop-helix scaffold. Conclusion: These peptides define a new structural group of scorpion venom peptides. Significance: Cysteine spacing does not dictate the three-dimensional fold of small disulfide-rich proteins.

Background: Colombia and Brazil are affected by severe cases of scorpionism. In Colombia the most dangerous accidents are caused by Tityus pachyurus that is widely distributed around this country. In the Brazilian Amazonian region scorpion stings are a common event caused by Tityus obscurus. The main objective of this work was to perform the molecular cloning of the putative Na + -channel scorpion toxins (NaScTxs) from T. pachyurus and T. obscurus venom glands and to analyze their phylogenetic relationship with other known NaScTxs from Tityus species.

Background: Most scorpion venom peptides adopt a single structural scaffold around four strictly conserved cysteines. Results: Two K ϩ channel-blocking peptides from Tityus venoms share this cysteine spacing but fold into a distinct cystinestabilized helix-loop-helix scaffold. Conclusion: These peptides define a new structural group of scorpion venom peptides. Significance: Cysteine spacing does not dictate the three-dimensional fold of small disulfide-rich proteins.

OSK1, toxin 1 from the scorpion Orthochirus scrobiculosus (α-KTx3.7); Fmoc, N α -fluoren-9-ylmethyloxycarbonyl; TFA, trifluoroacetic acid; MALDI-TOF, matrix-assisted laserdesorption ionization-time-of-flight; NOE, nuclear Overhauser effect; NOESY, NOE spectroscopy; HPLC, high pressure liquid chromatography; MS, mass spectrometry; 3-D, three-dimensional; IC 50 , 50% inhibitory concentration; LD 50 , 50% lethal dose; K v , ABSTRACT OSK1 (α-KTx3.7) is a 38-residue toxin cross-linked by three disulfide bridges that was initially isolated from the venom of the Asian scorpion Orthochirus scrobiculosus.

A novel crustacean-specific toxin, Cn5, containing 66 amino acid residues was isolated from the venom of the scorpion Centruroides noxius Hoffmann. It is stabilized by four disulfide bridges, formed between Cys12-Cys65, Cys16-Cys41, Cys25-Cys46 and Cys29-Cys48. Toxicity tests revealed that Cn5 is a toxin that affects arthropods but not mammals. However, at high concentrations, Cn5 does displace the mammal-specific toxin Cn2 from rat brain synaptosomes. The concentration of Cn5 that produces half-maximal inhibition (IC 50 ) was estimated to be 100 µM. Sequence comparison of Cn5 with toxin Cn2, a mammal-specific toxin from the same scorpion, showed the presence of two sequence stretches, at positions 30 to 38 and 49 to 58, where the majority of the differences are concentrated. On the three-dimensional structure of Cn5 it is demonstrated that these two sequence stretches form a continuous surface region near the site thought to bind to the sodium channel. We assume that this region might be implicated in determining species specificity. comp biochem physiol 116B;3:315-322, 1997. © 1997 Elsevier Science Inc. Address reprint requests to: Lourival D. Possani, Institute of Biotechnolsize of two loop regions, the J-loop and the B-loop (24). ogy-UNAM, Avenida Universidad, 2001, Apartado Postal 510-3, Cuer-Arthropod-specific toxins have been tested so far mainly navaca, 62271 MEXICO, in insects (13,17-20), e.g., blowfly larvae, crickets, cock-Abbreviations-Cn, Centruroides noxius Hoffmann; CM-Cellulose, carroaches, and some of them in crustaceans (13,17,25), e.g., boxymethyl-cellulose; RC-toxin, toxin reduced and carboxymethylated; crayfishes and cochinillas. Insect α-toxins show the classic 1 H-NMR, proton nuclear magnetic resonance.

This communication reviews most of the important findings related to venom components isolated from scorpions and spiders, mainly by means of gene cloning and expression. Rather than revising results obtained by classical biochemical studies that report structure and function of venom components, here the emphasis is placed on cloning and identification of genes present in the venomous glands of these arachnids. Aspects related to cDNA library construction, specific or random ESTs cloning, transcriptome analysis, highthroughput screening, heterologous expression and folding are briefly discussed, showing some numbers of species and components already identified, but also shortly mentioning limitations and perspectives of research for the future in this field.

What did Jesus mean by the peculiar expression "Trampling on Snakes and Scorpions"?  How did Jesus see the Kingdom of God as related to impacting evil in the world today?  Where did Jesus want his 72 disciples to receive the joy from?  Where does lasting identity come from in an increasingly fragmented, polarized culture?

In Brazil, Tityus serrulatus (Ts) is the species responsible for most of the scorpion related accidents. Among the Ts toxins, the neurotoxins with action on potassium channels (α-KTx) present high interest, due to their effect in the envenoming process and the ion channel specificity they display. The α-KTx toxins family is the most relevant because its toxins can be used as therapeutic tools for specific target cells. The improved isolation method provided toxins with high resolution, obtaining pure Ts6 and Ts7 in two chromatographic steps. The effects of Ts6 and Ts7 toxins were evaluated in 14 different types of potassium channels using the voltage-clamp technique with two-microelectrodes. Ts6 toxin shows high affinity for Kv1.2, Kv1.3 and Shaker IR, blocking these channels in low concentrations. Moreover, Ts6 blocks the Kv1.3 channel in picomolar concentrations with an IC 50 of 0.55 nM and therefore could be of valuable assistance to further designing immunosuppressive therapeutics. Ts7 toxin blocks multiple subtypes channels, showing low selectivity among the channels analyzed. This work also stands out in its attempt to

Background: Microbial antibiotic resistance is a challenging medical problem nowadays. Two scorpion peptides displaying antibiotic activity: hadrurin and vejovine were taken as models for the design of novel shorter peptides with similar activity. Methods: Using the standard Fmoc-based solid phase synthesis technique of Merrifield twelve peptides (18 to 29 amino acids long) were synthesized, purified and assayed against a variety of multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria from clinical isolates. Hemolytic and antiparasitic activities of the peptides and their possible interactions with eukaryotic cells were verified. Release of the fluorophore calcein from liposomes treated with these peptides was measured. Results: A peptide with sequence GILKTIKSIASKVANTVQKLKRKAKNAVA), and three analogs: Δ(Α29), Δ(K12-Q18; Ν26−Α29), and K4N Δ(K12-Q18; Ν26−Α29) were shown to inhibit the growth of Gram-negative (E. coli ATCC25922) and Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus), as well as multi-drug resistant (MDR) clinical isolated. The antibacterial and antiparasitic activities were found with peptides at 0.78 to 25 μM and 5 to 25 μM concentration, respectively. These peptides have low cytotoxic and hemolytic activities at concentrations significantly exceeding their minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), showing values between 40 and 900 μM for their EC 50 , compared to the parent peptides vejovine and hadrurin that at the same concentration of their MICs lysed more than 50% of human erythrocytes cells. Conclusions: These peptides promise to be good candidates to combat infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria from nosocomial infections. General significance: Our results confirm that well designed synthetic peptides can be an alternative for solving the lack of effective antibiotics to control bacterial infections.

On attempts to identify toxins showing original profile of activity among K + channels, we purified Kbot1, a scorpion toxin that blocks Kv1 and SK potassium channels. With 28 amino-acid residues, Kbot1 is the shortest toxin sequenced in Buthus occitanus scorpion. It is linked by three disulfide bridges and its primary structure is 93% identical to that of BmP02 isolated from the venom of the Chinese scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch [Eur. J. Biochem. 245 (1996) 457]. Kbot1 exhibited a low neurotoxicity in mice after intracerebroventricular injection (LD 50 0.8 g per mouse). It competes with iodinated apamin for its rat brain synaptosomal membrane-binding site (IC 50 of 20 nM). Despite 30% sequence identity between Kbot1 and ChTX, competitive experiments on the [ 125 I] charybdotoxin, show that Kbot1 inhibits its binding to its rat brain synaptosomes with IC 50 of 10 nM. This result was supported by electrophysiological experiments on cloned voltage-dependent K + channels from rat brain, expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Kbot1 blocks Kv1.1, Kv1.2 and Kv1.3 currents with IC 50 of 145, 2.5 and 15 nM, respectively. Based on these data, Kbot1 may be considered as the first member of subfamily 9 of scorpion toxins [Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 20 (1999) 444], highly active on both Kv and SK channels.

Clinical experience with scorpion evenomation in 100 children is presented. Lytic cocktail therapy alone or in combination with steroids was found usefid in the treatment of peripheral circulatory failure. Addition of atropine in cases with bradycardia yielded good results. Twenty-two children admitted with moderate to severe symptoms died of neurological complications and toxic myocarditis. The variable fatality rate in different series indicates the variable effect of scorpion venom depending on the species.

A novel peptidyl inhibitor of voltage-gated K+ channels, named parabutoxin 3 (PBTx3), has been purified to homogeneity from the venom of Parabuthus transvaalicus. This scorpion toxin contains 37 residues, has a mass of 4274 Da and displays 41% identity with charybdotoxin (ChTx, also called ‘α-KTx1.1’). PBTx3 is the tenth member (called ‘α-KTx1.10’) of subfamily 1 of K+ channel-blocking peptides known thus far. Electrophysiological experiments using Xenopus laevis oocytes indicate that PBTx3 is an inhibitor of Kv1 channels (Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv1.3), but has no detectable effects on Kir-type and ERG-type channels. The dissociation constants (Kd) for Kv1.1, Kv1.2 and Kv1.3 channels are, respectively, 79 µm, 547 nm and 492 nm. A synthetic gene encoding a PBTx3 homologue was designed and expressed as a fusion protein with the maltose-binding protein (MBP) in Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein was purified from the bacterial periplasm compartment using an amylose affinity resin column, followed by a gel filtration purification step and cleavage by factor Xa (fXa) to release the recombinant toxin peptide (rPBTx3). After final purification and refolding, rPBTx3 was shown to be identical to the native PBTx3 with respect to HPLC retention time, mass spectrometric analysis and functional properties. The three-dimensional structure of PBTx3 is proposed by homology modelling to contain a double-stranded antiparallel β sheet and a single α-helix, connected by three disulfide bridges. The scaffold of PBTx3 is homologous to most other α-KTx scorpion toxins.

Besides being a public health problem, scorpion venoms have a potential biotechnological application since they contain peptides that may be used as drug leads and/or to reveal novel pharmacological targets. A comprehensive Tityus serrulatus venom proteome study with emphasis on the phosphoproteome and N-glycoproteome was performed to improve our knowledge on the molecular diversity of the proteinaceous toxins. We combined two peptide identification methodologies, i.e., database search and de novo sequencing, to achieve a more comprehensive overview of the molecular diversity of the venoms. A total of 147 proteins were identified, including neurotoxins, enzymes, bradykinin-potentiating peptides, and molecules with antimicrobial and diuretic activities. Among those, three proteins were found to be phosphorylated, and one N-glycosylated. Finally, cleavage of toxin polypeptide chains seems to be a common post-translational modification in the venom since 80% of the identified molecules were, in fact, products of toxins proteolysis.

During May through July 2012 many habitats in Mergasor locality were investigated for jumping spiders. Three species
and three genera were recorded belonging to the family Salticidae which are Philaeus chrysops, Plexippus paykulli and Saitis leighii. Philaeus chrysops had height population in this area but further investigations are needed to clarify the distribution of other species of Salticidae in this region.

A clinical and biologic study was conducted in Morocco to assess the efficiency of antivenom therapy for treating victims of scorpion stings. Epidemiologic and clinical data were collected from 275 patients envenomed by Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus and Buthus occitanus scorpions. Patients received antivenom or other drugs. Blood samples were collected at the time of hospital admission and 1 hr and 3 hr after treatment. Serum venom levels were quantified by using an ELISA. An association was found between clinical signs of envenoming and the level of venom in serum. Patients classified as grade II (moderate envenoming) had higher serum levels of venom level than patients classified as grade I (mild envenoming). At admission to the hospital, the mean venom concentration was not significantly different between the group not treated with antivenom, the group who received 2-5 ml of antivenom, and the group who received 10 ml of antivenom. A significant decrease in serum venom levels and an improvement in the clinical conditions were observed in patients administered 10 ml of antivenom. The lower decrease in serum venom levels in patients who received 2-5 ml of antivenom was due to lower doses of antivenom. No difference in the venom concentration was observed in patients who were not treated with antivenom. The absence of administration of antivenom increased the risk of developing clinical signs at the end of the hospitalization period. However, this risk was much higher when more than 1 hr elapsed between the time of the scorpion sting and the time of hospital admission. The results demonstrate that antivenom is effective in decreasing circulating venom and morbidity. Serotherapy is more efficient when given as soon as possible after envenomation and with adequate quantities of antivenom.

A novel crustacean-specific toxin, Cn5, containing 66 amino acid residues was isolated from the venom of the scorpion Centruroides noxius Hoffmann. It is stabilized by four disulfide bridges, formed between Cys12-Cys65, Cys16-Cys41, Cys25-Cys46 and Cys29-Cys48. Toxicity tests revealed that Cn5 is a toxin that affects arthropods but not mammals. However, at high concentrations, Cn5 does displace the mammal-specific toxin Cn2 from rat brain synaptosomes. The concentration of Cn5 that produces half-maximal inhibition (IC 50 ) was estimated to be 100 µM. Sequence comparison of Cn5 with toxin Cn2, a mammal-specific toxin from the same scorpion, showed the presence of two sequence stretches, at positions 30 to 38 and 49 to 58, where the majority of the differences are concentrated. On the three-dimensional structure of Cn5 it is demonstrated that these two sequence stretches form a continuous surface region near the site thought to bind to the sodium channel. We assume that this region might be implicated in determining species specificity. comp biochem physiol 116B;3:315-322, 1997. © 1997 Elsevier Science Inc. Address reprint requests to: Lourival D. Possani, Institute of Biotechnolsize of two loop regions, the J-loop and the B-loop (24). ogy-UNAM, Avenida Universidad, 2001, Apartado Postal 510-3, Cuer-Arthropod-specific toxins have been tested so far mainly navaca, 62271 MEXICO, in insects (13,17-20), e.g., blowfly larvae, crickets, cock-Abbreviations-Cn, Centruroides noxius Hoffmann; CM-Cellulose, carroaches, and some of them in crustaceans (13,17,25), e.g., boxymethyl-cellulose; RC-toxin, toxin reduced and carboxymethylated; crayfishes and cochinillas. Insect α-toxins show the classic 1 H-NMR, proton nuclear magnetic resonance.