Santorini eruption dates

Large, explosive, caldera-forming eruptions are amongst the most destructive phenomena on the planet, but the processes that allow the large bodies of crystal-poor silicic magma that feed them to assemble in the shallow crust are still poorly understood. Of particular interest is the timescales over which these reservoirs exist prior to eruption. Long storage times—up to 10^5 y—have previously been estimated using the repose times between eruptions and radiometric dating of crystals found within the eruptive products. However, more recent work modelling diffusion within single crystals has been used to argue that the reservoirs that feed even the largest eruptions are assembled over much shorter periods—10^1–10^2 y.

In order to address this question, I studied the >10 km3, 22-ka, dacitic Cape Riva eruption of Santorini, Greece. Over the ~18 ky preceding the Cape Riva eruption a series of dacitic lava dome and coulées were erupted, and these lavas are interspersed with occasional dacitic pumice fall deposits (the Therasia dome complex). These dacites have similar major element contents to the dacite that was erupted during the Cape Riva eruption, and have previously been described as “precursory leaks” from the growing Cape Riva magma reservoir. However, the Cape Riva magma is depleted in incompatible elements (such as K, Zr, La, Ce) relative to the Therasia magma, as are the plagioclase crystals in the respective magmas. This difference cannot be explained using shallow processes such as fractional crystallisation or crustal assimilation, which suggests that the Cape Riva and Therasia magmas are separate batches. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Therasia dacites were not fed from a long-lived, melt-dominated reservoir. There are non-systematic variations in melt composition, plagioclase rim compositions, and plagioclase textures throughout the sequence. In addition, high-temperature residence times of plagioclase and orthopyroxene crystals from the Therasia dacites estimated using diffusion chronometry are 10^1–10^2 y. This is short compared to the average time between eruptions (~1,500 y), which suggests the crystals in each lava grew only shortly before eruption. The different incompatible element contents of the Cape Riva and Therasia magmas and plagioclase crystals suggest that a new batch of incompatible-depleted silicic magma arrived in the shallow volcanic plumbing system shortly before the Cape Riva eruption. This influx must have taken place after the last Therasia eruption, which 40Ar/39Ar dates show occurred less than 2,800 ± 1,400 years before the Cape Riva eruption.

The rims of the plagioclase crystals found in the Cape Riva dacite are in equilibrium with a rhyodacite, with a similar composition to the Cape Riva glass. However, the major and trace element zoning patterns of the crystals record variations in the melt composition during their growth. The compositions at the centre of most crystals are the same as the rims; however, these crystals are often partially resorbed and overgrown by more calcic plagioclase. The plagioclase then grades normally back to rim compositions. This cycle is repeated up to three times. The tight relationships between the anorthite, Sr and Ti contents of the different zones suggests that the composition of the plagioclase crystals correlates with the composition of the melt from which they grew. The different plagioclase compositions correspond to dacitic and rhyodacitic melt compositions. The orthopyroxene crystals reveal a similar sequence, although they only record one cycle. These zoning patterns are interpreted to document the assembly of the Cape Riva reservoir in the shallow crust through the amalgamation of multiple batches of compositionally diverse magma. Models of magnesium diffusion in plagioclase and Fe–Mg interdiffusion in orthopyroxene suggest that this amalgamation took place within 10^1–10^2 y of the Cape Riva eruption.

The biblical Exodus was one of history’s most dramatic events.  This paper synthesizes the biblical account, historic knowledge, mythology, information about Thera Volcano, and astronomy into a detailed narrative of what happened.  Identification of the “angel of God” as Comet Halley allows the conclusion that this angel passed over Egypt in the role of Angel of Death during a full moon on the night of September 3, 1404 BC.  This was followed days later by a colossal eruption of Thera Volcano that created a tidal wave in the Mediterranean Sea.  This great wave came ashore on the Nile Delta as a wall of water that flowed into the Wadi Tumilat and continued to the Serapeum Plateau where a large group of Israelites were waiting in anticipation of the imminent arrival of Pharaoh’s army.  The army intended to return them to their former slavery.  Before reaching the plateau, the advancing water divided into two walls that rushed past on opposite sides, leaving the Israelites on an island in a vast sea.  Pharaoh’s army was in the Sea of Reeds advancing towards the plateau when it was destroyed.  As water receded, the Israelites walked off the plateau across the east channel and continued their march to Mount Sinai.

The Troubled Island….15 years later 1 J. Driessen I hope you all have read the TR -we don't make any money on it but I don't want to repeat the argument and detail here! The manuscript of the Troubled Island was appropriately completed by the time of the Thera conference on wall paintings which is also when Princess Diana died on 31/8/1997 and it came out at the very end of the same year, thanks to Robert Laffineur's Aegaeum series. Oxbow sells the book with the following blurb: "With a large amount of supporting evidence, this book argues that a sequence of changes in society triggered by the Santorini eruption, caused the collapse of Late Minoan IA/IB culture. The argument itself is not new but the careful study of the processes that took place after the eruption is unique. The authors argue that the natural disaster of Santorini caused major problems in food production and distribution which undermined the status of the ruling elites, leading to a process of decentralisation. The picture they present is that fragmentation of Crete into many small centres led, as in the Hellenistic period, to internal Cretan conflict and a massive wave of fire destructions in Late Minoan IB. The Mycenaean arrival on the island during the 'crisis years' of LMIB-II restored order and by LMII a new Knossian elite seems to have taken control. The controversial arguments are backed up with closely-argued detail" 2 . As Younger and Rehak remarked the following year: The Troubled Island is likely to engage the attention of Aegaenists for some time to come 3 and although quite a few established scholars have occasionally expressed their opposition as to certain details or

The Birth of Jesus in 12 B.C. concluded that Jesus of Nazareth was born either during, or near to, the first two weeks in October, 12 B.C.  This date is more than eleven years earlier than the traditional date, and it implies his death was earlier than 30 A.D.  Since Jesus reached nearly 30 years of age, he would have died about 19 A.D.  Surprisingly, historical information has been found to verify these criteria and to support the conclusion that Jesus was crucified on April 7, 19 A.D.

Radiocarbon dating of the Theran eruption has placed the event between 1627 and 1600 BC at the 95% confidence level. The art and pottery motifs at the site of Akrotiri, buried under the tephra, were dated by archaeologists to the Late Minoan 1A, about 150 years later than this ‘scientific’ date, thus producing a conflict between archaeologists (especially Egyptologists) and those who hold the radiocarbon dates paramount. The presentation focused on a very strong evidence in favor of the archaeologists: the sudden appearance of Theran pumice at Tell el Dab‘a stratum C/2, dated by Manfred Bietak to the reigns of Thutmose III and Amenhotep II (roughly 1450 to 1400 BC). Both pharaohs are represented by scarabs in this layer. The same is true of pumice found in the Levant (Tell el-‘Ajjul, Ashkelon, Tel Na‘ami) “only from the Late Bronze Age onwards, whilst all pumice from Middle Bronze Age strata is from other volcanoes” (Bietak 2004). Currently, no one has refuted such statements by respected Egyptologists and Levantine archaeologists. The pumice evidence thus places the Theran eruption about 1450 BC or slightly thereafter. The unadjusted BP (Before Present) radiocarbon date for the LB destruction of Jericho City IV is 45 ± 15 years later than the BP date for Thera. By comparing BP dates instead of the controversial ‘adjusted’ 14C dates, the destruction level at Jericho City IV dates to the late 15th or early 14th centuries BC, in agreement with the Late Bronze pottery from the site examined by Bryant Wood and John Garstang, and in conflict with Kathleen Kenyon’s much-quoted “Middle Bronze” date of 1580-1550 BC for the destruction.

Matrikelnummer: 0411263 Betreut von: Ao.Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr.phil. Manfred Lehner im Rahmen des SE 507.010 "Chronologieprobleme" im WS 2012/13 Abbildung 2: Schematische Karte der Ägäis und des östlichen Mittelmeerraumes: Manning 1999, Fig. 1 (mit Erweiterungen) Megiddo Abbildung 3: Schematische Karte der Ägäis und Kreta: Manning 1999, Fig. 2 (erweitert) Ägina Kos Nichoria Manzala See Gölcük I. Einleitung Die Eruption des Vulkans auf der kykladischen Insel Thera 1 in der späten ägäischen Bronzezeit war ein dramatisches Ereignis in geologisch-/vulkanologischer Hinsicht, aber auch in Hinblick auf die Auswirkungen auf die bronzezeitlichen Kulturen auf Thera, Kreta und möglicherweise im gesamten östlichen Mittelmeerraum. Es ist aber auch ein präziser "time marker" 2 und ein Schlüssel für die Chronologie der Bronzezeit in der Ägäis. Der Ausbruch breitete eine Ascheschicht und damit einen klaren Zeithorizont über dem östlichen Mittelmeer aus, der einen terminus ante quem für jede darunterliegende, und einen terminus post quem für jede darüberliegende Schicht bietet. 3 Somit ist die exakte Datierung der Eruption, relativ wie auch absolut, ein Schlüsselproblem, aber auch eine Chance für die Betrachtung der bronzezeitlichen Chronologien im östlichen Mittelmeer. 4 Seine Lösung ist der Schlüssel zu einer sicheren Archäologie. 5 Objekte aus Kreta, Zypern und der Levante können mit Tephra von Thera und mit anderen archäologischen Stätten in Beziehung gesetzt werden und daher könnte ein Datum für den Ausbruch weit über die Ägäis hinaus relevant sein. 6 Doch trotz jahrzehntelanger Forschungen von Archäologen wie auch Naturwissenschaftlern, mehreren Kongressen und Konferenzen 7 und einem eigenen Programm zur Synchronisierung der bronzezeitlichen Kulturen im östlichen Mittelmeer 8 konnte bis heute kein einheitlich anerkanntes Ergebnis erzielt werden. Die lange gültige traditionelle oder auch konventionelle "low chronology" ist heute stark bezweifelt von den Vertretern einer langen oder auch "high chronology". Die Kontroversen über den Zeitpunkt der minoischen Eruption sind somit untrennbar mit der Klärung der Chronologie der späten Bronzezeit verbunden. Die lange Dauer der Debatte, die hohe Zahl der beteiligten Forscher und die noch viel beträchtlichere Zahl an Publikationen rund um den bronzezeitlichen Ausbruch machen es schwierig sich in diese Thematik einzulesen. Ohne ausreichendes Wissen über die historischen Entwicklungen der Datierungsmethoden und ihrer Ergebnisse kann man sich schnell im Dschungel widersprüchlicher Expertenmeinungen und längst überholter oder verworfener Daten verlieren.

Hesiod gives two precise timelines: astronomical (‘generations of gods’) and archaeological (‘generations of humans’). Greek tradition confirms the Thera eruption date about 1530 BCE. Eusebius’ and Parian dating of three earliest kingdoms of Greece coincided (+ 30 years!) with Early Helladic III, Middle Helladic I, and Late Helladic I

Memory and identity in LC I/LM IA Thera as reflected in settlement patterns
and ceramic production

The settlement patterns and ceramic production in LC I/ LM IA Thera are two subjects about which new evidence has emerged during the past twenty years. As a result, we are now in a better position to approach the topic of memory and identity of Theran society in the final phase before the eruption of the volcano.
Recent surface surveys added more sites to the already known complex settlement pattern of LC I pre-eruption Thera including individual farms and rural settlements. Among the new sites is Raos, in the South Caldera, where a sophisticated building complex with frescoes was revealed. This brings Thera even closer to Crete than the rest of the Cyclades. On the other hand, most of the LC I sites dispersed in the island’s countryside were founded on earlier sites dating back to the Early Cycladic period, which shows a strong tradition and memory in the occupation processes.
The excavations at both Akrotiri and Raos in the 2000s and 2010s increased the ceramic material from the Volcanic Destruction Level by hundreds of complete vases and thousands of sherds. A look at the pottery of the Volcanic Destruction Level based on all the material that has been found to date, old and new, is able to shed plenty of light on the modes and dynamics of both penetration of Minoan elements into Thera and transmission of the Cycladic past
In addition to the imports from Crete a good many Minoan shapes, entirely unknown in the Cyclades, were produced locally, meeting the new requirements formed by the embracing of a Minoan way of life. The process of Minoan features penetrating Thera on the cultural and social level is considerably more complex than the penetration of Knossian features, for example, into other Minoan sites. From the moment a Minoan feature penetrated Theran pottery its course was independent of the course it followed in Crete where it originated. The autonomy of the Theran workshops is more noticeable with the creation by the Theran potters of a number of types drawn from the combination of some features of two different Minoan shapes. These improvisations show better than anything else that the Theran artists were not tied to a past that was not their own, such as the Minoan. They had no hesitation whatsoever in redesigning its products.
A great many local pottery shapes, however, the main examples being the beaked jugs and nippled ewers, are found in the framework of the tradition that developed in the Cyclades during the EC and MC periods. Both plastic form and painted decoration express the continuation of the sense of sparseness and the disarming simplicity of Cycladic art in great respect. It is also of special importance that the predominant ritual libation sets, judging by their greater numbers, are the local traditional libation sets, the nipple-jug and the cylindrical rhyton.
In conclusion the evidence shows cultural and social transformation in LC I pre-eruption Τhera, which brings it closer than ever to Crete and Knossos without being very far away from its deeply rooted local traditions and memories in site occupation on the one hand and art, religion and cult practices on the other that reflect the deepest foundations of every society.

Despite many recent attempts to settle the dispute concerning the absolute date of the Minoan Santorini eruption, there are still differences between some archaeologists and scientists on the absolute dates and the reliability of radiocarbon dating. The recent publication of over 200 new 14 C dates for dynastic Egypt rules out a major flaw in the historical chronology of Egypt and proves the reliability of 14 C dating in the Nile Valley. Therefore, the student of Aegean archaeology and eastern Mediterranean interconnections is still confronted with an archaeologically based conventional, or "low," chronology and a 14 C-backed "high" chronology. New 14 C determinations from different sites of the Aegean support the high chronology for the Late Minoan (LM) IA, while recent re-evaluation of LM IB determinations are slightly higher but more or less in agreement with archaeological estimations. The present contribution reviews archaeological and scientific data for the LM IA period and argues that a reduced (~30 to 50 yr) offset between archaeological and 14 C dates for the Minoan Santorini eruption may be possible, thus offering new perspectives for potential solutions for this problem.

The volcanic mega event of the Minoan Santorini eruption constitutes a time anchor in the 2nd millennium BCE that is inherently independent of archaeology and political history. It was a geological event. Yet the dimension of time in geology is not different than in archaeology or human history. Why then does archaeological dating usually place the Minoan Santorini eruption in the 18th Dynasty around 1500 BCE, whilst radiocarbon dating of the volcanic event at Akrotiri (Thera) yielded a calibrated age of 1646–1603 cal BCE, a difference of more than a cen-tury? The crux of the problem lies apparently in the correlation between archaeological strata and political history. We present radiocarbon dates of Ashkelon Phases 10 and 11 in comparison to Tell el-Dab'a and the Santorini eruption, based only on 14 C dating. Tell el-Dab'a Phase D/2 is slightly older than the volcanic event. But Phase D/1 or Phase C/ 2-3 could have witnessed the eruption. Ashkelon Phase 11 has similar radiocarbon dates as Tell el-Dab'a Phases E/2, E/1 and D/3, all being significantly older than the Minoan eruption. It seems that the duration of Ashkelon Phase 10 includes the temporal occurrence of the Minoan Santorini eruption within the Second Intermediate Period.

This paper deals with the relationship between Egypt and Retenu, its main Asiatic neighbor, in the period from the Fifteenth Dynasty till to the end of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Recent archaeological research at Tell el-Dab‘a disproves the existence of an empire of the Fifteenth Dynasty extending into Palestine. This leads to a reconsideration of the historical sources thought to attest to an association of Apophis, king of the Fifteenth Dynasty, with Retenu. The existence of an Egyptian empire in Palestine before Thutmose III is also shown to be lacking any support in the record. The destructions in Syria-Palestine between the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze Ages are viewed as being partly the result of the geopolitical divide of this region between Retenu and Kharu, two different political entities competing for the rule of the region. The term Kharu is shown to be just homonymous to that used for the Hurrians. A critical appraisal of the stratigraphy of Tell el-Dab‘a Tell el-‘Ajjul is appended to the paper.

The evidence analyses the words written by Plato which are preserved in Plato's Critias document. It tracks down the source of the disaster which struck the Minoans and provides conclusions that link in with Moses involvement with the Exodus, providing ultimate proof of the date of the eruption in Thera, which caused a megatsunami which inundated the whole of Crete and western Mediterranean in Spring 1224BC. Images show evidence that remains today with thesis to match. Conclusions drawn confirm Atlantis is in Crete and Knossos was the second of four cities of which Malia was the leading one and destroyed. The remains are hidden in the marsh next to the beach dedicated to Potnia, as confirmed by linear A text translations taken from the Palaces. Minoan history has been misinterpreted by previous historians in the past. This evidence should now be re-evaluated in the light of this evidence, including the Ipuwer Papyrus held in the Netherlands, which confirms the exact dating of the events for reasons stated.

The most discussed natural catastrophe in the Mediterranean region is the major eruption of the Thera volcano. The third Thera and the Aegean World (1989) conference reached some agreement on its relative chronology: the catastrophe came when the Late Minoan IA pottery style was in use. The more recent identification of tephra at Mochlos (1995), however, suggests that the eruption occurred when the LM IA pottery was at its very end. It, in fact, started off the LM IB pottery style -the marine style.

The River Nile catchment is considered the major source of nutrient-rich freshwater and sediment draining into the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Thus, exceptional high-resolution record from the Nile Littoral Cell likely traces changes in the Nile outflows related to climatic changes driven by the monsoonal system. This study used multi-proxy analyses combining sedimentological, geochemical and organic stable isotope data along with foraminiferal data in a southeastern Levantine inner shelf sedi-mentary sequence to understand Mid-to Late Holocene northeast African climate variability. The palynological record is used to reconstruct local scale changes in the regional vegetation related to the Mediterranean climate system. The analyzed records reveal multi-decadal to centennial pacing of paleoceanographic and paleoclimatic changes, with most prominent events recorded at 4.28, ~3.6 and at 2.9 kyr BP. These transitional periods characterized by simultaneous high d 15 N values and low total organic carbon (TOC) suggest drier climatic conditions, decrease in Nile discharge, leading to lower nutrient supply. A stable and arid climate during Mid-Late Holocene (~4.5e3.6 cal kyr BP) associated with a weaker monsoon system as well as with a weaker Mediterranean climate system is indicated based on high and constant sedimentation rates (~400 cm kyr À1), along with relatively stable values and only occasional weak fluctuations documented in all of the proxies. This climatic pattern is punctuated by a peak in maximum aridity at 4.28 kyr BP evidenced by low TOC value and low arboreal pollen (AP) and Artemisia/Chenopodiaceae (A/C) pollen ratios and the sharp decline in the abundance of benthic fora-minifera Cribroelphidium poeyanum and Valvulineria bradyana. This change corresponds with the well-studied 4.2 kyr BP drought event in the Middle East, Mesopotamia and south Asia. During the late Holocene (~3.6e2.8 cal. Kyr BP) the climate became unstable characterized by shifts between relatively wetter and drier conditions as evident in considerable fluctuations in all proxies. Maximum positive excursions of TOC values, C/N ratio along with high dominance of opportunistic foraminiferal species (e.g., Ammonia tepida) indicate northeast African wetter conditions and increased Nile discharge at 3.5, 3.3, 3.2 and 3.0 kyr BP. The distinct and abrupt transition from a stable to an unstable climate regime around 3.6 kyr BP may have been influenced by the Thera volcanic eruption. Thus, the sedimentary record investigated in this study may provide evidence for the impacts of this well-known volcanic eruption not just on the climate regime in the Levant but also on the ancient Near East and Egypt.

Pohromy, ktoré menili ľudské dejiny Veľké prírodné katastrofy ročník XXV cena|3,50 € pre predplatiteľov cena 2,80 € 8|2014 Vedeckopopulárny mesačník o dejinách www.historickarevue.com SKAZA POMPEJÍ PLUS AUGUSTUS: prvý rímsky cisár a jeho doba SNP: vedela Tisova vláda o prípravách povstania? 9 7 7 1 3 3 5 6 5 5 0 0 5 0 8 SAN FRANCISCO 1906 ročník XXV | 13 HISTORICKÁ REVUE prírodné katastrofy EXPLÓZIA VULKÁNU NA GRÉCKOM SANTORINI Najväčší sopečný výbuch v dobe bronzovej autor | DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK Okolnosti výbuchu sopky na gréckom ostrove Théra, ktorý sa odohral vo východnom Stredomorí, neustále vábia bádateľov z celého sveta. Predovšetkým je to samotný priebeh erupcie, jej ničivé dôsledky a v nemalej miere aj jej datovanie. Jediné čo môžeme s presnosťou povedať, je skutočnosť, že katastrofa nastala v 2. tisícročí pred n. l. v dobe bronzovej.

Disagreements on the dating of finds in the southern Levant are common between “Biblical archeologists” who rely heavily upon ancient documents such as found in the Bible and “Levantine archeologists” who adhere to a more secular approach with primacy given to archeological techniques and radiocarbon science.  However, the difference in their perspectives is not truly rooted in the Bible’s descriptions of ancient events versus what is observed in the field, as these generally agree, but rather completely fixated on the dating of these events.   

Biblical archeologists typically refer to either a “High” or “Low” Biblical Chronology in order to seek a better match with the Levantine archeologists.  The very fact that there are two “Bible Chronologies” call into question the validity of these chronologies, and the biblical source as well.  A Bible Chronology which integrates seamlessly with the dates accepted by Levantine archeologists would obviate current conflicts by providing a common reference. 

A new Bible Chronology has been recently published which was built upon a literal reading of the stated passages of time in the Bible.  A handful of dates which are fixed to specific historical events in the resultant Old Testament Dateline are examined to either verify or disprove this new Chronology and its method of creation.  Is it possible that Biblical archeologists and Levantine archeologists may now be undifferentiated?

The works of a pumice quarry at Ftellos on Thera revealed the remains of some pre-eruption buildings. The first period of the excavation there lead to the discovery of a dug out building consisting of more than two rooms circular or polygonal in plan. The bulk of the pottery coming from this building belongs to Phylakopi Ic and Early Phylakopi II periods. It must have gone out of use before the LBA eruption because it did not contain the materials which were ejected during that eruption.
Such a type of building has not been found in the Prehistoric Cyclades until now. In construction it shows some similarities to the building of the Christiana islet which is also subterranean. Ftellos buildings were dug in the sandy pre-eruption earth from top to bottom and not from the side like the rock-cut tombs of Melos and the modern houses of Thera and Therasia. An inner stonewall was built to hold this sandy earth. The roof was probably constructed of branches covered with clay

Plinian ash found in late Minoan (LM) Akrotiri is contemporary with the LMIA destruction on central Crete and that the ashes overlying these deposits in Akrotiri are, in turn, contemporaneous with the
LMIB destruction in eastern Crete. It is interesting to see the archaeomagnetic method applied to mud bricks and that such good results could be obtained.
However, there is insufficient evidence, and the determination of a time gap between the above events has been overoptimistically
stated by Downey and Tarling.

AHMES
Archaeological Heritage & Multidisciplinary Egyptological Studies 1
The series AHMES was created within the Institute for Ancient Mediterranean Studies (ISMA) of National Research Council of Italy (CNR) and reflects the interdisciplinary openness of the research line ‘Egypt, ancient Mediterranean crossroads: historical and archaeological research between tradition and innovative technologies.
Main aim of the series is to give light to research projects that put into dialogue Egyptology and natural sciences, expressing the multidisciplinary vocation of CNR and from this drawing light.

EGYPTIAN CURSES 1
“Egyptian Curses 1” is the first volume of the series AHMES (Archaeological Heritage & Multidisciplinary Egyptological Studies) published by ISMA - CNR. The volume reports the proceedings of the Egyptological Day held at the National Research Council (December 3rd, 2012), within the International Conference “Reading Catastrophes”.
Some case-studies were selected for the conference and are thoroughly presented in the volume: recent discoveries at Thebes (the Colossi of Memnon) and Saqqara (Bubasteion), which offer traces of cataclysms in the earth; research on the Stela of Ahmose, and related study of Mediterranean chronology in the light of the cataclysm at Thera/Santorini. The papers enlighten the interweaving of archaeological and textual data, and offer important results obtainable through interdisciplinary research.
The following volume “Egyptian Curses II” will present the results of the work by the ISMA - CNR team achieved in the PRIN 2009 Project.
ISSN 2384-8154
ISBN 978 88 8080 135 1