Targeted Drug Delivery

A system is described here that can noninvasively control the navigation of freely behaving rat via ultrasonic, epidermal and LED photic stimulators on the back. The system receives commands from a remote host computer to deliver specified electrical stimulations to the hearing, pain and visual senses of the rat respectively. The results demonstrate that the three stimuli work in groups for the rat navigation. We can control the rat to proceed and make right and left turns with great efficiency. This experiment verified that the rat was able to reach a setting destination in the way of cable with the help of a person through the appropriate coordination of the three stimulators. The telemetry video camera mounted on the head of the rat also achieved distant image acquisition and helped to adjust its navigation path over a distance of 300 m. In a word, the non-invasive motion control navigation system is a good, stable and reliable bio-robot.

A series of novel nanogels (NGs) with both pH and thermoresponsive properties were synthesised by free radical emulsion polymerisation of N-vinyl caprolactam (VCL) and acrylamidoglycolic acid (AGA). 5-Flurouracil, an anti cancer drug, was successfully loaded into these nanogels via equilibrium swelling method. The encapsulation efficiency of 5-FU was found up to 61%. Here we present the novel potential drug delivery system showing both pH and temperature release of 5-FU. Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) examined the structure and morphology of the NGs. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) indicates the diameter of the NGs to be about 50 nm. The size distribution of NGs was investigated using dynamic light scattering (DLS), the average diameter and polydispersity is 57 nm and 0.194. Interestingly, the in vitro release studies of 5-FU demonstrated the dual nature (pH and temperature) of NGs. The cumulative release data were analysed using an emperical equation to compute the diffusion exponent (n); whose values suggest Fickian diffusion.► We have developed poly(N-vinyl caprolactam-co-acrylamidoglycolic acid) based nanogels for controlled release of an anticancer drugs. ► This system exhibited dual responsive nature, and accelerated drug release profile. ► The cumulative release data were analysed using an emperical equation to compute the diffusion coefficient; it suggest Fickian diffusion.

The combination of an efficient encapsulation method of small water-soluble substances with a stimuli-responsive release of defined quantity remains a challenging task. A novel drug delivery system (DDS) representing a free-standing PLLA microchamber arrays film and its application as the cover for implantable endovascular stent are reported in this work. The proposed DDS preparation method is consisting of a patterned polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-stamp dip-coated into a polymer solution followed by drug loading and sealing it by polymer pre-coated substrate. It was shown that using 1 wt.% PLLA solution is optimal for obtaining microchamber arrays with an individual cargo capacity of 2.88×10-9µg, which was successfully loaded by model drug substance Rhodamine B. Rhodamine B was completely released in vitro during 13 days in PBS at 37 °C by diffusion.  It was demonstrated that low-frequency ultrasound (LFUS, 20 kHz) allows triggering RhB release due to microchamber damage and detachment of individual PLLA microchambers over time. LFUS exposure time up to 25 s led to RhB release of up to 8.4×10-4µg (approximately 55%) from microchambers located on the flat substrate; up to 5.2×10-4µg from microchambers located on the stent with using a simplified vessel model. Furthermore, the free-standing printed PLLA microchamber arrays were demonstrated to be applied as endovascular stent cover that can be used for complementary pharmacological effect, for example, triggered local delivery of anticoagulants.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) (H2O2, OCl−, •OH, O2−) are a family of reactive molecules that are generated intracellularly and are engaged in many
biological processes. In physiological concentrations, ROS act as signaling
molecules to a number of metabolic pathways; however, in excess they can
be harmful to living organisms. Overproduction of ROS has been related
to many pathophysiological conditions and a number of studies have been
reported in elucidating their mechanism in these conditions. With the aim of
harnessing this role, a number of imaging tools and therapeutic compounds
have been developed. Here these imaging and therapeutic tools are reviewed
and particularly those structures with ROS-sensitivity based on their biomedical applications and their functional groups. There is also a brief discussion
about the method of preparation as well as the mechanism of action.

A primary object of using mucoadhesive formulations orally would
achieve a substantial increase in the length of stay of the drug in GI
tract  stability  problem  in  the  intestinal  fluid  can  be  improved.
Mucoadhesive  microsphere  carrier  systems  were  made  from  the
biodegradable polymers in sustained drug delivery. The objective of
the  present  study  is  related  to  the  preparation  and  evaluation  of
mucoadhesive  microspheres  of  simvastatin  by  using  different
polymers like Sodium alginate, HPMC K100M, Sodium CMC, Ethyl
cellulose, Methyl cellulose, Guar gum, Xanthan gum and Carbopol
940 in different ratios by the Ionic deletion method. The prepared
batches of mucoadhesive microspheres of simvastatin were evaluated
for  the  flow  properties;  drug  content,  entrapment  efficiency,  and
Percent mucoadhesive property, in vitro dissolution studies of all 12
formulations were performed. From the all batches F10 (Drug: Sod.
Alginate: Methyl cellulose 1:2:1) batch is considered to be the most
promising formulation batch because among all the batches it shows
better  extent  of  drug  release  97.11%  (8hrs),  good  entrapment
efficiency  (78%),  and  in  vitro  wash-off  test  shows  the  good
mucoadhesive property. Simvastatin release from alginate – Methyl
cellulose (F10)  was  slow and extended over a period of 8 hrs and
these microspheres were found suitable for the oral controlled release
formulation.

Microwave-initiated synthesis of polyacrylamide-grafted sodium alginate, a graft copolymer with wide variety of applications has been reported in this study. The effect of reaction parameters (i.e., irradiation time and monomer concentration) onto the percentage grafting has been investigated. The resulting polymer has been characterized by a variety of characterization techniques such as intrinsic viscosity measurement, Fourier transform infrared spectra, 13C NMR spectra, elemental analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, molecular weight determination using static light scattering analysis, and scanning electron micrographs. Further, the flocculation efficiency of this graft copolymer has been investigated in coal suspension. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010

In the present investigation, an attempt was made to formulate floating tablets of Levofloxacin hemihydrates using with gum kondagogu, xanthum gum and HPMC K100M as release modifier. Eight batches of floating tablets of Levofloxacin hemihydrates were prepared by using different drug : polymer (Levofloxacin hemihydrates, HPMC K100M + karaya gum) ratios viz. F 1 ,F 2 ,F 3 ,F 4 and drug : polymer (Levofloxacin hemihydrates, HPMC K100M + xantham gum) ratios viz.F 5 ,F 6 ,F 7 ,F 8. The compressed tablets were evaluated for hardness, uniformity of weight, friability, drug content. All the readings are within the prescribed limits. There was no interaction between the drug, polymer and excipients it was found out by IR studies. Swelling index studies were also carried out. The in vitro release data were fitted to different order of reactions such as zero order and Korsmeyer-Peppas reaction. It was found that, the drug release follows Korsmeyer-Peppas reaction.

This study was performed to asses and establishes the prevalence of Polypharmacy in geriatric population in the Medicine ward of Rajah Muthaiya Medical College and Hospital, Annamalai University, during one year from January 2013 to January 2014. Demographic analyses of this prospective study revealed that out of 520 patients, 342 (65.76%) were males and 178 (34.23%) were females. All the collected prescriptions were scrutinized for Polypharmacy and were categorized as minor Polypharmacy -concurrent use of ≤ 5 drugs; and major Polypharmacy -concurrent use of > 5 drugs. Out of 502 Prescriptions 61(11.73%) prescriptions were minor Polypharmacy and 457(88.26%) prescriptions were major Polypharmacy. The maximum patients were in the age group of 60-64 (38.84%) range lead to a significant increase in the number of medications. The most common diseases associated systems were Cardiovascular system 147 (28.26 %) patients, and followed by Respiratory system 103(19.80%). Our results show that there is a higher prevalence of Polypharmacy among the males than females. The length of hospital stay of geriatric patients is increase in major Polypharmacy compare with minor Polypharmacy. The prevalence of cardiovascular drugs and respiratory drugs were often involved in Polypharmacy among geriatric patients. Polypharmacy is very common among geriatric patient and health care professional’s interventions to improve the optimal use of medication in geriatric could lead to reduction in the drug related problems associated with Polypharmacy.

tSolid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) composed of long-chain fatty acids (palmitic acid, stearic acid or arachidicacid), Epikuron 200 (purified phosphatidylcholine), and bile salts (cholate, taurocholate or taurodeoxy-cholate) have been prepared by dilution of a microemulsion. A total of five different systems wereprepared, and characterized by photon correlation spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy,differential scanning calorimetry, and infrared spectroscopy. The SLN formulation showing optimal prop-erties (lowest size and polydispersity index and highest zeta potential) was obtained with stearic acidand taurodeoxycholate as cosurfactant. This formulation was loaded with Calendula officinalis extract, anatural compound used on ophthalmic formulations given its anti-inflammatory, emollient, and woundrepairing activity. Calendula-loaded SLN preparations were characterized in order to determine loadingcapacity and entrapment efficiency. In vitro cytotoxicity and wound healing efficacy of Calendula-loadedSLN compared to that of a free plant extract were evaluated on a conjunctival epithelium cell line WKD.Our results suggest that this SLN formulation is a safe and solvent-free Calendula extract delivery sys-tem which could provide a controlled therapeutic alternative for reducing disease-related symptoms andimproving epithelium repair in ocular surface.

Skin is most liable to have microbial or fungal infections. Emulsions are gellified emulsion in which emulsion is incorporated into gel base. Skin is having different layers like dermis, epidermis and stratum corneum and different sub layers. Emulgels having advantages like Better stability, Hydrophobic drugs can be easily incorporated into gels using d/o/w emulsions, Production feasibility, low preparation cost, Better loading capacity, Controlled release and No intensive sonication with certain  disadvantages like poor penetration, skin irritation, bubble formation. Emulgels are of two types micro emulsion gels and nano emulgel. Emulgels are prepared contains aqueous phase made up of water or alcohols, Oil phase made up of mineral oil in combination with soft paraffin or hard paraffin, emulsifiers, gelling agents, anti-oxidants, preservatives, penetration enhancer and humectants. Emulgels are characterised  for parameters such as Physical Examination, Rhelogical Studies, Globule size and its distribution in emulgel, Spreading Coefficient, Extrudability Study of Topical Emulgel (Tube Test), Swelling Index, Drug Content Determination, Skin Irritation Test (Patch Test), Ex–Vivo Bioadhesive strength measurement of topical emulgel, In-Vitro Release Study, Microbiological assay, Drug Release Kinetic Study, Stability Studies and Accelerated stability studies of Gellified Emulsion.

Bioequivalence is a word used to describe the biological equivalency of two proprietary medication preparations. When two medications are bioequivalent, it indicates they are expected to be the same. Pharmacokinetic studies are used to determine bioequivalence between two medications, such as a reference drug (FDA approved drug) and a potential test drug (marketed generic drug), by administering each drug to volunteers in a cross-over research (healthy individuals). To prepare a drug many aspects need to take into consideration such as in vivo and in vitro study, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and bioavailability of the drug. While designing a drug fasting, oral, crossover study of the drug needs to perform.

The  present  research  was  aimed  to  develop  the  meclizine
hydrochloride-polyethylene  glycol  20000  solid  dispersions  to
enhance the solubility and dissolution rate. They were prepared using
solvent  evaporation  method  and  evaluated  for  solubility  studies,
drug-carrier  compatibility  studies  and  in  vitro  dissolution  studies.
From  the  solubility  studies,  formulation  F4  was  selected  to  prepare
the  fast  dissolving  tablets  and  compared  with  control  tablets
(conventional  tablets  using  pure  drug).  From  the  results  of  in  vitro
dissolution  study,  tablets  containing  polyethylene  glycol  20000
showed almost complete drug release within the 15 min. The percent
drug  release  in  15  min  (Q15
)  and  initial  dissolution  rate  for
formulation  F4  was  98.46±1.24%,  6.56%/min.  These  were  very
much higher compared to control tablets (32.49±1.29 %, 2.17%/min).
The  relative  dissolution  rate  was  found  to  be  3.03  and  dissolution
efficiency was found to be 54.44 and it is increased by 3.4 fold with
F4  formulation  compared  to  control  tablets  (16.55).  Thus  the
formulation  of  polyethylene  glycol  20000  solid  dispersions  is  a
suitable  method  to  enhance  the  solubility  and  dissolution  rate  of
meclizine hydrochloride.

The  present  investigation  concerns  with  the  development,
optimization  and  evaluation  of  an  enteric  coated  tablets  of
Erythromycin  stearate.  Tablets  were  prepared  by  wet  granulation
method. Enteric coating of  Erythromycin stearate tablets were done
using  two  hydrophilic  polymers  like  ethyl  cellulose  and  pectin  by
multivariate ANOVA method by alternating the 2 variables X and Y
in rows and columns.  Polyethylene glycol was used as a plasticizer
while Isopropyl alcohol & water was incorporated as a solvent. The
effects of polymers and Isopropyl alcohol as a binder on drug release
profile, gastro-resistant properties and matrix integrity of tablet were
investigated.  Developed  formulations  were  evaluated  for  their
physical  characteristics,  drug  content,  disintegration  time,  friability,
hardness,  thickness,  swelling  index,  weight  variation,  In  vitro  drug
release  profile  etc.  On  the  basis  of  various  physical  characteristics
parameters, it was found that all the formulat ions shows good result.
On  comparative  kinetic  modeling  study  such  as  (Zero  order,  First
order,  Higuchi  model  and  Korsmeyer-Peppas)  it  was  found  that  all
the  formulations  follow  Higuchi  model  and  correlation  coefficient
(R
2
)  values  were  nearer  to  unity.  Among  those  formulations,  F4
showed  R
2
value  of  Higuchi  model  more  near  as  compared  to  the
other formulation.

We have not had a War on Drugs, nor has the use of drugs for pleasure been prohibited. The 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs imposed strict controls and punishments on particular substances while other dangerous drugs (alcohol and tobacco in particular) were granted a privileged and promoted status. This socially constructed bifurcation of substances established a Drugs Apartheid that outlawed particular drugs so what we have is a 'War between Drugs' that ultimately became a war on people who used substances that didn't have government approval. Black and Minority Ethnic groups and the discarded working class have been major casualties in this war. Radical drug law reform rooted in scientific evidence and human rights is needed to end the oppressive and unjust drug laws that have caused more harm than good.

To follow the PREZI presentation while listening to the Podcast go to:

http://www.cjp.org.uk/events/cjp-lectures/cjp-lecture-2014/cjp-lecture-2014-presentation/

OBJECTIVES:

To perform qualitative analysis of phytochemical and in-vitro antioxidant test in leaf extracts of Tradescantia spathacea.

To study the in-vitro anti-cancer properties of Tradescantia spathacea extracts by MTT cell line such as PC-3, HePG-2, MCF-7 and A549.

To study about overexpression of beta-catenin in PC-3, HePG-2, MCF-7 and A549 cancer cell lines.

To inhibit or suppress the overexpression of beta-catenin using Tradescantia spathacea medicinal leaves extract as a drug.

The most emerging branch in pharmaceutical sciences known as “Pharmaceutical nanotechnology” presents new tools, opportunities and scope, which are expected to have significant applications in disease diagnostics and therapeutics. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology comprised of nano-sized products which can be transformed in numerous ways to improve their characteristics. A Nanosponge is a novel and emerging technology which offers targeted & controlled drug delivery for topical as well as oral use. Nanosponges are based on nano, polymer-based spheres that can suspend or entrap a wide variety of substances and then be incorporated into a formulated product such as a gel, lotions, cream, ointments, liquid or powder. This technology offers entrapment of ingredients and thus reduced side effects, improved stability, increases elegance and enhanced formulation flexibility. Nanosponge is the part of advance drug delivery. It is a specific aiding system for targeted drug delivery of both kind of drugs either it is lipophilic or hydrophilic in a controlled manner. These have three dimensional networks or scaffold which is filled with drug and porous insoluble nanoparticles with a crystalline or amorphous structure and have spherical shape or swelling properties. The polarity and dimension of the polymer mesh can be easily varied by varying the type of cross-linker and degree of cross-linking. This review article deals with the general introduction of nanosponges, classification of nanosponges, characteristic features of nanosponges, their advantages, disadvantages, chemicals used in their preparation, preparation methodologies, factors affecting on their preparation, mechanism of action and evaluation parameters along with some applications of nanosponges.

This article discuses the racial disparities in the criminal justice system acknowledging the history leading to the above. The article goes over; criminalization of non-whites, 3 strikes rule, crack/cocaine sentencing, war on gangs (race) and drugs, youth delinquency, youth in an adult criminal justice system, racial disparities in prison, and effects of mass incarceration.

ETHICS AND EPISTEMOLOGY OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

I – Critically Mapping Current Approaches

From an early stage, nanoscience and nanotechnology (NST) have been associated with a political will to integrate upstream the question of their "ethical and societal implications". In this context, the implication of the social and human sciences (SHS) has given way to a great variety of approaches to NST ethics. After a decade of SHS involvement, it is time for an appraisal. This article seeks to critically map the different approaches of SHS involvement in NST with regard to their problematization of ethical issues and to identify their shortcomings and limitations. Especially, it is argued that concrete technoscientific NST developments and the concerns with the values that they generate should be better articulated.

II – For an object-centred approach

The ethics of nanoscience and nanotechnology (NST) calls to question the division between the neutrality objects and the morality of uses. NST lead us therefore to a new kind of "Copernican revolution", taking us from a situation where the subject is the only moral being to a situation where objects fully enter in the field of moral philosophy. This article shows how the epistemological analysis of the mode of existence of nano-objects can renew the ethical issues on several singular fieldworks. The demonstration will be based on four case studies of nano-objects, conceptualized as "relational objects" : artificial molecular machines, drug nanocarriers, bio and eco-toxicology of nanoparticles, and biomarkers for personalized medicine.

ÉTHIQUE ET ÉPISTÉMOLOGIE DES NANOTECHNOLOGIES

I – Cartographie critique des approches existantes

Les nanosciences et nanotechnologies (NST) ont été placées très tôt sous le signe d’une volonté politique d’intégrer, en amont, la question de leurs « enjeux éthiques et sociétaux ». Dans ce contexte, les démarches « d’accompagnement » des technosciences par les sciences humaines et sociales (SHS) se sont multipliées, et diverses approches de l’éthique des NST ont été proposées. Après une décennie d’implication des SHS, un bilan s’impose. Cet article propose une cartographie raisonnée des différentes démarches d’accompagnement des NST par les SHS quant à leur problématisation du questionnement éthique, et en indique les insuffisances et les limites. Il soutient notamment que les développements technoscientifiques concrets des NST et les questions de valeurs qu’ils suscitent doivent être mieux articulés.

II – Pour une approche centrée sur les objets

l'éthique des nanosciences et nanotechnologies (NST) appelle à remettre en question le partage entre la neutralité des objets et la moralité des usages. Les NST nous poussent par conséquent à une sorte de nouvelle « révolution copernicienne », nous faisant passer d'une situation où le sujet est le seul être moral à une situation où les objets entrent de plain-pied dans le champ de la philosophie morale. Le présent article montre comment l'analyse épistémologique du mode d'existence des nano-objets permet de renouveler le questionnement éthique sur des terrains à chaque fois singuliers. La démonstration se fera sur la base de quatre cas concrets de nano-objets, conceptualisés comme des « objets relationnels » : les machines moléculaires artificielles, les nanovecteurs de médicament, la bio et l'éco-toxicologie des nanoparticules, et les biomarqueurs pour la médecine personnalisée.

Capsules are solid dosage forms in which one or more medicinal and inert ingredients
are enclosed in a small shell or container usually made of gelatin. The raw materials used in the
manufacture of both hard and soft gelatin capsules are similar. Preservatives and surfactants are
added to the gelatin solution during capsule manufacture to aid in processing. Empty capsules
contain a significant amount of water that acts as a plasticizer for the gelatin film and is essential
for their function. Hard capsules are usually made up of a base containing plasticizer and water.
The base may also contain preservatives, colors, flavors and sugars. A number of different
manually operated capsule filling devices are commercially available for filling up to 50 or 100
capsules at a time. It is imperative that every precaution to minimize traces of moisture or body
oils on capsules be taken to reduce powders sticking to the surface, which would create
disagreeable appearance and taste. Rotary capsule machine: This machine has two, side-by-side
cylinders in each of which half-moulds are cut. Process areas require high quality finishes
maintaining cGMP standards. Traditionally pharmaceutical secondary manufacturing facilities
have been designed on the basis of single rooms or cubicles for each stage of the manufacturing
process.

Introduction: Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products with biologically active ingredients purporting to have medical or drug-like benefits. Some cosmeceuticals can act effectively when reaching their target sites in the deeper layers of the skin. However, the barrier nature of skin causes significant difficulties for compounds to be delivered through. Therefore, scientists are investigating various strategies to overcome these barrier properties. Liposomes have been claimed to improve the topical delivery of compounds.

Areas covered: This paper offers a brief overview of current approaches in the research and development of liposomal formulations to improve the performance of cosmeceuticals, from recent literature. This review deals with the potential of liposomes as a skin delivery system for cosmeceuticals, with a focus on the clinical application of liposomes.

Expert opinion: Liposomes are well-known vesicular cosmetic delivery systems. The topical application of liposomes offers a wide range of advantages including increased moisturization, restoring action, biodegradability, biocompatibility and extended and slow dermal release. Their similar structure to biological membranes allows penetration into the epidermal barrier, compared with other delivery systems. The incorporation of cosmeceuticals using suitable delivery systems is important in the management of cosmetic disorders.

This article reviews the applications of nanotechnology in the fields of medical and life sciences. Nanoparticles have shown promising applications from diagnosis to treatment of various types of diseases including cancer. In this review, we discuss the applications of nanostructured materials such as nanoparticles, quantum dots, nanorods, nanowires, and carbon nanotubes in diagnostics, biomarkers, cell labeling, contrast agents for biological imaging, antimicrobial agents, drug delivery systems, and anticancer nanodrugs for treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases. The adverse affects of nanoparticles on human skin from daily use in cosmetics and general toxicology of nanoscale materials are also reviewed.
KEYWORDS: Medical Applications, Nanoparticles, Contrast Agents for Biological Imaging, Cell Labeling, Antimicrobial Agents, Anticancer Nanodrugs, Cosmetics, Nanotoxicology.

Rapid innovations in nanomedicine have increased the likelihood that engineered nanomaterials will eventually come in contact with humans and the environment. The advent of nanotechnology has created strong interest in many fields such as biomedical sciences and engineering field. Central to any significant advances in nanomaterial based applications will be the development of functionalized nanoparticles, which are believed to hold promise for use in fields such as pharmaceutical and biomedical sciences. Early clinical results have suggested that functionalization of nanoparticles with specific recognition chemical moieties indeed yields multifunctional nanoparticles with enhanced efficacy, while simultaneously reducing side effects, due to properties such as targeted localization in tumors and active cellular uptake. A prerequisite for advancing this area of research is the development of chemical methods to conjugate chemical moieties onto nanoparticles in a reliable manner. In recent years a variety of chemical methods have been developed to synthesize functionalized nanoparticles specifically for drug delivery, cancer therapy, diagnostics, tissue engineering and molecular biology, and the structure-function relationship of these functionalized nanoparticles has been extensively examined. With the growing understanding of methods to functionalize nanoparticles and the continued efforts of creative scientists to advance this technology, it is likely that functionalized nanoparticles will become an important tool in the above mentioned areas. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide basic information on nanoparticles, describe previously developed methods to functionalize nanoparticles and discuss their potential applications in biomedical sciences. The information provided in this review is important in regards to the safe and widespread use of functionalized nanoparticles particularly in the biomedicine field.

Psychedelic drugs are some of the most powerful tools in the world for personal healing and psychological growth. Research at major medical centers over the past few years have shown remarkable results in the treatment of conditions such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and anxiety. Psychedelic drugs provide a path of treatment that is often more effective and rapid than other methods, and with many fewer side effects than pharmaceutical options. This paper will be focusing on hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and psilocybin and entheogens such as ayahuasca and ibogaine.

The drugs of biological origins have attracted the attention of many pharmaceutical companies where it is essential to protect the heterogeneous nature and the optimal three dimensional structures of the different macromolecules. These molecules are used in both the investigation and therapy purposes, so their maximum activities should be maintained. This requires the designing of certain delivery formulations that suits the macromolecule nature, its target organ, the required dose and delivery route, and that's why the biotech companies invest millions of dollars towards achieving that. The fi rst main focal point of this article includes the recent developments in the formulation technologies for several biomacromolecule classes. The second focal point concentrates on the current considerations for optimizing their delivery for a maximum performance in the body.