Water Resources engineering

The behavior of concrete is affected by the size, distribution of the voids, the porosity and of the granulometry of the aggregate mixture. As a consequence it necessary for engineers to consider in detail particle packing concepts and their influence on the physical performance of concrete. The present study included determination of the fineness modulus, cement paste volume based on slump test and the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. It also comprised a study of the applicability of two theoretical models Toufar’s and 4C-packing program for selecting suitable relative amounts of the concrete constituents, for obtaining a minimum void ratio. Comparison of the results was made from using these theoretical models literature-derived experimental data. The models gave similar results and suggest similar combinations of materials to give minimum void ratio. Optimization of the composition of the aggregate material in concrete is beneficial with respect to economy (low cement c...

Soil pollution and groundwater contamination are rampant in urban and rural areas of various developing countries including Nigeria. The quality of groundwater is a vivacious concern for human beings since it is directly associated with the human welfare and it is needed to conserve water resources. This paper x-rays strategic approach for controlling soil and groundwater contamination to enhance the efficiency of civil and environmental engineering design through recent trends and practice which will play a vital role in handling environmental pollution. Strategic approach highlighted involves the formulation and implementation of the major goals and initiatives based on consideration of resources and an assessment of the internal and external environments in which the organization competes. One or more of these approaches are often combined for more cost-effective treatment. The field studies for assessment of contamination comprised of detailed hydro-geological investigations whi...

Groundwater is among Country’s most precious resources. For any program of efficient water management to be successful, continuous monitoring of water level in the groundwater is necessary. Reliable and accurate groundwater data is required, well in time, to assess groundwater conditions such that adverse situations like drought and loss of pumpage in agriculture and domestic water supply can be efficiently handled. However, the monitoring task becomes gigantic and expensive when the number of sites and parameters to be monitored increases. Automated monitoring systems are best solution that provide data from different parts of Country at a remote central location in near real time.
The primary objective of groundwater monitoring on such large scale is to record the response of ground regime to the natural and anthropogenic stresses of recharge and discharge parameters with reference to geology, climate, land use pattern and hydrologic characteristics. This paper discusses few online data received from various part of Country. The paper talks about useful conclusions that can be drawn by from the groundwater data; comparing water level data of different periods and from different areas; correlating the groundwater data with water discharge and rainfall data. The objective is to highlight importance of groundwater level monitoring and to adopt a more comprehensive and systematic approach to the long-term collection of these essential data needed to evaluate changes, develop groundwater models and forecast trends; to design, implement and monitor the effectiveness of groundwater management and protection programs.

Recently, a novel approach to a highly sensitive and quantitative detection of rare earth element (REE) ions including La3+, Eu3+ and Tb3+, by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, has been reported. The detection of REE ions is based on the catalytic nature of REE ions targeting the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), thus monitoring of the ions can be achieved by reading the level of intact DNA by PCR. Despite of its high sensitivity (at ppb to ppt levels), the conventional PCR-based REE detection protocol requires certain length of time (1-2 hours). In the present study, we modified the PCR-based REE detection protocols by employing the high-speed PCR, and performed the automated and rapid detection of La3+ in small-sized aqueous samples within 5min.

https://www.ijert.org/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-the-water-quality-of-ground-water-in-limbe-cameroon

https://www.ijert.org/research/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-the-water-quality-of-ground-water-in-limbe-cameroon-IJERTV9IS110128.pdf

A significant proportion of the population of Limbe, a coastal town in Cameroon, relies on ground water (gw) to satisfy their drinking water needs. The coastal aquifer is threatened by pollution from sea water intrusion and hence the aim of this study was to determine the suitability of the water. Physico-chemical analysis were carried out on samples collected from the study area and the Revelle Index was calculated and used to determine the extent of pollution from seawater intrusion. The water quality index (WQI) was calculated using values of the pH, bicarbonate, chloride, total dissolved solids and the electrical conductivity. The results showed that the sea level rise is projected to rise by 32 cm in 2050 and 82 cm in 2100 due to climate change from 2018; the base year. About 23% of the groundwater in the study area is currently slightly polluted by seawater intrusion. By 2050, this is projected to increase to 30.8 % and to 42.31 % in 2100 due to sea level rise resulting from climate change. About 34.4 % of the ground water in the study area is currently good for drinking while 65.6 % is either poor, very poor or unsuitable for drinking. By 2050, it is projected that the proportion of the ground water considered to be good for drinking will reduce to 26.92 % and down to 17.86 % in 2100. In order to reduce the intrusion of sea water into the aquifer, a halophyte plant like mangrove should be planted at the mouth of the main river in Limbe. Keywords: Coastal aquifer, pollution, Revelle Index, salinity, sea level rise, seawater intrusion, water quality index. I. INTRODUCTION In the last few decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for fresh water in the world due to the rapid growth of the population and the accelerated pace of industrialization [1]. Limbe, a coastal town in Cameroon on the Atlantic Ocean has a demand for domestic water supply that the water utility company cannot satisfy and hence a significant proportion of the population relies on ground water (gw) to meet their domestic water demands. Under natural conditions, coastal aquifers are recharged by rainfall, and the gw flows towards the ocean, preventing salt water intrusion into the freshwater. The global mean sea level (GMSL) increased by an average rate of 1.8 mm/year during the 20 th century [2] and the IPCC reported with a high confidence that this rate has been increasing [3]. Reference [4] estimated that the GMSL increased by 3.1 mm/year from 1993 to 2003, but this change is not spatially uniform worldwide. Reference [5] estimated a GMSL rise of approximately 3.3 mm/year for the period 1992 to 2010. He [6] estimated on the basis of data obtained from the tide gauge installed in Limbe, a rise in the mean sea level of the Atlantic Ocean in the lower part of the Gulf of Guinea of about 10 mm / year. One effect of such an increase is sea water intrusion into coastal aquifers [7]. Salt water intrusion is a serious problem because about 80% of the world's population lives along the coast and utilize coastal aquifers for domestic water supply. In addition, over exploitation of coastal aquifers has resulted in falling groundwater levels (gwl). Sea level rise and falling gwl have resulted in increased pollution of gw due to sea water intrusion. This has caused wells previously used for domestic water supply to be abandoned. For example, in New Jersey, more than 120 wells were abandoned because of salt water contamination [8]. In the study area, about 250 wells have been abandoned because the water has become salty [6]. Variations in the sea level and the associated wedge movement can influence the near-shore and/or large-scale submarine discharge patterns and impact nutrient loading levels across the aquifer-ocean interface [9]. While anthropogenic activities, such as over pumping and felling of trees in urbanized coastal areas, are the major causes of salt water intrusion, it is projected that increases in the sea level due to climate change (CC) would aggravate the problem [9]. Reference [10] modelled the impacts of climate change and changes in land use patterns on the salt distribution in a coastal aquifer and concluded that rising sea level could induce rapid progression of salt water intrusion. Excessive groundwater withdrawals have been reported to result in changes in the physical, chemical and microbiological water quality; drop in the water table level; reverse hydraulic gradient and consequently water quality deterioration in coastal areas [11]. Poor water quality results in incidences of water borne diseases and consequently reduces the life expectancy of the population [12]. Thus, concern for clean and safe drinking water and protection from contamination is justified because a large proportion of the population in the study area depends on ground water for domestic purposes. Water quality evaluation is based on the physical, chemical and biological parameters ascertaining the suitability for various uses such as domestic consumption, agricultural, recreational and industrial use [13]. The traditional assessment of water quality consists of comparing the point values of water quality parameters levels with their guideline or standard values based on allocated water use or uses. This type of assessment does not provide an overall assessment of water quality of a water body which is important for managers and decision-makers. To resolve this decision-making problem, several water quality indices have been developed to transform point value water quality parameters into integrated indicator values. Many studies have demonstrated the usefulness of assessing the water quality of gw using a water quality index (WQI).

Within the ancient country of Japan, thousands of hydroelectric dams exist. The first hydroelectric dam built in Japan was the Oi Dam in 1924. These concrete megaliths have many purposes, with one major function for the Japanese and humans worldwide being the production of hydroelectric power. In essence, the electricity produced by hydroelectric power is a renewable resource generated through the movement of water. This form of energy produces no waste and does not emit carbon dioxide. Yet, many people do not consider large hydroelectric projects to be a sustainable energy source due to the belief that they do not produce enough energy to make their construction necessary. Indeed, the construction of the dams harm the environment in many ways, such as land clearing; the destruction of animal habitat, and the dispersal of humans from their ancient homelands.

Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. The Study Area lies between 75 0 29' 19" E and 76 0 37' 40" E longitude and 11 0 55' 54" N and 13 0 23' 12.8" N latitude. The study area covers an area of 10874.65 km 2 , having maximum length of 143.73 km. Drainage density is 1.43 km/km 2 hence area is of coarse texture. The length of overlandflow is less than 0.4 indicating more runoff less infiltration. The study of hypsometric properties of watershed using hypsometric integral (HI) and hypsometric curve retrieved in that, HI value is 0.57 and hence watershed falls under the Mature Stage. Circularity ratio is 0.26 which shows that the drainage area is less circular.

Flooding and torrents are a seasonal phenomenon that hit a lot of cities every year around the world. As climate changes affect the world, cities are increasingly exposed to such threats especially those located on flood streams are most exposed to damages in the winter and the flooding season. In the past ten years, Egypt has been facing severe climate change effects like the increasing frequency of flooding in Egyptian cities. According to the Egyptian government, there are more than 1200 Egyptian cities and villages on flood streams and torrent tracks. These cities are distributed between the Mediterranean coast, Cairo region, Red Sea coast, Sinai and Upper Egypt, these and increasingly vulnerable towards the floods and their urban life is severely affected weather in old cities or in new planned cities. It is mostly located in the Eastern Desert at the east of the Nile. According to geologists and Meteorologists, these cities and their inhabitants are facing future hazards if th...

Intensity, duration and frequency are identified as the principle characteristics of a rainfall, which influences the planning design, operation and maintenance of soil and water conservation structures. The relationship between rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency trio is an important tool for the proper implementation of different water resources technology projects. Rainfall intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves are graphical representations of the amount of water that falls within a given period of time in catchment areas (Dupont et al. 2006). Rainfall intensity is expressed as the rate of rainfall in millimetres per hour (Okonkwo and Mbajiorgu, 2008). Duration represents the total time period during which the storm occurs. Frequency is how often a storm of specified intensity and duration may be expected to occur (Rick, 2007).

Moringa oleifera is a single family of shrubs and trees that is cultivated in the whole of tropical belt. It belongs to the family Moringaceae and is one of the 14 known species. The tree has been described as a multipurpose tree for life. It has, in recent times, been advocated as an outstanding indigenous source of highly digestible protein, Ca, Fe, Vitamin C, and carotenoids suitable for utilization in many of the developing regions of the world where undernourishment is a major concern. The seeds are eaten green, roasted, powdered and steeped for tea or used in curries. It has found applications in medicinal uses, as cosmetics, in food supplements, and in water treatment. One of the active ingredients in the M. oleifera seed has been identified as a polyelectrolyte. Its use for coagulation, co-coagulation, or coagulant aid has been a subject of investigation in many parts of the world. Softening of water with M. oleifera has also been identified to have potential advantage since it is accompanied by very low reduction in alkalinity, which is required to provide the necessary buffering capacity to achieve required treatment objectives. Many researchers have also identified the presence of an active antimicrobial agent in Moringa oleifera seeds. This paper presents a review of these various applications of M. oleifera seeds extract in water treatment and highlights the areas requiring further investigations.

Time series analysis and forecasting is an important tool which can be used to improve water resources management. Iraq is facing a severe water shortage problem. The use of rainwater harvesting is one of the techniques to overcome this problem. To put this into practice, it is of prime importance to forecast future rainfall events on a weekly basis. Box-Jenkins methodology has been used in this research to build Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models for weekly rainfall data from four rainfall stations in the North West of Iraq: Sinjar, Mosul, Rabeaa and Talafar for the period 1990-2011. Four ARIMA models were developed for the above stations

EXTENDED ABSTRACT The aim of the paper is to determine the best agricultural production planning in the territory of Agios Athanasios irrigation network, which is located in the northern region of Greece. The goal is to determine the minimum possible usage of the available water resources. This aim can be accomplished by combining economic science and hydrology for the development of a suitable method. In this paper the proposed method is based on a linear programming model, which gives the optimal cropping patterns of the irrigation area. The records of annual flow, irrigated areas, crop water requirements, evapotranspiration and effective rainfalls of the region were used for this application. The constraints were formulated taking into consideration several economic factors such as water costs, production costs and agriculture prices. Results showed that the proposed linear programming model gives the optimum crop pattern for the region, obtaining the highest profit both for the ...

This research work evaluates the impact of stormwater infiltration on the removal of organics, solids, nitrogen and phosphorus in a LECA-based horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland. Stormwater runoff for the period between January 2008 and June 2010 (30 months) was estimated for the drainage basin of the Vila Fernando wastewater treatment plant (constructed wetland system) and it was observed proportionality between the increase in surface runoff and the infiltration flow rate that reached the plant. The average stormwater infiltration rate that reached the plant was 67.4 m(3) d(-1) (77% of the influent flow rate into the plant). The 30 month monitoring campaign set up at one of the reed beds showed that stormwater infiltration led to a high variation of the hydraulic loading rate (HLR) throughout the bed, which affected its performance in the removal of organic matter, suspended solids and nitrogen. For a HLR below 20 cm d-1 the removal efficiencies for BOD5, COD and TSS doubled. The removal of nitrogen was too low and was associated with the weak development of nitrifying biofilm and the poor growth of reeds. However, it was observed a good relationship between the applied and removed loads for most of the parameters, which seems to indicate that the organic, solid, nitrogen and phosphorus loading rates influenced the respective removal rates. The use of a bed material with high specific surface area, such as LECA, can only improve the treatment capacity of horizontal subsurface flow systems if the organic and solid loading rates, as well as the HLR, can be effectively controlled.

Changes in the hydrologic cycle due to increase in greenhouse gases cause variations in intensity, duration, and frequency of precipitation events. Quantifying the potential effects of climate change and adapting to them is one way to reduce urban vulnerability. Since rainfall characteristics are often used to design water structures, reviewing and updating rainfall characteristics (i.e., Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves) for future climate scenarios is necessary. The present study regards the evaluation of the IDF curves for Four raingauge stations of Bangalore rural : Anugondanahalli, Devanahally, Doddabalapura and Hoskote. Starting from daily rainfall observed data, to define the IDF curves and the extreme values in a smaller time window (2, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, 720, 1440 minutes), disaggregation techniques of the collected data have been used, in order to generate a synthetic sequence of rainfall, with s tatistical properties similar to the recorded data. Then, the rainfall pattern of the Four raingauge stations was analyzed and IDF curves were evaluated.

The counties traversed by Yala River Catchment in Kenya have been constrained by acute shortages of water resources because of the declining stream flows, which is occasioned by environmental changes, increasing population and changing land uses. This study applied Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) model to evaluate past trends and simulate current demand scenarios for the purposes of planning by authorities in regard to future use. The study used historical data (1970-2015) to assess water supply and demand in the catchment for the period 2016 to 2045 by simulation. Calibration and validation were each performed on 10-year streamflow datasets (1991-2000 and 2001-2010 respectively), drawn from 4 gauging stations. Simulations were then conducted for the scenarios namely: Reference (at 2.8% growth rate), High Growth (3.2%), High Growth (3.5%), and Moderated Growth (2.2%). The categories of water demand evaluated in WEAP included: Domestic-Institutional-Municipal, Agriculture, and Industry uses. In a 5-year time-step, WEAP demonstrated resultant increase in water demand for year 2020 by 7.46% from 2016 at Reference Scenario. WEAP further simulated a gradual increase in water demand during subsequent years. This trend would continue for the rest of the scenarios but with variations occasioned by adjustment of variables in WEAP such as population growth rates, monthly variations, annual activity levels, water use rates, water losses and reuse rates, industrial production units, agricultural acreages, and varied demand sites. In conclusion, there were demonstrated substantial increases in water demands within individual scenarios between 2016 to 2045, but these increases were significantly different scenario-by-scenario. The study recommends that supply and demand measures be employed with the aim of regulating activity levels, losses and consumptions so as to meet demands in case any of the studied scenarios would be applicable.

Water resources planning : Stages in water resources planning, data collection and processing, estimation of future water demands, preliminary planning, institutional set-up, public involvement, formulation and screening of alternatives, models for water resources planning, sensitivity analysis, Environmental and social considerations : Water in environment, environmental impact of water resources projects, environmental impact of reservoirs, environmental problems in command areas.

This note presents the general features of velocity and variation in length scales of the transition expanding jump, free jump, and
wall jet in the rectangular horizontal open channel. The experiments were performed for a range of Froude numbers from 2 to 6 and at an
abrupt expansion ratio of 2. The results indicate that the postdepth y2 required to form an expanding jump is distinctly smaller than that for the
corresponding classical jumps. The expanding jump length was 1.25 times the corresponding free jump length. The velocity profiles for the
transition jumps were similar to those for the wall jet. For the transitional expanding jumps, the boundary layer thickness δ, normalized by
the supercritical flow depth y1, grows more rapidly relative to the free jumps. The normalized boundary layer thickness δ in terms of the length
scale of b equal to the flow depth y, where the velocity u is equal to half of the maximum velocity um, against the longitudinal direction x
normalized by y1, which was stabilized at 0.31 for expanding jumps. The length scale L, equal to x where the maximum velocity is equal to
half of the initial velocity u0, of the free jump was approximately 0.75 that of the corresponding transitional expanding jump. The growth rate
of the length scale (b=y1) for the expanding jumps was approximately 2.4 times that of the corresponding wall jet and free jump

A spatial decision support system is a solution for spatial issues and problems applying a computer system and providing results for decision making. This comprehensive review study has been carried out to determine GIS and RS in SDSS towards water quality modeling in Malacca River. Rapid development in land use for human activities include agricultural and livestock activities, industrial activities, residential activities, commercial activities, municipal activities, open space activities, and so on, leads to environmental issues, especially water quality in the river, which affecting the physical parameters, chemical parameters, biological parameters, and heavy metal parameters. In analysis, water quality data, land use data, map-based data, and satellite data will be grouped together to provide new information. As a result, modeling will be provided, such as water quality data overlap with RS data, water quality data overlap with land use data, map-based data overlap with water quality data and land use data, and map-based together with satellite data overlap with water quality data and land use data. In conclusion, applied GIS and RS in the SDSS model will solve the issues and problems of concentrated human activities in a particular area, as well as issues of uncontrolled land use, contamination of rivers, negative impact on human life quality and ecosystems, and destruction of the natural environment.

Until around 400 years ago, the Ainu controlled Hokkaido, the northernmost of Japan's four main islands. Today the Ainu are a small minority group in Japan and are primarily a hunting and fishing people whose origins remain in dispute. Yet, for centuries, the Ainu culture developed alongside Japanese culture, but is distinctive from that of the Japanese. However, in recent centuries, particularly since the 1889 Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Law, they have been subject to Japanese government policies of modernization and integration. As with indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States, the Ainu have had the majority of their sacred lands taken from them by the Japanese government.

The adsorption of a group of heavy metals namely, Zn 2+ , Ni 2+ , and Cd 2+ onto olive stones activated carbon (OSAC) was carried out in this work. The effects of different reaction parameters, such as the adsorbent dosage, contact time, shaking speed, and initial pH, on pollutant removal efficiency were investigated. Adsorption of Zn 2+ , Ni 2+ , and Cd 2+ was effectively explained by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. OSAC efficiently removed 99.03% Zn 2+ , 97.34% Ni 2+ , and 94.88% Cd 2+ at pH 5 and shaking speed 200 rpm. Surface characteristics of the prepared AC were examined by pore structure analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area, total pore volume and average pore diameter of the prepared AC were 886.72 m 2 /g, 0.507 cm/g, and 4.22 nm, respectively. The equilibrium data of the adsorption were fitted well to the Langmuir and the highest value of adsorption capacity (Q) on the OSAC was found for Zn 2+ 11.14 mg/g, followed by Ni 2+ 8.42 mg/g and Cd 2+ 7.80 mg/g. A pseudo-second-order model sufficiently described the adsorption kinetics, which indicated that the adsorption process was controlled by chemisorption. The results revealed that the OSAC has the potential to be used as a low-cost adsorbent for the treatment of wastewaters contaminated with heavy metals.

Changing the Face of the Earth and its Waters
Shé Mackenzie Hawke
Mediterranean Institute for Environmental Studies (MIOS) Science and Research Centre, Koper,
(ZRS) Slovenia; she.m.hawke@zrs-kp.si
My presentation Funded by SCORE -European Commission https://score-eu-project.eu
This presentation examines the interactions between all life, water and the complex adaptive system that is planet Earth. I will address the idea that the human species must now cross-examine itself and its recklessness since the onset of the Great Acceleration of the Anthropocene (1-2) in the 1950s. Disrupting our comfort zones, obsessions, bias and unnecessary consumerism, is an ethical imperative now. It necessarily calls on economics, technology and science, philosophy and cultural studies, public policy and everyday people as expert witnesses, to come together to resolve the complex climate issues that threaten planetary care. For a ‘Green Deal’ to be possible, we must produce innovative yet realistic futures. An inter-disciplinary stock-take of both past and present practices is required. Against the back drop of the recent Slovenian Water Act Referendum (11 July 2021), I will discuss why business proposals for Slovenian dams continue to threaten our wellspring, despite the European Commission’s Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 (Section 2.2.7) committing to ‘restore 25,000 kilometres of water to a free flowing state’ (https://ec.europa.eu/info/index_en ). Why would we now work against the flow?
As an example, I will in particular present realisable, state-of-the-art sustainability measures that reduce and re-use household water. MIOS was recently funded by the European Commission Horizon 2020 (LC-CLA-13-2020-2: Smart Control of the Climate Resilience of European Coastal Cities) inter-disciplinary project, to develop a water redistribution system (©SHINK2C) for bathrooms, to offset: water wastage, and the need for dams and de-salinisation. This research will enable Slovenia to merge innovative science and technology, with citizen science and uphold the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and act inclusively towards climate change mitigation that involves the public and youth as citizen scientists.
We cannot exoticize climate change as some external ‘other’ any longer. We are climate change – part of a Complex Adaptive System (CAS), (3) of life, for which we have been given the capacity to govern. Life is contingent on understanding our connections between the ground we stand on, the air we breathe and the water that falls free from the tap. This paper applies CAS, as part of a co-created and connected way towards climate change resilience using the example of rivers and their inter relationships with human culture (4-5).
(1) Steffen, W., Crutzen, P. J., & McNeill, J. R. (2007). The Anthropocene: are humans now overwhelming the great forces of nature. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 36(8), 614-621. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2
(2) Steffen, W., Crutzen, P., Grinevald, J., & McNeill, J. (2011) The Anthropocene: conceptual and historical perspectives Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A.369842867 http://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0327
(3) Prigogine, I., and Stengers, I. (1984), Order Out of Chaos: Man’s new dialogue with nature, Bantam Books: New York
(4) Hawke, S. & Palsson, G. (2017). Water Futures, Biosociality, and Otherwise Agency. ANUAC 6 (1), 233-52.
(5) Spannring, R. & Hawke, S. (2021). Anthropocene challenges for youth research: understanding agency and change through complex, adaptive systems. Journal of Youth Studies https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2021.1929886

Reclaimed water from small wastewater treatment facilities in the rural areas of the Beira Interior region (Portugal) may constitute an alternative water source for aquifer recharge. A 21-month monitoring period in a constructed wetland treatment system has shown that 21,500 m3 year−1 of treated wastewater
(reclaimed water) could be used for aquifer recharge. A GIS-based multi-criteria analysis was performed, combining ten thematic maps and economic, environmental and technical criteria, in order to produce a suitability map for the location of sites for reclaimed water infiltration. The areas chosen for aquifer
recharge with infiltration basins are mainly composed of anthrosol with more than 1 m deep and fine sand texture, which allows an average infiltration velocity of up to 1 m d−1. These characteristics will provide a final polishing treatment of the reclaimed water after infiltration (soil aquifer treatment (SAT)),
suitable for the removal of the residual load (trace organics, nutrients, heavy metals and pathogens).
The risk of groundwater contamination is low since the water table in the anthrosol areas ranges from 10 m to 50 m. On the other hand, these depths allow a guaranteed unsaturated area suitable for SAT. An area of 13,944 ha was selected for study, but only 1607 ha are suitable for reclaimed water infiltration.
Approximately 1280 m2 were considered enough to set up 4 infiltration basins to work in flooding and
drying cycles.

Present day water transport and capacity procedures are the result of thousands of long periods of human development; today we depend on that equivalent advancement to devise answers for issues encompassing the sane use and protection of water assets, with the equivalent overall objective: to flexibly mankind with sufficient, clean, freshwater. Water Resources Engineering presents an inside and out prologue to hydrological and pressure driven cycles, with thorough inclusion of both center standards and viable applications.

The conversation centers around the designing parts of water flexibly and water abundance the board, relating water use and the hydrological cycle to basic ideas of liquid mechanics, vitality, and other physical ideas, while accentuating the utilization of modern explanatory devices and techniques. Presently in its Third Edition, this clear content incorporates new connects to extra assets that assist understudies with building up a more profound, more natural handle of the material, while the profundity and expansiveness of inclusion holds a degree of thoroughness appropriate for use as a kind of perspective among rehearsing engineers.

Urban and environmental historians are becoming increasingly interested in the social construction of expertise in the management and control of natural resources. Experts are often depicted as disinterested, neutral and objective professionals, sufficiently qualified to gauge an independent perspective on a given problem. Yet what happens when an expert's judgment is called into question by other professional experts? The micro-analysis of socio-technological disasters offers one way to interrogate the construction and challenge of professional expertise at both the empirical and conceptual levels. Taking a comparative approach towards the study of two major reservoir failures involving considerable death and destruction in the United Kingdom – Holmfirth in 1852 and Sheffield in 1864 – this paper draws on the under-utilised research of the sociologist Barry Turner and others on the social aetiology of disasters as a route into revealing and accounting for the contested nature of expertise within the Victorian engineering professions. It is based on extensive archival research, including the written records of local and central government, private waterworks' proprietors, the printed press and the records of public inquiry. The cases reveal remarkable continuities in administrative and professional knowledge regarding the explanation of socio-technological disasters, as well as the widespread use of outside experts to interrogate the supposed failings of interested parties.

Free copy available until 4 December from http://authors.elsevier.com/a/1Ps~P15XEnSlBh

Singapore has depended on water imports from neighbouring catchments in Johor, Malaysia since its founding. Despite long-standing cooperation, economic, environmental, and political forces are destabilizing cross-strait water flows. Johor has historically been water-abundant, but increased water consumption from economic development and population growth in combination with water stresses from drought and pollution have reduced its dry season water catchments. Johor has taken recent far-reaching measures including requesting additional water supply from Singapore, rationing supply to residential and commercial users, and requesting RM660 million in federal support for construction of a new dam at Sungai Ulu Sedili, and there appears to be bilateral support for continuing the Singapore-Malaysia water trade. However, water stress in Johor risks undermining the bedrock of the relationship, and creates the need for redoubled regulatory diligence and clear-minded diplomacy by authorities in Johor, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur.

The reliability of underlying aquifers is mostly affected by pollution through leachate, particularly from solid waste landfills. Solid waste landfills have been recognized as one of the major threats to groundwater resources. Therefore, groundwater requires continuous monitoring through quality assessments and management for sustainable use against contamination. The study investigates impact of landfill leachate on groundwater quality index of some selected areas of Maiduguri. To achieve the aim; water samples for dry and wet seasons were analysed for physicochemical properties; temperature, turbidity, electrical conductivity (EC) , pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Nitrate (NO3), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe) , Copper (Cu), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Arsenic (As) and Manganese (Mn). Temperature and pH were measured in situ using Turbo pH/mV/temperature meter. Total Dissolved Solid was measured using TDS meter (TDS-3). Turbidity and Electrical Conductivity were measured using Hach Turbidity Meter (2100N) and Hanna Electrical Conductivity Meter (HI98311) respectively. The BOD and DO were determined using Winkler method while the COD was analysed using Refluxing method. Colorimetric method was used to determine Nitrate by Hach Colorimeter (DR/890). The heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Mn, Cd, Pb, As, Cr and Fe) were analysed using the multi-wave plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer, (MP-AES 4200). 5ml of each water samples was measured placed in the system and standard code for each heavy metals were selected after calibration and run the system for analysis. The groundwater analysis revealed that the temperature variations in groundwater were function of climatic conditions. The concentration of heavy metals like Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Cr and Mn decreases with rise in water table of an aquifer (dry to wet season) while, Fe and As increases from dry to wet season and this was in line with high concentration of Fe and As in the soil samples. The computed water quality index for the water samples ranged from 10.61-72.4, it was observed that Seasonal variation has advance effect on soil as the concentrations increases with increase in leachate in wet season, which in turn pollute the groundwater. The uncontrolled accumulation of leachate over time at the dumpsites base will impose a significant threat to the groundwater quality.

Production of activated carbon (AC) from agricultural byproducts is a research field that has gained increased interest in recent years because of its potential for the disposal of agro-residues. At the same time, a beneficial byproduct that can be used in a number of environmental applications is produced. This paper surveys the developments in the production processes of AC from agricultural byproducts in the past 7 years from 2005 to 2012 via conventional and microwave heating. Emphasis is placed on the applied methodology and the influences of activating conditions, such as carbonization temperature, retention time, and impregnation ratio. From the review of AC production processes, agricultural wastes produced by a chemical method with microwave heating can be a source of AC with relatively higher surface area than that produced via conventional heating.

Macro Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) under recorded and forecasting rainfall scenarios helps to overcome the water shortage problem. Eastern Sinjar District-Iraq had been investigated for the potential of RWH with a catchment area of four basins. Three recorded rainfall scenarios (S1, S2, and S3) were diagnosed representing seasons of the maximum, minimum and average weekly rainfall events for the period 1990-2011. Forecasting the rainfall depths for the same catchment area were estimated depending on Box-Jenkins methodology to build Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models for weekly rainfall data for the period 2012-2016. Three forecasting rainfall scenarios (S4, S5, and S6) were diagnosed to represent the seasons of the maximum, minimum and average weekly forecasting rainfall events. The results of these scenarios were compared with an average area to be irrigated obtained from the results of 19 years record. The results indicated that in wet years RWH technique with s...

Agriculture is the backbone of India and it has to be supported through all the areas it needed. In present days due to climatic variations, India is no stranger to nature's fury and it would be well to learn from the old and traditional customs of supporting the agriculture whether it is in terms of traditional seeds, traditionally used fertilizers or traditional water governance structures for irrigation. There is a strong link between water, livelihoods and poverty. The area irrigated by Ahar-Pyne system in whole of Bihar has come down to about 0.53 mha constituting about 12% of all irrigated sources, compared to about 18% in South and North Bihar alone during the first two decades of twentieth Century. The study tries to unravel people perception about renovating Ahar-Pyne system and the factors influencing their adaption behavior by taking 155 respondents from Asarganj block, Munger District as respondent involved in different livelihood activities. This paper attempted to introspect farmers' perception to renovate and best utilize the traditional Ahar-Pyne system through formal mechanism by community governance method under the project "Water and Livelihood Security: Reviving Traditional Ahar and Pyne system irrigation in Munger district of South Bihar" with the funding support of ITC.

— Due to the reduction of groundwater resources, the artificial recharge of these resources through the reuse of treated wastewater (modified water) is an efficient way to tackle the problem. Some of the most important goals to be achieved regarding such a situation are the development of underground resources, building barriers to help avoid the penetration of the saline water to the underground water table in the coastal areas, creating additional levels of water treatment by soil and controlling the soil settlement. The modified water helps to compensate for the underground water. Asthe additional stage of the purification of the modified water offers assurance on the sewage management system, this natural water treatment created underground eliminates the need for costly wastewater treatment processes. Moreover, the groundwater aquifers provide a natural mechanism for the subsurface transfer of the modified water and eliminate the need for the surface storage facilities and associated problems, such as evaporatio n and the growth of algae, which degrade the water quality. One of the most commonly used methods is the aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) technology, which helps overcome the seasonal imbalance associated with the retrieval systems in the world. In the present paper, the methods used to realize this solution, including among others flood spreading, the soil aquifer treatment (SAT) systems, injection in unsaturated areas, and direct injection are examined. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of using the modified water and the required hydraulic analyzes for designing direct injection wells and injection in unsaturated areas will also be investigated.

Water is an indispensable asset in every field. It is used for domestic purposes, professional practice (growing crops and street washing), safety and recreation. With the advancement of civilisation, the utility of water has increased enormously and thus well-organized public water supply scheme is the need of the present scenario. Along with this, the selection of a proper water source, purification of water and assurance of consumable water quality are of utmost importance. Thus, maintenance and assessment of water quality are necessary in modern society. Though the organoleptic parameters (those which humans can see, touch, smell etc. through their sense organs) can be considered sufficient for assessment, water being a good solvent, adheres to more scientific and analytical techniques for its evaluation. Over the years, not only the surface streams have got reduced to a typical waste dump yard, but also the ground water depletion is there. Now a days the rivers are considered as the main sourse for the dumping of regular waste(home waste) as well as the industrial waste. So remedies should be taken in order to make the water bodies which are at least used for the use of water for regular basis. For this purpose river quality modelling were done time to time for the awareness for the water body to keep the water body waste free.
In this paper the details of the physico-chemical properties of the KUAKHAI river near Bhubaneswar city has been analysed and the trend of change of the properties along the stretch along the downstream of the input of the sewage(untreated) from the area PATIA. The effect is estimated by implementing the model for the BOD change due to various factors like environmental and human. As there is a village along the stretch so the possible effect is analysed and implemented in this paper using graphs and the future trend in the change of the BOD has been implemented using simple mathematical modelling. The modelling consists of modified version of the Streeter Phelps equation in which the equation is represented w.r.t. distance instead of time. A stretch of 1.8 km has been selected along the river from the starting point of the disposal of the sewage from PATIA area. The physico-chemical properties like pH, alkalinity,conductivity,total & suspended solids, DO,BOD has been implemented using graphs and mathematical models to study the trends and suitability of the model for future.

BACKGROUND: The efficiencies of removal of Cu 2+ , Cd 2+ , Ni 2+ , Pb 2+ , Fe 2+ , and Zn 2+ from aqueous solution with olive stone activated carbon (OSAC) were investigated in this work. A central composite design (CCD) method was used to optimize the preparation of OSAC using microwave assisted potassium hydroxide.

The effectiveness of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for the purification of
sewage was investigated. The study was carried out in the Department of Agricultural
and Biosystems Engineering. Three treatments of water hyacinth replicated two times
were used in the study. These treatments include no water hyacinth (control), 1kg and
2kg water hyacinth plant density cultures. The system was designed based on Completely
Randomized Design (CRD). Sewage samples were collected during the growth of water
hyacinth. Purification of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) on sewage was rapid
during the first three weeks in the sewage cultured with water hyacinth (especially 2kg
water hyacinth plant density) and there was low absorption in nutrients in the last two
weeks when attaining maturity. Parameters such as Cl-, Fe, Cu, Mn, Pb, K, F-, Nitrate and
Sulphate were drastically reduced from 9mg/l to 3.33mg/l, 1.25mg/l to 0.36mg/l, 0.3mg/l
to 0 mg/l, 0.5mg/l to 0.08mg/l, 0.2mg/l to 0.01mg/l, 1.7mg/l to 0.17mg/l, 0.7 mg/l to
0.08mg/l, 8.6mg/l to 0.03mg/l, 17.5mg/l to 6.20mg/l respectively throughout the course
of the study. The purification by water hyacinth had no effect on the bacteriological
parameters (Agar count, E-coli, Coliform). Also, the 2kg water hyacinth plant density
cultured in the sewage purifies more compared to the 1kg water hyacinth plant density
which is moderate and minimal in the control treatment. One way analysis of variance
was used to compare the means of the parameters tested. It shows that parameters like
CO2, Mn, lead and sodium have significant difference between the control treatment with
both the 1kg and 2kg water hyacinth plant density culture while parameters like pH,
magnesium hardness, calcium hardness and calcium total have no significant difference
between the no water hyacinth culture( control) with the 1kg and 2kg water hyacinth
plant density culture. Finally, sewage parameters like BOD, COD, dissolved oxygen, Cu,
F-, nitrate, phosphate, potassium, dissolved solids, suspended solids, sulphate, iron, Cl-
and magnesium total were not affected.

The estimation of a dependable crop water requirement is a necessity for sustainable and effective irrigation application. The estimation of crop water requirements of soybean was carried out based on twenty-one years meteorological data at Abeokuta using Penman– Monteith model. The results obtained showed that the monthly crop reference evapotranspiration (ET o) varied from 96.90 to 165.23 mm/month. The highest crop evapotranspiration (ET c) value of 121.38 mm/month was observed in the month of October while the lowest ETc value of 32.75 mm/month was observed in the month of November. The seasonal effective rainfall (ER) and irrigation water requirements (IR) are 411.57 mm and 108.35 mm respectively. ET c was higher than ER for the months of August, October and November which concise with the vegetative, reproductive and maturity growth periods. This could be caused by the less precipitation recorded in the months of August, October and November. Supplementary irrigation is required to meet the crop water requirement of soybean sowed in Abeokuta during the growth stages where the effective rainfall is lower than the crop evapotranspiration. INTRODUCTION The availability of water in the soil is an essential life support for plant development and food production and sustainability. The amount of water needed during a growing season depends on the crop, yield goal, soil, temperature, solar radiation and other cultural factors. The amount of irrigation required for crop production depends on the particular season's useful rainfall, the soils' water holding capacity and the crop water need (Adekunle et al., 2017). Soybean is a leguminous food crop with vast nutritious content. It serves as a cheap and economical source of oil and protein for millions of people in the world and as feed supplements for poultry and livestock industries. It can be cultivated on almost all kinds of soils expect deep sands which are characterized with poor water retention. The crop is widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropical region of West Africa, characterized by erratic rainfall pattern and periodic dry spells. Soybean is basically a short-day plant, but the response to day length varies with variety and temperature. It is most susceptible to drought damage during flowering and grain filling (Eteng and Nwagbara, 2014). However, the deficiency of water to meet the evapotranspiration demands of soybean during the reproductive growth stages might lead to substantial reduction in its yield. Understanding the crop water needs is essential for irrigation scheduling and water saving measures during the dry period of the cropping season (Eteng and Nwagbara, 2014). Consequently, estimating irrigation water requirements accurately is vital for the survival of crops especially during the dry season. Water requirements for maximum production of soybean ranged from 450 – 700 mm which would be well distributed over the growing season. The crop needs frequent watering especially early yield formation (pod development). Water deficits just prior and during flowering and early yield formation (pod development) may cause heavy flower and pod dropping (FAO, 1986). Crop water needs of soybean fluctuate throughout the season depending on climatic conditions and crop growth stages. Evapotranspiration is one of the key processes in the hydrological cycle and it is the loss of water to the atmosphere by the combined processes of evaporation from the soil and plant surface and transpiration from plants (Allen et al., 1998). Penman-Monteith (FAO-56