The Functional Training Bible

Part 1 - Theory

1. THE LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS

1.1 Presentation

Every time we think about a sporting activity, we associate it with the concept of motion.

This process is so widespread and natural that we don‘t think about its underlying reason why. During courses, students who are interested in and passionate about training sometimes ask me why it is necessary to know stuff that has no apparent connection with a horizontal bench or a squat.

The answer is that gymnastics, in its broadest sense, is an empirical science; it stands apart from scientific bases which interact constantly with sporting exercise in gyms or outdoors. For this reason, you will often find not only various definitions, but also examples which refer back to practice.

The locomotor apparatus is the structure that allows a person to move in relation to space and the outside world. For practical purposes, it is subdivided into an active part and a passive part. The active part is made up of muscles, tendons, and ligaments. The inactive part is composed of bones and joints. Each is briefly discussed in the following sections.

1.1.1 The active part of the locomotor apparatus: Muscles, tendons, and ligaments

Muscles

The term muscle, from the Latin musculus (from mus, rat, because some movements are reminiscent of a rat darting about), indicates an organ made of biological tissue with the ability to contract.

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The muscles are subdivided into:

Smooth, or involuntary, muscles

Commanded by the autonomic nervous system, they encase the walls of several organs and corporeal systems, enabling or improving their functionality with their contraction.

Striated skeletal, or voluntary, muscles

Commanded by the central nervous system, they encase the skeleton, and, by their contraction (shortening), they determine the bone levers’ movement.

A peculiar type of striated muscle is the myocardium, which is commanded by the autonomic nervous system.

Tendons

Tendons are bands of connective tissue with poor elasticity, and their function is to anchor the muscles to the bones. Their role is to transmit tension from muscles to the bone levers, thus allowing their movement.

Ligaments

Ligaments are sheaves of connective tissue with varying percentages of collagen fibers that link bones at the joints. The ligaments‘ purpose is to limit articular movement which would risk creating lesions were it to continue. For example, the knee‘s collateral medial and lateral ligaments support the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments in limiting the articulation‘s intra- and extrarotation movements in order to avoid lesions to the knee itself.

1.1.2 The passive part of the locomotor apparatus: Bones and joints

Bones

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Bones are specialized tissues with great mechanical resistance. They are divided into:

Long bones (humerus, femur, tibia, radius): These are composed of an elongated body known as diaphysis and by terminal extremities known as epiphysis; they determine raw movements, which are characterized by wide articular excursions.

Short bones (vertebrae): They have a similar diameter in all three spatial dimensions.

Irregular bones (facial bones, the patella): These bones are characterized by variable dimensions and shape.

Flat bones (pelvis, sternum, skull): Their function is protecting internal organs.

Don‘t be misled by bone tissue in the passive part of the locomotor apparatus: The bone is a highly active and dynamic tissue. In fact, from birth, the bone undergoes a remodeling process, involving the change and overlap of catabolic and anabolic phases. The catabolic phases are stimulated by micro organelles called osteoclasts, and the anabolic phases are activated by other specialized cells called osteoblasts. The piezoelectric effect gives the input for an increased bone tissue synthesis activity.

What does it involve? During motor activity, bone segment compression generates an electric depolarization of the bone membrane at the load points. This creates a greater localized need for the reconstructive osteoblasts. This explains why weight training, as demonstrated by several studies, has turned out to be an excellent remedy to contrast osteoporosis.

Joints

Joints are the junction hubs between two or more bone segments around which bones rotate.

According to their configuration and degree of mobility, joints can be classified as follows:

Synarthroses: These are fixed, fibrous joints with little or no possibility of movement.

Amphiarthroses: These joints are semi-mobile; they are often cartilaginous (e.g., vertebrae).

Diarthroses: These are the mobile, synovial joints capable of a greater degree of movement. In terms of movement range, the most significant are the enarthroses (e.g., shoulder and hip), with spherical-shaped, multi-axial articular surfaces.

1.2 Muscle Action

For clarity, I have simplified the different muscular actions, adding the technical definition in parentheses.

Flexion: When two bone segments move closer to each other (the moving part draws away from the horizontal plane). Example: brachial biceps, femoral biceps

Extension: When two bone segments move away from each other (the moving part draws nearer to the horizontal plane). Example: brachial triceps, femoral quadriceps

Adduction: When a bone segment draws closer to the median sagittal line (the moving part draws closer to the sagittal plane). Example: thigh adductors group

Abduction: When a bone segment draws away from the median sagittal line (the moving plane draws away from the median sagittal plane). Examples: gluteus minimus and gluteus medius, high tensor fascia, deltoid

Torsion: Movement of the trunk around the vertical axis

Rotation: Movement of a limb on its longitudinal axis

Intrarotation: Rotation of a bone segment in the medial direction, in other words, toward the inside (movement toward the anterior frontal plane)

Extrarotation: Rotation of a bone segment in the lateral direction, in other words, toward the outside (movement toward the posterior frontal plane)

Each muscle performs several movements, which must be differentiated in order to better define exercises and their completion. For example, flexion and extension take place when the limbs aren‘t bearing weight. Bending, however, takes place when the limbs are bearing weight, as when completing a push-up. We may therefore notice that what is commonly referred to as flexing the arms is defined more correctly as bending the arms.

1.3 Role of the individual muscles

Based on the role they play in movement, we may differentiate muscles as:

Agonist muscles: They play the main role in a specific action. Example: pectoral muscles in the horizontal bench press.

Antagonist muscles: In the same action, they play an opposite role to the agonist muscles. Example: the trapezius muscle in the horizontal bench press.

Synergistic muscles (from the Greek sun-ergo, working together): They help and support the agonist muscles. Examples: the triceps and anterior deltoid muscles in the horizontal bench press.

Neutralizing muscle (stabilizers): They stabilize a bone segment, allowing other muscles to execute a certain action.

Fixator muscles: They act as stabilizers, but they that is not their only role. They block a segment in the position that is appropriate to a movement or an action. Examples: pectoralis and latissimus dorsi muscles in parallel bars exercises.

1.4 Articular features of muscles

In gyms, muscle articulation is mostly disregarded, if not completely ignored.

Yet muscle articulation is of fundamental importance in understanding how to teach various exercise methods. Muscle articulation is defined as:

monoarticular, those muscles that control only one joint and are inserted on bone levers that are paired by one joint only; and

bi- or multiarticular, those muscles that cross over two or more joints.

In order to understand the importance of this distinction, let me remind you that when a muscle is biarticular, it should be stimulated with biarticular movements in order to be fully trained.

The most common example is that of the biceps brachii. Though it is a biarticular muscle, the biceps brachii is usually trained with monoarticular movements—the upper arm is kept steady against the trunk while only the forearm moves. To be clear, the monoarticular movement in this case isn‘t wrong, but it is nevertheless incomplete.

1.5 Muscular tissue features

The features of muscular tissue are the following:

Contractility: a muscle‘s ability to shorten.

Extensibility: a muscle‘s ability to lengthen.

Elasticity: the muscle tissue‘s ability to return to the initial length from a stretching position (the time factor needs to be evaluated, too).

Tonicity: a very low-intensity electrical message which is always present within the muscle, even when at rest.

A common mistake is assuming that stretching helps only to elongate the muscle. In reality, there are many more effects of stretching:

Extensibility

Elasticity

Articular flexibility

Elongation of the connective tissue

For many years now, the concept of analytic stretching, in other words, stretching a single muscle or articular segment, has been surpassed in favor of systemic stretching, which involves longer muscular and articular chains.

More accurately, today we talk about mobilization, with reference to

the joints, where muscles connect; and

the connective tissue which covers the muscles and is less extensible than the joints; this means that when you talk about stretching a muscle, actually the range of the stretch is deeply influenced by the elasticity of the tissue that covers it.

1.6 Elements of biomechanics: levers

Biomechanics is the science that studies the law of mechanical actions in living systems.

Sports biomechanics studies a human being’s movement within the process of physical exercise.

The study of biomechanics is essential when approaching any motor or sporting activity in order to identify

the body‘s structure and motor functions; and

the specific technique of the sport being studied.

Lever in balance

A lever is a simple machine consisting of a rigid segment tied to a fixed point called a fulcrum (F), upon which two forces of equal strength but opposite direction are applied, called effort (E) and resistance (R)

The distance from the fulcrum to the point where resistance is applied is called the resistance arm (Ra); the distance from the fulcrum to the point where effort is applied is called the effort arm (Ea).

A lever is in balance when the resistance and effort arms are equal.

A lever is disadvantageous when the resistance arm is greater than the effort arm.

A lever is advantageous when the effort arm is greater than the resistance arm.

If we think about it, we realize that our skeletal system is a set of levers:

Bones are the rigid segments.

The fulcrum consists of the various joints that are involved.

Resistance consists of the weight (load) we apply to the various levers.

Effort consists of the muscles which contrast the weight‘s action.

The application point of resistance (i.e., where the resistance arm departs from) is the point of contact between the weight and the locomotor apparatus. The application point of effort (i.e., where the effort arm departs from) is where the muscle inserts into the bone segment. There are three types of levers in the human body, separated according to the distribution of the effort and resistance forces and the fulcrum around which the various bone segments hinge:

Type 1: Inter-fulcrum lever

The fulcrum is always positioned between effort and resistance. As we saw, a lever is advantageous, disadvantageous, or in balance according to whether the effort arm is greater than, smaller than, or equal to the resistance arm.

Example: a pair of scissors, a 45-degree calf exercise at the press machine.

Type 2: Inter-resistance lever

From its name we can deduce that resistance will always be positioned between the fulcrum and effort. The effort arm, therefore, is always greater than the resistance arm. The lever is always advantageous.

Example: nutcracker, standing calf raise exercise.

Type 3: Inter-effort lever

The same logic applies: Effort will always be located between fulcrum and resistance. The resistance arm is always greater than the effort arm. The lever is disadvantageous.

Example: tweezers, biceps.

1.6.1 Thoughts on organic levers

The majority of organic levers, at least when it comes to long bones (i.e., great locomotion), are type 3. Our body has opted for a predominance of disadvantageous levers. Why? Because this type of lever, though disadvantageous in terms of strength, allows wider movements and greater articular excursions and at high speeds. In practical terms, the evolutionary choice has been toward greater speed. Let‘s keep these features in mind.

2. ENERGY SYSTEMS

2.1 Presentation

Life on Earth has evolved along the energy road, consuming energy economically and obtaining it easily. All living organisms now extinct (not because of human intervention) were inefficient energy systems and, as such, extremely wasteful. Living, making the body function, or performing any action requires energy. We can define energy as the ability to carry out a task. Specifically, a muscle is a chemodynamic machine; in other words, it functions through chemical reactions.

In order to convey a concept, it is useful to use imagery, visualizing the concept in pictures. To simplify the following chemical reaction, I will use imagery. Imagine a car. The model is called Man. Its fuel is adenosine triphosphate, or simply ATP. The human machine‘s universal fuel (its gasoline) is a molecule possessed of a high degree of chemical energy.

Our cells burn ATP continuously, and they are always synthesizing new ATP to obtain a supply of energy.

The gasoline‘s combustion in the car, Man, comes from the following reaction:

ATP breaks down into adenosine diphosphate, and this reaction produces energy.

The adenosine triphosphatase enzyme catalyzes the reaction (enzymes are substances which catalyze—they influence the speed of biochemical reactions, increasing or decreasing).

The amount of ATP present within cells allows them to work for a few seconds only. So how do they continue to work over time? They activate makeshift energy systems, with the objective of producing ATP (energy) according to the intensity and duration of the activity required. Intensity and duration cannot go hand in hand; they are two inversely proportional parameters. The more intensity (i.e., energy supply) required during an activity, the shorter the activity will be. Conversely, a lower intensity will allow a longer workout. Think about sprinting: You can run 100 m [109 yd] very fast, but you can’t keep up the same speed to run, for example, 3,000 m [3,280 yd]

2.2 Anaerobic alactacid (creatine phosphate) system

Let’s imagine:

Car: Man

Model: Formula 1

Fuel: ATP + CP

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This system is used when an immediate supply of energy is needed for a very high-intensity but short-duration workout: 0-20 min (optimized at around 13 min).

What does the name tell us?

Anaerobic means there is no presence of oxygen; alactacid means that no lactic acid is produced.

We use a process called phosphorylation: The energy level of a substance is increased by binding it to a phosphoric group.

How is the energy supplied? Let’s review the basic reaction:

In this reaction, ATP breaks down into ADP. At this stage, ATP gets recharged by creatine phosphate (CP). CP doesn’t supply energy directly, but it supports ADP, retransforming it into ATP, allowing the reaction to continue.

The concentration of CP in the muscle is four to six times higher compared to that of ATP; this allows the energy supply to last a little longer compared to using ATP only.

Examples of sporting activities requiring CP for energy: 60-100 m [65.6-109 yd] sprint, long jump, high jump, strength training

2.3 Anaerobic lactacid system

Let’s imagine:

Car: Man

Model: Turbo-diesel sedan

Fuel: Glycogen/ATP

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This system is used in performances that require a high energy supply for a medium-short duration. Let’s analyze the name again. Anaerobic means in the absence of oxygen; lactacid means that there is lactic acid, or lactate, production. The ATP molecules are stored inside the muscles and the liver in the form of a complex sugar, an animal polysaccharide: glycogen (you can imagine diesel fuel). ATP is produced when glycogen breaks down into glucose, producing pyruvic acid and, subsequently, lactic acid.

This energy supply process is fast; it allows a high- to medium-intensity workout between 20 sec and 2 min (optimized around 30-40 sec).

The longer time required for the supply of energy compared to the anaerobic alactacid system is due to the 10 chemical reactions that lead to the breakdown of the molecules mentioned above.

Die längere Zeit, die, verglichen mit dem vorhergehenden System, für die Zufuhr von Energie erforderlich ist, ist auf die 10 chemischen Reaktionen zurückzuführen, die zum Abbau der Moleküle notwendig sind.

Energy comes from the muscular glycogen and the hepatic glucose, according to the following steps:

When one glucose molecule breaks down into pyruvic acid, two ATP molecules are formed.

This process is also known as anaerobic glycolysis.

This being a high-intensity activity with low utilization of oxygen, a highly acidic environment forms inside the muscles. Pyruvic acid binds to two excess H+ ions, producing lactic acid.

When the lactate build-up becomes excessively high, the muscle’s contractile capacity is inhibited (hypoxia).

What is the fate of lactic acid? Once the exercise is finished, it is partly used as fuel but it is chiefly re-converted into pyruvic acid and re-stocked in the muscles as muscular and hepatic glycogen (Cori’s cycle).

Lactic acid isn’t the cause for post-training pains!

2.4 Aerobic system (aerobic glycolysis or oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria)

Let’s imagine:

Car: Man

Model: MPV car

Fuel: Macronutrients/ATP

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This system is used for all activities ranging from very low to medium intensity, lasting from a few minutes to some hours. Let’s take a closer look.

Aerobic means the presence of oxygen is required

Beyond the 2-min mark, only the presence of oxygen still allows glucose transformation; if the activity lasts longer than this, the system begins to activate processes which use stored fat as fuel. Compared to carbohydrates, lipids have a more unfavorable ratio between hydrogen and oxygen, and this explains the need to capture oxygen from outside to metabolize them. Proteins, too, provide energy within this system but in a lower percentage (3-5%).The process, also called oxidative phosphorylation, takes place within mitochondria, the cell’s miniature power stations. The start is similar to the anaerobic lactacid system:

Because this is a reduced-intensity activity, pyruvic acid is transformed into acetyl-coenzyme A and transferred to the mitochondria, entering the Krebs cycle. The latter is like a metabolic furnace inside which the glucose molecule is completely broken down, generating 36 ATP, carbon dioxide, and water molecules.

In order to produce ATP, the aerobic system needs hydrogen. This is supplied by the Krebs cycle, exploiting oxidation (i.e., the removal of hydrogen) of food-derived compounds. Hydrogen is then transported to the respiratory chain via NAD (nicotinamide-nucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) up to the final receptor, oxygen, generating water.

Summarizing, the aerobic system is the result of two events:

Substrata breakdown, with production of hydrogen and carbon dioxide (Krebs cycle).

Hydrogen transportation to the respiratory chain, forming water.

2.5 Energy system interactions

It is important to understand how the three energy systems cooperate.

The basic mechanism used by our body is the aerobic system. All the activities in our normal daily life take place at a low intensity and do not require a high amount of energy. This means that the aerobic system can comfortably provide the energy for all our daily activities. Whenever more intense efforts beyond the aerobic system’s capacity are needed, the anaerobic systems work together with the aerobic system.

Note that in supplying energy, the three energy systems do not alternate like a relay. So when the synthesized ATP is active, it does not pass the baton to the anaerobic alactacid system, which in turn does not pass it to the anaerobic lactacid one. Instead, the three systems work together in parallel but also in different percentages, according to the type of effort, its duration, and the related demand for energy.

2.6 VO2MAX and the anaerobic treshold

The concepts connected to the terms VO2max, anaerobic threshold, and oxygen debt are important.

VO2max, or maximum aerobic power, is in practical terms the organism’s maximum capacity for synthesizing ATP using aerobics exclusively. It has actually been observed that this figure is more the result of a theoretical calculation than something reproducible in a lab or, even harder, in real life. An athlete is capable of maintaining an effort equal to VO2max for no more than 10 min. Why? Besides a long list of factors—the majority of them genetic—the fact remains that at the experimental level it has been observed that well before reaching this limit the body begins to produce lactic acid. For this reason, at least in fitness training, the concept of anaerobic threshold has become increasingly important

The anaerobic threshold is the maximum level of physical effort the organism can sustain without accumulating lactate in the blood. Above that heart rate the organism begins accumulating lactic acid because it cannot dispose of it as fast as it can produce it. The outcome is the fast onset of fatigue

2.7 Oxygen debt and EPOC

Oxygen debt is the increased uptake of oxygen needed to remove excess lactic acid that is created by the increased synthesis of ATP which results from anaerobic physical exercise. What does this mean? We have seen that when you start a motor activity, there is an increase in the body’s energy requirements. At the outset, the aerobic system isn’t immediately available unless the activity is at a very low intensity.

The body, therefore, requires help from the anaerobic systems, increasing the oxygen debt. The greater the intensity of the activity, the larger the debt. As soon as the effort is over, the body pays its debt by increasing oxygen uptake from the outside in order to restore phosphates and remove the lactic acid produced.

Dash or sprint for 20-30 sec. Now stop. What are you doing? You’re panting. Your trunk leans forward, and your hands are on your knees. In order to increase your thoracic cavity’s capacity, you inhale as much oxygen as possible from the air around you. This is the increased oxygen uptake.

Any exercise which involves the development of power above VO2max