NOTES ON FIELD THEORY AND GALOIS THEORY

J. K. VERMA
1. Simple algebraic extensions
The main examples of elds that we consider are :
(1) Number elds: A number eld F is a subeld of C. Any such
eld contains the eld Q of rational numbers.
(2) Finite elds : If K is a nite eld, we consider : Z
K, (1) = 1. Since K is nite, ker ,= 0, hence it is a prime
ideal of Z, say generated by a prime number p. Hence Z/pZ :=
F
p
is isomorphic to a subeld of K.
(3) Function elds: Let x be an indeteminate and C(x) be the
eld of rational functions, i.e. it consists of p(x)/q(x) where
p(x), q(x) are polynomials and q(x) ,= 0. Let f(x, y) C[x, y]
be an irreducible polynomial. Suppose f(x, y) is not a polyno-
mial in x alone and write
f(x, y) = y
n
a
1
(x)y
n1
+ +a
n
(x), a
i
(x) C[x].
By Gauss lemma f(x, y) C(x)[y] is an irreducible polynomial.
Thus (f(x, y)) is a maximal ideal of C(x)[y]/(f(x, y)) is a eld.
K is called the function eld of the curve dened by f(x, y) = 0
in C
2
.
Characteristic of a eld : Let R be a commutative ring with identity
e. Dene the ring homomorphism f : Z R by f(n) = ne. Then
ker f = (n) for some integer n. If n = 0, then Z is isomorphic to a
subring of R. In this case we say that R has characteristic zero. If
R is a domain then Z/(n) is isomorphic to a subring of R. Hence n
is a prime number p. In this case the nite eld F
p
is isomorphic to a
1
2
subeld of R. In this case, we say that R has characteristic p. Thus
any eld F contains either an isomorphic copy of Q or F
p
.
Denition 1.1. (i) Let K be a subeld of a eld of a eld F. We say
F is an extension eld of K. We also say that K is a base eld. We
also write this as F/K.
(ii) An element a F is called algebraic over K if there exists a
nonzero polynomial f(x) K[x] such that f(a) = 0. If every element
of F is algebraic over K then we say that F is an algebraic extension
of K.
(iii) An element a F which is not algebraic over K is called a tran-
scendental element over K.
Example 1.2. Since (i)
2
=
2
, i is a root of x
2

2
R[x]. Hence
i is algebraic over R. It is known that i is not algebraic over Q. Thus
the property of being algebraic depends upon the base eld.
Proposition 1.3. Let K F be a eld extension and F be alge-
braic over K. Then there exists a unique monic irreducible polynomial
f(x) K[x] such that f() = 0
Proof. Dene : K[x] F by (g(x)) = g(). Since is a ring
homomorphism and is algebraic, ker = I is an ideal of K[x].
Since K[x] is a PID and K[x]/I embeds into F, I is generated by an
irreducible polynomial h(x). If g() = 0 then g(x) = h(x)h
1
(x) for
some polynomial h
1
(x) K[x]. If g is irreducible, then g = h(x) for
some K
x
= K 0. If g and h are taken to be monic, then g = h.
Denition 1.4. The polynomial in the above proposition is denoted by
irr(, K) and it is called the irreducible monic polynomial of
over K.
Example 1.5. (i)

i C satises f(x) = x
4
+ 1 = 0. Show that
f(x) = irr(

i, Q). Consider the eld Q(i) = smallest eld containing

Q and i. Then irr(

i, Q(i)) = x
2
i.
(ii) Let p be a prime number and
p
= e
2i/p
. Then x
p
1 = 0 is
satised by
p
. Since x
p
1 = (x 1)(x
p1
+ x
p2
+ + x + 1) and
3

p
(x) := x
p1
+ x
p2
+ + x + 1 is irreducible over Q, irr(
p
, Q) =

p
(x).
Simple eld extensions: Let K F be a eld extension. Let F
be transcendental. Dene : K[x] F such that (g(x)) = g().
Then ker = 0. Thus K[x] K[] and hence K() K() by an
isomorphism such that () = and [K = id
K
.
The situation is quite dierent for algebraic elements.
Proposition 1.6. Let F K be a eld extension and K be
algebraic over F and f(x) = irr(, F). Let n = deg f. Then
(i) F[] = F() F[x]/(f(x)).
(ii) dim
F
F() = n and 1, , . . . ,
n1
is an F- basis of F().
Proof. Consider the substitution homomorphism
: F[x] F[] such that (x) = , [
F
= id
F
Then ker = (f(x)) where f(x) = irr(, F). Hence
F[x]/(f(x)) F[].
since (f(x)) is a maximal ideal, F[] is a eld, so F[] = F().
(ii) Let g() F[] and g(x) = f(x)q(x) + r(x) where q, r F[x],
and deg r(x) < degf(x) or r(x) = 0. Then g() = r(). Thus F[]
is an Fvector space generated by 1, , ,
n1
where n = deg f(x).
Suppose that

n1
i=0
a
i

i
= 0. If a
i
are not all zero then

n1
i=0
a
i
x
i
is a
nonzero polynomial of degree less than deg f(x) satised by . This
contradicts minimality of degf(x). Thus 1, ,
2
, ,
n1
is an F-
vector space basis of F[]. Hence dim
F
F[] = deg irr(, F).

Remark 1.7. Every element of F() is algebraic over F. Indeed if

F() and ,= 0 then 1, ,
2
, ,
n
must be a linearly dependent
subset of F() since dim
F
F() = n. Hence there exist a
0
, a
1
, . . . , a
n

F not all zero so that a
0
+a
1
+ +a
n

n
= 0. Hence is algebraic.
4
Thus for each root of an irreducible polynomial f(x) F[x], we get
an algebraic extension F() of F. The next proposition shows that all
these elds where is any root of f(x) are isomorphic.
Proposition 1.8. Let , K F be algebraic over F. Then there
exists an isomorphism : F() F() such that () = and
[
F
= id
F
if and only if irr(, F) = irr(, F).
Proof. Let f(x) = irr(, F) and g(x) = irr(, F). Then (f()) =
f() = 0. Thus g(x)[f(x). Since g, f are monic and irreducible, g(x) =
f(x).
Conversely, suppose irr(, F) = irr(, F). Then F() F[x]/(f(x))
F() and the isomorphisms restricted to F are identity on F.
Proposition 1.9. Let F K, K

be two eld extensions of F. Let

: K K

be an F- isomorphism. Let K be a root of f(x) F[x].

Then () is a root of f(x).
Proof. (f()) = f(()) = 0
Example 1.10. (i) Let f(x) = x
3
2 Q[x]. Then f(x) is irreducible
over Q with roots , w, w
2
where is the real cube root of 2 and w
is the complex cube root of 1. Thus the elds Q(), Q(w), Q(w
2
)
are Qisomorphic.
(ii) Since irr(i, R) = x
2
+ 1, R[x]/(x
2
+ 1) = R(i) = C.
(iii) The polynomial f(x) = x
2
+ x + 1 is irreducible over F
2
. Hence
K = F
2
[x]/(f(x)) is a eld which is a two dimensional F
2
vector space.
Hence K is a eld with four elements.
(iv) The polynomial g(x, y) = y
3
x(x + 1)(x 1) is irreducible in
C(x)[y] by Eisensteins criterion. Hence C(x)[y]/(g(x, y)) is a simple
eld extension of the function eld C(x).
5
2. Degree of a eld Extension
Let F K be a eld extension. Then K is an F vector space.
The dimension of K over F is called the degree of the eld extension.
By Proposition 1.6 for an algebraic element K. dim
F
F() =
deg irr(, F).
The degree of K over F is denoted by [K : F]. If [K : F] < , then
F K is called a nite extension.
Example 2.1. (1) [C : R] = 2 as C = R(i).
(2) [Q(
p
) : Q] = p 1.
(3) Q Q(2
1/2
) Q(2
1/2
n
) is a chain of elds. Their
union K is a subeld of R. K contains
n
= 2
1/2
n
for all n and
n
is a
root of the irreducible polynomial f
n
(x) = x
2
n
2. Hence [K : Q] 2
n
for all n. Thus [K : Q] = .
(4) Quadratic Extensions: If [K : F] = 2 then K is called a qua-
dratic extension of F. Let K F then 1, is a basis of K over
F. Hence
2
= a + b for some a, b F. Therefore f(x) = irr(, F) =
x
2
ax b. The roots of f(x) are (a

a
2
+ 4ab)/2 if char F ,= 2. If
char F = 2, then +a is a root. Therefore K = F(

a
2
+ 4b).
Proposition 2.2. A nite extension K/F is an algebraic extension.
Proof. Let [K : F] = n and K. Then 1, , . . . ,
n
are linearly
dependent over F. Hence there exist a
0
, a
1
, , a
n
, not all zero in F
such that a
0
+a
1
+ +a
n

n
= 0. Let f(x) = a
0
+a
1
x + +a
n
x
n
.
Then is a root of f(x). Hence is algebraic over F.

Proposition 2.3. Every irreducible polynomial over R has degree 2.

Proof. Let f(x) R[x] be irreducible and C a root of f(x). Then
R[] C. If R, degf(x) = 1. If / R, then [R[] : R] 2. Thus
C = R[]. Since [C : R] = 2, deg f(x) = 2.

6
Denition 2.4. A chain of elds F
1
F
2
F
n
is called a tower
of elds if F
i
is a subeld of F
i+1
, for all i = 1, 2, , n 1.
Proposition 2.5. If K F L is a tower of elds then
[L : F][F : K] = [L : K].
Proof. If either F/K or L/F are innite dimensional, then L/K is also
innite dimensional. Thus we may assume that [F : K] = m and
[L : F] = n. Let x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
be a basis of L over F and y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
m
be a basis of F over K.
We claim that the set B = x
j
y
j
[ i = 1, 2, . . . n, and j = 1, 2, , m
is a vector space basis of L over K. Let z L. Thus z = f
1
x
1
+ +
f
n
x
n
, for some f
1
, , f
n
F. We write f
i
=

m
j=1
k
ij
y
j
. Therefore
z =
n

l=1
x
l
f
l
=
n

l=1
m

j=1
x
l
k
lj
y
j
.
Thus B generates L as a K- vector space. Suppose

m
j=1

n
i=1
a
ij
x
i
y
j
=
0. Then
n

i=1
_
m

j=1
a
ij
y
j
_
x
i
= 0.
Since x
1
, x
n
are Flinearly independent. Therefore

n
j=1
a
ij
y
j
= 0
for each i. Now use linear independence of y
1
, . . . , y
n
to see that all the
a
ij
= 0.
Corollary 2.6. Let F K be a nite eld extension. Then deg irr(, F)
divides [K : F], for all K.
Proof. Since F F() K, we have
[K : F] = [K : F()][F() : F].
Thus deg irr(, F) divides [K : F].
Proposition 2.7. Let K/F be a eld extension. If a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
K
are algebraic over F then F(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) is a nite algebraic extension
of F.
7
Proof. Since a
i
is algebraic over F, it is also algebraic over the eld
F(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i1
). Thus [F(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i
) : F(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
i1
)] is nite
for all i. Hence F(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) is a nite extension of F. Hence it is
algebraic.
Corollary 2.8. Let K/F be a eld extension. Then the elements of K
which are algebraic over F form a subeld of K.
Proof. Let a, b K be algebraic over F. Then F(a, b) is a nite ex-
tension of F. Hence all elements of F(a, b) are algebraic over F. In
particular, a b, ab and a/b if b ,= 0, are all algebrtaic over F.
8
3. Four Problems of Classical Greek Geometry
In this section we present solutions of four problems of Euclidean
Geometry by using the rudiments of eld theory developed so far. In
Euclidean Geometry, we carry out several geometric constructions with
a ruler (unmarked) and compass such as bisection of line segments and
angles, constructions of certain angles, triangles, quadrilaterals and
circles. Ancient Greeks posed the following four problems:
(1) The Delian Problem : Construct the side of a cube of volume
2.
(2) The angle trisection problem : Divide a given angle in three
equal parts.
(3) Squaring a circle : Construct a square having same area as
that of a given circle.
(4) Constructible regular polygons : Find n for which regular
polygon of n sides can be constructed by ruler and compass and
describe their constructions.
The above problems remained open for almost 2200 years. The nal
solution employed techniques from abstract algebra and analysis. We
will show that it is impossible to construct side of a cube whose vol-
ume is 2 by ruler and compass. The word Delian is derived from Delos
which was a city in in ancient Greece. It is said that almost a quarter
of population of Delos died of plague in 428 B.C. A delegation was sent
to the oracle of Apollo at Delos to enquire how the plague could be ar-
rested. The oracle replied that the cubical altar to the Sun God Apollo
should be doubled. Instead of doubling the volume the faithfuls dou-
bled the sides of the cube thereby increasing the volume eightfold.The
second and the third problems also circulated among Greek geometers
around the same time. It is not known who solved the Delian problem
rst. The angle trisection problem was solved by Gauss as a special
case of his remarkable solution of the fourth problem. Gauss, barely
19, provided a construction of the 17-sided regular polygon. He also
characterized n for which regular ngons are constructible by ruler and
compass. Recall that a prime of the form 2
2
m
+ 1 is called a Fermat
9
prime. Gauss proved that a regular ngon is constructible if and only
if n = 2
r
p
1
p
2
. . . p
g
where n 0 and p
1
, p
2
, , p
g
are distinct Fermat
primes. Gausss Theorem solves the angle trisection problem. If 20
o
was constructible, then we can construct a regular 18-gon. Since 3
2
[18,
we have a contradiction.
The values of n for which regular ngons were known to be con-
structible upto the time of Gauss were n = 2
m
, 2
m
.3, 2
m
.5 and 2
m
.15.
No one was able to construct a heptagon or a regular 17gon.
In March, 1796 Gauss made his rst mathematical discovery : construc-
tion of a 17-sided regular polygon by ruler and compass. He began not-
ing down his mathematical discoveries in a diary which he maintained
for the next 19 years. Two years after his Ph.D., Gauss published
Disquisitiones Arithmaticae in 1801 which has become a classic in
mathematical literature. The last result of this is his solution to the
fourth problem. Gauss was very proud of this discovery. He desired
that a regular polygon of 17 sides be engraved on his tombstone. This
wish was not fullled. It was fullled when a monument to Gauss was
built in his birth place Braunschwig. Explicit construction of 17sided
regular polygon was given by Erchinger in 1800. In 1892 Richelot and
Schwendenwein constructed a regular 257gon. Around 1900 Hermes
constructed a regular 65537-gon. The manuscript lls a box and it is
found in Gottingen. The construction has now been computerized. See
an article by Bishop in American Math. Monthly (1978).
Lindemann proved in 1882 that is not a root of any polynomial with
rational coecients. This proved the impossibility of squaring a circle.
Trisecting an angle with a marked ruler
Let AOB = . Draw a unit circle centered at 0. Suppose one
end of a ruler is E and point P is marked on the ruler such that
EP = 1. Slide the ruler in such a way that E is on X-axis and P
is on the circle and the edge passes through B. Then DCO gives
+ + = = 2. BOC gives 4 + ( + ) = .
Hence = /3
10
Figure 1. Trisection of an angle with a marked ruler
Duplication of a cube with a marked ruler
Figure 2. Dupication of a cube with a marked ruler
Use a ruler with one end point marked as E and a point marked as
P with EP = 1. Let AB be a segment of unit length. Draw the angles
BAD = 90
o
and BAC = 120
o
. We show that PB =
3

2. We have
x
2
= z
2
+ 1. Since QBC [[ APB, we get
x + 1
a + 1
=
x
1
and
a

3
z
=
a + 1
1
.
Hence a = 1/x and

3/xz = x + 1/x. We also have

3x = x
2
z + xz
and hence z =

3x/x(x + 1) =

3/x + 1. Since x
2
= 3/(x + 1)
2
+
1, x
4
+ 2x
3
+ x
2
= 3 + x
2
+ 2x + 1. Therefore x
4
+ 2x
3
2x 4 =
(x + 2)(x
3
2) = 0. Therefore x =
3

2
11
Constructible Lengths: Given a nite set P
1
, , P
n
of points
in R
2
, dene S
m
inductively. Put S
0
= P
1
, , P
n
. Suppose S
m
has been consrtucted. Put S
m+1
= S
m
T
m
is the set of points of
intersection of lines passing through points in S
m
and circles with center
at one point in S
m
with radii equal to distance between points of S
m
.
Let S =

m=0
S
m
. We say that S = C(P
1
, , P
n
) is the set of points
constructible from P
1
, P
2
, , P
n
by ruler and compass.
We can reformulate the problems according to the denition of con-
structible points. Let P
1
= (0, 0) and P
2
= (0, 1). Is
3

2 C(P
1
, P
2
) ?
This is the Delian problem. For the quadrature of the circle problem,
if there exists a square with side a such that a
2
= then a =

.
So the problem is asking whether (

, 0) C(P
1
, P
2
). For the angle
trisection problem set P
3
= (cos , sin ). The problem asks whether
C(P
1
, P
2
, P
3
) contains (cos /3, sin /3). The problem of construction
of regular n-gons asks for which values of n, (cos
2
n
, sin
2
n
) C(P
1
, P
2
).
Denition 3.1. A real number a is called constructible if [a[ is equal
to the distance between two points in C(P
1
, P
2
) where P
1
= (0, 0), P
2
=
(1, 0).
Standard Constructions
(i) Bisecting a line segment: Suppose A and B are constructible
points, we show that the mid point of the line segment AB is also
constructible
Draw circles with centers A, B with radius AB. Then the intersection
points of these circles C, D are constructible. The mid point of AB
is the intersection of CD and AB. It is the mid point since it is the
intersection of diagonals of the rhombus ACBD.
(ii) Bisection of an angle: Let A, O, B be three constructible points.
They determine the angle AOB.
Draw a circle with center O and radius OB. It meets OA at D. Then
D is constructible. Now bisect the segment BD at E. So E is also
constructible. Then line OE bisects AOB.
12
Figure 3. Bisection of a line segment
Figure 4. Bisection of an angle
(iii) Drawing a right angle:
Suppose O, A are constructible points. We wish to draw a perpen-
dicular at O which is also a constructible line. Draw a circle C(O, OA).
It meets the extended line OA at Q. Draw circles C(Q, QA) and
C(A, QA). These intersect at B and C. The triangle QAB is isosceles.
Hence BOA = 90
o
13
Figure 5. Drawing a right angle
Figure 6. Construction of a perpendicular onto a line
(iv) Dropping a perpendicular:
Suppose L is a constructible line and P a point outside this line which
is constructible. Then we can draw a perpendicular onto L from P
which is also constructible. Draw the circle C(P, r) where R is a large
constructible number so that C(P, r) meets at 2 points Q and R. Draw
circles at centers Q and R of radius PQ. Join PS and take the inter-
section of QR and PS.
(v) Drawing a parallel line.
14
Suppose L is a constructible line and P is a constructible point outside
L. Drop a perpendicular PO on L. Now draw 90
o
on OP at P to get
a parallel line.
Algebraic Properties of Constructible Real Numbers
Proposition 3.2. A point P = (a, b) is constructible if and only if a
and b are constructible real numbers.
Proof. Drop a perpendicular from P to X and Y axes to get con-
structible points A and B. So a and b are constructible real numbers.
If a and b are constructible then we can draw circles C(0, a) and C(0, b)
to get A and B. Now draw perpendicular at A and B to get P.

Proposition 3.3. Constructible real numbers form a subeld of R.

Proof. It is easy to show that a b are constructible if a and b are so.
To show ab and a/b for b ,= 0 are constructible, use the contructions in
the gures below.

Proposition 3.4. If a is a positive constructible real number then so

is

a
Proof. Since A = (a, 0) is constructible so is B = (a +1, 0). Hence the
mid point C = a + 1/2, 0) is constructible. Draw C(C, a + 12). Erect
a perpendicular at A which is a constructible line. It meets the circle
at D. Now prove that AD =

a. Show that ODA and DBA are

similar. Since x/a = 1/x we have x =

Corollary 3.5. Let F C be a subeld of the eld C of constructible

real numbers. Let k > 0 F. Then F(

k) C.
15
Figure 7. Construction of ab
Figure 8. Construction of a/b
Figure 9. Construction of

a
16
Proof. We need to show each number of F(

k) is constructible. Since
an arbitrary element of F(

k) is of the form a + b

k where a, b C,
it is constructible since

k is constructible.

Theorem 3.6. Let Q F

1
F
2
F
n
be a sequence of elds
such that
F
j+1
= F
j
(
_
b
j
) and 0 < b
j
F
j
F
j
for j = 0, 1, , N 1.
Then all elements of F
N
are constructible.
Proof. Apply induction on N.

Denition 3.7. A tower of elds as in Theorem 3.6 is called a square

root tower over Q.
Denition 3.8. Let F be a eld containing Q. Then F
2
is called the
plane of F. Let a, b, c F then the set (x, y) [ ax + by + c = 0 is
called a line in F
2
and the set of pomits (x, y) [ x
2
+y
2
+ax+by+c =
0 is called a circle in F
2
.
The proof of the next lemma is left as an exercise.
Lemma 3.9. (i) The point of intersection of two nonparallel lines in
F
2
belongs F
2
.
(ii) The points of intersection of a line and a circle or two circles in
F
2
lies in F
2
or F(

k)
2
where 0 < k F.
Theorem 3.10. A real number a is constructible if and only if there
exists a square root tower Q F
1
F
N
such that a F
N
.
Proof. We have already proved that numbers in F
N
are constructible.
If a is constructible then P = (a, 0) is a constructible point. We wish
to show (a, 0) F
2
N
where F
N
is the last eld in a square root over Q.
Beginning with O = (0, 0) and I = (1, 0), the point P is constructed
in nite number of steps
17
S
0
= O, I S
1
S
m

Let P S
m
. Apply induction on m. If m = 0 then we are done.
Let m > 0. By induction all the points in S
m1
F
2
N
, where F
N
is the last eld in a square root tower over Q. The points in S
m
are
intersections of lines and circles in F
2
N
. Hence they are in F
N
(

k)
2
for
more 0 < k F
N
. Therefore P F
N
(

k)
2
.
Theorem 3.11. Suppose that a is a constructible real number, then
[Q(a) : Q] = 2
m
for some m N.
Proof. Let Q F
1
F
N
be a square root tower over Q and
a F
N
. Then
[Q(a) : Q][F
N
: Q(a)] = [F
N
: Q] = 2
N
Hence [Q(a) : Q] = 2
m
for some m.
Corollary 3.12. It is impossible to duplicate a cube with ruler and
compass.
Proof. The number =
3

2 satises x
3
2 = 0, hence [Q() : Q] = 3.
Corollary 3.13. It is impossible to trisect an arbtrary angle with
ruler and compass.
Proof. Suppose the angle is gven. We may assume P = (cos , sin )
is given along with O = (0, 0) and I = (1, 0). We wish to show that
(cos /3, sin /3) is not constructible. If so, then cos /3 and sin /3 are
constructible real numbers. Using the identity cos 3 = 4 cos
3
3 cos
we get cos /3 = 4 cos
3
/9 3 cos /9. Therefore u = cos /9 satises
8u
3
6u 1 = 0. Hence w
3
3w 1 = 0 where w = 2u. As
[Q(w) : Q] = 3, u is not constructible.
Corollary 3.14. It is impossible to square the unit circle.
Proof. Suppose it is possible to construct a segment a by ruler and
compass such that a
2
= . Then a =

is algebraic over Q, hence so

is .
18
Corollary 3.15. A heptagon is not constructible by ruler and compass.
Proof. The construction of 20
0
is equivalent to the construction of an
18gon: Let = 2/7 and
7
= cos +i sin . Then
7
is a root of the
irreducible polynomial

7
(x) = x
6
+x
5
+x
4
+x
3
+x
2
+x + 1.
Therefore [Q(
7
) : Q] = 6. Using
7
+
7
= 2 cos we get [Q(
7
) :
Q(cos ] = 2 and hence [Q(cos ) : Q] = 3. Thus cos is not con-
structible.
Fermat primes.
The number F
m
= 2
2
m
+ 1 is called mth Fermat prime whenever it is
aprime. The known Fermat primes are:
F
0
= 3, F
1
= 5, F
2
= 17, F
3
= 257 and F
4
= 65537
Fermat showed that F
m
is a prime for m 4. Eisenstein conjectured
that there are innitely many Fermat primes. Euler showed that F
5
is
divisible by 641.
Corollary 3.16 (1837, Wantzel). Let a regular polygon of n sides be
constructible and p is an odd prime dividing n. Then p is a Fermat
prime.
Proof. If p[n and a regular n-gon is constructible then a regular p-gon is
also constructible. Thus the point (cos 2/p, sin 2/p) is a constructible
point. Hence there exists a eld F Q such that [F : Q] = 2
m
and
cos 2/p, sin 2/p F. Then
p
= cos 2/p + i sin 2/p F(i) and
hence [Q(
p
) : Q] = 2
s
= p 1 and therefore p = 1 +2
s
. It follows that
s is a power of 2. Hence p is a Fermat prime.
Construction of a Pentagon
Let us prove that a pentagon is constructible by ruler and compass.
The vertex (cos 72
0
, sin 72
0
) of a regular pentagon corresponds to the
19
Figure 10. Richmonds construction of a regular pentagon
complex number z = e
2i/5
which is the root of the irreducible polyno-
mial
5
(x) = x
4
+x
3
+x
2
+x + 1. Therefore
z
2
+z + 1 +
1
z
+
1
z
2
= 0.
Completing the square we get
_
z +
1
z
_
2
+
_
z +
1
z
_
1 = 0.
Put z + 1/z = y to get y
2
+ y 1 = 0 and z
2
zy + 1 = 0. Hence
y = (1

5)/2. The second equation gives z = (y

_
y
2
4)/2.
Clearly y is constructible as it belongs to Q(

5) and we have a square

root tower
Q Q(

5) Q(

5,
_
y
2
4).
Thus all roots of
5
(x) are constructible real neumbers.
Richmonds construction of a regular pentagon (1893)
Draw a unit circle with center O. Draw a perpendicular OR at O. Let
Q be the mid point of OR. Join Q and P and then bisect PQO. Let
the bisector meet OP at S. Construct a perpendicular at S and let T
20
be its intersection point with the circle. We show TOP = 72
o
. It is
enough to show that OS = cos 72
o
. Note that
OQS =
90
2
tan
_
45
o

2
_
=
OS
1
2
OS =
1
2
tan(45
o

2
).
Using tan =
1
2
=
2 tan /2
1tan
2
/2
we get tan

2
=

5 2. Therefore
OS =
1
2
_
tan 45
o
tan /2
1tan 45
o
tan(/2)
_
=

51
4
= cos 72
o
.
Lemma 3.17. Let p be a prime number and
p
= cos 2/p
2
+i sin 2/p
2
.
Then
[Q(
p
) : Q] = p(p 1).
Proof. Since
p
satises the equation
x
p
2
1 = (x
p
1)(x
p(p1)
+x
p(p2)
+ + (x
p
)
2
+x
p
+ 1) = 0
and
p
p
,= 1,
p
is root of f(x) = (x
p
)
p1
+(x
p
)
p2
+ +(x
p
)
2
+x
p
+1.
We show that f(x) Q[x] is irreducible. Put x = u + 1 and use
Eisensteins criterion:
f(u + 1) =
p

k=1
(u + 1)
p(pk)
=
p

k=1
(u
p
+ 1 +pg(u))
pk
=
p

k=1
(u
p
+ 1)
pk
+ph
k
(u)
where h
k
(u) Z[u] has degree p
2
pk 1. Since

p
k=1
(u + 1)
pk
=
(u
p
+1)
p
1
u
p
= u
p(p1)
+p
H
(u),
f(u + 1) =
p

k=1
(u + 1)
p(pk)
= u
p(p1)
+p
G
(u).
Since f(1) = p, the constant term is divisible by p and not by p
2
.
By Eisensteins criterion f(u + 1) and hence f(x) is irreducible. Thus
[Q(
p
) : Q] = p
2
p.
21
Corollary 3.18. If a regular polygon of n sides is constructible then
p
2
does not divide n for any odd prime p. Thus n = 2
r
p
1
p
2
p
s
where
p
1
, . . . , p
s
are distinct Fermat primes.
Proof. If p
2
n then p-gon is constructible. Hence [Q(cos 2/p
2
) : Q] = 2
u
for some positive integer u. Thus p(p1) = 2
u
, which is a contradiction.
This nishes the proof of one half of Gausss constructibility criterion
for regular polygons. We shall prove the other half after we prove the
fundamental theorem of Galois Theory.
22
4. Symmetric Polynomials
Our next goal is to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra :
Every polynomial with complex coecients has a complex root. You
must have seen its topological and complex analytic proofs. We will
present a proof which uses symmetric polynomials and the construction
of the splitting eld of a polynomial.
Let R be a commutative ring with identity and S = R[u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
] be
the polynomial ring in n variables over R. Let S
n
, the symmetric
group of all permutations of 1, 2, . . . , n. A permutation S
n
gives
rise to an automorphism.
g

: S S, g

(f(u
1
, , u
n
)) = f(u
(1)
, , u
(n)
).
Denition 4.1. A polynomial f S is called a symmetric polyno-
mial if g

(f) = f for all S

n
.
Example 4.2. (1) Consider the general polynomial
f(x) = (x u
1
)(x u
2
) (x u
n
)
= x
n

1
x
n1
+
2
x
n2
+. . . + (1)
n

n
where

1
= u
1
+ +u
n
,
2
=

i<j
u
i
u
j
, . . . ,
n
= u
1
u
2
u
n
.
It is easy to verify that
1
, . . . ,
n
are symmetric. These are called the
elementary symmetric polynomials in u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
.
(2) Let u

1
1
. . . u
n
n
be a monomial. Consider the symmetrization of a
monomial
S(u

1
1
u
n
n
) =

Sn
u

1
(1)
u

2
(2)
u
n
(n)
.
It is clear that S(u

1
1
u
n
n
) is a symmetric polynomial. The sym-
metrization of u
2
1
u
2
is
S(u
2
1
u
2
) = u
2
1
u
2
+u
2
1
u
3
+u
2
2
u
3
+u
2
3
u
1
+u
2
3
u
2
+u
2
2
u
1
.
(3) For each k the polynomials w
k
= u
k
1
+u
k
2
+ +u
k
n
are symmetric
polynomials.
23
(4) Let h
m
denote the sum of all monomials of degree min u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
.
It is called the complete homogeneous symmetric polynomial of degree
m.
Fundamental Theorem for symmetric polynomials
Theorem 4.3. Every symmetric polynomial in R[u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
] is a
polynomial in the elementary symmetric polynomials in a unique way.
In other words if f(u
1
, u
2
, . . . u
n
) is symmetric then there exists a unique
polynomial g(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) R[x
1
, . . . x
n
] such that
g(
1
,
2
, . . .
n
) = f(u
1
, u
2
. . . u
n
).
Example 4.4. Consider the symmetric polynomial
f(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) = u
2
1
u
2
+u
2
1
u
3
+u
2
2
u
1
+u
2
2
u
3
+u
2
3
u
1
+u
2
3
u
2
.
Then f(u
1
, u
2
, 0) = u
2
1
u
2
+u
2
2
u
1
= u
1
u
2
(u
1
+u
2
) =
0
1

0
2
, where

0
1
=
1
(u
1
, u
2
, 0) = u
1
+u
2
and
0
2
=
2
(u
1
, u
2
, 0) = u
1
u
2
.
Consider f
1

2
= g. Then g[
u
3
=0
= 0. Thus u
3
[ g. Since g is
symmetric u
1
u
2
u
3
=
3
[ g. Thus f
1

2
= 3u
1
u
2
u
3
= 3
3
and
hence f =
1

2
3
3
.
Proof. Apply induction on n. Let the theorem be true for symmetric
polynomials in n1 variables. To prove the theorem in R[u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
],
apply induction on deg f. If deg f = 0 then f is a constant. It is clear
in this case. Consider f(u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n1
, 0) = f
0
R[u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n1
].
Then f
0
is symmetric. By induction f
0
= g(
0
1
,
0
2
, . . . ,
0
n1
). Then
f g(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n1
) = f
1
is symmetric and f
1
(u
1
, . . . , u
n1
, 0) = 0.
Thus u
n
[ f
1
and hence
n
[ f
1
, by symmetry. So f
1
=
n
h(u
1
, . . . , u
n
).
Since
n
is not a zerodivisor in R[u
1
, . . . , u
n
], h is symmetric. Since
deg h < deg f, by induction hypothesis h is a polynomial in
1
, . . . ,
n
,
hence f is so. Therefore f is a polynomial in
1
, . . . ,
n
.
Uniqueness : Let us rst prove that the map
: R[z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
] R[
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
] such that
(z
i
) =
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , n and [
R
= id
R
24
is an isomorphism. If n = 1 then
1
= z
1
and is clearly an isomor-
phism. Assume the result for n 1. Let f(z
1
, . . . , z
n
) R[z
1
, . . . , z
n
]
and f(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
) = 0. Put u
n
= 0 to get
f(
0
1
,
0
2
, . . . ,
0
n1
,
0
n
) = 0 where
0
i
=
i
(u
n
= 0).
Apply induction on degree of f. If deg f = 0 then f is constant and we
are done. Since f(
0
1
,
0
2
, ,
0
n1
, 0) = 0, f(z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n1
, 0) = 0 by
induction. Since f(z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n1
, 0) = 0, z
n
[ f. Hence f(z
1
, . . . , z
n
) =
z
n
g(z
1
, . . . , z
n
). Therefore f(
1
, . . . ,
n
) =
n
g(
1
, . . .
n
) = 0. Since

n
is a nonzerodivisor in R[u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
], g(
1
, . . . ,
n
) = 0. Induction
on deg f nishes the proof.
Newtons identities for power sum symmetric polynomials
By the Fundamental Theorem for symmetric polynomials the symmet-
ric polynomials
w
k
= u
k
1
+ +u
k
n
, k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
are polynomials in the elementary symmetric polynomials. Isaac New-
ton found identities which express w
k
in terms of
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
.
Theorem 4.5 (Newton). if k n, then
w
k
=
1
w
k1

2
w
k2
+ + (1)
k

k1
w
1
+ (1)
k+1

k
k.
if k n, then
w
k
=
1
w
k1

2
w
k2
+ + (1)
n+1

n
w
kn
.
Proof. Let z, y be indeterminates. Then
(y u
1
)(y u
2
) (y u
n
) = y
n

1
y
n1
+
2
y
n2
+ + (1)
n

n
Put y = 1/z to get
(1u
1
z)(1u
2
z) (1u
n
z) = 1
1
z+
2
z
2
+ +(1)
n

n
z
n
:= (z)
Consider the generating function of w
1
, w
2
, . . .
25
w(z) = w
1
z +w
2
z
2
+w
3
z
3
+ =

k=1
w
k
z
k
=

k=1
n

i=1
u
k
i
z
k
=
n

i=1

k=1
(u
i
z)
k
=
n

i=1
u
i
z
1 u
i
z
Since (z) = (1 u
1
z) (1 u
n
z),

(z) =
n

i=1
u
i
(z)
1 u
i
z
and hence w(z) =
n

i=1
u
i
z
1 u
i
z
=
z

(z)
(z)
This implies that
w(z)(z) = z(
1
+
2
(2z)
3
(3z
2
) + + (1)
n
n
n
z
n1
)
=
1
z 2
2
z
2
+ 3
3
z
3
+ + (1)
n+1
n
n
z
n
if k n, equating the coecient of z
k
we get
(1)
k+1
k
k
= w
k

1
w
k1
+w
k
2
2
+ + (1)
k
w
1

k1
.
Hence w
k
=
1
w
k1

2
w
k2
+ + (1)
k+1

k
k. If k > n, equate
coecient of z
k
to get 0 = w
k
w
k1

2
+(1)
n

n
w
kn
Therefore
w
k
=
1
w
k1

2
w
k2
+ + (1)
n+1

n
w
kn
.
Discriminant of a polynomial
We discuss a method to calculate the discriminant of a polynomial by
employing Newtons identities.
Denition 4.6. Let u
1
, u
2
, , u
n
, x be indeterminates and
f(x) = (x u
1
)(x u
2
) (x u
n
).
The discriminant of f(x) is the symmetric function
D
f
=
i<j
(u
i
u
j
)
2
26
It is clear that f(x) has a repeated root if and only if D
f
= 0. Since
D
f
is a symmetric polynomial witb integer coecients, by the Funda-
mental Theorem for Symmetric Polynomials, there exists a polynomial
g(X
1
, . . . , X
n
) Z[X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
n
] such that D
f
= g(
1
,
2
. . . ,
n
).
The van der Monde matrix
M =
_

_
1 1 1
u
1
u
2
u
n
u
2
1
u
2
2
u
2
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
u
n1
1
u
n1
2
u
n1
n
_

_
has determinant det M =
i>j
(u
i
u
j
). Hence
D
f
= det(MM
t
) =
_

_
n w
1
w
2
w
n1
w
1
w
2
w
3
w
n
w
2
w
3
w
4
w
n+1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
w
n1
w
n
w
n+1
w
2n2
_

_
.
Example 4.7. Let us calculate the discriminant of the polynomials
p(x) = x
3
+px +q. We have
1
= 0,
2
= p,
3
= q and
MM
t
=
_

_
3 w
1
w
2
w
1
w
2
w
3
w
2
w
3
w
4
_

_
Newtons identites in this case are
w
1
=
1
= 0
w
2
=
2
1
2
2
= 2p
w
3
=
1
w
2

2
w
1
+ 3
3
= 3q
w
4
=
1
w
3

2
w
2
+
3
w
1
= 2p
2
Therefore
D
f
= det MM
t
=
_

_
3 0 2p
0 2p 3q
2p 3q 2p
2
_

_
= 4p
3
27q
2
.
27
5. The splitting eld of a polynomial
In this section we construct a eld extention K/F which contains all
the roots of a given polynomial f(x) F[x]. For simplicity, we want
K to be the smallest eld containing F with respect to this property.
Denition 5.1. Let F be a eld and f(x) F[x] be a monic polynomial
of degree n. A eld K F is called a splitting eld of f(x) over F
if there exist r
1
, r
2
, . . . , r
n
K so that f(x) = (x r
1
) . . . (x r
n
) and
K = F(r
1
, r
2
, . . . , r
n
).
Example 5.2. (i) Let f(x) = x
2
+ ax + b F[x]. If f(x) is reducible
then F is a splitting eld of f(x). If f(x) is irreducible then (f(x)) is
a maximal ideal of F[x]. Hence F(x)/(f(x)) F(r) is a eld, where
r = x + (f(x)). If s is another root of f(x), then s + r = a, so
s = a r F(r). Hence F(r) is a splitting eld of f(x) over F.
(ii) Consider the irreducible polynomial f(x) = x
3
+x+1 F
2
[x]. Let
r = x + (f(x)) F
2
[x]/(f(x)) = F
2
(r). Since [F(r) : F
2
] = 3, F
2
(r)
has 8 elements. A basis of the F
2
vector space F
2
(r) is 1, r, r
2
.
Hence F
2
(r) = 0, 1, r, r
2
, 1 + r, 1 + r
2
, r + r
2
, 1 + r + r
2
and we have
the relation r
3
= 1 + r. Check that f(r
2
) = f(r
4
) = 0. Therefore
x
3
+ x = 1 = (x + r)(x + r
2
)(x + r
4
). Thus F
r
(r) is a splitting eld of
x
3
+x + 1 over F
2
.
We will later see that if f(x) F
q
[x], where F
q
is a nite eld with
q elements, then F
q
[x]/(f(x)) is a splitting eld of f(x), if f(x) is an
irreducible polynomial over F
q
.
Existence of Splitting eld
Theorem 5.3. Let F be a eld. Then any polynomial f(x) F[x] has
a splitting eld.
Proof. Apply induction on deg f. If deg f = 1 then F is the splitting
eld of f. over F. Suppose deg f > 1. If f(x) splits as a product of linear
factors in F[x] then F is the splitting eld of f(x) over F. Suppose
g(x) is an irreducible factor of f(x) with deg g 2. Then r = x +
(g(x)) K := F[x]/(g(x)) is a root of g(x) and hence of f(x). Since
28
f(x) = (x r)h(x) for some h(x) K[x] and deg h(x) < deg f(x). By
induction h(x) has a splitting eld L over K. Let r
2
, r
3
, . . . , r
n
L be
the roots of h(x). Then L = K(r
2
, r
3
, . . . , r
n
) = F(r
1
, r
2
, , r
n
) is a
splitting eld of f(x) over F.

Theorem 5.4 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Every com-

plex polynomial has a complex root.
Proof. We shall use the following facts:
(i) Every odd degree polynomial with real coecients has a real root.
(ii) Every quadratic polynomial in C[x] has a complex root.
(iii) The Fundametal Theorem for Symmetric Polynomials.
(iv) Every polynomial f(x) has a splitting eld.
(i) This is a consequence of the Intermediate Value Theorem.
(ii) It is enough to show that complex numbers have a complex square
root. Indeed, let z = a + b C, where a, b R and (c + di)
2
= a + bi.
Then c
2
d
2
+2cdi = a +bi. Thus a = c
2
d
2
and b = 2cd. Therefore
a
2
+ b
2
= (c
2
+ d
2
)
2
and hence c
2
+ d
2
=

a
2
+b
2
R. Therefore
c
2
=
1
2
[a +

a
2
+b
2
] 0 and d
2
=
1
2
[

a
2
+b
2
a] 0. Thus c, d R.
The polynomial g = f(x)

f(x) R[x]. If g(x) has a complex root z
then either f(z) = 0 or

f(z) = 0. Here

f denotes the polynomial whose
coecients are conjugates of the coecients of f(x). If

f(z) = 0, then
f( z) = 0. Thus by replacing f by g, we may assume that f(x) is a
monic polynomial with real coecients.
Let d = deg f = 2
n
q, where q is odd. We apply induction on n. If
n = 0, then f is a real odd degree polynomial, hence it has a real root.
Now let n 1. Let K = C(
1
, . . . ,
2
), be a splitting eld of f(x), over
C, where
1
, . . . ,
d
are the roots of f(x) in K. Consider the elements
y
ij
=
i
+
j
+ r
i

j
, where r R is xed and 1 i j d. There
are
_
d+1
2
_
such pairs (i, j). Hence
deg h(x) =

1ijd
(x y
ij
) =
_
d + 1
2
_
= 2
n1
q(d + 1).
29
The coecients of h(x) are elementary symmetric polynomials in
y
ij
s. So they are symmetric polynomials in
1
,
2
, . . . ,
d
. Hence they
are polynomials in the coecients of f(x). Hence h(x) R[x]. By
induction on n, h(x) has a complex root say z
r
. Since all the roots of
h(x) K and z
r
C K,
z
r
=
i(r)
+
j(r
) +r
i(r)

j(r)
for some pair (i(r), j(r)) so that 1 i(r) j(r) d. Dene
: R (i, j) [ 1 i(r) j(r) d = P, (r) = (i(r), j(r)).
Since R is innite and P is nite, there exists c ,= d R such that
(i(c), j(c)) = (i(d), j(d)) := (a, b). Therefore,
z
c
=
i(c)
+
j(c)
+r
i(c)

j(c)
=
a
+
b
+c
a

b
= z
d
=
a
+
b
+d
a

b
.
Therefore (dc)
a

b
= z
d
z
c
C. Hence
a

b
C so that
a
+
b

C. But
a
and
b
are roots of
x
2
(
a
+
b
)x +
a

b
C[x].
Hence
a
,
b
C. Therefore f(x) has a complex root.

30
6. Algebraically Closed Fields
Denition 6.1. A eld F is called algebraically closed if F is the only
algebraic extension of F.
It is easy to see that a eld F is algebraically closed if and only if
every monic polynomial f(x) F[x] has a root in F if and only if f(x)
is a product of linear factors in F[x]. The Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra asserts that C is an algebraically closed eld.
Existence of algebraic closure
Theorem 6.2. Let k be a eld. Then there exists an algebraically
closed eld containing k.
Proof. (Artin) We construct a eld K k in which every polynomial
of positive degree in k[x] has a root. Let S be a set of indeterminates
which is in 1 1 correspondence with set of all polynomials in k[x] of
degree 1. Let x
f
denote the indeterminate in S corresponding to f.
Let I = (f(x
f
) [ deg f 1) be the ideal generated by all the polyno-
mials f(x
f
) k[S]. We claim that I is a proper ideal of k[S]. Suppose
to the contrary, I = k[S]. Then
1 = g
1
f
1
(x
f
1
) + +g
n
f
n
(x
fn
) (1)
for some g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
k[S]. The polynomial g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
involve
only nitely many variables. Put x
f
i
= x
i
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n and let
x
n+1
, . . . , x
m
be the remaining variables in g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
. Then
n

i=1
g
i
(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, x
n+1
, . . . , x
m
)f
i
(x
i
) = 1.
Let E/k be an extension eld in which each of f
n
(x
n
), . . . , f
n
(x
n
) has a
root
1
, . . . ,
n
respectively. Putting x
n+1
= = x
m
= 0 and x
i
=
i
for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n in the equation 1 we get a contradiction. Hence I
is a proper ideal of k[S]. Let m be a maximal ideal of k[S] containing
I. Then K
1
= k[S]/m is a eld. We claim that x
f
+m is a root of f(x).
Indeed, f(x
f
+m) = f(x
f
) +m = m. Thus each polynomial in k[x] has
a root in K
1
. Repeat the procedure on K
1
to get K
2
K
1
which has
roots of all monic polynomials in K
1
[x]. Let K =

i=1
K
i
. Then K is a
31
eld. If f(x) K[x] then f(x) K
n
[x] for some n. Hence f(x) has a
root in K
n+1
K. Thus K is algebraically closed.
Corollary 6.3. Let F be a Field. Then there exists a eld K F
such that K is algebraically closed and K is algebraic over F.
Proof. Let L F be an algebraically closed eld. Then the eld
K = a L [ a is algebraic over F is algebraically closed.
Denition 6.4. Let F be a eld. An extension K F is called an al-
gebraic closure of F if K is algebraically closed and K/F is an algebraic
extension.
Isomorphism of algebraic closures
We now show that if E
1
and E
2
are algebraic closures of a eld F then
they are Fisomorphic. As a consequence we also prove that any two
splitting elds of a polynomial f(x) F[x] are Fisomorphic.
Proposition 6.5. Let : k L be an embedding of elds where L
is algebraically closed. Let be algebraic over k and p(x) = irr(, k).
Let p(x) =

a
i
x
i
k[x] and p

(x) =

(a
i
)x
i
. Then () is a
bijection between the sets
: k() L [ is an embedding and [
k
= L [ p

() = 0.
Proof. Let : k() L be an embedding extending . Then
(p()) = p

(()) = 0.
Hence () is a root of p

(x). Conversely let L and p

() = 0.
Dene : k() L by (f()) = f

(). We show that is well

dened.
Suppose f() = g(). Then (f g)() = 0, so p(x) [ (f(x) g(x)).
Hence p

(x) [ (f g)

(x). Thus p

() = (f

() g

() = 0. Hence
f

() = (f()) = g

() = (g()). Thus is well-dened. Sup-

pose that f

() = (f()) = 0. Then p

(x) [ f

(x). Since is an
embedding, p(x) [ f(x). Thus f() = 0.

32
Proposition 6.6. Let : k L be an embedding of elds where L is
algebraically closed. Let E be an algebraic extension of k. Then there
exists an embedding : E L extending . If E is an algebraic closure
of k and L is an algebraic closure of (k) then is an isomorphism
extending .
Proof. Consider the set
S = (F, r) [ k F E are elds and : k L such that [
k
= .
Since (k, ) S, it is nonempty. Let (F, ) and (F

) S. Dene
(F, ) (F

) if and only if F F

and

[
F
= .
Then S is a partially ordered inductive set. Indeed, if (F

)
I
is
a chain in S then F =
I
F

is a subeld of E. Dene : F L as
(x) =

(x) if x F

. Then is well-dened.
By Zorns Lemma there exists a maximal element (F, ) S. We claim
that F = E. If not, then there exists E F. Since is algebraic
over F, : F L can be extended to F() L. This contradicts
the maximality of (F, ). Thus E = F and so can be extended to an
embedding of E into L.
Now suppose E is an algebraic closure of k and L is an algebraic clo-
sure of (k). Since (E) is algebraically closed and L is algebraic over
(E), L = (E). Thus : E L is an isomorphism.
Theorem 6.7. Let E
1
and E
2
be algebraic closure of a eld k. Then
they are kisomorphic.
Proof. The identity map k E
2
can be extended to : E
1
E
2
by
the above proposition, is a kisomorphism.
Theorem 6.8. Let E and F be splitting elds of polynomial f(x) k[x]
where k is a eld. Then they are k-isomorphic.
Proof. Let F
a
be an algebraic closure of F. Then it is also an algebraic
closure of k. Thus there exists an embedding : E k
a
extending
id
k
: k k
a
. Let f(x) = (x
1
) (x
n
) be a factorization of
f(x) in E[x]. Then f

(x) = (x (
1
)) (x (
n
)) F

[x]. Thus
F = k((
1
), . . . , (
n
)) = (E).