Originally appeared in:

June 2007 issue, pgs 111115

Used with permission. www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Article copyright 2007 by Gulf Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Not to be distributed in electronic or printed form, or posted on a Website, without express written permission of copyright holder.

PROCESS AND PLANT OpTIMIZATION

SPECIALREPOrT

Minimize facility flaring

Flares are safety devices that prevent the release of unburned gases to atmosphere
J. PETERSON, Flint Hills Resources, Corpus Christi, Texas, N. TUTTLE, H. COOpER and C. BAUKAL, John Zink Co., LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma
should still be capable of safely destroying the waste gases while minimizing emissions. The American Petroleum Institute has developed guidelines for handling waste gases.1,2 Traditionally, there have been three important performance parameters of interest for most flares.3 The first is the so-called smokeless capacity. This is the maximum flow of waste gases that can be sent to the flare without producing significant levels of smoke. A flare is typically sized so that the smokeless capacity Designed to protect. Flares are combustion devices designed is at least as much as the maximum waste-gas flowrate expected to safely and efficiently destroy waste gases generated in a plant during normal operation. The second performance parameter (Fig. 1). In refinery operations, flammable waste gases are vented is the thermal radiation generated by the flare as a function of from processing units during normal operation and process upset the waste-gas flowrate and composition.4 The radiation levels at conditions. These waste gases are collected in piping headers and ground level are typically limited to avoid injuring personnel and delivered to a flare system for safe disposal. A flare system often has damaging equipment. After choosing the most remote, practical multiple flares to treat the various sources for flare location, the height of the flare stack is waste gases. There may be several different determined so that the acceptable radiation flare types used in a system, depending on levels are not exceeded at ground level. The site requirements. Flares are primarily safety third parameter is noise. Excessive noise can devices that prevent the release of unburned injure personnel, equipment and property gas to atmosphere; these gases could burn both inside and outside the plant. or even explode if they reached an ignition While the primary function of flares is to source outside the plant. protect the facility, employees and the surTwo levels of flaring that are of interrounding environment, flaring gases creates est. The first is flaring that occurs during a emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), plant emergency. This can be a very large sulfur oxides (SOx), greenhouse gases (CO2 flow of gases that must be destroyed, where and CO) and volatile organic compounds safety is the primary consideration. These (VOCs). These emissions, in combination flows can be more than a million pounds with any unburned hydrocarbons, contribper hour, depending on the application. ute to the total facility emissions. The maximum waste-gas flow that can be Historically, flare emissions have not spetreated by a flare is referred to as its hydraucifically been a parameter of interest because lic capacity. The second level of flaring is they are very difficult to measure. Since the treatment of waste gases generated durnearly all flares burn in the open, there is ing normal operation, including planned no enclosure or combustion chamber with decommissioning of equipment. While a well-contained exhaust stream to insert safety is still imperative, emissions are also probes into for extractive or in-situ emisimportant. The actual waste-gas flowrate sions measurements. Research is currently FIG. 1 Example of an air-assisted flare and composition may vary significantly being done on using remote monitoring during testing. during normal operation, but the flare analyzers to measure flare emissions, but
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o the casual observer, minimizing the flaring from a refinery or petrochemical facility may seem easy. Remember: Flares are safety systems designed to protect site employees, the public and the facility. New strategies can be applied to find costeffective methods that safely minimize if not eliminate the need for flaring. A Texas refiner successfully used innovative methods to nearly eliminate flaring at its refinery.

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Waste-gas ow, thousand scfh

PROCESS AND PLANT OpTIMIZATION

from flares may be much higher than previously thought.8 One possible reason is that 144 wind effects can reduce flare destruction 120 efficiency.9 The estimated emissions from 96 flares are often based on measurements 72 made with little or no wind. Accordingly, the emissions may be much higher under 48 windy conditions. 24 Another possible reason is improper 0 1 1001 2001 3001 4001 5001 operation of flares. Many flares use steam Hourly measurements in chronological order as an assist medium to increase air entrainment into the flame to increase the smokeless FIG. 2 Example of waste-gas flows to a flare in a typical refinery over approximately an capacity. However, over-steaming, or provideight-month period. ing too much steam to a flare compared to the waste-gas flowrate, can actually reduce the destruction efficiency. The cooling effect of excessive steam may TABLE 1. Example of waste gas compositions inhibit dispersion of flared gases, particularly during weather inverat a typical plant sions. In the extreme case, over-steaming can actually snuff out the Gas composition range, % Flare gas, % flame and allow waste gases to go into the atmosphere unburned. Flare gas constituent Minimum Maximum Average There is growing concern that many flares are being overMethane CH4 7.17 82.0 43.6 steamed to minimize smoking over a wide range of waste-gas Ethane C2H6 0.55 13.1 3.66 flowrates. In most steam-assisted flares, the steam flowrate is Propane C3H8 2.04 64.2 20.3 manually controlled and sometimes set for the maximum expected n-Butane C4H10 0.199 28.3 2.78 waste gas flow during normal operation. However, this means the flare could be severely over-steamed during periods where the Isobutane C4H10 1.33 57.6 14.3 waste-gas flow is much lower. The International Flare Consortium n-Pentane C5H12 0.008 3.39 0.266 has been formed to study emissions from flares.10 Isopentane C5H12 0.096 4.71 0.530
168

neo-Pentane n-Hexane Ethylene Propylene 1-Butene Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Water

C5H12 C6H14 C2H4 C3H6 C4H8 CO CO2 H2S H2 O2 N2 H2O

0.000 0.026 0.081 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.023 0.000 0.000 0.019 0.073 0.000

0.342 3.53 3.20 42.5 14.7 0.932 2.85 3.80 37.6 5.43 32.2 14.7

0.017 0.635 1.05 2.73 0.696 0.186 0.713 0.256 5.54 0.357 1.30 1.14

this technique is still under development.5 The size of flare flames and elevation above the ground make it very difficult to use a hood to collect exhaust gases and measure emissions. Another very challenging problem is that weather conditions, the waste-gas flowrate, and composition are highly variable and not generally controllable. For example, wind plays a very significant role in the performance of a flare.6 High waste-gas flowrates, such as those that could occur during emergency conditions, are generally impossible to test in an operating plant because fortunately they rarely occur. There are some flare test facilities capable of simulating very high flow rates, but even these can rarely test the maximum flowrate that could occur at a plant.7 There is growing interest in reducing the pollutant emissions from flaring. For example, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District in California established Regulation 12, Rule 12, entitled Flares at Petroleum Refineries on July 20, 2005. The rule requires flare minimization projects and studies for area refineries. There is growing concern that emissions of VOCs

The problem. To the casual observer, it may seem relatively easy to minimize and even eliminate routine flaring from refineries and petrochemical/chemical plants. It appears that these plants are unnecessarily wasting energy and generating pollution. The main challenge is that it can be uneconomical to recover the gases, either for use in the plant or to sell as energy, for a variety of reasons. The flowrate and composition of the waste gases going to the flare are often highly variable. The unsteady flow (Fig. 2) and variable composition (Table 1) make it difficult to use the waste gases elsewhere in the plant where the energy demand is normally steady. The variable composition makes it difficult to sell, unless a purification system is added to produce a more consistent composition. The waste gases may have a low heating value, which means that equipment such as burners must be properly designed for the low heating value. The waste gases may be off-spec product that is being flared because it cannot be sold and is not easily reprocessed to produce on-spec product.11 Off-spec flaring may occur for some time during startup until the product is within specification. The waste gas pressure is low; thus, a compressor is needed to aid transporting the gases. In most refineries and petrochemical plants, the fuel gas is at a high enough pressure that it can be used to entrain the air needed for combustion so that the burners do not need a fan or blower.12 Additional piping may also be needed to connect the waste gas to the fuel-gas system. Potential solutions. A variety of strategies for minimizing flaring is possible and can be grouped into two broad categories: plant practices and new equipment. Plant practices involve controlling the processes producing waste gases using existing equipment in the plant. One example is simply ensuring that equipment is properly maintained to minimize leaks into the waste-gas header. Another example might be improved understanding of what waste

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gases are produced under a given set of conditions so either of those conditions can be avoided. New equipment refers to adding hardware that reduces the amount of waste gases going to the flare. One example might be redesigning plant processes to minimize waste gas production. This might mean recycling waste gases back into the process or using alternative technologies that produce less waste. Another example is flare gas recovery units (FGRUs) that can capture waste gases that would have been flared, either for use in the plant or for sale.13 normally go to the flare system. The FGRU is located upstream of the flare to capture some or all of the waste gases before they are flared. There are many potential benefits of an FGRU. The flare gas may have a substantial heating value and could be used as a fuel within the plant to reduce the amount of purchased fuel. In certain applications, it may be possible to use the recovered flare gas as feedstock or product instead of purchased fuel. The FGRU reduces the continuous flare operation, which subsequently reduces the associated smoke, thermal radiation, noise and pollutant emissions associated with flaring. It also reduces the negative public attention drawn to the facility. Capturing waste gases may reduce odor levels. Reduced flaring also reduces steam consumption for steam-assisted flares and can extend the service life of the flare tips. In refineries with excess process-generated waste gas beyond fuel gas requirements, an FGRU can provide a means to scrub the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) before the clean gas is flared. A schematic of a typical FGRU system is shown in Fig. 3. When the recovered flare gas is to be utilized as a fuel and the flow is less than or equal to the capacity of the FGRU, the flare gas will be recovered and directed to the refinery-fuel-gas header. During these periods, there will be little or no visible flame at the flare, although the flare pilot may be visible. When the flare-gas flowrate is greater than the capacity of the FGRU, the excess flare gas will flow through the liquid seal drum and to the flare tip where it will be combusted. From flaring rates just above the FGRU capacity to a maximum flaring episode, the liquid seal drum will promote smooth, safe operation of the flare tip. The FGRU system is operated at a slight positive pressure to prevent air infiltration into the system that could create a flammable mixture. The basic processes used in the FGRU are compression and physical separation. The basic operation of the FGRU is: Process vent gases are recovered from the flare header. Gas compressors boost the pressure of this gas. Recovered gas is discharged to a service liquid separator. Separated gas may pass through a condenser where the easily condensed constituents may be returned as liquids feedstock while the components that do not easily condense are returned for use as fuel gas after scrubbing for contaminant removal, such as H2S. Gas compression is performed by compressors selected for the specific application. For example, if a liquid-ring compressor is used, then separating recovered vapor phase from a mixed liquid is accomplished via a horizontal separator vessel. As flare gas flows into the header, an established hydrostatic head in the liquid seal drum will prevent flare gas from flowing to the flare. This causes a slight increase of pressure in the flare gas header, but not enough to significantly affect the capacity of the overpressure protection devices in the refinery. When the flare-gas
FGRUs. An FGRU is designed to capture waste gases that would
Recycled control

SPECIALREPOrT

Recovered gas Service liquid separator Blowdown

Liquid-ring compressor Flare Makeup water

Operating liquid cooler Flare gas Knockout drum FIG. 3 Flare header

Liquid seal

Generalized flare gas recovery process schematic.

header pressure reaches the gas recovery initialization setpoint in a batch operation plant, the compression system will begin to compress the flare gas. The FGRU will start and stop with control signals from the PLC. In continuous-operation plants with varying flare loads, additional parallel compressors can be automatically staged on or off to augment the capacity of the base-load compressor as needed. Based on the inlet pressure of the flare gas header, fine-tuning of FGRU capacity control is by the spillback (recycle) of recovered gas from the service liquid separator back to the suction. Discharge of the liquid-ring compressors will flow into the service liquid separator vessel where the gas and service liquid are disengaged and the compressed recovered flare gas is delivered to the facility fuel gas scrubbing and distribution system. The compressor service liquid, usually water, is used in the compressor as a seal between the rotor and the compressor case. The service liquid is separated from the recovered gas stream, cooled and recirculated to the gas compressor train for reuse. The gas processing capacity of the FGRU adjusts to maintain a positive pressure on the flare header upstream from the existing liquid seal drum. This positive pressure will ensure that air will not be drawn into either the flare system or the FGRU. If the volume of flare gas that is relieved into the flare system exceeds the capacity of the FGRU, the pressure in the flare header will increase until it exceeds the back-pressure exerted on the header by the liquid seal. In this event, excess gas volume will pass through the liquid seal drum and on to the flare where it will be burned. This will be the case when there is a rapid increase in flare gas flow due to an emergency release. Since the liquid seal serves as a backpressure control device for the FGRU, a properly designed deep-liquid seal is critical to the stable operation of the FGRU and flare. A deep-liquid seal, typically 30-in.W.C. minimum, is required to permit a suitable control range for the capacity control of the FGRU. As the flow transitions to the flare, this must be done with a very stable liquid level or else unstable flare header pressure could result, affecting FGRU control and proper flare operation. If the volume of flare gas relieved into the flare header is less than the total capacity of the FGRU, the capacity of the FGRU adjusts to a turndown condition. This is accomplished by turning off compressors and/or by diverting discharged gas back to theturning off suction header through a recycle control valve.

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reduce the waste-gas base load so the volume of gases could be handled by the existing FGRU. For example, an improved coker blowdown process minimizes vapor generation with no resultant flaring. Nonroutine waste flows to the FGRU are ceased during coker blowdown operations. Operators began tracking flaring time to identify processes that needed to be modified. A daily report was reviewed to continually monitor flare events. In some cases, hardware changes were needed to repair or replace leaking equipment. In other cases, this meant procedural changes to plant practices. This took a coordinated effort of operators, engineers and management to make the changes necessary so that no additional capacity was required in the existing FGRU system. Refinery computer controls were upgraded and centralized, which significantly improved communication and management of the flare system ensuring FGRU capacity availability if a significant flow of waste gas was going to be generated. Alarms were added to alert operators when potential flaring conditions may occur to give them time to adjust operations. Root-cause analysis also is used to analyze significant unplanned emissions events to eliminate future occurrences. As an example of FHRs commitment to reducing flaring, only 1.77 hours of flaring were required in the first half of 2006. Most of that flaring occurred during a planned event. Typically, during an outage at a plant, there would be significant flaring to de-inventory and decommission (purge) the process equipment so that maintenance can be safely performed. To minimize flaring during outages, FHR developed a comprehensive plan to bring down certain equipment at different times so that nearly all of the waste gases could be captured by the FGRU. Most of the 1.77 hours of flaring occurred when the FGRU itself was shut down for flare line maintenance.
Potential realized. There is growing interest in minimizing flaring, in part due to the pollution emissions generated by flaring and potentially significant emission sources within a plant. Flint Hills Resources has approached this problem through equipment modifications and new operating practices, in combination with an existing flare gas recovery unit. The FHR West Plant in Corpus Christi, Texas, has achieved 155 consecutive days without any flaring. FHR partnered with the US EPA to help develop best practices that can be applied at other plants to minimize flaring and the associated pollutant emissions that come with flaring. HP
LItErAtUrE CItED  PI, Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, Recommended A Practice RP 521, Fourth Edition, Washington, DC, March 1977. 2  API, Flare Details for General Refinery and Petrochemical Service, Standard 537, Washington, DC, September 2003. 3  Schwartz, R., J. White and W. Bussman, Flares, Chapter 20, John Zink Combustion Handbook, Ed. C. Baukal, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2001. 4  Hong, J., J. White and C. Baukal, Accurately predict radiation from flare stacks, Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 85, June 2006, pp. 79 81. 5  URS Corp., Passive FTIR Phase I Testing of Simulated and Controlled Flare Systems Final Report, prepared for the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, June 2004. 6  Gogolek, P. E. and A. C. Hayden, Performance of flare flames in a crosswind with nitrogen dilution, J. Canadian Petroleum Technology, Vol. 43, No. 8, pp. 43 47, 2004. 7  Hong, J. J., C. Baukal, R. Schwartz and M. Fleifil, Flare Testing, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 102, No. 5, 2006, p. 39. 8  Levy, R., L. Randel, M. Healy and D. Weaver, Reducing Emissions from Plant Flares, Proceedings of the Air & Waste Management Assoc. Conf. & Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, June 2006, Paper #61.
1

FIG. 4

An FGRU at the FHR West Plant in Corpus Christi, Texas.

Compressor speed can also be varied. Control of the FGRU is automated with minimal requirement for direct operator intervention. installed based primarily on economics, where the payback on the equipment was short enough to justify the capital cost. Such systems were sized to collect most, but not all, of the waste gases. The transient spikes of high gas flows are typically very infrequent, meaning normally it is not economically justified to collect the highest flows of waste gas because they are so sporadic. However, there is increasing interest in reducing flaring not based strictly on economics, but on environmental stewardship. Flint Hills Resources (FHR) has made a strong commitment to dramatically reduce flaring at all of its facilities.14 Overall, flaring at FHR facilities has been reduced by more than 95% since 1997. This is part of the companys commitment to strive to be the operator of choice within its communities. The company won a Clean Air Award from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2004 for its efforts to reduce refinery flaring and thus the emissions created during flaring. FHR has worked with the EPA in a consent decree to minimize all pollution emissions from FHR plants.15 Specific focus is on startups, shutdowns and malfunctions (SSMs), which often lead to significant flaring events. An example of a flaring event caused by an unplanned shutdown occurred in Wilmington, California, in September 2005 when brown and yellow smoke was emitted from several refineries (none of which were FHR facilities) for more than eight hours after an area power outage.16 FHR will provide the EPA and state regulators with information on its SSM practices across the regulated community to minimize such emissions. FHRs refining complex in Corpus Christi, Texas, has dramatically reduced its flaring from the refinery. The West Plant recently set a plant record for going 155 days without flaring. A combination of equipment and operating practices was required to achieve this record. The West Plant has an FGRU system that was installed in the early 1980s (Fig. 4). As shown in Fig. 4, three parallel compressors are used to accommodate the wide range of flowrates. The system was originally installed based on economics, where most but not all of the waste gases were recovered. After the decision was made to dramatically reduce flaring at the refinery, plant engineers analyzed all processes venting waste gases into the flare header. This aided in determining ways to
Flint Hills Resources experience. Most FGRUs have been

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9

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 cDaniel, M., Flare Efficiency Study, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency M report EPA-600/2-83/052, 1983. 10  http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/es/etb/cetc/ifc/home_e.html. 11  Chenevert, D., C. Harry, J. H. Walker, B. Unterbrink, and M. Cain, Flare minimization practices improve olefins plant start-ups, shutdowns, Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 103, No. 33, 2005, pp. 54 60. 12  Baukal, C., Ed., John Zink Combustion Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2001.

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 isher, P. W. and D. Brennan, Minimize flaring with flare gas recovery, F Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 81, May 2005, pp. 8385. 14  Gough, R., Flint Hills Resources Shows Flare for Not Flaring, World Refining, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 36 39, 2004. 15  Anon., Pact with Oil Company May Help EPA Develop Guide on Upset Emissions, Clean Air Report, Vol. 15, No. 19, September 9, 2004. 16  Wilson, J., Environmental Groups Sue EPA Over Refinery Emission Standards, The Los Angeles Times, Part B, p. 3, June 21, 2006.

Jim Peterson is a process engineering advisor for Flint Hills

Resources at its Corpus Christi, Texas, refinery. Mr. Peterson provides process engineering support for overpressure protection and flare systems as well as other projects. He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from Michigan Technological University.

Harley Cooper is the director of the flare gas recovery group

at John Zink Co., LLC, in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He has more than 20 years of vapor control and recovery experience in the petrochemical industry. Mr. Cooper holds a BS degree in mechanical engineering and an MBA, both from the University of Tulsa. He is a registered professional engineer in the state of Oklahoma.

Nick Tuttle is a consultant in the flare gas recovery group at John Zink Co., LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma. He has more than 40 years of industry experience and is a registered professional engineer. Mr. Tuttle holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from New Mexico State University, and has completed additional work toward an industrial management degree from the University of Houston. He has authored numerous papers and is an inventor on four US patents.

Chuck Baukal is the director of the John Zink Institute at John Zink Co., LLC in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He has more than 25 years of experience in industrial combustion in a wide range of industries. Dr. Baukal holds a PhD in mechanical engineering from the University of Pennsylvania and is a registered professional engineer in the state of Pennsylvania. He has authored/edited six books on industrial combustion. He has authored 10 US patents.

Article copyright 2007 by Gulf Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. Not to be distributed in electronic or printed form, or posted on a Website, without express written permission of copyright holder.