CAPE UNIT I

REVISION

Measurement
Fundamental quantities and units Derived Unit e.g. Potential Difference (V) V = E / Q =(kg m2 s-2) / A s = kg m2 s-3 A-1 Pressure (p) p = F / A=Pascal Pa (kg m s-2) / m2 = kg m-1 s-2

Uncertainty in measurements
Random error: is the type of error which causes readings to scatter about the true value. Systematic error: is the type of error which causes readings to deviate in one direction from the true value. Precision: refers to the degree of agreement (scatter, spread) of repeated measurements of the same quantity. {NB: regardless of whether or not they are correct.} Accuracy: refers to the degree of agreement between the result of a measurement and the true value of the quantity.

Errors/Uncertainties
For a quantity x = (2.0 0.1) mm, Actual/ Absolute uncertainty, x = 0.1 mm Fractional uncertainty, x /x = 0.1/2 =0.05 Percentage uncertainty, x / x .100% = 5 %

Scalars and vectors/Resolution

Resolution

Kinematics
Distance: Total length covered irrespective of the direction of motion. Displacement: Distance moved in a certain direction. Speed: Distance travelled per unit time. Velocity: is defined as the rate of change of displacement, or, displacement per unit time {NOT: displacement over time, nor, displacement per second, nor, rate of change of displacement per unit time} Acceleration: is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

The 'SUVAT' Equations of Motion

1. v = u +at derived from definition of acceleration: a = (v u) / t

2.

s = (u + v) t

derived from the area under the v-t graph

3.

v2 = u2 + 2as

derived from equations (1) and (2)

4.

s = ut + at2

derived from equations (1) and (2)

Motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field

Time taken to reach its maximum height reached to be lower than in the case with no air resistance. The max height reached is also reduced.

 At the highest point, the body is momentarily at rest; air resistance becomes zero and hence the only force acting on it is the weight. The acceleration is thus 9.81 ms-2 at this point.
As air resistance increases with speed, it eventually equals its weight (but in opposite direction). From then there will be no resultant force acting on the body and it will fall with a constant speed, called the terminal velocity.

Projectile MOTION
x direction (horizontal axis) y direction (vertical axis) sy = uy t + ay t2 (Note: If projectile ends at same level as the start, then sy = 0) uy vy = uy + at vy2 = uy2 + 2asy ay (Note: If object is falling, then ay = -g) t

s (displacement)

sx = ux t sx = ux t + ax t2 ux vx = ux + axt (Note: At max height, vx = 0) ax (Note: Exists when a force in x direction present) t

u (initial velocity) v (final velocity)

a (acceleration) t (time)

Dynamics
Newton's laws of motion: Newton's First Law Every body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a net (external) force acts on it. Newton's Second Law The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on the body, and the momentum change takes place in the direction of the net force.

Newtons Laws cont

When object X exerts a force on object Y, object Y exerts a force of the same type that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on object X. The two forces ALWAYS act on different objects and they form an action-reaction pair.

Linear momentum and its conservation:

Linear momentum: of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity ie p = m v Impulse of a force (I): is defined as the product of the force and the time t during which it acts ie I = F x t {for force which is constant over the duration t} For a variable force, the impulse I = Area under the F-t graph { may need to count squares}

Impulse
Impulse is equal in magnitude to the change in momentum of the body acted on by the force. Hence the change in momentum of the body is equal in magnitude to the area under a (net) force-time graph. {Incorrect to define impulse as change in momentum}

 Force: is defined as the rate of change of momentum, ie F = [ m (v - u) ] / t = ma The {one} Newton: is defined as the force needed to accelerate a mass of 1 kg by 1 m s-2. Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum: When objects of a system interact, their total momentum before and after interaction are equal if no net (external) force acts on the system.

 (Perfectly) elastic collision: Both momentum & kinetic energy of the system are conserved. Inelastic collision: Only momentum is conserved, total kinetic energy is not conserved. In inelastic collisions, total energy is conserved but Kinetic Energy may be converted into other forms of energy such as sound and heat energy. Perfectly inelastic collision: Only momentum is conserved, and the particles stick together after collision. (i.e. move with the same velocity)

Forces
Hooke's Law: F = kx Force constant k = force per unit extension (F/x) Elastic potential energy/strain energy = Area under the F-x graph {May need to count the squares} For a material that obeys Hookes law, elastic Potential Energy, E = F x = k x2

 Hydrostatic Pressure p = gh {or, pressure difference between 2 points separated by a vertical distance of h } Upthrust: An upward force exerted by a fluid on a submerged or floating object; arises because of the difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the object. Archimedes' Principle: Upthrust = weight of the fluid displaced by submerged object. i.e. Upthrust = Volsubmerged x fluid x g

 A couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation only. Moment of a Force: The product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action to the pivot Torque of a Couple: The produce of one of the forces of the couple and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces. (WARNING: NOT an action-reaction pair as they act on the same body.)

 Conditions for Equilibrium 1. The resultant force acting on it in any direction equals zero 2. The resultant moment about any point is zero
Principle of Moments: For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any point must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise moments about that same point.

Work, Energy and Power

Work Done by a force is defined as the product of the force and displacement (of its point of application) in the direction of the force i.e. W = F s cos Principle of Conservation of Energy, Work Done on a system = KE gain + GPE gain + Work done against friction}

Kinetic Energy
Consider a rigid object of mass m that is initially at rest. To accelerate it uniformly to a speed v, a constant net force F is exerted on it, parallel to its motion over a displacement s. Since F is constant, acceleration is constant, v2 = u2 +2as, as = 1/2 (v2 - u2) The kinetic energy, EK = Work done by the force F W = Fs W = mas W= m (v2 - u2)

Potential Energy
Consider an object of mass m being lifted vertically by a force F, without acceleration, from a certain height h1 to a height h2. Since the object moves up at a constant speed, F is equal to mg. The change in potential energy of the mass = Work done by the force. W = F s =Fh =mgh

Power
Power {instantaneous} is defined as the work done per unit time.
P= Total Work Done Total Time = W t

Since work done W = F x s,

P= Fxs t = Fv

Circular Motion
Radian (rad) is the S.I. unit for angle, and it can be related to degrees in the following way. In one complete revolution, an object rotates through 360 , or 2 rad. As the object moves through an angle , with respect to the centre of rotation, this angle is known as the angular displacement. Angular velocity () of the object is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time. = / t = 2 / T (for one complete revolution) Linear velocity, v, of an object is its instantaneous velocity at any point in its circular path. v = arc length / time taken = r / t = r

Circular Motion
The direction of the linear velocity is at a tangent to the circle described at that point. Hence it is sometimes referred to as the tangential velocity is the same for every point in the rotating object, but the linear velocity v is greater for points further from the axis. A body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes velocity {since its direction changes}. Thus, it always experiences an acceleration, a force and a change in momentum.

 Centripetal force, F = m r 2 = mv2 / r {in magnitude} A person in a satellite orbiting the Earth experiences weightlessness although the gravitational field strength at that height is not zero because the person and the satellite would both have the same acceleration; hence the contact force between man & satellite / normal reaction on the person is zero {Not because the field strength is negligible}.

Gravitation
Gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass at that point. Newton's law of gravitation: The (mutual) gravitational force F between two point masses M and m separated by a distance r is given by F=GMm/ r2

Gravitation
Object of mass, m on the Earth, mg = GMm/ r2 Therefore g = GM / r2, M = Mass of object creating the field

 Geostationary satellite is one which is always above a certain point on the Earth (as the Earth rotates about its axis.) For a geostationary orbit: T = 24 hrs, orbital radius (& height) are fixed values from the centre of the Earth, angular velocity w is also a fixed value; rotates from west to east. However, the mass of the satellite is NOT a particular value & hence the ke, gpe, & the centripetal force are also not fixed values {ie their values depend on the mass of the geostationary satellite.} A geostationary orbit must lie in the equatorial plane of the earth because it must accelerate in a plane where the centre of Earth lies since the net force exerted on the satellite is the Earth's gravitational force, which is directed towards the centre of Earth.

Oscillations
Phase difference : A measure of how much one wave is out of step with another wave, or how much a wave particle is out of phase with another wave particle. = 2x / {x =separation in the direction of wave motion between the 2 particles} Simple harmonic motion: An oscillatory motion in which the acceleration {or restoring force} is always proportional to, and opposite in direction to the displacement from a certain fixed point / equilibrium position ie a = -2 x (Defining equation of S.H.M)

SHM equations
Displacement, velocity- sketch graphs

 Damping: refers to the loss of energy from an oscillating system to the environment due to dissipative forces {eg, friction, viscous forces, eddy currents} Light Damping: The system oscillates about the equilibrium position with decreasing amplitude over a period of time. Critical Damping: The system does not oscillate & damping is just adequate such that the system returns to its equilibrium position in the shortest possible time. Heavy Damping: The damping is so great that the displaced object never oscillates but returns to its equilibrium position very, very, slowly.

 Resonance: A phenomenon whereby the amplitude of a system undergoing forced oscillations increases to a maximum. It occurs when the frequency of the periodic driving force is equal to the natural frequency of the system.

Effects of Damping on Freq Response of a system undergoing forced oscillations

Resonant frequency decreases Sharpness of resonant peak decreases Amplitude of forced oscillation decreases

Usefulness of Resonance
Oscillation of a child's swing. Tuning of musical instruments. Tuning of radio receiver - Natural frequency of the radio is adjusted so that it responds resonantly to a specific broadcast frequency. Using microwave to cook food - Microwave ovens produce microwaves of a frequency which is equal to the natural frequency of water molecules, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is used in hospitals to create images of the human organs. Seismography - the science of detecting small movements in the Earths crust in order to locate centres of earthquakes.

Destructive uses of resonance

An example of a disaster that was caused by resonance occurred in the United States in 1940. The Tacoma narrows bridge collapsed due to resonance. High-pitched sound waves can shatter fragile objects, an example being the shattering of a wine glass when a soprano hits a high note. Buildings that vibrate at natural frequencies close to the frequency of seismic waves face the possibility of collapse during earthquakes.

Wave properties
From the definition of speed, Speed = Distance / Time A wave travels a distance of one wavelength, , in a time interval of one period, T. The frequency, f, of a wave is equal to 1 / T Therefore, speed, v = / T = (1 / T) = f

 Intensity {of a wave}: is defined as the rate of energy flow per unit time {power} per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Intensity = Power / Area = Energy / (Time x Area) For all wave sources, I (Amplitude)2 Polarisation is said to occur when oscillations are in one direction in a plane, {NOT just in one direction} normal to the direction of propagation.

Superposition
Principle of Superposition: When two or more waves of the same type meet at a point, the resultant displacement of the waves is equal to the vector sum of their individual displacements at that point.

What is stationary wave?

A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves of the same frequency, amplitude and speed, travelling in opposite directions are superposed. {Assume boundary conditions are met} Dist between 2 successive nodes / antinodes = /2

Diffraction
Diffraction: refers to the spreading {or bending} of waves when they pass through an opening {gap}, or round an obstacle (into the shadow region). For significant diffraction to occur, the size of the gap of the wave For a diffraction grating, d sin = n , d = dist between successive slits {grating spacing} = reciprocal of number of lines per metre

Interference
Coherent waves: Waves having a constant phase difference {not: zero phase difference / in phase} Interference may be described as the superposition of waves from 2 coherent sources. For an observable / well-defined interference pattern, the waves must be coherent, have about the same amplitude, be unpolarised or polarised in the same direction, & be of the same type.

Youngs Double Slit

 Fringe separation x = D / a, if a<<D {applies only to Young's Double Slit interference of light,

Thermal Physics
Internal Energy: is the sum of the kinetic energy of the molecules due to its random motion & the potential energy of the molecules due to the intermolecular forces. Since Kinetic Energy proportional to temp, and internal energy of the system = sum of its Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy, a rise in temperature will cause a rise in Kinetic Energy and thus an increase in internal energy.

Heat capacity and latent heat

Specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to produce unit temperature change {NOT: by 1 K} for unit mass {NOT: 1 kg} of a substance, without causing a change in state. c = Q / mT Specific latent heat of vaporisation is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to change unit mass of a substance from liquid phase to gaseous phase without a change of temperature. Specific latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to change unit mass of a substance from solid phase to liquid phase without a change of temperature L = Q / m {for both cases of vaporisation & melting}

Which is greater?

Methods of Heat transfer

First Law of Thermodynamics

U = W + Q U: Increase in internal energy of the system Q: Heat supplied to the system W: work done on the system Work is done by a gas when it expands; work is done on a gas when it is compressed.

W = area under pressure - volume graph. For constant pressure {isobaric process}, Work done = pressure x Volume

 Isothermal process: a process where T = const {U = 0 for ideal gas} U for a cycle = 0 {since U T, & T = 0 for a cycle } Equation of state for an ideal gas: p V = n R T, where T is in Kelvin {NOT: C}, n: no. of moles. p V = N k T, where N: no. of molecules, k:Boltzmann const

 Ideal Gas: a gas which obeys the ideal gas equation pV = nRT FOR ALL VALUES OF P, V & T PV = 1/3 N m <c2>
Show that Ave KE of a molecule, m <c2> T { T in K: not C } Internal energy of a monatomic gas = 3/2kT