Principles of LED

Working Principle: 
A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction
diode that emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy
in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band
gap of the semiconductor.

Working in a nutshell:

 The material used in LEDs is basically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs). In

its original state, the atoms of this material are strongly bonded. Without free
electrons, conduction of electricity becomes impossible here.
 By adding an impurity, which is known as doping, extra atoms are introduced,
effectively disturbing the balance of the material.
 These impurities in the form of additional atoms are able either to provide
free electrons (N-type) into the system or suck out some of the already existing
electrons from the atoms (P-Type) creating “holes” in the atomic orbits. In both
ways the material is rendered more conductive. Thus in the influence of an electric
current in N-type of material, the electrons are able to travel from anode (positive)
to the cathode (negative) and vice versa in the P-type of material. Due to the
virtue of the semiconductor property, current will never travel in opposite
directions in the respective cases.
 From the above explanation, it’s clear that the intensity of light emitted from a
source (LED in this case) will depend on the energy level of the emitted photons
which in turn will depend on the energy released by the electrons jumping in
between the atomic orbits of the semiconductor material.
 We know that to make an electron shoot from lower orbital to higher orbital
its energy level is required to be lifted. Conversely, if the electrons are made to fall
from the higher to the lower orbitals, logically energy should be released in the
process.
 In LEDs, the above phenomena is well exploited. In response to the P-type of
doping, electrons in LEDs move by falling from the higher orbitals to the lower
ones releasing energy in the form of photons i.e. light. The farther these orbitals
are apart from each other, the greater the intensity of the emitted light.
Different wavelengths involved in the process determine the different colors produced
from the LEDs. Hence, light emitted by the device depends on the type of
semiconductor material used.
Infrared light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as a semiconductor. Red
or yellow light is produced by using Gallium-Arsenide-Phosphorus (GaAsP) as a
semiconductor. Red or green light is produced by using Gallium-Phosphorus (GaP) as
a semiconductor.

Advantages of LEDs:
1. Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.

Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts. Current – 5 to 20 milliamperes.

2. Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.

3. The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.

4. The device does not need any heating and warm up time.

5. Miniature in size and hence lightweight.

6. Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.
7. An LED has a lifespan of more than 20 years. 

Disadvantages:
1. A slight excess of voltage or current can damage the device.
2. The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.

3. The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength.

 Light Emitting Diode
(LED)
What is light?

Before going into how LED works, let’s first take a brief look
at light self. Since ancient times man has obtained light
from various sources like sunrays, candles and lamps.

In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the incandescent light

bulb. In the light bulb, an electric current is passed through
a filament inside the bulb.

When sufficient current is passed through the filament, it

gets heated up and emits light. The light emitted by the
filament is the result of electrical energy converted into
heat energy which in turn changes into light energy.
Unlike the light bulb in which electrical energy first converts
into heat energy, the electrical energy can also be directly
converted into light energy.

In Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), electrical energy flowing

through it is directly converted into light energy.

Light is a type of energy that can be released by anatom.

Light is made up of many small particles called
photons. Photons have energy and momentum but no mass.

Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Every object

in the universe is made up of atoms. Atoms are made up of
small particles such as electrons, protons and neutrons. 

Electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively

charged, and neutrons have no charge.

The attractive force between the protons and neutrons

makes them stick together to form nucleus. Neutrons have
no charge. Hence, the overall charge of the nucleus is
positive. 
The negatively charged electrons always revolve around the
positively charged nucleus because of the electrostatic
force of attraction between them. Electrons revolve around
the nucleus in different orbits or shells. Each orbit has
different energy level.

For example, the electrons orbiting very close to the nucleus

have low energy whereas the electrons orbiting farther away
from the nucleus have high energy.

The electrons in the lower energy level need some

additional energy to jump into the higher energy level. This
additional energy can be supplied by the outside source.
When electrons orbiting the nucleus gains energy from
outside source they jump into higher orbit or higher energy
level. 

The electrons in the higher energy level will not stay for long
period. After a short period, the electrons fall back to lower
energy level. The electrons which jump from higher energy
level to lower energy level will releases energy in the form
of a photon or light. In some materials, this energy lose is
released mostly in the form of heat. The electron which
loses greater energy will releases a greater energy photon.

What is Light Emitting Diode (LED)?

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely

usedsemiconductor diodes among all the different types of
semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes
emit either visible light or invisible infrared lightwhen
forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light
are used for remote controls.

A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor

device that emits light when voltage is applied. In other
words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts
electrical energy into light energy.

When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free

electrons in the conduction band recombines with
theholes in the valence band and releases energy in the
form of light.

The process of emitting light in response to the

strongelectric field or flow of electric current is called
electroluminescence.
A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in
one direction. It allows electric current when forward biased
and does not allow electric current when reverse biased.
Thus, normal p-n junction diode operates only in forward
bias condition.

Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates only
in forward bias condition. To create an LED, the n-type
material should be connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and p-type material should be connected to the
positive terminal of the battery. In other words, the n-type
material should be negatively charged and the p-type
material should be positively charged.

The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction

diode except that gallium, phosphorus and arsenic materials
are used for construction instead of silicon or germanium
materials.

In normal p-n junction diodes, silicon is most widely used

because it is less sensitive to the temperature. Also, it
allows electric current efficiently without any damage. In
some cases, germanium is used for constructing diodes.

However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit energy in

the form of light. Instead, they emit energy in the form of
heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for constructing
LEDs.

Layers of LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of three layers: p-type

semiconductor, n-type semiconductor and depletion layer.
The p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor are
separated by a depletion regionor depletion layer.
P-type semiconductor

When trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic or pure

semiconductor, a p-type semiconductor is formed.

In p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge

carriers and free electrons are the minority charge carriers.
Thus, holes carry most of the electric current in p-type
semiconductor.

N-type semiconductor

When pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic

semiconductor, an n-type semiconductor is formed.

In n-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority

charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers.
Thus, free electrons carry most of the electric current in n-
type semiconductor.

Depletion layer or region

Depletion region is a region present between the p-type and

n-type semiconductor where no mobile charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) are present. This region acts as barrier
to the electric current. It opposes flow of electrons from n-
type semiconductor and flow of holes from p-type
semiconductor. 

To overcome the barrier of depletion layer, we need to apply

voltage which is greater than the barrier potential of
depletion layer.

If the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of

the depletion layer, the electric current starts flowing.
How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?

Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias

condition. When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward
biased, the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-
side are pushed towards the junction.

When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region,

some of the free electrons recombine with the holes in the
positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number
of electrons than protons. Therefore, they are ready to
accept electrons. Thus, free electrons recombine with holes
in the depletion region. In the similar way, holes from p-side
recombine with electrons in the depletion region. 
Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in
the depletion region, the width of depletion
region decreases. As a result, more charge carriers will
cross the p-n junction.

Some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross
the p-n junction before they recombine in the depletion
region. For example, some free electrons from n-type
semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with
holes in p-type semiconductor. In the similar way, holes from
p-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines
with free electrons in the n-type semiconductor.

Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well

as in p-type and n-type semiconductor. 

The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in

the form of light before they recombine with holes in the
valence band.

In silicon and germanium diodes, most of the energy is

released in the form of heat and emitted light is too small.

However, in materials like gallium arsenide and gallium

phosphide the emitted photons have sufficient energy to
produce intense visible light.

How LED emits light?

When external voltage is applied to the valence electrons,

they gain sufficient energy and breaks the bonding with the
parent atom. The valence electrons which breaks bonding
with the parent atom are called free electrons.

When the valence electron left the parent atom, they leave
an empty space in the valence shell at which valence
electron left. This empty space in the valence shell is called
a hole.

The energy level of all the valence electrons is almost same.

Grouping the range of energy levels of all the valence
electrons is called valence band.

In the similar way, energy level of all the free electrons is

almost same. Grouping the range of energy levels of all the
free electrons is called conduction band.

The energy level of free electrons in the conduction band is

high compared to the energy level of valence electrons or
holes in the valence band. Therefore, free electrons in the
conduction band need to lose energy in order to recombine
with the holes in the valence band. 

The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for

long period. After a short period, the free electrons lose
energy in the form of light and recombine with the holes in
the valence band. Each recombination of charge carrier will
emit some light energy.
The energy lose of free electrons or the intensity of emitted
light is depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap between
conduction band and valence band.

The semiconductor device with large forbidden gap emits

high intensity light whereas the semiconductor device with
small forbidden gap emits low intensity light.

In other words, the brightness of the emitted light is

depends on the material used for constructing LED and
forward current flow through the LED.

In normal silicon diodes, the energy gap between conduction

band and valence band is less. Hence, the electrons fall only
a short distance. As a result, low energy photons are
released. These low energy photons have low frequency
which is invisible to human eye.

In LEDs, the energy gap between conduction band and

valence band is very large so the free electrons in LEDs
have greater energy than the free electrons in silicon
diodes. Hence, the free electrons fall to a large distance. As
a result, high energy photons are released. These high
energy photons have high frequency which is visible to
human eye.

The efficiency of generation of light in LED increases with

increase in injected current and with a decrease in
temperature.

In light emitting diodes, light is produced due to

recombination process. Recombination of charge carriers
takes place only under forward bias condition. Hence, LEDs
operate only in forward bias condition.

When light emitting diode is reverse biased, the free

electrons (majority carriers) from n-side and holes (majority
carriers) from p-side moves away from the junction. As a
result, the width of depletion region increases and no
recombination of charge carriers occur. Thus, no light is
produced.

If the reverse bias voltage applied to the LED is highly

increased, the device may also be damaged.

All diodes emit photons or light but not all diodes emit
visible light. The material in an LED is selected in such a
way that the wavelength of the released photons falls within
the visible portion of the light spectrum.
Light emitting diodes can be switched ON and OFF at a very
fast speed of 1 ns.

Light emitting diode (LED) symbol

The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode

except that it contains arrows pointing away from the diode
indicating that light is being emitted by the diode.

LEDs are available in different colors. The most common

colors of LEDs are orange, yellow, green and red.

The schematic symbol of LED does not represent the color

of light. The schematic symbol is same for all colors of
LEDs. Hence, it is not possible to identify the color of LED by
seeing its symbol.

LED construction

One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit

three semiconductor layers on the substrate. The three
semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type
semiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active region.
Active region is present in between the n-type and p-type
semiconductor layers. 
When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type
semiconductor and holes from p-type semiconductor are
pushed towards the active region.

When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side

recombine with the opposite charge carriers (free electrons
with holes or holes with free electrons) in active region, an
invisible or visible light is emitted.

In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active

region. Therefore, most of the light is emitted by the active
region. The active region is also called as depletion region.

Biasing of LED

The safe forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to

3 V and forward current ratings is from 200 mA to 100 mA.
If the voltage applied to LED is in between 1V to 3V, LED
works perfectly because the current flow for the applied
voltage is in the operating range. However, if the voltage
applied to LED is increased to a value greater than 3 volts.
The depletion region in the LED breaks down and the
electric current suddenly rises. This sudden rise in current
may destroy the device.

To avoid this we need to place a resistor (Rs) in series with

the LED. The resistor (Rs ) must be placed in between
voltage source (Vs) and LED. 

The resistor placed between LED and voltage source is

called current limiting resistor. This resistor restricts extra
current which may destroy the LED. Thus, current limiting
resistor protects LED from damage.

The current flowing through the LED is mathematically

written as
           Where,

                        IF = Forward current

                       VS = Source voltage or supply

voltage

                       VD = Voltage drop across LED

                        RS = Resistor or current limiting

resistor

Voltage drop is the amount of voltage wasted to overcome

the depletion region barrier (which leads to electric current
flow).

The voltage drop of LED is 2 to 3V whereas silicon or

germanium diode is 0.3 or 0.7 V.

Therefore, to operate LED we need to apply greater voltage

than silicon or germanium diodes.

Light emitting diodes consume more energy than silicon or

germanium diodes to operate.

Output characteristics of LED

The amount of output light emitted by the LED is directly

proportional to the amount of forward current flowing
through the LED. More the forward current, the greater is the
emitted output light. The graph of forward current vs output
light is shown in the figure.
Visible LEDs and invisible LEDs

LEDs are mainly classified into two types: visible LEDs and
invisible LEDs.

Visible LED is a type of LED that emits visible light. These

LEDs are mainly used for display or illumination where LEDs
are used individually without photosensors.

Invisible LED is a type of LED that emits invisible light

(infrared light). These LEDs are mainly used with
photosensors such as photodiodes.

What determines the color of an LED?

The material used for constructing LED determines its color.

In other words, the wavelength or color of the emitted light
depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap of the
material. 

Different materials emit different colors of light.

Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared light.

Gallium nitride LEDs emit bright blue light.

Yttrium aluminium garnet LEDs emit white light.

Gallium phosphide LEDs emit red, yellow and green light.

Aluminium gallium nitride LEDs emit ultraviolet light.

Aluminum gallium phosphide LEDs emit green light.

Advantages of LED

1. The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on

the current flowing through the LED. Hence, the
brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying
the current. This makes possible to operate LED
displays under different ambient lighting conditions.
2. Light emitting diodes consume low energy.
3. LEDs are very cheap and readily available.
4. LEDs are light in weight.
5. Smaller size.
6. LEDs have longer lifetime.
7. LEDs operates very fast. They can be turned on and off
in very less time.
8. LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which
is used in fluorescent lamps.
9. LEDs can emit different colors of light.

Disadvantages of LED

1. LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n

junction diodes.
 2. Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.

Applications of LED

The various applications of LEDs are as follows

1. Burglar alarms systems

2. Calculators
3. Picture phones
4. Traffic signals
5. Digital computers
6. Multimeters
7. Microprocessors
8. Digital watches
9. Automotive heat lamps
10. Camera flashes
11. Aviation lighting