POLICY ANALYSIS

Structure
19.0 Learning Outcome
1 9.1 Introduction
1 9.2

Policy Analysis

1 9.3

Types of Policy Analysis

Empirical, Evaluative or Normative Policy Analysis
19.3.2 Retrospective/Prospective Policy Analysis
19.3.3 Predictive/PrescriptivelDescriptivePolicy Analysis
19.3.1

19.4

Methods andTechniques in Policy Analysis

1 9.5 Ethics in Policy Analysis

19.6 Process of Policy Analysis

19.7

Co~~clusion

19.8
19.9

Key Concepts
References and Further Reading

1 9.10 Activities

19.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

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After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

Q
Explain the meaning and use of policy analysis in decision- making;
e Describe different types of policy analysis;
e Understand the process of policy analysis; and
e Highlight the different methods and techniques used in policy analysis.

INTRODUCTION
For making any policy- decision, one needs information on the specific problem under study.
Information is processed to analyse data that has been put into a meaningful form and is usehl in
the user's context for decision-making,
An important goal'of public policy analysis is to help policy- makers to arrive at viable informed
policy choices with a credible expectation of what will be the expected outcomc(s)of those policy
choices. In the world of complex political and socio-economic'processes,predicting the effectiveness
of a particular policy relating to the intended goals while identifying potential unintended
consequences is a difficult task. If policy-making is an art, policy analysis aims to add a bit of
science to the art.
This Unit, and Units from 20 to 22 of this course will help to develop skills that are required to
define and critically analyse the policy issues and problems, articulate relevant decision-making
criteriafor policy analysis, evaluate alternative policy options, Ad assess the means and costs of
implementation. These skills and techniquescan be applied to a wide range of substantive public
policy issues, with the idea that a good policy analyst can approach problems as ageneralist and
bqpg more specific informationfrom a given policy area to bear on the analysis. In this Unit, you

Public Policy and ~ n a l y s i .s

236

will learn various types and the processes involved in policy analysis. You will also go through an
overview of the methods and techniques used in policy analysis.

POLICY ANALYSIS
According to Patton and Sawicki, the term policy analysis was probably first used in 1958 by
Lindblorn. Since then a number of experts on the subject have given definitions. The salient
aspects of policy analysis defined by some of the experts are noted below. .
Dunn stresses that the policy analysis is an applied discipline. In his words, policy analysis is
"...an applied discipline which uses multiplemethods of inquiry and argument to produce and
transform policy-relevant infohation that may be utilized in political settings to resolve public
problems."
ii) Jacob B. Ukeles observes that policy analysis as the systematic investigation of alternative
policy options. He opines that policy analysis is "the systematic investigation of alternative
policy options and the assembly and integration of the evidence for and against each option.
It involves aproblem-solving approach, the collection and interpretationof information, and
some attempt to predict the consequences of alternative courses of action."
iii) Patton and Sawicki believe that policy analysis is "... a systematic evaluation of the technical
and economic feasibilityand political viability of alternativepolicies, strategiesfor irnplement&on,
and the consequences of policy adoption."
i)

'

Putting together all the above definitions would enable you to understand what is policy analysis?,
and the process of how it is carried out.

TYPES OF POLICY ANALYSIS

Policy analysis can be classified as:

19.3.1 Empirical, Evaluative or Normative Policy Analysis

While processing the information for policy analysis, three types of questions are deduced for
argument. These are:
i)

What happened to the problem earlier?

ii)
iii)

Were the objectives of the policy met?

What shouldbe done for the future courses of action?

The e~nphicalapproach is based on interpretationof the pastpolicies. This approach is concerned

with anallysing the causes and effects of given public policies and attempts to answer primariIy the
first question. For example, we may analyse and predict the governmentexpenditureon education
over a period of time.
The evaluative approach to policy analysis focuses on programme evaluation. It determines the
worth or value of a policy option. For example, a stupy of government expenditure on primary
education may focus on aparticular objective, such a%,whethet agiven target was met or not? The
nonnative policy analysis primarily concerns with recommending future courses of action for a
given probl~m.In this case: the type of information is advocative. For example, a government
may. have a policy of preventing pollutants from discharging waste of nearby habitations in the
river. As part of this policy the government may recommend to the local authorities concerned to
take necessary steps to prevent the pollutants reaching the river.

Policy Analysis

237

19.3.2 Retrospective/Prospective Policy Analysis

. Retrospective policy analysis refers to the historical analysis and interpretation of past policies.
. This type of policy analysis is done to confirm the major aspects of historical policy research
available on the problem under consideration. For example, a study on labour unrest in an industrial
company tllat has implemented automation earlier would be a retrospective study. The retrospective
policy analysis is also sometimes termed as ex-post or post-hoc policy analysis.
Prospective policy analysis focuses on the f~ltureoutcomes of aproposed policy. For example, the
decision maker may have four policy options of establishing afire station in east, west, south or
central parts of a city. In this case, the policy analysts attempt to predict the future status of results
from alternative policy options available to them. The prospective policy analysis is also sometimes
termed as exante, pre hoc, or anticipatory policy analysis.
Retrospective policy analysjs produces infomition, which is directly useful for decision-making.
This is because of tlle'developmentof the scientific methods that may not allow manipulation of
data by the policy makers. On the other hand, prospective policy analysis often creates a lqrge
gap between the preferred solutions to the problem on hand and the efforts made by the institutions
concerned to resolve them.

19.3.3 Predictive/Frescriptive/Descriptive Policy Analysis

Predictive policy analysis refers to the forecasting of future states resulting from the implementation
of particular policy alternatives. The prescriptive analysis recommends actions that result in a
pticular outcome. When the policy analysts are not sure about the nature of solution to a probIe~n
or there is no programmed way of selecting aparticular solution among alternatives, then they may
opt for prescriptive policy analysis. Here, the policy maker's attitudes, preferences, and beliefs
inay influence the selection of an option among alternatives, For example, one might conduct a
study to see the impact of changing income-tax rates on the saving habits bf people who are paying
income tax. If the study recommends for lowering income tax rates that will result in higher savings,
this is a prescriptive policy analysis since lowering tax rates may or may not improve the saving
habits of people on the lines expected.
Descriptive policy analysis refers to historical or retrospective analysis of past policies. It also
concerns with evaluation of a new policy as it is implemented. Here, policy analysis is conducted
after policy implementation. he primary concern is to understand the problem rather than to
o
policy analysis.The
solve it. However, descriptive analysis is often incorporated i ~ t prospective
implemented policies are monitored and evaluated to decide on whether to continue or modify the
earlier policy. The information generated in this context will also help in solving future problems.
The recammendation based on the prediction or prescription comes into effect, before the
recommendation has been adopted. The descriptive and evaluative policy analyses are applied
after the recommendation has been adopted. Therefore, prescriptiveor predictive analysis deals
with future course of action, while descriptive and evaluative analysis are concerned with past
actions.

METHODS AND TECHNIOUES IN POLICY ANALYSIS

The policy analysis team consists of those analysts who use different methods and techniques to
put forward alternative policy options. These methods and techniques may be expressed as graphs,
diagrams, tables, decision trees or mathematical equations. The methods and techniques,such as,
cost-benefit analysis,input-output analysis, survey methods,computer simulation,and optimisation

Public Policy and Analysis

238

techniques, such as, linear programming, marginal analysis, etc. play an important role in policy
analvsis. For example, the calculation of compound interest technique is used widely to find the
values for differentrates of interest on savings-(or loans) for a given period of time.
Suppose you want to obtain a loan to buy a house. The first thing you may do is to appl.o;lch
differentloan-giving institutionslbanks and find out the rates of interest. Then you may be inbl-esled
to find out the outstanding amount of your loan after a given period of time against ibe amoullt of
loan you have taken. While calculating this you may also take into account any seci~ritydeposit
required. After obtaining outstanding amounts for different interest rates and security deposits for
a given period of time, you may choose one of thr '- ~r outcomes.
information for policy analysis. We will
The methods and techniques are very useful for ob~;~ining
be discussing various methods and tr I
- h
-ewiddy used in policy analysis in Uoits 20 Lo
22 of this course. Remember that ~ Ipolic!
L
,most of these technical tools are used to help
those involved in decision-making. It is w i ~ , ~believed that politics dominates in policy analysis.
However, the application of quantitative analysis in policy analysis has brighter future. Sincc it
involves a lnorr
M i c and transparent process, weightage is, therefore, given to economic,
technical,and 1 r L ~criteria.
l

ETHICS IN POLICY ANALUSIS

Often the policy analysts deal with ethical issues. According to Martin Wachs, most of the ethical
issues faced by policy analysts, planners, experts, and advisors on a daily basis are resolved
procedures, arttl
without controversy. These are related to administrative decisions, burea~~cratic
rules of behaviour regarding clients and supervisors.
The more complex issues are related to the moral implications of our methods, ethical conlent of'
the criteria built into decision models, and ethical issues inherent in the evaluation of m:!jorpolicy
alternatives. For example, the Pareto rule states that an optimum distribution of income in society
is one where someindividuals q e benefitted without loss to othecs. That means the Pareto optima1it;y
guarantees that all persons in the society will retain the income for which they are entitled by their
ability and work. However, in practice this may not happen since the Pareto optimality docs not
reflect unjust entitlements to incqme based on illegality,fraud, racial and other forms of discrimina~ion.
On the other hand, even the proponents of the Pareto optimality rule say that its application violittes
their own moral convictions of entitlement on ability and work.
,---------

Many social scientists believe that values can be studied with methods of social scieilce, For
example, public opinion surveys can be used to reflect the views of different groups of people in
the society. However, values, such as, equalityrjustice, etc. cannot be proved through empirical
SUlveYS.

14.6 PROCESS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

On the basis of ideas and approach of Patton and Sawicki, a six-step process in doing an actual
policy analysis is shown in figure 19.1

Policy Analysis

+----------------Verify, Define,

I
I
I

Monitor the
Implemented

5
Display and
~istinguishamong
[~lternativePolicies

I
I
I

.
1

r - - I
I

Evaluation
Criteria

Evaluate
Alternative
Policies

Fig. 19.1: A basic"Po1icyAnalysis Process

Source: Patton, C.V. and D.S.Sawicki (1993)Basic Methods of policy Analysis a n d planning, p.53.

The six-steps are:

i) Verify, Define and Detail the Problem
This is the most important and relevant of all the steps because many tiines the objectives of the
problem analysis are not clear and in some cases the objectives are contradictory. Therefore,
Patton and ~ a w i c k i s u ~ ~"Don't
e s t , accept the initial problem statement without question. It may
be only the tip of the iceberg, a part of alarger problem, or one that cannot be influenced by the
client or decision maker."
Policy analysis requires clarity in identifying the problems to be resolved. This will 1ay.asolid
foundation foj an efficient and effective outcome of the whole process. The policy analyst must
question, therefore, the interested parties involved or stake holders about their agendas of the
outcome, Defining the problem in such a way eliminates any ambiguityfor future references. Also,
the policy analyst needs to know whether sufficient data is already available on the problem for
analysis or more data is to be collected.
,"

ii) Establish Evaluation Criteria

In order to measure,compare, and select among alternatives relevant evaluation criteriamust be

established. Here one must consider cost, net benefit,effectiveness, eBciency,equity, administrative
ease, legality, and political acceptability,Economic benefits must be considered in evaluating the
policy. For example, one way may be least expensive than others in achieving an objective. How
the policy will harm or benefit a particular group or groups will depend on the number of options
available. Options that are more diffllcultto implementthan others must be considered but ultimately
decided by getting a feel of the stakeholders of a policy. Political and other variables go hand in
hand with evaluation criteria to be followed. Most of the time, the client or person, or group
interested in the policy would try to influence the direction or evaluation criteria to be followed.
Th,epolicy analyst should, therefan, indicate the criteria, which are most relevant to the parties
involved. Once the alternativesare evaluated, it will be easy for the policy analyst to indicate the

Public Policy and Analysis

criteriarnost salient to the individual or group. Then, ranking of alternative policies according to
their importance will follow.
iii) Identify Alternative Policies

.
Once a policy problem has been clearly stated and an evaluation criteria are established, the
policy analyst is in a position to identify and generate alternative policies. In order to generate
alternative policies, it becomes important to have a clear understanding of the problem and how to
go about it. The possible alternativesinclude do nothing approach (statusquo), and any other that
can benefit the outcome.
.

Sometimes combiningalternative policies may reveal new aspects of the problem, which were not
thought earlier. Relying on the past experience of others in similar situations helps to create a more
- thorough analysis and understanding. It is important to avoid settling prematurely on a certain
number of options at this step. All the options should be considered before settling on a reduced
number of alternatives,
iv) Evaluate Alternative Policies
At this stage, an attemptis made to packageall thedternqtivepoliciesinto strategiesand programmes
in accomplishing a thorough policy analysis. It becomes' necessary to evaluate how each possible
alternative benefits the criteria previously established.

If required, additional datamay be collected for analysing the different levels of influence on the
economic, polilicai, and social dimensions of the problem. These dimensions are analysed through
quantitative and qualitativeanalyses, that is, the benefit and cost per alternative. Political questions
in attaining the goals are analysed to see as to whether they satisfy the parties interested in the
policy.
Patton and Sawicki, M h e r suggesthe avoidance of a tool box approach of using the same
statisticaVmathematical method for every evaluation. Beit linearprogrmming,cost-benefit analysis,
input-output analysis, or some other decision-makingtechnique. Some problems may call for
quantitative analysis, while others may require qualitative analysis or many of the problems require
both quantitative andqualitative analysis. Given sufficient time, one may go for survey research to
gauge the support for various options. When sufficient time is not available, one may go for
forecasting techniques, simnulations,etc:
At this stage, the analyst may feel that the originally stated problem needs to be revised. New
aspects of the problem may be found to be transient and even different from that of the original
problem statement. A fast track approach may be followed in revising the problem statement.
v) Display and Distinguish.amongAlternative Policies

he results of the evaluation of possible alternatives along with data on the extent to which the
criteria are met by each alternative might be presented at this stage. However, the presentatiop
format, showing the probabilities associated with the fulfilment of the criteriaagainsteach alterative
and the weightage thus accrued to each option, tends to influence the final decisions.
When the criteria are expressed in quantitative terms, value comparison might be used to analyse
the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative scenarios with quaniitativemethods and
quglitative analysis; complex political considerationscan also be melded with this. Where the
decision maker has clearly stated the objectives, ranking and/or weighing of alternatives is very
much easy. But the policy analyst should be aware that hisher
biases might influence
such rankinglweighting. Sometimes, strongerarguments can be advanced in favour of better options

Policy Alzulysis

to advise the decision makers. One should also be clear in mind about the difference between .
tecl~nicallysuperior alternative and politically feasible alternative. If an alternative is technically
superiol; its political feasibility should also be considered by the decision maker.
Rarely, there will be convergence on one option. Various interested pal-ties may prefer different
options. Also, it is possible that two or more alternatives would provide similar results. Often,
policy analysts' work is subject to time constraints. As a result, they may skip some alternatives
and variables. Therefore, the policy analysis becomes incomplete. These should be reported, and
possible side effects should also be identified.
vi) Monitoring the Imple~nentedPolicy
Not-mally,the policy analyst/planner is not involved in the implementation of apolicy. Howevel;
the policy analyst should be involved in the maintenance, monitoring, and evaluation of the
i~~iplelnented
policy. According to Patton and Sawicki,"Even after apolicy has been implemented,
there may be some doubt, whether [he problem was resolved appropriately and even whether the
selected policy is being implemented properly". These concerns require that policies and programmes
be ~naintainedand monitored during i~npleinentationto assure that they d o not change form
unintentionally;measure their impact; determine whcther they have the intended impact; and decide
whether they should be continued, modified, or terminated.
5

Programme evaluation is important to ilnprove the quality of programme analysis. We should

realise here that the policies could fail, beca~lsethe programme was not implemented as it was
designed or did not produce the desil-eclresults beca~lsethe underlying assumptions were either
incorrect or in'elevant.

CONCLUSION
This Unit has provided an overview of the policy analysis, it's context, meaning, types, and the
process. The different types of policy analysis like prospeclive and retrospective analysis provide
forecasting of future, and an assessment of the past. The predictive, prescriptive, and descriptive
analyses throw light on simple to complex nature of policy alte~natives.
Practising ethics in policy analysis is very impostant. Whilemost of the inter~~al
ethical elements can
be Controlled, coming to grips with more complex ethical issues is farmore difficult.
4

The policy analysisprocess is explained in six steps, that is, i) defining the problem, ii) establishing
evaluation criteria,iii) identifying alternativepolicies, iv) evaluating altemativepolicies,v) displaying
and distinguishing among alternative policies,and vi) monitoring the implemented policy.

19.8

KEY CONCEPTS

Descriptive Policy Analysis

: Policy analysis based on the historical facts or policy

decisions.

Ethics

: A brLanchof.philosophythat deaIs with morality.

Evaluative Policy Analysis

: Policy analysis that deals with the extent to which the

Policy Alternative

objectives of a policy are met.

: A potentially available course of action that is available to
meet the objectives ckapolicy problem.

Public Policy and Analysis

242

: A systematic evaluation of technical, economic, and

Policy Analysis

political feasibility of alternative policies; strategies for

implementation; and consequences of policy
implementation.

1 1

: An identified but unrealised need value or opportunity that

Policy Problem

can be attained through public action.

: Predicting future states of policies that result from adopting

Predictive Policy Analysis

various policy alternatives.

Prescriptive Policy Analysis

'

: An advisory recommendation of actions made by policy

analyst, that is, intended to bring about aparticular result.

Prospective Policy Analysis

: Policy analysis before the policy is implemented.

Retrospective Policy Analysis

: Policy analysis based on historical facts or earlier policy

1;
il5:
I'

decisions.
*

19.7 REFERENCES AND FURTWER READING

d
1

Dunn, William N., 2004, Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction, Upper Saddle, N.J.: Pearson.

Friedman, Lee S ,2002, The Microecorzomics of Public Policy Analysis, Princeton University
Press, New Jersey.
?

iI

I1

Lindblom, Charles, E, "Policy Analysis", American Econonzic Review, 48 (3), 1958.

Wachs, Martin (Ed.), 1985, Ethics in Pla~zning,Centre for Urban Policy Research, New Jersey.
Nagel, Stuart S., "Introduction : Bridging theory and Practice in Policy/ProgramEvaluation," Stuart
S.Nagel (Ed), 1990, Policy Theory and Policy Evaluafion: Concepts, Knowledge, Causes
arldNorms, Greenwood Press, New York.

Patton, Carl V, and David S. Sawicki.,1993, Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning,
Prentice-Hall,Inc. New Jersey.
Ukeles, Jacob B, "Policy Analysis :Myth or Reality?", Public Admilzistration Review, 37(3),
1 977.
Weimer, D. and Vining, A. ,1998, Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practices, Prentice Hall, New
2
Jersey.

19.10 ACTIVITIES
1)

Explain how ethical issues are of importancein policy analysis. Can you completely remove
ethical problems from policy analysis?Justify,

2) Describebriefly thevarious steps in the process of policy analysis.

I
3) Discuss the importance of quantitative and qualitative methods and techniques in policy
analysis.
4) E ~ d l ~ athe
t erelative importanceof technical superiority andpolitic~feasibilityin policy analysis.
Illustrate your answer with examples.

II