gh

((hnjnjjnkmlkkg

CONTENTS

page

Contents

Lab Safety

Safety Symbols

Chemistry Laboratory Equipment

Experiment 1 : Metal, Nonmetal, or Metalloid

Experiment 2 : properties of ionic compounds

13

Experiment 3 : Single Replacement Reactions &

Battery Lab

16

Experiment 4 : Double Replacement Reactions

21

Experiment 5 : pH Measurement and its

Applications

25

content

Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and Safe Attire
1. Wear chemical safety goggles and a knee length laboratory coat at all times while in
the laboratory when anyone is conducting experiments.
.
2. Wear closed shoes at all times while in the laboratory.
3. Wear nitrile gloves when directed to do so by your instructor and/or lab manual.
4. Confine long hair when in the laboratory so that it will not catch on fire or come into
contact with chemicals.
Behavioral Rules for Safety
5. Do not enter the laboratory until your lab instructor is present.
6. Do not eat, drink, chew gum or smoke in the laboratory at any time. Keep all food and
drinks sealed and in your backpack or purse.
7. Consider all chemicals to be hazardous unless instructed otherwise.
8. Do not taste anything in the chemistry laboratory.
9. Smell chemicals carefully and only when instructed to do so. Waft odors towards your
nose rather than sniffing directly.
10. Do not use flammable liquids near open flames. Most organic liquids are flammable.
Diethyl ether is especially dangerous.
11. When heating substances in a test tube, never point the mouth of the test tube at
yourself or at anyone else. It may erupt like a geyser.

12. Do not force glass tubing or thermometers into rubber stoppers. The tubing or
thermometer may break and cut you badly. Consult with your laboratory instructor for

assistance.
13. Use caution when handling Bunsen burners, hot plates, and glassware or other
equipment that has been heated. Burns are the most common laboratory injury so treat
all equipment as if it were hot during experiments that involve heating.
14. Work with dangerous or volatile chemicals in a fume hood as directed by your instructor
and/or lab manual.
15. Do not perform unauthorized experiments. If you see someone else doing something
you think may be dangerous, tell him or her to stop and/or report the incident to your lab
instructor. If another student tells you to stop doing something because it is unsafe, stop as
directed. Consult your lab instructor if there is a problem or difference of opinion.
Handling Accidents
16. Notify your lab instructor immediately if you have an accident, spill, or are injured
in any way.
17. If chemicals come in contact with your skin or eyes, wash with water for at least 15
minutes.
18. Know where to find and how to use the eyewash stations in the lab. It is not
recommended to wear contact lenses in the laboratory since chemicals splashed in the
eye may get under the lens therefore be difficult to rinse. If a splash occurs while you
are wearing contact lenses, they must be safely removed as quickly as possible.
19. Know where to find and how to use the safety shower in the front of the room.
20. Clean up spilled chemicals immediately. Consult your laboratory instructor if you
are not sure what to do.

21. Solid sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is available in the laboratories in containers
located by the sinks. Use this to neutralize acid spills before wiping them up. Similarly,
solid citric acid solution is available in containers by the sinks and should be used to
neutralize base spills before wiping them up. A saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate
is also available by the sinks and can be used to wipe dried acid or base residue off of
lab
benches as needed. However, if acid or base spills on your skin, don't waste time looking

for these neutralizing substances. Rinse with water immediately for at least 15 minutes.
Proper Waste Disposal
22. Separate waste as follows:

Waste chemicals should be disposed of as directed by your lab instructor. Most

chemicals are NOT to be thrown down the sink. Special waste receptacles will be
provided for these chemicals. Waste chemicals must be sorted by kind, not just mixed
with other, different waste chemicals. Read waste container labels carefully. Notify your
instructor when a waste bottle is nearly full. Do not overfill waste bottles.

Broken glass is to be disposed of in the cardboard boxes labeled "Broken Glass

Only" located near the doors to the lab. A dustpan and broom are located in each lab to
assist you in cleaning up broken glass. Do not put broken glass in the regular trash, and
do not put anything except broken glass in the broken glass containers!

Gloves used in lab are to be disposed of in the containers labeled Used Gloves
Only located next to the sinks in each lab.

Other trash that is not glass and is not contaminated by hazardous chemicals
should be placed in the large waste baskets near the front of the lab room.
Other Information You Should Know
23. The effects of chemical agents used in this course on human pregnancy are
unknown. Pregnant women are advised to consult their physician before taking this
course.
24. The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 (Proposition 65)
requires that the Governor revise and publish annually the list of chemicals known to the
state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity. You may be exposed to one or more of
these chemicals during this course. See your lab instructor for a list of these chemicals.
25. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are available for all the chemicals used in this
course. These sheets give information about the chemical, physical, and physiological
properties of chemical substances. See your instructor for information about accessing
these sheets. They can also be found by entering the name of the chemical and MSDS
into Google or any other search engine.

26. Each laboratory experiment involves its own specific hazards. Be sure to read your
laboratory procedure carefully before arriving for lab, and take note of all safety

precautions. You are responsible for the information provided in the laboratory
procedure. You must also arrive on time for all laboratory sessions so you will be present
to hear the safety information provided by your lab instructor. For the safety of all
students in the class, students who arrive late to lab will not be allowed to perform the
lab experiment that day.

I, ______________________________ have read and reviewed the list of rules given

to me by my teacher relating to the procedures and safety in the laboratory. I agree to
behave in a manner that promotes a safe laboratory environment for my classmates and
myself. I agree to use chemicals and clean them up in a way that protects my
classmates, the environment, and myself. I further agree to follow all other written and
verbal instructions given in class.

_______________

________________________________________
Students signature.

SAFETY SYMBOLS
Safety symbols are used to alert you and your students to possible
laboratory hazards.
HAZARD

EXAMPLES

PRECAUTION

REMEDY

Special disposal pro- certain chemicals,

cedures need to be living organisms
followed.

Do not dispose of
Dispose of wastes as
these materials in
directed by your
the sink or trash can. teacher.

Organisms or other
biological materials
that might be
harmful to humans

bacteria, fungi,
blood, unpreserved
tissues, plant
materials

Avoid skin contact

Notify your teacher if
with these materials. you suspect contact
Wear mask or gloves. with material. Wash
hands thoroughly.

EXTREME
TEMPERATURE

Objects that can

burn skin by being
too cold or too hot

boiling liquids, hot

Use proper
plates, dry ice, liquid protection when
nitrogen
handling.

SHARP
OBJECT

Use of tools or
glassware that can
easily puncture or
slice skin

razor blades, pins,

scalpels, pointed
tools, dissecting
probes, broken glass

Practice commonGo to your teacher

sense behavior and
for first aid.
follow guidelines for
use of the tool.

Possible danger to
respiratory tract
from fumes

ammonia, acetone,
nail polish remover,
heated sulfur, moth
balls

Make sure there is

Leave foul area and
good ventilation.
notify your teacher
Never smell fumes
immediately.
directly. Wear a mask.

DISPOSAL
BIOLOGICAL

FUME

ELECTRICAL

IRRITANT

CHEMICAL

TOXIC

OPEN
FLAME

Eye Safety
Proper eye
protection should
be worn at all
times.

Go to your teacher
for first aid.

Possible danger from improper grounding,

electrical shock or
liquid spills, short
burn
circuits, exposed
wires

Double-check setup
with teacher. Check
condition of wires
and apparatus.

Substances that can

irritate the skin or
mucus membranes of
the respiratory tract

pollen, moth balls,

steel wool, fiber
glass, potassium
permanganate

Wear dust mask and Go to your teacher

gloves. Practice extra for first aid.
care when handling
these materials.

Chemicals that can

react with and
destroy tissue and
other materials

bleaches such as
hydrogen peroxide;
acids such as sulfuric
acid, hydrochloric
acid; bases such as
ammonia, sodium
hydroxide

Wear goggles,
gloves, and an
apron.

Substance may be
poisonous if
touched, inhaled, or
swallowed

mercury, many metal Follow your teachers

compounds, iodine, instructions.
poinsettia plant
parts

Always wash hands

thoroughly after use.
Go to your teacher
for first aid.

Open flame may

ignite flammable
chemicals, loose
clothing, or hair

alcohol, kerosene,
potassium
permanganate, hair,
clothing

Notify your teacher

immediately. Use fire
safety equipment if
applicable.

Clothing
Protection This
symbol appears
when
substances could
stain or burn
clothing.

Tie back hair. Avoid

wearing loose clothing.
Avoid open flames
when using flammable
chemicals. Be aware of
locations of fire safety
equipment.

Animal
Saafety
This symbol
appears when
safety of animals
and students
must be ensured.

Do not attempt to fix

electrical problems.
Notify your teacher
immediately.

Immediately flush
the affected area
with water and
notify your teacher.

Radioactivity
This symbol
appears when
radioactive
materials are
used.

SAFETY SYMBOLS

Chemistry Laboratory Common Equipment

Below are photos and names of common lab equipment you will encounter in Chemistry

Beakers

Bunsen Burner

Buret

Clay Triangle

Crucible

Crucible in Triangle

Crucible Tongs

Dropper Pipets

Dropper in action

Erlenmeyer Flasks

Evaporating Dish

Forceps

Funnels

Goggles

Graduated Cylinders
1

Balance (electronic)

Pipets and Bulbs

Plastic and Rubber

Policemen

Ring Clamp & Stand

Scoopula

Stirring Rods

Thermometers

Test Tubes in Rack

Test Tube Holder

Tube & Holder in Action

Utility Clamp

Clamp in action

Wash Bottle

Watch Glasses

Wire Gauze

Combined for Heating

Pinch Clamp

EXPEREMENT 1 :
Metal, Nonmetal, or Metalloid
Aims: Explore the physical and chemical properties of eight elements with the goal of classifying them
as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.
Background:
Physical Properties:
properties that can be observed without changing the identity of a substance
Chemical Properties:
properties that are observed while altering the identity of the substance involved
Metals:

elements that are usually silver-gray in color, with the exception of copper and gold

solid at room temperature except mercury, which is a liquid

lustrous or shiny appearance and reflect light when polished

can be bent or hammered flat (malleable

can be drawn into wire

good conductors of heat and electricity

usually show reaction with acids

usually high melting point

Nonmetals:
-

found to the right of the zigzag line on the periodic table

usually dull in appearance and do not reflect light

many brittle and cannot be hammered into sheets

poor conductors of electricity and heat

show little or no reaction with acids

low melting points

exist as either solids or gas, bromine is an exception, it is a liquid

Metalloids:

found on both sides of the zigzag line on the periodic table except for aluminum

show properties of both metals and nonmetals

are not good conductors of electricity

when mixed with small amounts of other elements the conductivity of metalloids increases

Note: There are many exceptions to the rules for classifying elements.

SAFETY CAUTION
Safety Precautions:
Perform this lab activity in a well-ventilated laboratory. Iodine is toxic by ingestion and inhalation; it is
corrosive to the skin, eyes, and the respiratory tract; avoid inhalation of iodine vapors by keeping the
iodine bottle covered throughout the lab. Hydrochloric acid solution is corrosive to eyes and skin. Cupric
chloride solution is toxic if ingested. Avoid contact of all chemicals with eyes and all body tissues. Wear
chemical splash goggles, chemical-resistant gloves, and a chemical-resistant apron.
Procedure:
Part 1Physical Properties
1. Observe and record the color of each element on the Data Table. Is the sample silver, gray, colored, etc . . . .?
Be very specific in recording observations.
2. Observe and record the luster of each element on the Data Table. Is the sample lustrous and shiny, slightly
shiny, dull?
3. Record any other physical properties that are observed about the element on the Data Table. Be specific in
your observations. What form is the sample in? Is the sample crystalline, flaky, rough, smooth, flat and platelike, rocky, in strips? Is there any odor or are any vapors given off? (Note: Avoid breathing any vapors
directly. Instead of smelling a sample directly, waft the vapors form the sample toward our nose.)
4. Determine whether each element is malleable or brittle. To do this, position a nail on the sample and gently
tap the nail with a hard, solid object (such as a small piece of wood). A material is malleable if it flattens or
bens without shattering. A sample is brittle if it shatters or cracks into pieces when struck. Record your results
on the Data Table.
5. Test the conductivity of the eight samples. Touch both electrodes to the element being tested, being sure that
the electrodes are not touching each other. Red LED off Green LED off Low or None, Red LED dim Green
LED off Low, Red LED medium Green LED off medium, Red LED bright Green LED dim high, Red LED
very bright Green LED medium very high
Part 2Chemical Properties

1. Determine the reactivity with acid of each sample by adding one pipetful (about 2-3 mL) of 1 M hydrochloric
acid to each tube. (Note: Evidence for a chemical reaction may be the formation of gas bubbles and/or
discoloration on the surface of the element. Some reactions may be slow to startbe patient.)
2. Observe each tube for approximately 3-5 minutes and record results in the Data Table.
3. Determine the reactivity with cupric chloride solution of each sample by adding one pipetful (about 2-3 mL) of
0.1 M cupric chloride to each tube. (Note: Evidence for a chemical reaction may be the formation of gas
bubbles and/or discoloration on the surface of the element. Some reactions may be slow to startbe
patient.)
4. Observe each tube for approximately 3-5 minutes and record results in the Data Table.
Disposal:
Decant the liquid from the tubes into the liquid waste container provided by your teacher and dispose of the solids
in the solid waste disposal. Rinse out the tubes with water for the next step.

Post-Lab Questions:
1. Review the data gathered for the eight elements. Sort the eight elements into groups based on similarities and
differences in their physical and chemical properties. From the information provided in the background
reading, classify each element as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.
metals - ________________________________________________________________
nonmetals - _____________________________________________________________
metalloids - _____________________________________________________________
2. Are there any inconsistencies within the groups you made? Do any elements seem to have properties of both
groups? Which? Explain.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Look at the location on the periodic table of each of the eight elements tested n this lab. How do the properties
of these elements compare to their general position on the periodic table? Make generalizations about the
position of the metals, nonmetals, and metalloids on the periodic table.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Predict the physical and chemical properties of the following elements which were not tested in this lab.
selenium - _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
calcium - __________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
cobalt - ___________________________________________________________________

Data Table: Metal, Nonmetal, or Metalloid?

Element

Chemical
Symbol

Color

Luster

Other Physical
Properties

Result of Tapping

Reaction

Reaction

with HCl

with CuCl2

Conductivity

Aluminum

Carbon

Copper

Iodine

Magnesiu
m

Silicon

Sulfur

Zinc

14

EXPERIMENT 2 :

Properties of Ionic Compounds

hat parts of your body are ionic compounds? Those that

compose your skin? Your hair? Actually, most of the
human body is composed of nonionic compounds. But, you could
not live without sodium chloride and other ionic compounds
found inside you. How can you distinguish ionic compounds from
other types of compounds? By investigating sodium chloride, you
will explore some of the common properties of ionic compounds.

Problem

aims

Materials

What are some of the

properties of ionic compounds?

Compare and contrast

ionic compounds with a
nonionic compound.
Explain the differences in
the conductivity of ionic
compounds in different
forms.

NaCl, NaCl, LiCl

sugar (sucrose)
crucible
Bunsen burner

ring stand and

clamp
wire gauze
conductivity
indicator
100-mL beaker
crucible
clay triangle
distilled water

Safety Precautions
Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron.
Hot objects will not appear to be hot. Be careful when
handling any material that has been heated.
Do not touch or taste any chemicals used or formed in the laboratory.
Do not touch both electrodes on the conductivity indicator at the same
timea small electrical jolt could result.

14

LABORATORY MANUAL
Part A : Melting Point
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure A.

Ring stand
Crucible
Ring clamp
Clay triangle
Bunsen burner

Figure A

2. Sprinkle a pea-sized pile of NaCl in the crucible

and heat it with a low flame until the NaCl

melts, or for 2 minutes, whichever comes first.
If the salt melts within the 2-minute period,
record the melting point as low. If the salt does
not melt within 2 minutes, record the melting
point as high.
3. In the fume hood, and using the same apparatus
shown in Figure A, repeat step 2 for sugar.
(Note: Like most compounds in living organisms, sugar is nonionic.) Make sure the flame is
the same setting as your burner in step 2.

property shown by many ionic compounds.

Place the conductivity indicator in the salt solution. Record the results.
4. Repeat step 3 with an equal amount of sugar.
(Note: Some nonionic compounds dissolve in
water, but many do not.)
Molten
5. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure A.
6. In a clean, dry crucible, mass out approximately
1 g of lithium chloride, LiCl, another typical
ionic compound. (The melting point of sodium
chloride, NaCl, is too high to observe using
classroom laboratory equipment.)
7. Before heating it, place the conductivity indicator in the solid LiCl. Record the results.
8. Place the crucible in the clay triangle and heat
the crucible until the LiCl melts. This may take
several minutes.
9. Quickly turn off the burner and plunge the clean
contact wires of the conductivity indicator into
the molten LiCl. Record your observations.
10. Remove the conductivity indicator, allow the
wires to cool, and then carefully clean the contact wires.
11. CAUTION: Do NOT touch the crucible until
after it has cooled for about 10 minutes.

Hypothesis

Part B : Conductivity
Solid
1. On a piece of paper, make a small pile of NaCl,
about the size of three peas. Place the contacts
of the conductivity indicator in the pile. Record
the results.
Solution
2. Pour about 50 mL of distilled water into a clean
100-mL beaker. Notice that like most ionic substances, NaCl dissolves easily in water.
3. Making sure that you have wiped off the contact wires, place the conductivity indicator in
the distilled water. Record the results in the data
table.
4. Transfer and dissolve the pile of NaCl into the
distilled water. Dissolving in water is another

Cleanup and Disposal

1. Follow your teachers directions for disposing

of the LiCl.
2. Make sure your balance is left in the same condition as you found it.
3. Be careful that your burner and clamp are
cooled before putting them away.
4. Carefully return all laboratory equipment to the
proper place and dispose of all waste in the
des- ignited containers

Name:

Section:

Lab Partner:

Experiment Date:

properties of ionic compounds

Part B: Melting Point
Observations about the melting point
of NaCl (high or low melting point)
Observations about the melting of
sugar (high or low melting point)

Part C: Conductivity
Test Substance

Conductivity Indicator
(Record light as off, dull, bright, or blinking)

Conductor Rating
(good, poor, or none)

Solid NaCl
Distilled water
NaCl dissolved in distilled water
Sugar dissolved in distilled water
Solid LiCl
Molten LiCl

1. Sodium chloride and lithium chloride are typical ionic compounds, while sugar represents

a typical nonionic compound. In general, how do these two types of compounds compare
in their melting points?

2. In Part C, why was it important to use distilled water instead of tap water for the

conductivity measure?

LABORA

TORY MANUAL

Experiment 3 :
Single Replacement Reactions & Battery Lab
Aims
The aims of this laboratory are to:
a) Perform and observe the results of a variety of single replacement reactions,
b) Become familiar with some of the observable signs of these reactions,
c) Predict and identify the products formed in each of these reactions,
d) Write balanced chemical equations for each single replacement reaction.
e) Make three voltaic cells by using a salt bridge, a citrus fruit and potato.
f) Understand the function of a salt bridge.

Single Replacement Reactions

In Part A of this lab we will examine Single Replacement Reactions. This is one type
of oxidation reduction reaction, or redox reaction, because it occurs via a transfer of electrons.
All single replacement reactions have the general form:

A + BC B + AC
Here, A is an element and BC is usually an aqueous ionic compound or an acid (consisting of
+
B and C aqueous ions). Element A replaces B in BC, resulting in the formation of a new
element B and a new ionic compound or acid, AC. If the new element B is a metal, it will appear
as a metallic deposit. If it is a gas, it will appear as bubbles.
Procedure
Safety
Be especially cautious when using the 6M HCl, and 3M H2SO4. These substances can burn your
skin. Also be aware that skin discoloration will result from contact with AgNO3. If you feel any
tingling sensations or see any color changes on your skin, flush with water immediately for a
minimum of 15 minutes. Inform your instructor of any chemical contact as soon as possible.
Materials and Equipment
Solids (at front of lab): Copper metal, zinc metal, magnesium metal, solid sodium bicarbonate,
copper metal plate, clean and shiny pennies, nickels and dimes
Solutions (in hoods on both sides of lab): 3M sulfuric acid, 6M hydrochloric acid, 1M sodium
chloride, all other solutions are 0.1M and include silver nitrate, lead(II) nitrate, copper(II) sulfate,
zinc nitrate, nickel(II) nitrate, aluminum sulfate
Equipment: 5 medium test tubes, plastic test tube rack, voltmeters, paper towels, aluminum foil
Part A: Single Replacement Reactions

1. Use the medium sized test tubes. Always use clean test tubes that have been rinsed
with distilled water. The test tubes do not have to be dry.
2. Use approximately 3-mL quantities of all solutions. A good estimate is to use two full
dropper squirts of each chemical.
3. Place one piece of metal in the test tube first, and then add the solution. The metal should be
completely immersed in the solution used. If results are not obtained immediately, give the
reaction some time. Some reactions take longer than others.
4.
Perform the following reactions, and record your observations for each on the data sheet.
All waste is to be disposed of in the plastic container in the hood!
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Zinc metal + hydrochloric acid

Copper metal + aqueous silver nitrate
Copper metal + aqueous zinc nitrate
Zinc metal + aqueous lead(II) nitrate
Magnesium metal + sulfuric acid

Part B: Batteries
Salt Bridge Battery
1. Into a 250-mL beaker add approximately 25 mL of 1M copper(II) sulfate. (This is
the cathode.) Label as Beaker #1.
2.
Into another 250-mL beaker, add approximately 25 mL of 1M zinc sulfate. (This is
the anode.) Label as Beaker #2.
3.
Connect the solutions in the beakers by placing one end of a 10- inch piece of cotton
twine into Beaker #1 and the other end into the Beaker #2. Obtain twine which has been soaked
in a concentrated potassium sulfate solution from your instructor. (The twine is the salt
bridge.)
4.
Place a polished piece of copper metal plate into Beaker #1. Connect to voltmeter
using wire clips.
5.
Place a polished piece of zinc metal plate into Beaker #2. Connect to voltmeter using
wire clips.
6.
Turn voltmeter to 2V and record the voltage.
7.
Remove salt bridge. Record the voltage.
Citrus Cell Battery
1. Cut a lemon or grapefruit in half across the segments.
2.
Place the polished piece of zinc metal plate into one half of the fruit. Connect to
voltmeter using wire clips.
3. Place a polished piece of copper metal plate into the other half of the fruit. Connect to
voltmeter using wire clips.
4. Turn voltmeter to 2V and record the voltage.
5. Repeat 1- 4 with a potato. Record your observations.
Coin Battery
1.
Obtain three coins from your instructor. Cut 4 circles of paper towel slightly larger
than the coins.
2.
Soak the paper towels in a beaker containing 20 mL of a 1M sodium chloride solution.
3.
Make a coin batter by placing a coin, a layer of NaCl-soaked paper towel, a different

type of coin in a stack. Do not allow the coins to touch.

4.
Record the voltage.
Name:

Date:

Lab Partner:

Lab Section:

Single Replacement Reactions & Battery Lab

Part A:
For each of the reactions performed:
-- record your observations
-- predict the names and states of the products formed
-- write the balanced equation, including all physical states and
-- write the individual oxidation states for each atom.
a. Zinc metal + hydrochloric acid
Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation with Individual Oxidation Numbers above elements:

b. Copper metal + aqueous silver nitrate

Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation with Individual Oxidation Numbers above elements:

c. Copper metal + aqueous zinc nitrate

Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation with Individual Oxidation Numbers above elements:

d. Zinc metal + aqueous lead(II) nitrate

Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation with Individual Oxidation Numbers above elements:

e. Magnesium metal + sulfuric acid

Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation with Individual Oxidation Numbers above elements:

Part B: Batteries
Salt Bridge Battery
1. Voltage of Salt Bridge Battery with Salt Bridge

Voltage

2. Voltage of Salt Bridge Battery without Salt Bridge

Voltage

2. Voltage of Citrus Fruit Battery

Voltage

3. Voltage of Potato Battery

Voltage

Citrus Cell Battery

/1. Type of Citrus Fruit Used

Coin Battery
1. Complete the following table which represents your coin battery.
Top Layer:
Coin:
Center Layer:
Coin:
Bottom Layer:

2. Voltage of Coin Battery

NaCl Soaked Paper Towel

NaCl Soaked Paper Towel
NaCl Soaked Paper Towel

Voltage

Questions:
1. What happened when the salt bridge was removed from the salt bridge battery. Explain results.

2. What acid acts an electrolyte in the citrus fruit battery?

3. Which type of battery produced the greatest voltage? Why?

EXPERIMENT 4 :
Double Replacement Reactions
/Aims :

The aims of this lab are to:

a) Perform and observe the results of a variety of double displacement reactions,
b) Become familiar with some of the observable signs of these reactions,
c) Identify the products formed in each of these reactions,
d) Write balanced chemical equations for each double displacement reaction studied.
Double Displacement Reactions
All double displacement reactions have the general form:

AB + CD AD + CB

Procedure
Safety
Be especially cautious when using the 6M HCl, 3M H2SO4 and 6M NaOH as they can burn your
skin. Also be aware that skin discoloration will result from contact with AgNO3. If you feel any
tingling sensations or see any color changes on your skin, flush with water immediately for a
minimum of 15 minutes. Inform your instructor of any chemical contact as soon as possible.

Materials and Equipment

Solids: solid sodium bicarbonate
Solutions: 6M sodium hydroxide, 3M sulfuric acid, 6M hydrochloric acid; all other solutions are
0.1M and include silver nitrate, sodium chloride, iron(III) chloride, ammonium hydroxide,
sodium carbonate, cobalt(II) nitrate, sodium phosphate, copper(II) sulfate, potassium nitrate,
nickel(II) nitrate, barium chloride.
Equipment: 9 small test tubes, plastic test tube rack
Instructions for Performing Reactions

Use approximately 3-mL quantities of all solutions. A good estimate is to use three full
dropper squirts of each chemical.

Perform the following reactions, and record your observations for each on the data sheet. If
results are not obtained immediately, give the reaction some time. Some reactions take
longer than others. All waste is to be disposed of in the plastic container in the hood!
Aqueous sodium chloride + aqueous silver nitrate
Aqueous sodium phosphate + aqueous copper(II) sulfate
23

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

When finished, complete the data sheet by writing the balanced equation for each reaction.

23

Hydrochloric acid + solid sodium bicarbonate (just a small scoop)

Aqueous nickel(II) nitrate + aqueous sodium hydroxide
Aqueous barium chloride + sulfuric acid
Hydrochloric acid + aqueous sodium hydroxide
Aqueous sodium carbonate + aqueous cobalt(II) nitrate
Aqueous sodium chloride + aqueous potassium nitrate
Aqueous iron(III) chloride + aqueous ammonium hydroxide

Name:

Chem 9, Section:

Lab Partner:

Experiment Date:
//Double Replacement Reactions

For each of the reactions performed: -- predict the reaction type (precipitation, neutralization or gaseous)
-- record your observations
-- predict the names and states of the products formed
-- write the balanced equation, including all physical states.
1. Aqueous sodium chloride + aqueous silver nitrate
Reaction Type:
Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

2. Aqueous sodium phosphate + aqueous copper(II) sulfate

Reaction Type:
Observations:
Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

3. Hydrochloric acid + solid sodium bicarbonate

Reaction Type:
Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

4. Aqueous nickel(II) nitrate + aqueous sodium hydroxide

Reaction Type:
Observations:
Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

23

Balanced Equation:
5. Aqueous barium chloride + sulfuric acid
Reaction Type:
Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

6. Hydrochloric acid + aqueous sodium hydroxide

Reaction Type:
Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

7. Aqueous sodium carbonate + cobalt(II) nitrate

Reaction Type:
Observations:

Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

8. Aqueous sodium chloride + aqueous potassium nitrate

Reaction Type:
Observations:
Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:
9. Aqueous iron(III) chloride + aqueous ammonium hydroxide
Reaction Type:
Observations:
Product Names & States (if none, why not?):

Balanced Equation:

23

EXPERIMENT 5 :
//

pH Measurement and its Applications

Aimas:
To measure the pH of various solutions using pH indicators and meter.
To create and study the properties of buffer solutions.

Background:
Part A. Using Indicators to Measure pH

In this part of the experiment you will use five pH indicators to determine the pH of four solutions
to within one pH unit. An acid-base indicator is a chemical that undergoes a distinct color
change at a specific pH. In order for an indicator to be effective, a small quantity (usually one or
two drops) of indicator is all that should be required to observe this color change. We can
represent the chemical reaction that an acid-base indicator undergoes during a color change as:

23

Part B. Using pH Meters

In this part of the experiment you will learn to use a pH meter to measure pH. Your instructor will
demonstrate how to use the pH meter appropriately at the beginning of your laboratory session.
PH meter calibration
Calibration Procedure
1.

Rinse the electrode with distilled water.

2.

Place the electrode in a pH = 7.00 buffer solution.

3.

Wait a for the meter to stabilize, then adjust the meter until it reads a pH of 7.00.

4.

Remove the electrode from the solution and rinse it with distilled water.

5.

Place the electrode in the second buffer solution (pH = 4.00 or 10.00 buffers).

6.

Wait a moment for the meter to stabilize, then adjust the meter until it displays the same

pH as the buffer.
7.

Remove the electrode from the second buffer solution and rinse it with distilled water.

8.

Re-place the electrode in the pH = 7.00 buffer solution. If the reading does not return 7.00,

then repeat the calibration procedure using both buffers.

Part C : Buffer Solutions

In this part of the experiment you will prepare a buffer solution of a pH specified by your
instructor u.

To do so you will use Equation (7), solving for [A ] / [HA], to determine the amount of each
solution you will need to use to prepare the buffer. You will confirm the pH of this solution using
your pH meter.

Finally, you will compare the buffering capacity of the buffer you prepare with that of deionized
water.

Procedure:

Materials and Equipment:

You will need the following additional items for this experiment:

pH meter
magnetic stirrer and stir-bar
50-mL buret

Safety:

GENERAL SAFETY: Students must wear safety goggles and lab coats at all times.

GLOVES: Gloves are needed when handling:

zinc sulfate
sodium carbonate
sodium bisulfate
methyl yellow
congo red
bromocresol green
phenolphthalein
unknown acid

WASTE DISPOSAL: All chemicals used must go in the proper waste container for disposal.

Procedure:

Part A. Determination of pH using Acid-Base Indicators

1. Rinse five small test tubes using deionized water (there is no need to dry these). To
each of these test tubes add about 1 mL of 0.1-M HCl(aq). (Estimate these volumes). To
each of these test tubes add one of the five indicators listed in Table 1. Be sure to
arrange or label your test tubes so that you know which indicator was added to which
tube.

2. By comparing the colors you observe in each tube you should be able to determine the
pH of the 0.1-M HCl solution to within one pH unit (see background discussion). Record
your color observations and your determination of the pH range of the 0.1-M HCl
solution on your data sheet.

3. Repeat the same procedure using each of the following solutions:

0.1-M sodium hydrogen phosphate, NaH2PO4(aq)

0.1-M acetic acid, CH3COOH(aq)
0.1-M zinc sulfate, ZnSO4(aq)

4. Record your results for each on your data sheet.

Part B. Using pH Meters

Your instructor will demonstrate the proper use of the pH meters.

1. Rinse four small 100 or 150-mL beakers several times using deionized water. Do not
use any soap as the residue may affect your pH measurements.

2. Into each of your four clean beakers collect about 30 mL of one of the following:

0.1-M sodium chloride, NaCl(aq)

0.1-M sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(aq)
0.1-M sodium acetate, NaCH3COO(aq)
0.1-M sodium hydrogen sulfate, NaHSO4(aq)

3. Use your pH meter to determine the pH of each of these four solutions. Record the
results on your data sheet. Add a drop or two or bromcresol green indicator to each of
these solutions. Record the color of the indicator in each solution on your data sheet.

Part C : Buffer Solutions

prepare a buffer solution that will maintain the pH assigned to you by your instructor (see
background section). It is suggested you use only a portion of each of these two solutions in
case your first attempt does not succeed.

Use your pH meter to confirm the pH of your buffer solution. Your measured pH value should be
within 0.2 pH units of your assigned value. Record your measured value on your data sheet
and obtain your instructors initials confirming your success.

Now we will test the buffer solution you prepared against changes in pH.

Rinse and fill another 150-mL beaker with a volume of deionized water equal to that of your
buffer solution. Using your pH meter measure the pH of the deionized water. Do not be alarmed
if this pH is less than neutral. It should be between 5.2 and 7.0. Do you know why? What
species from the atmosphere dissolves in water that is left standing and lowers the pH?

Add 5 drops of the remaining 0.2 M NaOH solution to both the beaker containing your buffer
solution and that containing the deionized water. Measure the pH of each of these solutions
following this addition and determine the change in pH of each. Record these values on your
data sheet.

Clean up. Discard all chemicals in the proper chemical waste container. Clean and then return
all borrowed equipment to the stockroom.

Name:

Date:

Lab Partner:

Lab Section:

//

Lab Report: pH Measurement and its

Applications

Part A Determination of pH using Acid-Base Indicators

Record the colors of the indicators observed for each solution tested. Then use these colors and
Table 1 to estimate the pH range of each solution (for example, pH =1-2).
Indicator used

0.1-M HCl

0.1-M NaH2PO4

0.1-M CH3COOH

0.1-M ZnSO4

Methyl violet
Thymol blue
Methyl yellow
Congo Red
Bromcresol green
pH range

/ Consider your results for the solutions of 0.1-M HCl and 0.1 M CH3COOH. Which has the
lower pH and why is its pH lower?

/ Consider your results for the 0.1-M ZnSO4 solution. Is the solution acidic or basic?

Which ion, Zn

2+

or SO4

, is causing the observed acidity or basicity?

Write the net ionic equation below that shows why this ion is acidic or basic:

Part B Using pH Meters

Record the measured pH and the color of bromcresol green indicator observed for each solution.
0.1-M NaCl

0.1 M-Na2CO3

0.1 M-CH3COONa

0.1 M NaHSO4

Measured pH
Color in indicator

Consider your results for the 0.1-M NaCl solution. Is the color obtained when tested
with bromcresol green indicator as expected? Explain.

Consider your results for the 0.1-M Na2CO3 solution. Is the solution acidic or basic?

/Which ion, Na or CO3 is causing the observed acidity or basicity?

Write the net ionic equation below that shows why this ion is acidic or basic:

 Consider your results for the 0.1-M NaHSO4 solution. Is the solution acidic or basic?

/Which ion, Na or HSO4 is causing the observed acidicity or basicity?

/Write the net ionic equation below that shows why this ion is acidic or basic:

Part C Buffer Solutions

Record your results below.

pH of Buffer Assigned by Instructor:

Measured pH of Assigned Buffer:

Instructors Initials:

Show the calculations you used and detail the steps you followed to prepare this buffer
solution including the volumes of all solutions used:

Compare the pH change of the buffer prepared above to that of deionized water upon the
addition of a strong base by recording the following values:

Deionized Water

Buffer Solution

pH before adding NaOH:

pH after adding 5 drops of NaOH:
pH change:
Briefly explain why the buffer is more resistant to a change of pH upon addition of the base
than the water. Use equations to support your explanation:

Why isnt the measured pH of the deionized water before adding the NaOH(aq) equal to 7.0?