Satellite Communication Lab Manual

LAB MANUAL
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
[Document title]
Submitted To: Engr. Iftikhar Rasheed
Department of Telecommunication Engineering

University College of Engineering & Technology
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
LABORATORY WORK BOOK
For The Course

Satellite Communication (TE-422)
Student Name: ______________

Roll No. __________________
Prepared By:
Engr. Iftikhar Rasheed
Lecturer, Telecommunications Engineering
Department of Telecommunication Engineering

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
LAB EXPERIMENTS
LIST OF CONTENTS
Serial No
Name of the Experiment
Lab 1
Analysis of a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Technique
Lab 2
Analysis of a Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Technique
Lab 3
Evaluation of SNR in Satellite Links
Lab 4
Analysis of QPSK Modulation Techniques for LEO Satellite Downlink

Communication
Lab 5
Analysis of BPSK Modulation Techniques for LEO Satellite Downlink

Communication
Lab 6
Analysis of a GPS Receiver
Lab 7
To Study the Parasitic Elements of Antenna
Lab 8
To Analyze the Effect of Ground Reflections
Lab 9
To Study the Block Diagram of Master Antenna TV System
Lab 10
Study of Community Antenna TV System
Lab 11
Satellite Image Processing with MATLAB
Lab 12
Satellite Orbital Decay- Law of Atmospheres
Lab 13
Semi -Empirical Modeling
Lab 14
Orbital Drag
Lab 15
Space Weather Effects

Telecom Engineering Department
LAB EXPERIMENT NO.01

Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Lab Instructor Signature: --------------------
Marks Obtained: ----------------
Analysis of a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Technique

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1) Personal Computer equipped with Pentium -4 or above processor.
2) Simulation software (MATLAB, C, C++).
THEORY:
In satellite communications, spread-spectrum techniques offer several advantages because
they have the inherent capability of reducing multipath fading and intra-system as well
as inter- system interference. Spread-spectrum techniques also permit easy multiple
accesses in the form of CDMA.
An approach to spread spectrum is the Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Technique. DSSS
involves multiplying the baseband data signal by a wider bandwidth signal, which takes the
form of a pseudorandom binary code. The advantage if it is resistance to signal jamming.
Direct sequence contrasts with the other spread spectrum process, known as frequency
hopping spread spectrum, or frequency hopping code division multiple access (FHCDMA), in which a broad slice of the bandwidth spectrum is divided into many possible
broadcast frequencies. In general, frequency -hopping devices use less power and are
cheaper, but the performance of DS- CDMA systems is usually better and more reliable.
Direct sequence spread spectrum, also known as direct sequence code division multiple
access (DS-CDMA), and is one of two approaches to spread spectrum modulation for
digital signal transmission over the airwaves. In direct sequence spread spectrum, the
stream of information to be transmitted is divided into small pieces, each of which is
allocated across to a frequency channel across the spectrum. A data signal at the point of
transmission is combined with a higher data-rate bit sequence (also known as a chipping
code) that divides the data according to a spreading ratio. The redundant chipping code
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helps the signal resist interference and also enables the original data to be recovered if data
bits are damaged during transmission.
SYSTEM MODEL:
Consider the system below (Fig-1) where b[n] is the message signal, s[n] is the
spreading function (or pseudorandom code), q[n] is the transmitted bits, r[n] are the received
bits.
RESULTS:
OBSERVATIONS:
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Analysis of a Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Technique

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
THEORY:
In satellite communications, spread-spectrum techniques offer several advantages because
they have the inherent capability of reducing multipath fading and intra- system as well as
inter- system interference. Spread-spectrum techniques also permit easy multiple access in
the form of CDMA.
Another approach to spread spectrum is the Frequency Hopping (FH). In FHSS the
spreading code is used to control a frequency agile local oscillator, the output of which is
used to up- convert the modulated IF carrier to a higher frequency band. The resulting RF
output is referred to as a hopping sequence. A replica of the spreading code is applied at the
receiver to recover the wanted information.
SYSTEM MODEL:
Consider the system below:-
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The Hop Code generator generates the hopping pattern of the FHSS system. A similar
hopping pattern is at the receiver.
OBSERVATIONS:
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
WORK SHEET:
Q 1: What are the advantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q 2: How FHSS reduces the multipath fading in satellite communication?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Evaluation of SNR in Satellite Links

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
THEORY:
The important parameter for a communication system is the signal to noise ratio. It is often
stated that the carrier to noise ratio is C/N. C is just the available signal power at the
receiving antenna terminals and N the available noise power at the same point. The carrier
power and for the noise power we get:
This equation is often expressed in logarithmic terms and forms the basis for the link budget.
Before introducing (1) in logarithmic terms, it is important to realize that dB-measures
are relative figures. If we however introduce a known reference, the dB figures become
absolute measures. You will find dBm (rel. to 1 mW), dBV (rel. to 1 V), dBW (rel. to 1
W), dBHz (rel. to 1 Hz) and so on.
Often two or more terms in (1) are combined. Gir/Ts is one example. Eq 1 is sometimes
expressed as C/No. In this case the noise bandwidth in the denominator on the right side is
excluded. (1) in logarithmic terms:
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Ls could include Polarization Loss, Pointing Loss, and Atmospheric Attenuation and so on.
What you need to take into account depend upon the frequency.
WORK SHEET:
Q 1: How SNR affects the satellite links?
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q 2: What do you understand from the equation of C/N?

___________________________________________________________________________
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Q 3: How C/N is implemented in link budget calculation?

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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Analysis of QPSK Modulation Techniques for LEO Satellite Downlink

Communications
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
THEORY:
The discussion explains the methodology and the simulation results of the
performances of modulation techniques under the implications of highly dynamic LEO
satellite downlink. Modulation schemes that can possibly serve the objectives are the
phase shift keying type modulations. Hence, the performance of quadrature phase shift
keying (QPSK), offset QPSK (OQPSK) have been investigated through simulations
considering the LEO satellite communication downlink channel properties. The modulators
and demodulators are synthesized using computer programs. The simulations demonstrated
the necessity of applying non-coherent demodulators in order to fight with the multipath
fading present in the downlink channel. When LEO communication is considered, reliability
and robustness of the link should have the highest priority. Therefore, achieving high data
rates has to be accompanied by a robust and reliable system. In order to study the
performance of various Modulation schemes, it is essential to understand clearly the
constraints applied by tbe.LE0 communication link. Hence, the characteristic properties of
downlink have to be examined carefully, which was one of the necessary parts of the
research.
Therefore synthesized demodulators need to cover these two crucial circuits. Final objective
was to compare the performances of the mentioned modulation schemes under LEO
satellite communication environment and, if it is possible, to demonstrate better one or ones
that might be used in future mission.
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SIMULATED CIRCUIT:
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OBSERVATIONS:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
WORK SHEET:
Q 1: Why QPSK is preferred on other modulation techniques?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q 2: What is the effect on BER as Eb/No is changed in QPSK?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Analysis of BPSK Modulation Techniques for LEO Satellite Downlink

Communications
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
THEORY:
The discussion explains the methodology and the simulation results of the
performances of modulation techniques under the implications of highly dynamic LEO
satellite downlink. Modulation schemes that can possibly serve the objectives are the
phase shift keying type modulations. Hence, the performance of binary phase shift
keying (BPSK), has been investigated through simulations considering the LEO satellite
communication downlink channel properties. The modulators and demodulators are
synthesized using computer programs. The simulations demonstrated the necessity of
applying non-coherent demodulators in order to fight with the multipath fading present in
the downlink channel. When LEO communication is considered, reliability and robustness
of the link should have the highest priority. Therefore, achieving high data rates has to be
accompanied by a robust and reliable system. In order to study the performance of various
Modulation schemes, it is essential to understand clearly the constraints applied by
tbe.LE0 communication link. Hence, the characteristic properties of downlink have to be
examined carefully, which was one of the necessary parts of the research.
Modulation schemes that can possibly serve the objectives are the phase shift keying
type modulations. Synthesized demodulators need to cover these two crucial circuits. Final
objective was to compare the performances of the mentioned modulation schemes under
LEO satellite communication environment and, if it is possible, to demonstrate better one
or ones that might be used in future mission.
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SIMULATED CIRCUIT:
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OBSERVATIONS:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
WORK SHEET:
Q 1: Why BPSK is preferred on other modulation techniques?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q 2: What is the effect on BER as Eb/No is changed in BPSK?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Analysis of a GPS Receiver

THEORY:
The GPS system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites. While not officially declared
fully operational, for all practical purposes the system is now fully operational. These
satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of about 10,900 miles and at an inclination of 55
degrees. As I will demonstrate in my next column, this orbit translates to an orbital period of
12 hours. The orbits are distributed around the earth in such a way that at least 4 satellites
are always visible from virtually any point on the surface of the earth. This provides a
means of precisely determining the position of the user in longitude, latitude, and altitude.
The satellites operate at two frequencies, known as L1 and L2. These two frequencies are
1575.42 MHz and 1227.6 MHz, respectively.
The whole system operates at a system clock frequency of 10.23 MHz, which is an exact
submultiple of the L1 and L2 frequencies. The two transmission frequencies are modulated
with a pseudo-random signal to produce spread spectrum signals. The L1 channel is
modulated with both a 1.023 Mbps pseudo-random code known as the C/A
(course/acquisition) code and a 10.23 Mbps PN code known as the P (precision) code. The
L2 channel is only modulated with the P code. The two codes are considerably different
in characteristics. The L1 code repeats every 1023 bits, or every 1 millisecond. The P
code, on the other hand, only repeats itself every 267 days. Furthermore, the P code can be
encrypted by the Department of Defense, so as to make it unavailable to civilian (or
unauthorized) users. This limits the best accuracy obtainable by unauthorized users to
about 30 meters, while allowing authorized users to achieve accuracies of up to 3 meters.
Additionally, the DOD, at its discretion, can disseminate slightly inaccurate information
pertaining to the location of the satellites, so as to further degrade the accuracy obtainable by
unauthorized users to about 100 meters. These accuracy degradation capabilities are
important, since hostile nations could use the information against us in times of war.
As time has gone by, however, more potential applications have been developed for GPS and
many techniques have been developed to augment the accuracy available to unauthorized
users. Techniques like carrier phase tracking and differential GPS can allow users to obtain
centimeter level accuracy, especially in cases where measurements are being made at a
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fixed location. However, it is well established that even aircraft positions can be determined
to an accuracy of better than several meters, even in real time.
Other applications include moving map displays in cars and trucks. Attitudes of aircraft and
spacecraft can also be determined with GPS. GPS equipment is currently set-up in the San
Francisco area to allow researchers to measure the amount of shifting in the earth's
surface during the next earthquake. GPS was also recently used to measure the height of
Mount Everest and K2. Forest fire fighters use GPS to define the extent of fires and
townships are using GPS equipped vans to map roads in a small fraction of the time
that would be required for conventional surveying techniques.
GPS Receiver:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) works on the principle that if you know your
distance from several locations, then you can calculate your location. The known locations
are the 24 satellites located in six orbital planes at an altitude of 20,200Km. These satellites
circle the Earth every 12 hours and broadcast a data stream at the primary frequency L1 of
1.575GHz which carries the coarse -acquisition (C/A) encoded signal to the ground. The
GPS receiver measures the time of arrival of the C/A code to a fraction of a
millisecond, and thus determines the distance to the satellite.
The Core Subsystems include:
Front End
The GPS L1 signals (Maximum = 24 signals) at 1.575GHz are received at
the antenna and amplified by the Low-Noise-Amplifier (LNA). The RF frontend further filters, mixes, and amplifies (AGC) the signal down to the IF
frequency where it is digitally sampled by an ADC.
Baseband Processor/CPU
The ADC samples of GPS C/A code signals are correlated by the DSP and then
formulated to make range measurements to the GPS satellites. The DSP is
interfaced with a general-purpose CPU, which handles tracking channels and
controls user interfaces. TI OMAP integrates both DSP and ARM processor on
the same chip.
Memory
The processor runs applications stored in memory. The OS is stored in nonvolatile memory such as EE/FLASH/ROM. Applications may be loaded in
FLASH or DRAM.
User Interface
Allows user to input/output data from the receiver using input commands via
microphone, touch screen, and output MP3 to the earplug.
Connectivity
Allows the receiver to connect to the USB port.
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WORK SHEET:
Q 1: What is the meaning of GPS trilateration?
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q 2: How PDOP affect the precision of GPS?

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Q 3: How GDOP affect the GPS precision?

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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
To Study the Parasitic Elements of Antenna

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1) Connected up the hardware of antenna lab
2) Load the discovery software
3) Load the NEC-win software
PROCEDURE:
Two Dipole Elements:
1. Identify one of the Yagi boom assemblies and mount it on the top of the generator
tower.
2. Ensure that all of the elements are removed except for the dipole and that this is
mounted above the tower support.
3. Launch a signal strength vs. angle 2D polar graph window and immediately switch on
the motor enable switch.
4. Ensure that the receiver and generator antennas are aligned with each other and that
the spacing between then is about one meter.
5. Set the dipole length to 10cm.
6. Acquire a new plot at 1500MHz.
7. Observe the polar plot obtained.
8. Identify one of the un-driven dipole antenna system.
9. Move the driven dipole forward on the boom by about 2.5cm and mount a second undriven dipole length to 10cm.
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10. Acquire a second new plot at 1500MHz.
11. Change the spacing between the two elements of the antenna to 2.5cm.
12. Acquire a third new pole at 1500MHz.
Changing the Length of Parasitic Antenna:
13. Set the spacing between the two elements to 2.5cm and ensure the length of both the
elements are 10cm.
14. Launch a new signal strength vs. angle 2D polar graph window.
15. Acquire a new plot at 1500MHz.
16. Extend the length of un-driven element to 11cm.
17. Acquire a second new plot at 1500MHz.
18. Reduce the length of the un-driven element to 8cm.
19. Acquire a third new plot at 1500MHz.
Software Simulation:
1. Run NEC-Win and click open the file on the tool bar. Open file dipole-1.
2. Check that Y-coordinates for the dipole are -0.05 and +0.05 and ensure that no
ground is set.
3. Click on the cell of the table that has the figure 1 in it under wire on the left hand
column of the table. This will high light the wire 1 row.
4. Click on the copy button on the tool bar to paste into the wire2 row.
5. The second dipole must now be placed 2.5cm to be -0.025 to do this. Verify that you
have done this correctly by looking at NEC-Vu.
6. The second dipole is not going to be driven so you need to remove the source icon
into the bin at bottom right band corner. Then click OK.
7. Save this two elements antenna as 2e11.
8. Look at plots of this antenna.
9. Now change the length of second dipole to give a total length of 11cm.
10. Save this antenna as 2e12.
11. Look at the plots of antenna.
12. Now change the length of second dipole to give a total length of 8cm.
13. Save this antenna as 2e13.
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14. Look at the plots for this antenna and add the 2e11 and 2e12 files. Give them different
colors so that you can identify.
15. With the length of second dipole the direction of maximum radiations is from the
driven elements towards the parasitic elements. In this case the parasitic element is
called director.
16. With the length of second dipole longer then the drive dipole the direction of
maximum radiations is from the patristic element towards the driven element. In this
case the parasitic element is called reflector.
WORK SHEET:
Q1: Has the polar pattern changed by adding the second element in hardware modeling?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2: Has the gain and directivity changed by adding the second element in hardware?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Q3: What changes has the alteration in length mode to the gain and directivity?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q4: How do these theoretical simulated plots compare with the real plots in hardware
modeling?
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
To Analyze the Effect of Ground Reflections

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1) Loaded the NEC-Win plus software in PC.
DISCUSSION:
The ground around and under antenna is a part of environment in which any actual antenna
must operate. This interaction can be analyzed depending in where they occur relative to two
areas surroundings the antenna the reactive near field and the radiating for field. The reactive
near field only exists very close to the antenna itself. In this region the antenna acts as
though it were a large lumped constant inductor or capacitor, where energy is stored but
very little is actually radiated. The interaction with ground in this area creates mutual
impedance of an antenna, but also often increases losses.
In this radiating for field, the presence of ground profoundly influences the radiation pattern
of antenna. The interaction is different depending on the antenna polarization with respect to
the ground. For horizontally polarized antennas the shape of the radiated pattern in the
elevation plane strongly depend on the nature of ground itself as well as on the height of the
antenna above ground.
PROCEDURE:
For single dipole above perfect ground:
1. Run NEC-Win and construct single dipole and save as dipole-1. If already saved
them click open file on the tool bar. Open the file dipole-1.
2. Change Z1 and Z2 to 0.025m.
3. Click on file then save as in the ground box just below the toolbar set the ground to
perfect ground and ensure that the frequency is set to 1500MHz.
4. Click run on NEC button and then examine the azimuth and elevation plots produced,
dipole over real ground:
5. Construct single dipole with previous readings as constructed for single dipole above
perfect ground in as save as dipole 2 again.
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6. Click on presents at ground box select real ground.
7. Click on presents at the top left hand corner of dialogue box that appears.
8. Select urban button and industrial area and then click OK.
9. Click the run NEC and then save dipole3.
10. Click the polar plot button and add file select the file dipole 2when prompted.
11. Choose different colors for plots of two antenna system.
12. Examine the elevation plot first.
WORK SHEET:
Q1: Are the plots different from those with no ground in single dipole?
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
Q2: Are the plots similar in shape in the perfect ground and real ground in elevation?
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Q3: Are the plots similar in shape in the perfect ground and real ground in azimuth?
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
To Study the Block Diagram of Master Antenna TV System

MASTER ANTENNA TV SYSTEM:
A master antenna TV (MATV) system is used to provide reception of DBS TV/FM channels
to a small group of users, for example, to the tenants in an apartment building .It consist of a
single outdoor unit (antenna and LNA/C)feeding a number of indoor units, as shown in Fig.
It is basically similar to the home system already described, but with each user having
access to all the channels independently of the other users.
The advantage is that only one outdoor unit is required, but as shown, separate LNA/Cs and
feeder cables are required for each sense of polarization. Compared with the single user
system, a larger antenna is also required (2- to 3-m diameter) in order to maintain a goof
signal-to-noise ratio at all the indoor units.
Where more than a few subscribers are involved, the distribution used is similar to
the community antenna (CATV) described in the following section. In the figure given below
there are various components of master antenna TV system are shown and it also
differentiate between the input and output units of the system.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM:
WORK SHEET:
Q1: What do you mean by LHC and RHC polarization?
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Q2: What is function of polarization diplexer?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3: What is the function of power divider?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Study of Community Antenna TV System

THEORY:
The CATV system employs a single outdoor unit, with separate feeds available for each sense
of polarization, like a MATV system, so that all channels are made available simultaneously
at the indoor receiver for each user, all the carriers are demodulated in a common receiver
filter system, as shown in Fig. The channels are then combined into a standard multiplexed
signal for transmission over cable to the subscribers.
In remote areas where a cable distribution system may not be installed, the signal can be re
broadcasted from a low-over VHF TV transmitter. Figure shows a remote TV station which
employs an 8-m (26.2 ft) antenna for reception of the satellite TV signal in the C-band. With
the CATV system, local programming material also be distributed to subscribers, an option
which is not permitted in the MATV system.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
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WORK SHEET:
Q1: What are the applications of community antenna TV system?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2: Write down the function of wideband receiver?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3: What is the function of channel filters and combiner?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Satellite Image Processing with MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
MATLAB (MATrix LABoratory) integrates computation, visualization, and programming in
an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
mathematical notation. MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called
toolboxes. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that
extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy
logic, wavelets, simulation, image processing and many others. Image processing tool box
has extensive functions for many operations for image restoration, enhancement and
information extraction. Some of the basic features of the image processing tool box are
explained and demonstrated with the help of a satellite imagery obtained from IRS (Indian
Remote Sensing Satellite).
Basic Operations with MATLAB Image Processing Tool Box:
Read and Display an Image:

Clear the MATLAB workspace of any variables and close the open figure
windows. To read an image, use the imread command. Let's read in a JPEG image
named image4. JPG, and store it in an array named I. I= imread (image4. JPG);
Now call imshow to display I. imshow (I)Image is displayed as shown below in Fig.
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Image is displayed as shown in Fig above. This image is IRS LISS III Band 4 (Near
Infrared) data showing a portion of Uttara Kannada district in Karnataka. Some
features in the image are;
(i) Arabian Sea on the left
(ii) Kalinadi in top half
(iii)Dense vegetation. Small white patches in the image are clouds.
Check the Image in Memory:

Enter the whos command to see how I is stored in memory. Whos MATLAB responds
with;
Name Size
Bytes Class
I 342x342
116964 uint8
Grand total is 116964 elements using 116964 bytes
Histogram Equalization:
As can be seen, image4.JPG is in low contrast i.e., although pixels can be in the
intensity range of 0-255 they are distributed in a narrow range. To see the distribution
of intensities in image4.JPG in its current state, a histogram can be created by
calling the imhist function. (Precede the call to imhist with the figure command so
that the histogram does not overwrite the display of the image in the current figure
window.) Figure, imhist (I) % Display a histogram of I in a new figure (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Histogram of raw image

Images in MATLAB and the Image Processing Toolbox
The basic data structure in MATLAB is the array of an ordered set of real or complex
elements. This object is naturally suited to the representation of images, real-valued,
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ordered sets of color or intensity data. MATLAB stores most images as two-dimensional
arrays, in which each element of the matrix corresponds to a single pixel in the displayed
image.
For example, an image composed of 200 rows and 300 columns of different colored dots
would be stored in MATLAB as a 200-by-300 matrix. Some images, such as RGB, require
a three- dimensional array, where the first plane in the third dimension represents the
red pixel intensities, the second plane represents the red and green pixel intensities, and the
third plane represents the blue pixel intensities.
This convention makes working with images in MATLAB similar to working with any
other type of matrix data, and renders the full power of MATLAB available for image
processing applications. For example, a single pixel can be selected from an image matrix
using normal matrix subscripting. I (2,15) This command returns the value of the pixel at row
2, column 15 of the image MATLAB supports the following graphics file formats:
BMP (Microsoft Windows Bitmap)
HDF (Hierarchical Data Format)
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) PCX (Paintbrush)
PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)
XWD (X Window Dump)
Converting Image Storage Classes:
Uint8 and uint16 data can be converted to double precision using the MATLAB function,
double. However, converting between storage classes changes the way MATLAB and the
toolbox interpret the image data. If it is desired to interpret the resulting array properly as
image data, the original data should be rescaled or offset to suit the conversion.
For easier conversion of storage classes, use one of these toolbox functions:
im2double, im2uint8, and im2uint16. These functions automatically handle the rescaling and
offsetting of the original data. For example, the following command converts a double
precision RGB (Red Green Blue) image with data in the range [0, 1] to a uint8 RGB image
with data in the range [0,255].
RGB2 = im2uint8(RGB1);
Converting Graphics File Formats:
To change the graphics format of an image, use imread to read in the image and then
save the image with imwrite, specifying the appropriate format. For example, to convert an
image from a BMP to a PNG, read the BMP image using imread, convert the storage class
if necessary, and then write the image using imwrite, with 'PNG' specified as your target
format.
bitmap = imread('image4.BMP','bmp');
imwrite(bitmap,'image4.png','png');
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Image Arithmetic:
Image arithmetic is the implementation of standard arithmetic operations, such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, on images. Image arithmetic has many uses in
image processing both as a preliminary step and in more complex operations. For example,
image subtraction can be used to detect differences between two or more images of the
same scene or object.
Adding Images:
To add two images or add a constant value to an image, use the imadd function.
imadd adds the value of each pixel in one of the input images with the corresponding
pixel in the other input image and returns the sum in the corresponding pixel of the
output image.
Figure 3. Image after adding two images

Image addition has many uses in image processing. For example, the following code
fragment uses addition to superimpose one image on top of another. The images must
be of the same size and class.
I = imread('image3.JPG');
J = imread('image4.JPG');
K = imadd(I,J);
imshow(K)
Subtracting Images:
To subtract one image from another, or subtract a constant value from an
image, use the imsubtract function. imsubtract subtracts each pixel value in one of
the input images from the corresponding pixel in the other input image and returns
the result in the corresponding pixel in an output image.
X= imread('image5.JPG');
J= imread('image4.JPG');
Page 29 of 49

K= imsubtract(X,J);
Multiplying Images:
To multiply two images, use the immultiply function. immultiply does an element-byelement Multiplication of each corresponding pixel in a pair of input images and
returns the product of these multiplications in the corresponding pixel in an output
image. Image multiplication by a Constant, referred to as scaling, is a common image
processing operation.
Dividing Images:
To divide two images, use the imdivide function. The imdivide function does an
element-byelement division of each corresponding pixel in a pair of input images.
Special Display Techniques:

In addition to imshow, the toolbox includes functions that perform specialized display
operations, or exercise more direct control over the display format.
Adding a Color bar:

The color bar function can be used to add a color bar to an axes object. If a color bar
is added to an axes object that contains an image object, the color bar indicates the
data values that the different colors or intensities in the image correspond to as shown
in Figure 5.
F=imread('image5.JPG');
imshow(F),
Image Resizing:
To change the size of an image, use the imresize function. imresize accepts two
primary arguments viz.
Page 30 of 49

(i)
(ii)
The image to be resized and

The magnification factor.
The command below decreases the size of the image by 0.5 times.
F = imread('image5.JPG');
J = imresize(F,0.5);
Analyzing and Enhancing Images:
The Image Processing Toolbox supports a range of standard image processing operations for
analyzing and enhancing images. Its functions simplify several categories of tasks, including:
Obtaining pixel values and statistics, which are numerical summaries of data in an
image.
Analyzing images to extract information about their essential structure.
Enhancing images to make certain features easier to see or to reduce noise.
Pixel Selection:
The toolbox includes two functions that provide information about the color data
values of image pixels specified. The pixval function interactively displays the data
values for pixels as the curso is moved over the image. pixval can also display the
Euclidean distance between two pixels. The impixel function returns the data values
for a selected pixel or set of pixels. You can supply the coordinates of the pixels as
input arguments, or you can select pixels using a mouse.
Image Analysis
Image analysis techniques return information about the structure of an image.
Edge Detection:
One can use the edge function to detect edges, which are those places in an
image that correspond to object boundaries. To find edges, this function looks for
places in the image where the intensity changes rapidly, using one of these two
criteria:
1. Places where the first derivative of the intensity is larger in magnitude than
some threshold.
2. Places where the second derivative of the intensity with a zero crossing edge
provides a number of derivative estimators, each of which implements one of
the above definitions.
Page 31 of 49

For some of these estimators, it can be specified whether the operation should be
sensitive to horizontal or vertical edges, or both. Edge returns a binary image
containing 1's where edges are found and 0's elsewhere.
The most powerful edge-detection method that edge provides is the Canny method.
The Canny method differs from the other edge-detection methods in that it uses two
different.
The example below illustrates the power of the Canny edge detector. It shows
the results of applying the Sobel and Canny edge detectors to the image4.JPG
image(Figure).
F = imread('image5.JPG');
BW1 = edge(F,'sobel');
BW2 = edge(F,'canny');
imshow(BW1);
figure, imshow(BW2)
Figure 6. Edge detection Image
Page 32 of 49

Image Enhancement:
Image enhancement techniques are used to improve an image, where "improve" is
sometimes defined objectively (e.g., increase the signalto- noise ratio), and sometimes
subjectively (e.g., make certain features easier to see by modifying the colors or intensities).
Intensity Adjustment:
Intensity adjustment is a technique for mapping an image's intensity values to a
new range. For example, image4.JPG is a low contrast image. The histogram of
image4.JPG, indicates that there are very few values above 80. If the data values are
remapped to fill the entire intensity range [0,255], one can increase the contrast of the
image. This kind of adjustment can be achieved with the imadjust function in
addition to the histeq function already explained. The general syntax of imadjust is.
J = imadjust(I,[low_in high_in],[low_out high_out])
Where, low_in and high_in are the intensities in the input image, which are mapped
to low_out, and high_out in the output image. For example, the code below performs
the adjustment described above.
I=imread('image4.JPG');
J = imadjust(I,[0.0 0.3],[0 1]);
The first vector passed to imadjust, [0.0 0.3], specifies the low and high intensity
values of image. The second vector, [0 1], specifies the scale over which you want to
map them. Thus, the example maps the intensity value 0.0 in the input image to 0 in
the output image, and 0.3 to 1. Note that one must specify the intensities as values
between 0 and 1 regardless of the class of I. If I is in uint8, the values supplied are
multiplied by 255 to determine the actual values to use. To use imadjust, one must
typically perform two steps:
1. View the histogram of the image to determine the intensity value limits.
2. Specify these limits as a fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 so that you can pass
them to imadjust in the [low_in high_in] vector.
Page 33 of 49


Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Satellite Orbital Decay- Law of Atmospheres

OBJECTIVE:
Explore effects of atmosphere drag on motion of satellites that are in low enough orbits
to be affected by the Earths atmosphere. In this lab, you will analyze how the solar activity
can affect the atmosphere and cause changes in the thickness of atmospheric layers. This in
turn affects the orbit of the satellites.
PROCEDURE:
Compare and contrast ideal and model atmospheres

Study the atmospheres density and temperature profile
Develop basic physics to describe satellite motion
Calculate boundary values for problem
Write a program using Excel to describe satellite motion
Plot characteristics of satellites (in near circular orbit) under the influence of drag
Explore effects of time-varying atmosphere heating
Collision avoidance and re-entry prediction
Law of Atmospheres:
The challenge is to use excel to model how the density of atmosphere decreases in the
troposphere. Density is the mass of air per volume (=M/Vol). The atmosphere in the
troposphere is relatively dense, and particles in the atmosphere collide frequently (they
move with some average velocity v and have an average temperature T). This implies that
we can use the ideal gas law (remember PV=nkT?) In fact the more accurate form of the
law of atmospheres is:
Page 34 of 49

Where m is the mass of the gas molecule, g the gravitational acceleration, and k the
Boltzmann constant.
Now type this formula into the Excel spread sheet and then plot how the density of the
atmosphere, , varies with altitude, h. The Simple Law of Atmospheres assumes that all
quantities in the exponent (the particle mass, m, the temperature, T, and the gravitational
acceleration, g) remain constant, and that the only variable is the altitude, h.
Double click on Satellite-Lab to open the Excel spread sheet.

Click on Simple Atmosphere at the bottom of the page. You will see a
spreadsheet with some constants highlighted in green and a formula highlighted in
yellow. You will need to calculate the purple values. Lets start with the height. You
could type in all values from 0, 1, 2, 3 to 1000, but you can also have Excel do this
for you.
If you know how to use Excel just put those values into column [A], if not follow
the instructions in the different type font below:
Click the cell directly underneath h in km [A11].
Type 0 followed by <return> for h=0 at sea level.
Now increase the altitude in steps of 1km, click on the cell underneath the
0, on cell [A12]
Type = then click on the previous cell, on [A11], at this stage Excel will
insert A11
Type +1, then click <return> to enter the formula.
Put the cursor on back on cell [A12], and left-click. Go to the bottom right
of the cell; when the cursor turns to a thin cross, pull down the mouse
until h=1,000km. Voila, column [A] is done.
Next let us convert km to meters and store all the values in column [B].
Click the cell directly underneath h in meters, on cell [B11]

Type = then click on cell [A11] at this stage Excel will insert A11
Type *1000, then click <return> to enter the formula.
Like before, put the cursor on cell [B11], and left-click; go to the bottom right
of the cell; and when the cursor turns to a thin cross, pull down the mouse
until h=1,000,000m.
You now have written your first Excel program. Calculating the density is a little
more complicated, but the general idea is the same. For every altitude, h, which is
stored in column [B], we want to calculate the corresponding value of the density
and put it into column [C]. Lets calculate the density. Recall the formula; put in h=0
Page 35 of 49

meters and solve. We can calculate this even without a calculator since the exponent
is equal to zero. So at h=0 is o (i.e., o =1.21 kg/m3).
Next we need to determine the density at an altitude of 1km, then at 2km. So insert
1km (convert km to meters first 1km=1000m) into the above formula. Youll get:
Rewrite the above formula, but substitute 1, 2, or 3 with i i then corresponds to

each ith value of density (i) and altitude (hi).
Insert this formula into Excel. If you do not know Excel, follow the instructions
below:
Click on cell C11
Type in =1.21
Click the cell to the right of h=1 (This is cell C12)
Type =1.21, then type *exp(-
Click on cell B12, which is the altitude in meters Excel will insert
B12
Type *, then at cell D3 click on 4.8079E-26 the value of m Excel
will insert m0
Type *, then at cell D4 click on 9.8 the value of g Excel will
insertg_surface
Type /, then at cell D5 click on 1.38E-23 the value of k Excel
will insert k_B
Type /, then at cell D6 click on 293 the value of T Excel will
insert T
Type ), then click <return>. Your formula is now typed into the 1
cell.
Select that cell and after getting the small cross in the lower right, pull
down the mouse until h=1000km.
Scroll back to the top and check the values of 1 & 2 they should have the
same values as what you calculated before.
Now check out the graph. Put your cursor to the bottom of the Excel sheet and click on Alt.
vs. Mass Density (simple). The graph should appear. It shows how density changes with
altitude. The graph is actually displayed below. Look at the green line.
Page 36 of 49

The above plot shows the altitude versus mass density for three different temperatures.
Which of a, b, c (the green, blue and red lines) has the highest temperature? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Page 37 of 49

The satellite will be flying at an altitude of 350 km. Read off the value for the
density
______________________
The best vacuum produced on Earth has a density of ~10-20 g/cm3 (or 10-23 kg/m3).
Compare this value to the density in which the mass is flying.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Page 38 of 49


Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Semi -Empirical Modeling

Theory:
Empirical models are models that orginate or are based on factual information or directly
sensed information. There are four possibilities of dealing with poorly behaved theoretical
models.
Rethinking the theory, i.e., the Simple Atmosphere from Part I

Expanding upon the theoretical model
Creating and using an empirical model from data
Tweaking the theoretical model and iteratively adding observational data, e)
doing semi-empirical modeling
i.e.
Lets first look at the formula for the simple atmosphere again and decide what it really
tells us. In the exponent we have a balance between mgh and kT So we actually have
three more variables: m, g, and T (in addition to the altitude h).
In previous lab we assumed that all these values remain constant as we go to higher and
higher altitudes. What do you think, is this a reasonable assumption?
Can you assume that the gravitational acceleration is constant at higher altitudes? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Can you assume that the composition of individual molecules remains constant? Explain.
[Hint: What is the chemical composition of the different atmospheric layers? And what do
you think might happen if these molecules have different masses?] Can you assume that the
temperature remains constant? Explain.
Page 39 of 49

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Can you assume that the temperature remains constant? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
If you said no to the above questions you were correct! The three assumptions of
the simple law of atmospheres are not completely correct. So how does the
gravitational acceleration change with altitude? This is something you can figure out
yourself Remember Newtons second law? And remember the formula for
Newtons universal Law of Gravitation? Look up those formulae and write them into
the two boxes below.
F= ___________________
F= ___________________
Combine them and solve for the acceleration. Recall that the radius is actually the
distance to the center of the Earth, so substitute R=Re + h, where Re is the Earths
radius and h the altitude.
a = ___________________
Next we can change the simple law of atmospheres to substitute for the
altitude dependence of the gravitational acceleration. Insert the above expression
for g (or actually a):
= ______________________
Lets analyze how a changing gravitational acceleration affects your model. On
the bottom of the Excel sheet click on the sheet saying Atmosphere. Look at
column [E] it should be the same as what you calculated in part I. Just for
practice, repeat the previous exercise of typing hi into column [B], and i into column
[E] of this sheet.
Next, type the above formula (equation 7) into column [H], starting at cell [H11].
To practice try it yourself. If all fails follow the instructions below.
Click the cell [H11]; Type =1.21, then type *exp(-
Type *, then click on 4.8079E-26 the value of m Excel will insert
m_o
Type /, then click on 1.38E-23 the value of k Excel will insert kB
Type /, then click on 293 the value of T Excel will insert T
Type *, then click on 6.67E-6 the value of G Excel will insert G_
Page 40 of 49

Type *, then click on 5.97E+24 the value of Me Excel will insert Me

Type *, then click on h=0, cell [B11] Excel will insert B11
Type +, then click on h=0, cell [B11] Excel will insert B11
Type )^2), then click <return>
Click on cell [H11] and pull down formula until h=1000km.
Lets look at the effect of inserting a variable acceleration. Go to the bottom of

the Excel sheet and click on Altitude vs. Mass Density and look at the plot. The
green line corresponds to the simple law of Atmospheres, the grey one to the Law
corrected for a variable gravitational acceleration. Look at the grey line and compares
it to the green line.
So all in all, the assumption of a constant acceleration was not perfect, but what do
you recon. Was it a reasonable assumption nevertheless?
__________
And to be honest, we would not have known this unless we had really calculated
and plotted this. Okay, lets look at the other assumptions. It turns out that the
temperature of the atmosphere is NOT constant (the temperature is much cooler at an
altitude where planes fly an increases, decreases and then increases again see
plot below). This behavior is too complex to be described by another theoretical law.
So we are going to do a trick. For every altitude, we will insert the measured value of
the temperature. Guess what we have actually done this for you; and even plotted it
the blue line above incorporates this temperature dependence. We have combined a
theoretical model with real data and we have now produced a semi empirical model.
Page 41 of 49

Since the chemical composition (thus the mass per molecule) changes somehow
(lets not worry about the details), we will need to insert measured values for the
mass as a function of altitude. The good news is you get a break (again) because we
have done this for you! (The data are in column [D] in the Atmosphere spread
sheet, and the vales corrected for varying molecular mass are in column [K].) Like
in the case for temperature, this part is semi-empirical. The black line in Figure
is now our best model it is called the MSIS model (the red line incorporates
an additional change in temperature as you will discover in the next section).
This final model, the MSIS model is used by professional scientists at NOAA,
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association.
Page 42 of 49


Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Orbital Drag
THEORY:
Because the atmosphere extends beyond 1000 km, it can interfere with the motion of near
earth satellites, for example the space satellite in near-Earth orbit. The atmosphere will cause
an air drag, which will cause the satellites orbit to decay and eventually down the satellite
(in fact, as the satellite re-enters, there is a good possibility of it burning up in the lower
parts of the atmosphere). A satellite in circular orbit experiences an acceleration given by;
a= __________________________
Insert the expression for the acceleration into Newtons 2nd Law
F2nd = _______________________
Newtons Law of Gravitation is
F2nd = FG =___________________
Combine both equations and solve for the velocity
V=__________________________
By squaring both sides and then multiplying by m you get the associated kinetic energy:
Ekin = m v2 = ________________________
Look up the expression for potential energy:
Epot =
Why is the potential energy negative? What does that mean?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Page 43 of 49

The total mechanical energy of the satellite is the sum of its kinetic and potential energy.
Etot = Ekin + Epot = ______________________________
Remember that the altitude is the height above the Earths Surface + the Earths radius.
Solving the above equation for altitude we get:
h = r Re =______________________________________
So now we have the expressions we need the total energy of the satellite as it flies
with velocity v at an altitude of h. We also know that as the satellite moves through the
atmosphere it will experience a drag due to the resistance of air. Basically the air drag robs
the satellite of its total mechanical energy. Will this increase or decrease the kinetic energy
of the shuttle? (Do not guess, think) ___________
And does this correspond to a higher or lower kinetic energy?
_____
What about the potential energy? How fast does it decrease compared to the mechanical
energy?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Drag Force is
FD = A CD v2
Where A is the area of the satellite and CD the drag coefficient. The work done by the drag
then is
WD = FD s = A CD v2 s
Where s is the distance traveled (for one orbit s=2r=2(Re + h)).
Lets conceptually think about this formula it depends on the front surface area of the
satellite perpendicular to the direction of motion, and on the volume V = As which the
satellite displaces as it travels the distance s. It also depends on the ambient air density
through which the satellite travels, and on the square of the velocity. (Remember the
kinetic energy is also dependent on the square velocity since E = mv2. Also recall that
m = V = As.) CD is the drag coefficient and depends on the properties of the medium,
in this case the air.
Now we have all the formulae we need for the Excel spread sheet. Next you will write
these formulae into the flow chart on the next page.
Page 44 of 49

Page 45 of 49


Subject Name: --------------------------------
Course Code: --------------------
Student Name: --------------------------------
Roll No. --------------------------
Semester: --------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------
Space Weather Effects

THEORY:
Space weather effects in the upper atmosphere come from many sources, however we
know that variability of the Sun is a leading cause of upper atmospheric variability. You
may have heard of an 11- year solar cycle during which the number of sunspots rises and
falls. Associated with the number of sunspots is an increase the output of solar radiation at
short wave lengths (X-rays and Ultra-Violet rays). These rays are really high energy
photons that can interact with and hear the earths upper atmosphere. Indeed the earths
upper atmosphere is much hotter, by several hundred degrees, during and just after the
maximum in the number of sunspots. As you already know, a hot atmosphere is an
expanded atmosphere. An expanded atmosphere has more mass at higher levels and this
can interfere with satellite orbits. The heating of the upper atmosphere due to absorption of
high energy photons is usually a gradual process that occurs over many months. Even if
there is a noticeable flare of radiative energy from the Sun the atmosphere will only
absorb a small amount of the energy on the sunlit side of the earth.
Recent investigations into other aspects of solar interactions with the earths atmosphere
have revealed that the accumulation of energy from solar photons can be augmented by a
process in which mass actually escapes from the Suns atmosphere and collides with the
Earths protective magnetic field.
These solar coronal mass ejections (CMEs) create large currents and associated magnetic
fields in our upper atmosphere, and much like running a current through a curling iron, the
atmosphere heats up. Such CME-earth collisions can cause very rapid heating over short
intervals. Of course there are times when a sudden addition solar radiative input is followed
by a CME event within a few hours or days. Two such events can cause rapid expansion of
the earths atmosphere and real trouble in tracking the location of satellites. The diagram
below shows an example of such an event that occurred in 1989 when over 1500 objects in
space become lost to satellite tracking. It took many weeks to identify and find all of the
Page 46 of 49

satellites. The subsequent figure shows the rate at which energy comes to the upper
atmosphere from several sources. The spikes in total power are from CMEs.
Fig. 1: Taken from the Air University Space Primer

Lets assume a flare occurs on the Sun and within a few minutes the energy reaches the
earth. About two days later a CME collides with the earth and also deposits energy. We
can envision this with the following diagram. Below is a diagram that represents how the
satellite might respond to rapidly changing heating rates.
Page 47 of 49

Below is a diagram that shows the real data of when flare and CMEs actually happened.
WORK SHEET:
Q1: What would you expect would happen to the density of the atmosphere through which
the satellite is flying? Explain. What effect might this have on the satellites orbit? Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Go to the spreadsheet page entitled Atmosphere. In the cell for "Percentage of Temperature
increase for MSIS Model (X%):" [E5] enter 10 for a 10% increase in the temperature.
Q2: Go to the page entitled Altitude vs. Mass Density and examine the curves on the
graph. How are they different from the previous graphs? Describe. Draw the new curves into
the previous graphs. Comment whether the graphs are consistent with the answer you
provided to question 1.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Page 48 of 49

___________________________________________________________________________
Q3: Go back to the page Shuttle Orbit Decay. Search for the row where a negative
altitude occurs.
Orbits ________________________________
Hours passed __________________________
Q4: Go to the Shuttle Alt vs. Time, Shuttle Vel vs. Time, Shuttle Drag vs.
Time, and Shuttle Total (Mech) E vs. Time charts (or the spreadsheet data) and find the
value for each of these quantities at a time of ~100 hours. These are your data using the
increased-temperature MSIS model.
Velocity __________________________
Satellite Drag ______________________
Satellite Energy ____________________
Q5: How much energy would you need to supply to the Satellite to bring it to its preflare and CME state?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Page 49 of 49

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What experiments are covered in the lab manual?

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What are the objectives of experiment 1?

What are the objectives of experiment 1?

LAB MANUAL

Submitted To: Engr. Iftikhar Rasheed

Department of Telecommunication Engineering

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

LABORATORY WORK BOOK

For The Course

Student Name: ______________

Department of Telecommunication Engineering

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Name of the Experiment

Analysis of a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Technique

Analysis of a Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Technique

Evaluation of SNR in Satellite Links

Analysis of QPSK Modulation Techniques for LEO Satellite Downlink

Analysis of BPSK Modulation Techniques for LEO Satellite Downlink

Analysis of a GPS Receiver

To Study the Parasitic Elements of Antenna

To Analyze the Effect of Ground Reflections

To Study the Block Diagram of Master Antenna TV System

Study of Community Antenna TV System

Satellite Image Processing with MATLAB

Satellite Orbital Decay- Law of Atmospheres

Semi -Empirical Modeling

Space Weather Effects

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

LAB EXPERIMENT NO.01

Course Code: --------------------

Student Name: --------------------------------

Roll No. --------------------------

Lab Instructor Signature: --------------------

Marks Obtained: ----------------

Analysis of a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Technique

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

LAB EXPERIMENT NO.02

Course Code: --------------------

Student Name: --------------------------------

Roll No. --------------------------

Lab Instructor Signature: --------------------

Marks Obtained: ----------------

Analysis of a Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Technique

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

Q 2: How FHSS reduces the multipath fading in satellite communication?

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

LAB EXPERIMENT NO.03

Course Code: --------------------

Student Name: --------------------------------

Roll No. --------------------------

Lab Instructor Signature: --------------------

Marks Obtained: ----------------

Evaluation of SNR in Satellite Links

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

Q 2: What do you understand from the equation of C/N?

Q 3: How C/N is implemented in link budget calculation?

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur