Native American Revision Notes

Key :

Black = random facts, red = presidents, orange = congress, yellow =

Supreme Court, lime = individuals, green = groups, blue = war, indigo =
economy, purple = riots/protests/strikes.

1865-1914
1800s there were 86 independent tribes
Indian Removal Act 1830 approximately 70,000 NA relocated to Oklahoma
1865 Sioux and Cheyenne were hostile to white settlers and the army
1851 NA started losing land trough treaties
1851 Fort Laramie Treaty (Sioux, Arapaho, Cheyenne)
1861 Fort Wise Treaty (Cheyenne and Arapaho)
1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty (Kiowa, Comanche, Plains Apache)
1868 Fort Laramie Treaty (Lakota, Sioux. Arapaho)
1864 Sand Creek Massacre cavalry troops attacked an undefended
Cheyenne camp killing and mutilating women and children
Plains wars 1862-67: Little Crows War 1862 (Sioux), Cheyenne Uprising 1863,
Red Clouds War 1867 (Sioux), Winter Campaign 1868 (against Cheyenne)
Homesteads Act 1862 160 acres of land given to farmers for free for 5 years.
By 1865 20,000 homesteaders had settled on the Plains
By 1864 Navajo and Apache tribes had been moved to reservations, the
Navajo people had travel 300 miles on foot
1890: Reservations contained 133,417 Native Americans in 20 states on
78,500,000 acres of land supposedly supported by Indian Agents and 770
officers. Minor crimes were tried in their own court of offences. 34,785 of the
133,417 NA were on rations because they couldnt support themselves.
1871 Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 broken by Congress without consulting the
tribes.
1876 Battle of Little Bighorn Custer attempted to round up Sioux and
Cheyenne tribesmen who refused to return to the reservation. All 200 soldiers
were killed. As punishment the great Sioux reserve established 1868 was
divided into 6 little parts 1889, the Lakota Sioux were starved.
Reservation Indians were in the care of the US govt. as wards of the state,
they didnt get civil rights because they werent tax payers.
1880s = drought
1900 only 100,000 of 240,000 NA remained
1890 Massacre at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Sioux tribesmen performed
a traditional dance which white settlers thought was the start of an uprising.
Chief Sitting Bull was shot whilst being arrested and the tribesmen fled, they
were rounded up and all 200 unarmed men, women and children shot.
The Navajo tribe, having travelled 300 miles in 1868 arrived on the 4 million
acre reservation and adapted quickly to farming. The govt. provided 15,000
sheep, by 1892 the flock had grown to 1.7 million. 1878-1930s the Navajo
tribe was given more land so that they had 10.5 million acres. By 1900 the
population had increased from 8,000 in 1868 to 22,000.
1877, the govt. spent $20,000 on the education of NA children aged 5-18

1870 2 off-reservation boarding schools set up; Hampton Normal and

Agricultural Institute, Virginia and Carlisle Industrial Indian School,
Pennsylvania
Indian Rights Association founded 1882 devoted to assimilating NA, thought
that as the only way to improve the welfare of the NA who were primitive
Govt. set up Board of Commissioners 1869 to help assimilate NA but was
corrupt
1887 Dawes Act or General Allotment Act govt. felt that Reservations
werent working to assimilate NA, decided to allot land as homesteads to NA
families instead. The head of the family would be given 160 acres of farmland
or 320 acres of grazing land for 25 years in trust, after 25 years they had full
ownership. Those partaking in the scheme would be given full citizenship.
Unallotted land would be given to white settlers.
The Navajo tribe remained but most reservations were destroyed by the
Dawes Act.
1887 the govt. recognised that 150 million acres of reservation land belonged
to the NA, by 1900 just 78 million acres remained
Iroquois and Cherokee tribes struggled with the Dawes Act, they were
traditionally matriarchal but now found that the males were considered heads
of the family.
5 civilised tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Seminoles and Creeks.
Forced from their lands in the southern states onto the Great Plains 1838,
they had to travel a long way on the trail of tears; thousands died.
1898 Curtis Act amendment to the Dawes Act, applied allotment policy to 5
civilised tribes who went on to lose the right to self-government in 1906
Muskogee Convention 1905 leaders of the 5 civilised tribes met to try and
create their own independent state of Sequoyah before the govt. combined
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory into the state of Oklahoma. It was
rejected by Congress. The two territories were combined 1907. 1898-1907
100,000 Oklahoma Indians were assigned lands, 2 million acres was given to
white settlers.

1900-1945
The Cherokee tribe challenged the right of Congress to deny them the right to
live according to their own laws and traditions. Cherokee Nation v. Hitchcock
1902
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock 1903 Congress allotted land which broke the 1867
Medicine Lodge Treaty made with Chief of the Kiowa, Lone Wolf who took legal
action. The Supreme Court supported Congress and their power to break
treaties.
Society of American Indians formed 1911 by 50 educated NA men and
women. First attempt at inter-tribal pressure group. Campaigned to improve
education and health care. Short of funds and discriminated against in the
courts plus a lack of support from NA themselves maybe due to
communication issues meant that by the 1920s the SAI had collapsed

10,000 NA fought in WW1, werent segregated, govt. sponsored families to

move away from reservations to do defence work. Start of urbanisation,
thought the outside world had a civilising influence (basically they learnt
English)
1924 Indian Citizenship Act the right to vote. Not that amazing, some didnt
want citizenship and thanks to the Dawes Act, two thirds of the population
already had the vote. It wasnt meant to empower NA just assimilate them
some more. Some states still didnt let NA vote anyway, esp. in the west.
1948 Harrison v. Laveen Mohawk-Apache Tribe members took their case to
the Supreme Court when Laveen refused to let them register to vote, the
court found in favour of the NA. Other states continued to stop NA voting.
1920s tribes in Minnesota and Wisconsin lost 80% of their land. People
began to realise how bad life was for them and ATTITUDES BEGAN TO
CHANGE!!!
1913 Supreme Court declared the Pueblo Indians incapable of looking after
their lands. 1921 they lost much of the land.
1921-23 Leavitt Bill threatened to remove the right of Pueblo tribe to
perform some of their traditional dances. AIDA created in response.
American Indian Defence Association formed 1923 by anthropologists and
writers. Aimed to bring about laws protecting NA culture, land and traditions.
Executive Secretary was John Collier. AIDA blocked the Bursum and Leavitt
Bills (Bursum was going to strip the Pueblos of yet more land)
John Collier admired Pueblo Indians for resisting assimilation and the
community that they represented, pursued the lost rights of NA and wanted
them to regain self-determination. Was too ahead of his time to achieve much.
Made Commissioner for Indian Affairs by Roosevelt.
Meriam Report 1928 condemned allotment policy of Dawes Act,
acknowledged terrible conditions of NA life. President Hoover supported the
recommendations
of
the
report
and
appointed
new
Indian
Commissioner, Charles Rhoads, to implement suggested changes. Offreservation boarding schools were closed and reservation schools improved,
Medical facilities were improved but nothing was done to stop allotted land
(pissed off Collier). 1929 WSC stopped further reformsbut Hoover continued to
increase fed aid which Roosevelt continued.
Charles Rhoads, committed to improving the lives of NA but also to
assimilation, he refused to stop the allotment policy.
Indian Reorganization Act (Wheeler-Howard Act) 1934 Collier designed the
draft but it was heavily modified before it became law. NA to have more
influence and involvement in administration of reservations, rights to practice
religion and assert cultural identity protected e.g. overthrew 1883 act that
banned ceremonial dances and celebrations. Stopped sale of NA lands to
individual buyers. 1900-1930 NA lost more than half their land, unallocated
land was restored to tribes to expand and create reservations. Consequence:
NA became more involved in Bureau of Indian Affairs, NA women given more
rights and the opportunity to train for domestic work and get higher education
e.g. Gladys Tantaquidgeon who studied anthropology at University of
Pennsylvania and went on to work for the Indian Bureau of Affairs, created an

interest in NA culture (crafts could be sold for profit, built hospitals, schools
and irrigation systems on reservations. Still did all of this to further
assimilation and Collier didnt consult the NA, many of whom had become
assimilated or aspired to it and didnt want self-determination.
1938 census NA population increasing at a rate faster than the national
average
100,000 NA left the reservations during WW2, 25,000 served with distinction
in the war, 75,000 moved to urban areas to work in defence industries, first
time off the reservation for many. Funding to reservations was cut and
Japanese Americans were relocated to reservation land at the end of the war.
After the war discrimination forced NA back to the reservations, some defence
workers stayed in urban areas.
National Congress of American Indians 1944 80 educated NA from 50 tribes,
worked through the courts like the NAACP to challenge discrimination,
unequal opportunity and the breaking of treaties. The start of mass protest
from NA.

1945 1969
1930-1960 the number of urban Indians in big cities increased 4 fold
1948 Bureau of Indian Affairs tried to alleviate poverty by creating job
placement centres in major west cities
Indian Claims Commission 1946 NA to regain lands owed from the treaties,
370 claims filed very quickly, very slow, often financial compensation rather
than actual land. Sioux Indians refused financial compensation. Initially set up
for 5 years, had so many claims it finally closed in 1878. Govt. just wanted to
stop having to support NA as wards
1953 termination end federal control of the Bureau of Indians Affairs and
make them subject to same laws and rights as whites. Recognition of tribes
and treaty rights went too. NA became just A. Voluntary Relocation Scheme
set up to lure NA off reservations esp. the young. 1956 Indian Vocational
Training Act. 1968 termination ended; NA had highest illiteracy, disease and
unemployment rates with worst living conditions.
LBJ set up programme of self-help and respect. Proposed National Council on
Indian Opportunity. Improved education for all funded by govt. + better
quality homes, sanitation and education of legal rights
1960, 60,000 NA had left reservations for large western cities, white hostility
reached all-time high
Many NA women married whites assimilation, got better job opportunities
1968 Affirmative Action benefitted them
1960 25% classified as poor more lived in shanty town housing. Elderly
members forced to return to reservations. Unemployment up to 18%. Life
expectancy was 44, 20 years less than national average. NA from Wisconsin
and Oregon lost 500,000 acres. 40-70% returned to reservations as they
couldnt adjust to urban life.
New Deal projects cut due to lack of funding.
Reservation conditions overcrowded, dilapidated, unsanitary
Urban NA formed ghettos and cultures flourished. They were aware of
bifurcation and used it to explore their heritage. Young NA became militant.

National Indian Youth Council 1961, wanted to preserve rights, esp. fishing
rights and fight other injustices of NA through law suits.
1964 hundreds of NA met in Washington DC for recognition in LBJs War on
Poverty
NCAI made progress in the courts and with president; got a pledge that hed
improve human and natural resources on reservations. Never did it before his
assassination. 1961 set up a task force to investigate and report on future NA
policy and programmes. Struggled against Congress who still supported
termination. NCAI lost the support of young NA who felt progress was too slow
and that it was a group for assimilated NA.
Red Power, young NA demanded that they be called NA rather than Indians
1968 song by Peter La Farge As long as the Grass shall Grow
1969 Vine Deloria Jnr published book Custer Died for your Sins, 1970
Bury my Heart at Wounded Knee: an Indian History of the American West by
Dee Brown
1968 NA in Washington State staged a fish-in after the state Supreme
Court failed to uphold their fishing rights
1968 American Indian Movement est. Militant, took up racial discrimination
against NA who patrolled the streets in uniforms to monitor police activities
the number of NA arrested and imprisoned fell.
Young NA campaigned for the return of native sovereignty, fishing rights and
land usually through the Supreme Court.
The Siege of Alcatraz 1969 14 NA men and women seized the island that
had formerly belonged them. Led by Richard Oakes of the Mohawk tribe,
Adam Fortune Eagle Nordwell led negotiations. They offed the govt. $24 worth
off beads and cloth (the amount they had been paid for Manhattan), the govt.
refused, occupation increased to 80. Received huge media coverage until it
ended 11 June 1971 with fights like those from cowboy films. Alcatraz was a
good choice; it represented a harsh and brutal way of life. Gained worldwide
attention, roused NA (10,000 visited the island) who staged more fish-ins,
govt. reappraised policy.

1969-1992
8th July 1970 Nixon gave a speech criticising the treatment of NA for the past
century esp. termination, continuation of LBJs views. 1969 appointed Louis R.
Bruce Jnr of Mohawk-Sioux tribe as Commissioner for Indian Affairs and made
education a priority. 1974 had barely scratched the surface
1970 lands returned to Makah and Taos Pueblo Indians
1972 land returned to Yakama Indians in Washington State. NA given
preference in employment at Bureau of Indian Affairs
Indian nations regained recognition and rights plus access to fed courts for
justice
1972 Indian Education Act increased funding to build and improve schools
and started closing boarding schools continued into 80s
Supreme Court upheld all the measures in 1974
1975 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act govt.
abandoned assimilation. Indian Self-Determination Act tribes could negotiate
with B of IA to take responsibility for own health education and get fed funding

for it. Indian Education Assistance Act parents made more involved in
education though membership on school boards.
1975 American Indian Policy Review Commission looked at history between
govt. and NA to improve future policy, 11 commissioners, 5 were NA
1978 Native American Religious Freedom Act also sparked fight to protect
sacred burial grounds and objects
1990 Native American Graves Protection Act protected sacred burial
grounds, grave goods and objects
1978 Indian Child Welfare Act stopped social workers forcibly removing
children from NA families because they didnt understand.
Reagan believed in Native Capitalism wanted to cut funding
1971 Occupation of Mount Rushmore AIM and Sioux Indians campaigned
for the return of the Black Hills, still disputed.
1972 AIM took over B of IA in Washington DC - 1000 protesters travelled in
caravans to deliver a list of problems to govt. Had no accommodation so took
over B of IA, violence when they were evicted.
1973 Occupation of Wounded Knee alleged financial dealings between
president and reservation. Violent occupation for 71 days, negotiations ended
it. 1975 flared up again, 2 FBI and 1 protester shot dead by member of AIM,
feds later blamed for causing panic.
NA comprised 1% of the population
AIM was too violent, reflected badly on NA, lost support
National American Rights Fund fought in Supreme Court for NA rights and to
preserve NA culture esp. right to hunt and fish and recognition of tribes.
Fought for right to vote where states imposed restrictions, right to worship
freely and the proper burial of ancestral remains. Trained young NA as
attorneys.
1974 Oneida v Oneida and Madison Counties, NY Oneida tribe successfully
sued for the return of lands
1976 Fisher v Montana tribal courts to decide on cases of child adoption
1980 US v Sioux Nation offered total of $106 million for loss of Black Hills.
Refused
1982 Seminole Tribe v. Butterworth tribe could set up gambling enterprises
on reservations even if the State banned it
1986 Charrier v. Bell remains from a grave in Louisiana to be returned to
tribes. 30 states passed laws protecting NA burial grounds and led to 1990 NA
Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
1971 tribe in Alaska given 40 million acres and $1 billion compensation
1980 Sioux given $107 billion for Black Hills
1988 small tribe in Washington State given $162 million
1970 800,000 NA, 1990 1.7 million NA ----not just population increase,
people were proud to be NA
1990 two thirds of NA still in urban areas
NA income was half that of whites, unemployment rates remained highest in
US
1 third of NA remained on 278 reservations