Motors and Generators

First Hand Investigations from the Syllabus

N.B. Dont forget to list equipment needed for each

Perform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the motor effect

Aim: To demonstrate that a current carrying wire experiences a force in a
magnetic field and identify factors that affect this force.
Method:
1. Set up two retort stands. Suspend a coil of wire between them and
attach ends of wire to a supply of 12V to complete circuit.
2. Place magnets either side of coil. Switch power on and off quickly (to
avoid short-circuiting) and observe any movement of wire.
3. Vary (one at a time): strength and direction of current, strength and
direction of magnetic field, number of coils in the field.
Results:
Increasing the field strength or current increases the magnitude of
force on wire.
Reversing field strength or current reverses direction of force on wire.
Increasing number of coils or field strength increases magnitude of
force.
Theory: A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force. Direction
of force can be determined by right-hand palm rule, magnitude of force
can be calculated by F=BIlsin

Perform an investigation to model the generation of an electric current

by moving a magnet in a coil or a coil near a magnet (Faradays
experiment)
Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand
investigation to predict and verify the effect on a generated electric
current when
The distance between coil and magnet is varied
The strength of the magnet is varied
The relative motion between coil and magnet is varied

Aim: To model Faradays second experiment (i.e. demonstrate that relative

movement between magnet and coil generates electric current) and determine
factors affecting the generated current.
Method:

1. Set up a solenoid and attach each end to a galvanometer.

2. Vary one at a time: strength, speed and direction of magnets, distance
between coil and magnet, moving part (ie. Move coil towards magnet,
then magnet towards coil)
3. Observe the affect of each scenario on the galvanometer.
Results: Relative motion between magnet and coil produces current as there is a
change in flux. Greater the change in flux, greater emf / current produced.
Factors affecting current production:
Faster velocity = more current
Decrease distance = more current
Increase B = more current
Reverse direction of relative velocity = reverse direction of current
Which object moves makes no difference

Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand

investigation to demonstrate the production of an alternating current

Aim: To model the production of AC.

Method:
1. Set up a solenoid so tube is vertical and attach both ends to a
galvanometer.
2. Drop a magnet down solenoid and observe effect on the current
produced as measured by the galvanometer.
3. Vary strength of magnet, and speed at which it is dropped (attach to a
string for easier viewing) and observe effect.
Results: When the North Pole approaches solenoid, current produced in one direction.
At the half way point, there is 0 emf, after which the North Pole recedes so the current
is produced in opposite direction.

Perform an investigation to model the structure of a transformer to

demonstrate how secondary voltage is produced

Aim: To model the structure of a transformer and transform electricity.

Method:
1. Set up two solenoids (with different numbers of coils) connected by a
laminated iron core. Attach one solenoid to a DC supply, and the other
to a galvanometer.
2. Switch the DC supply* on and off quickly and observe effect on the
galvanometer.
3. Compare input voltage and current with output voltage and current.

Results: When DC supply is turned on and off, galvanometer in second coil registers
current. If the secondary coil had more turns the output voltage was higher than the
input, and conversely if secondary had less coils, output voltage is less than input.
Note- electricity was only transformed when current was changing (i.e. there is a
change in flux), which is why turning on and off is necessary.
*Alternately, AC supply can be used.

Perform an investigation to demonstrate the principle of an AC

induction motor

Aim: To demonstrate the principles of an AC induction motor using bar magnets and a
pendulum consisting of a metal sheet.
Method:
1. Set up a free-hanging ruler as a pendulum with a sheet of conducting
metal attached to the end. Place bar magnets either side of the
conducting sheet.
2. Move the magnets relative to the conductor and observe effect on the
conductor.
Results: The conducting sheet will follow the magnets.
Conclusion: This is because the eddy currents produced in the sheet metal will flow in
a
direction such that it opposes the change that caused them. Since it is a
decreasing magnetic field (as magnet is moving away) the sheet metal will set
up currents to try and attract the magnets back and because the conductor is on
a free pivot, it follows the magnet. This is the principle used in induction motors,
but instead of physically moving the magnets, a circular electromagnet is
supplied with three-phase current so the North Pole rotates. This causes the
conductor to rotate in a circle. N.B. Conductor and magnet cant move at same
speed, otherwise no relative movement, hence no eddy-currents produced.

Motors and generators

Define torque as the turning moment of a force using: t = fd

Torque is the turning effect of a force acting on an object which causes it to rotate. [T=Fd]

If torque is applied at an angle less then 90 or 90 degrees to the point of application then the
formula
T = Fdsin(0) is used.

Where T= torque (N.m)

F= force (N)
d= distance from rotational axis (m)
0 = angle to the point of application

From the formula above torque depends on both the size of the force and how far from the
turning point it is applied. The further a force is from the turning point, the greater the effect it
has.

[t=nBIAcos]
Where T= torque (N.m)
n= number of coils
B= magnetic field strength (T)
I= current (amps)
A = area of coil (m^2)
Cos= angle between the plane of the coil to the magnetic field.
Notice the force is always perpendicular to the magnetic field meaning that
the force is the same throughout and the torque will change. Force only
stays the same on the two sides of the coil but not the front and back.
The torque on a coil will vary and look something like this:

Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a currentcarrying conductor in a magnetic field.
- A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field. When the current-carrying
conductor passes through an external magnetic field, the magnetic field of the
conductor interacts with the external magnetic field and the conductor experiences a
force. This process is known as the motor effect and can be simply defined as the
action of a force experienced by a current-carrying conductor in an external magnetic
field.

Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a magnetic

field and describe the net result of the forces.
- When a current carrying loop (or coil) is
placed within a magnetic field, a force
will act on the coil due to the motor
effect. When placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field, only two sides (assuming
the coil is rectangular) of the coil will
experience a force, as the other two
sides will be parallel to the field and thus
experiencing no force. The direction of
this force is dependant of the current
flowing through the coil; however, since
the current flows in opposite directions in
each of the two perpendicular sides, the
forces on each of the lengths are
opposite. If a coil is free to rotate around
a
fixed axle, one side of the coil
experiences an upward force and the other side an equal and opposite force, therefore the coil
will experience torque, causing it to rotate.

 describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each feature
Rotor
The rotor (or armature) consists of a ferrite (usually soft iron) frame that has multiple
coils wrapped around it.
Magnetic field
The magnetic field within a DC electric motor can be provided by either permanent
magnets or electromagnets. The magnet (stator) is situated around the rotor in a
circular design, to provide a uniform magnetic field throughout the motor and to
improve the smoothness of the torque.
Split-ring commutator
In its simplest form, the split-ring commutator consists of a copper cylinder divided into
two electrically separated halves (called a commutator segment). Each half is
connected to one side of the armature (in practice, motors have many coils and so
there are many segments to the commutator). The commutator works by constantly
changing the direction of the current into the motor to ensure continuous rotation. This
is done by connecting the two sides of the commutator to the conducting brushes, and
when the commutator/armature rotates, the brushes will make contact with the two
different commutator segments, effectively changing the current. (See figure 2)
Conducting brushes
In their simplest form, conducting brushes consist of a conducting material that makes
contact with each commutator segment as it rotates. Springs ensure that the brushes
are held firmly against the commutator.
Axle
The axle consists of a bar that passes through the centre of the armature and allows
the armature to rotate about it.

 Describe that the required magnetic field in DC motors can be produced by either by current-carrying wires or by
permanent magnets
-

Nearly all commercial electric motors use electromagnets to produce the magnetic field for their operation

There are limitations with using permanent magnets in larger motors (other than those used in small toys
etc) :

Strong permanent magnets are expensive to make

They continue to attract other iron objects near them even when the motor is not running

As such electromagnets are a more viable option, as they:

o

They can be turned on and off

Their polarity can be reversed to change the direction of rotation

Their strength can be changed (unlike permanent magnets), as such this can change the speed of some
motors (thus greater versatility)

Identify data sources, gather and process information to qualitatively

describe the application of the motor effect in:
- the galvanometer
- the loudspeaker
- The galvanometer- A galvanometer uses the motor effect to measure the magnitude of an
electric current or voltage in a circuit and consists of suspending a coil wrapped around
an iron core within a radial magnetic field, with a coiled spring and pointer attached to
the coil. As current flows through the coil, the interacting magnetic fields of the magnet
and the solenoid cause the coil to experience a torque (torque is proportional to the
magnitude of the current) and rotate. This torque remains constant on differing currents
because the radial magnetic field, provided by a curved magnet, ensures the magnetic
field is perpendicular to the coil. The coil rotates, along with the pointer, until the
magnetic turning forces are balanced by the restoring torque of the spring (creating
equilibrium). This restoring torque is proportional to the angle of rotation, which is
proportional to the current in the coil. The amount of rotation indicated by the pointer can
be adjusted to read voltage or current.
- The loudspeaker A loudspeaker uses the motor effect to produce sound waves by
vibrating a paper of plastic cone. This cone vibrates by feeding varying currents into a coil
that is suspended within a magnetic field from a permanent magnet. When a current
flows through the coil, interactions between the field of the coil and the field of the
permanent magnet cause the coil to experience a force. An alternating current causes the
coil to experience a force in different directions, hence causing the attached paper cone
to vibrate to reproduce the sounds from the amplifier.

2. The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field is

used to generate an electrical voltage.
Outline Michael Faraday's discovery of the generation of an electric
current by a moving magnet.
- Michael Faraday thought it was possible to generate an electric current in a conductor from
a magnetic field, after it was proven that magnetism could be produced by passing
current through a wire. Faraday first proved this when he experimented with two separate
coils of copper wire wrapped around an iron ring. When connected to a battery and a
galvanometer, he noticed that a brief current was produced. He noted this was temporary
and that when the battery circuit was constant there was no current (this is later proved
to occur due to the un-changing magnetic field produced from the coils, because the
current through them is DC from the battery). Further experimentation finally showed that
a moving magnet within a coil could produce a current (or electromotive force, emf
(voltage)). He concluded that a changing magnetic field was needed to induce a current
into a conductor; this process is now known as electromagnetic induction (the conversion
of mechanical energy into electrical energy).

Define magnetic field strength (B) as magnetic flux density and Describe the concept of
magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density and surface area.

The strength of the magnetic field, B, is also known as the magnetic flux density. It is the amount
of magnetic flux passing through a unit area.

Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface area A at right
angle to the field. It is represented by = BA. If the magnetic flux is not flowing at right angles
to area then = BAcos(0).
Magnetic flux density (or the magnetic field B) is the number of magnetic flux or magnetic field
lines passing through a unit surface area at right angle to the field.
B = /A

Note Areas dont have to be the same,

The two diagrams to the right have different surface areas. Notice that both diagrams have the
same amount of flux i.e. that is they have 2 magnetic field lines passing through a given area,
however they have different magnetic flux densities.
The bigger rectangle is 10m^2 and has 2 magnetic field lines so it has 2/10m^2, that is 0.2
magnetic flux density.
The smaller rectangle on the other hand has an area of 2m^2 and has 2 magnetic field lines so
it has 2/2m^2, that is 1 magnetic flux density which is 5 times larger then the magnetic flux
density of the bigger rectangle.

Describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of

magnetic flux through a circuit

Faradays Law of Induction states: The induced emf in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the
rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time.
Mathematically this is expressed as

Thus the Emf visually can be represented as the derivative of the magnetic flux (note be careful
about the negative sign).

Account for Lenz's Law in terms of conservation of energy and relate it

to the production of back emf in motors
Lenzs law states that the
induced current will produce its own magnetic flux in order to oppose the
change in magnetic flux experienced by the conductor.

If an increasing magnetic
flux causes the induced current then the induced current produces a
magnetic flux in the opposite direction.

If a decreasing magnetic
flux causes the induced current then the induced current will produce a
magnetic flux in the same direction.
As a motor coil rotates it cuts flux, hence an emf is induced in the coils which is
opposite (Lenzs law) to the external emf hence it is called back emf.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can not be destroyed or created but merely
transformed into one form to another. Lenzs law is a direct consequence to this as suppose that
the coil and the magnet does not obey Lenzs law and instead the induced current in the coil
creates a magnetic field that attracts the magnet. This would cause the magnet to accelerate
and therefore produce a current in the coil. This violates the law of conservation of energy
because energy has been created; therefore Lenzs law must always be obeyed.

Lenzs law and the conservation of energy also apply to a rotating motor. As the coil rotates due
to a supply emf the magnetic flux passing through the coil is constantly changing. (magnetic flux
is max when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field and is minimum when
the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field.) This changing magnetic flux induces an
emf known as the back emf that opposes the rotation caused by the supply emf. Suppose that
this was not the case and the back emf does not oppose the supply emf , this would mean that

the current in the coil will get larger which in turn would make the coil rotate faster and faster,
forever. This would mean that energy has been created which violates the law of conservation of
energy and Lenzs law.

Explain the in electric motors back emf opposes the supply emf

As explained above, a back emf will oppose the supply emf to coincide with the law of
conservation of energy and Lenzs law.

Note that back EMF is frequency dependant the higher the frequency of the changing magnetic
field then the higher the back EMF produced to oppose this frequency change to coincide with
the law of conservation of energy.
When the motor is spinning at its operating speed, back EMF will have its max value but
- When the motor is just turned on it isnt spinning yet so there is no back EMF
- This can lead to excessive currents so the motor may be protected by using a variable
resistor that reduces the current.
- As the motor increases speed, the back emf increases and the supply current decreases,
so the resistor is taken out.

. Explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenzs law (THIS

IS A LONG ONE WITH A

LOT OF EXAMPLES!!!!)

Induced currents do not only occur in coils and magnets or motors. Induced currents occur when there is any
relative movement between a metallic surface and a magnet.
Induced currents can also occur when there is relative movement between a metal object (such as a sheet of
steel) and a magnetic field. These induced currents are known as Eddy currents.
Eddy currents are an application of Lenzs law. Lenzs law states that The direction of the induced emf is
such that the current it produces creates a magnetic field that opposes the change that causes it.
This is exactly what eddy currents do, the eddy currents create a magnetic field that oppose the changes in
the magnetic field acting on the metal object.

E.G, using a magnet and a closed pipe, the magnet is dropped in at the south pole. When the
magnet is dropped and falling through the pipe, the pipe will produce eddy currents because
there is relative movement between the magnet and a metal object (the pipe). These eddy
currents will create their own magnetic field that will oppose the changing magnetic field acting
on the metal object, that is the eddy currents magnetic field will oppose the movement of the
falling magnet. These eddy currents produce magnetic fields on both sides of the magnet.
This is illustrated on the diagrams one the following page. Note that the first diagram is a cross
section to allow us to see what is happening.

Noticed that the eddy currents produce magnetic fields on both sides of the magnet.
On the north side of the magnet, the eddy current spins in an anticlockwise direction. This
means that current produces a magnetic field that will attract the falling magnet (using right
hand curl rule -the north of the magnet is attracted to the south of the magnetic field produced
by the eddy current) in the process slowing down the magnet.
Similarly on the south side of the magnet, however this time the eddy currents spin in a
clockwise direction produce a magnetic field that will repel the falling magnet and slow it
down(using the right hand curl rule the south from the eddy currents magnetic field repels the
south of the magnet).

Here is another diagram that shows the eddy current. Note that the magnet is dropped from the north
side first and the eddy currents produce magnetic fields that will oppose the falling magnet due to
Lenzs law.

Think of eddy currents like this, if a piece of metal

is losing amount of magnetic field lines then the
eddy current has to attract it back, which means
that it will have the same polarity to the magnetic
field, however if the piece of metal is gaining
magnetic field lines then the eddy current will have
the opposite to oppose this change. (USE RIGHT
HAND CURL RULE)

Another interesting experiment is when a magnet falling through a closed metal pipe is
compared falling through a metal pipe with a slit.

The closed metal pipe is able to generate big strong eddy currents which create strong magnetic
fields to oppose the motion of the falling magnet. However the metal pipe with a slit cannot
generate these big strong eddy currents. It can only produce small weak eddy currents, which do
oppose the motion of the falling magnet, but not as much as the big strong eddy currents do.
Therefore the magnet in the closed pipe will take longer to fall out then the pipe with a slit.

Gather, analyse and represent information to explain how induction is used

in cooktops in electric ranges.
Induction Cook top

Induction cook tops use the principal of electromagnetic induction and eddy currents. Under the
ceramic cook top there is a coil with which is supplied by an AC current. The AC current continuously
changes direction of the current causing a constant change in the magnetic field. When a metal is
placed on top of the cooktop, eddy currents are induced so that it can oppose this changing magnetic
field. This in turn creates a heating effect in the pan which can be used to cook food. It is best to use
metals that have low resistance such as iron so that the eddy currents produced are stronger, in turn
making the induction cook top more efficient.
Some
1.
2.
3.
4.

advantages of induction cook tops are:

High efficiency, almost all the heat produced by the eddy current goes into heating the pan
the glass ceramic cook top is easy to clean as it is flat
it is cheaper to operate
It is safer as eddy currents will only be produced heat on metallic surfaces, the ceramic cooktop
provides this safety, and humans cannot be burnt.

Gather secondary information to identify how eddy currents have been utilized in
electromagnetic breaking.

Electromagnetic breaking uses the principles of Faradays law, Lenzs law and therefore eddy currents.
An electromagnet is placed between the trains wheels and when it is required to stop, the
electromagnet is switched on. Since the trains wheels are moving, this causes a constant changing

magnetic field, thus according to Faradays law a current will be induced and according to Lenzs law an
eddy current will be induced to oppose this change in magnetic field. This in turn has an effect of
slowing the train down. Also the strength of the eddy current is directly proportional to the speed of the
train, so as the train slows down, the strength of the eddy current decrease s which makes the train
comes to a smooth stop.
Additional eddy currents info:

As you can see in the diagram, the left side of the wheel is gaining magnetic field lines while
right side is losing magnetic field lines.
Thus on the left side, eddy currents are induced so it will oppose the change and prevent the
gaining of magnetic field lines. Thus the eddy currents will flow in and anticlockwise direction to
oppose change.
While on the right hand side the wheel is losing magnetic field lines, thus eddy current are
induced to oppose this change. Therefore eddy currents will flow in a clockwise direction to
attract magnetic field lines,

3.1: Describe the main components of a generator

Component
Stator

Rotor
Armature

Description
The fixed part of the generator that
supplies the magnetic field in which the
coils rotate. It may consist of two
permanent magnets with opposite
poles facing and shaped to fit around
the rotor. Alternatively, the magnetic
field may be provided by two
electromagnets.
Consists of several coils of wire wound
on an armature.
A cylinder of laminated iron mounted
on an axle. The axle is carried in
bearings mounted in the external
structure of the generator. Torque is

Coil

Field electromagnets

Brushes

applied to the axle to make the rotor

spin.
Each coil usually consists of many turns
of copper wire wound on the armature.
The two ends of each coil are
connected either to two slip rings (AC)
or two opposite bars of a split-ring
commutator (DC).
Each electromagnet consists of a coil of
many turns of copper wire wound on a
soft iron core. The electromagnets are
wound, mounted and shaped in such a
way that opposite poles face each
other and wrap around the rotor.
Are carbon blocks that maintain
contact with the ends of the coils via
the slip rings (AC) or the split-ring
commutator (DC), and conduct electric
current from the coils to the external
circuit.

3.2: Compare the structure and function of a generator to an electric

motor

The structure of a generator is identical to of a motor which is shown above.

However the way they function is entirely different. A motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy while a generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
(electromagnetic induction).

3.3: Describe the differences between AC and DC generators

AC generators use a slip ring commutator to ensure delivery of AC current to external circuit.
DC generators use a split ring commutator to ensure delivery of DC current to the external
circuit whilst reversing the direction of the current every half revolution to maintain consistent
torque and rotation.
AC generators are preferred over DC generators because:
o Slip rings dont wear or break down as much as split ring commutators.
o Mains power is AC so no change from DC to AC is needed.
o The output of each respective generator is different which is shown on next page

3.4: Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through
transmission lines from the generator to the consumer

Energy loss occurs often due to heat caused by:

o Friction in the bearings of the rotor
o Heat generation in the conductors due to current
o Energy losses in the iron core due to magnetic properties (hysteresis)
Resistance is proportional to length of the conductor
o Thus: the longer the transmission wires, the higher the resistance and
therefore loss of energy through heat
o R = l/A (resistance = resistivity * length / cross sectional area)
o Current needs to be kept low to reduce energy loss
Energy is transmitted at high voltages (because I = P/V) thereby
minimising current and energy loss

3.5: Assess the effects of the development of AC generators on society

and the environment

Before Faradays discovery of electromagnetic induction which led to development

of AC generators burning of wood was the major source of domestic power
o Then with the industrial revolution, coal was used in steam engines
Development of AC generators changed the world
o Energy could be generated away from where it would be used and
transmitted through wires over long distance
Allowed a clean modern city to be built and households to have
convenient sources of energy: used for heating, lighting, food storage
etc
Power stations could be located away from cities reducing pollution
Effects on society
o Reduction in unskilled jobs (machines take over) thus greater unemployment
o The middle class moved out into the outer suburbs in bigger houses with
bigger blocks of land
Rural communities have electricity
Effects on environment
o Fossil fuel power stations cause thermal pollution, acid rain, air pollution and
global warming
Due to the release of particles and oxides of nitrogen and sulphur and
carbon dioxide
Effects on humans
o Possible link with cancer and miscarriages: especially acute lymphoblastic
leukaemia in children
However, nothing conclusive yet

Gather secondary information to discuss advantages and

disadvantages of AC and DC generators and relate these
to their use
AC Advantages
The main advantage of AC generator is that it can be transformed up or down through the use of
a transformer with minimal loss of power. This results means that power can be sent over long
distances without the need to worry about resistance in the wires. Voltage is increased, resulting
in a decrease in current.

AC Disadvantages

The major disadvantage of using AC power is the fact that most household appliances
use DC to operate. This means that before use, it must be converted to DC.
DC Advantages

Most household appliances operate using DC power, and thus it does not need
converting.
DC Disadvantages

Cannot be stepped up, therefore massive amounts of energy is lost through heat and
resistance. Even using the most efficient (least resistance) transmission lines, the high
currents needed to send DC power over long distances mean that it can only reach 8km.

Analyse secondary information on the competition between Westinghouse and

Edison to supply electricity to cities
- Edison and Westinghouse were in a competition to supply electricity to cities, where Edison
favoured DC electricity supply and Westinghouse favoured AC electricity supply. Edison
supported the use of DC electricity because he had established it in many of his electrical
inventions and had invested in it extensively. However, although it was recognised

amongst people that is was an effective method in distributing electricity over short
distances, DC could only be generated and distributed at the voltages at which it was
used by consumers. Meaning that currents in conductors were large, leading to huge and
expensive energy losses over longer distances.
It also meant that power stations had to be situated close to large cities with DC
transmission, which was not desirable due to the pollution it would cause and the
unattractive abundance of wires to carry the required current. AC on the other hand, had
the favourable attribute in that the voltage could be stepped up or down with the use of
transformers. This meant AC could be distributed over large distances with smaller
energy losses and that power stations could be further apart and conductors could be
lighter and cheaper. As a result, AC seemed to be the favourable choice for electricity
supply to cities, but to tarnish this, Edison tried to proclaim that AC was dangerous by
electrocuting live animals in a demonstration to its danger. Despite this, AC eventually
came to be the dominant form of electricity for distribution to large cities.

Gather and analyse information to identify how transmission lines are:

o Insulated from supporting structures
o Protected from lightning strikes
- Insulated from supporting structures
High voltage transmission lines need to be insulated from the metal towers
supporting them because the electricity within the cables would be conducted from
the towers, making them live. This would mean instant death for anyone who
came in contact with them. To prevent this, the cables insulation to prevent any
electricity flowing throughout the towers and to also prevent a short circuit, that
involves a charge jumping from the transmission lines to the tower. Stacks or
chains of disk shape insulators made of ceramic of polymer. The shapes of these
insulators are used to prevent the build up of moisture and dust, which can become
conducting paths across the insulator.
- Protected from lightning strikes
Support towers have a cable running between them called a continuous earth line or
a shield wire. This cable is used to conduct the electricity from a lightning strike
and divert it to the earth. This process protects the transmission lines as they will
not suffer from a sudden surge of voltage.

4. Transformers allow generated power to be either increased or decreased before

it is used

Describe the purpose of transformers in electrical circuits

Transformers are devices that increase or decrease AC voltages.

They are used in many electronic appliances such as digital cameras, battery charges to
increase or decrease the required AC voltage for the appliance. For example, in the household,
the 240V power plug is stepped up to more than 20 000V for the TV and stepped down to 9V for
cassette players.

How a transformer works:

A transformer consists of two coils, the primary coil and the secondary coil wrapped around a
soft iron core opposite to one another.
From a power source, an AC current is flowed through the primary coil, producing a changing
magnetic field (due to the changing direction of the AC current).
This changing magnetic field passes through the secondary circuit inducing a current into the
secondary circuit and according to Lenzs law creates its own magnetic field to oppose the
original changing magnetic field from the primary circuit.
When an AC current is passed through the primary coil, a constantly changing magnetic flux
passes through the secondary coil with the same frequency as the AC voltage is passing through
the primary coil.

Identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils and the ratio of the primary to secondary
voltage

If the transformer is 100 percent efficient (this needs perfect flux linkage, usually using an iron
core) and the power input into the primary coil is equal to the power output of the secondary coil
then:

Where:

Compare step up and step down transformers

Step-up transformers are used to increase the voltage and step-down transformers are used to
decrease the voltage.
If Ns is greater than Np, the output voltage, Vs, will be greater than the input voltage, Vp. This is
known as a step up transformer.
Similarly if Ns is less than Np, the output voltage, Vs, will be less than the input voltage, Vp. This
is known as a step down transformer.

Explain why voltage transformations are related to conservation of

energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. In relation to
transformers this means that the power output must be equal or less then the power input.
In other words, if a step up transformer is used to increase the voltage this means that the current is
decreased, and if a step down transformer is used to decrease the voltage, the current is increased. (P = IV,
V=P/I)

Explain the role of transformers in electricity substations

The Power loss in a transmission lines is given by the formula P = I^2R. Power loss is dependant
upon two variables current and resistance. Thus to reduce power loss, the amount current in the
transmission lines must be minimised.
Since P = IV, if voltage is maximized this will mean that current is minimised and vice versa (V =
P/I). Thus before transmission, a step up transformer is used to increase the voltage as high as
possible so that the current is minimised in order to reduce power loss as much as possible.
However the voltage is too high for safe use by consumers, so the voltage is progressively
reduced via step down transformers in electricity substations and poles until the voltage is 240
V, this also means the current becomes progressively larger.

Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are connected to
the mains domestic power supply use a transformer

The mains domestic power supply is 240V. For many electronic appliances such as TV, the
voltage is too low and for other appliances such as a radio it is too high. Therefore electronic
appliances either have an inbuilt transformer or plug in transformer to either step up or step
down to the voltage required for the electronic appliance.

Discuss the impact of the development of transformers on society

The major impact of transformers on society is that electricity that was generated in power
stations in remote areas could be transmitted to major cities. (This is because the electricity
before transmission can be stepped up to high voltages via transformers to minimise power loss
and progressively stepped down to a safer level for consumers.)

As a result this meant that there was a substantial increase in the standard of living as better
heating, lighting and other electronic equipment were made available.

It also means that cities are safer as power stations are located far away and precious city space
is not taken up by large power stations.

However this also means that society is now more dependent upon electricity for basic needs,
and problems occur if electricity is cut off for an extended period of time.

Also as less power is lost in transmission, the electricity can be supplied more efficiently and the
cost to consumers is less.

Transformers have contributed to a persons quality of life as transformers have allowed different
electronic appliances to exist as appliances have transformers that can step up or step down the
required voltage needed from the 240V. It also means that only one type of power point is
needed and that a wider range of appliances can run of this same type of power point.

They have provided employment opportunities and population distribution as electricity can be
supplied almost anywhere.

Widespread demand for electricity led to a large scale use of fossil fuels such as coal to power
generators, which has resulted in atmospheric pollution.

Gather, analyse and use available evidence to discuss how difficulties of

heating caused by eddy currents in transformers may be overcome.

Eddy currents are produced in the transformer due to oppose the constantly changing magnetic
field due to the AC current.
A way to overcome eddy currents and heat is by constructing an iron core that has many layers
that are coated with an insulator. This in turn will break the eddy currents into smaller eddy
currents, which reduces the heat created by the eddy currents, improving the efficiency of the
transformer.
Another method is by using a material called ferrites. These materials reduce eddy currents as
they are poor conductors of electricity which improves the efficiency of the transformer.

5. Motors are used in industries and the home usually to convert

electrical energy into more useful forms of energy
Describe the main features of an AC electric motor

AC induction motors consist of a stator and a

rotor. The stator consists of wire coils which are wound around soft iron and
connected to a power supply in a way that they will produce a magnetic field
whose polarity rotates at a constant speed in one direction. Most are three
phased.
The rotor is a squirrel cage.
It is known as an induction motor because as
the magnetic flux moves in one direction the stator is cutting flux and
therefore a current is induced in it. This induced current will move so that it
opposes the relative motion, The rotor will try to catch the changing
magnetic field but never will. This difference in velocities is called the slip.
The greater the slip the greater the induced current because magnetic flux is
being cut faster. Overloading causes the rotor to slow down meaning more
current is produced and more heat will be produced leading to the burning up
of the motor

Gather, process and analyse information to identify some of the

energy transfers and transformations involving the conversion of
electrical energy into more useful forms in the home and industry
In the home

In industry

Electrical energy is transformed into Electrical energy is transformed into

radiant energy as:
radiant energy as:
- light in light globes

- X-rays in medical imaging

- heat in toaster and kettle

- light in laser circuit printing

- microwaves in microwave oven

- heat in induction ovens

- radio waves in cordless phone

- microwaves in wood curing

- radio waves in communication

Electrical energy is transformed into Electrical energy is transformed into

mechanical energy as:
mechanical energy as:
- rotation in food blender motor

- rotation in industrial motors

- vibration in television speaker

- vibration in television speaker

- kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy in fun park rides

Electrical energy is transformed into Electrical energy is transformed into

chemical energy in recharging
chemical energy in the
rechargeable batteries
electroplating process