CHAPTER

I
Social Dimensions of Education
Introduction
Sociologists see education as one of the major institutions that
constitutes society. While theories guide research and policy formulation
in the sociology of education, they also provide logical explanations tor
why things happen the way they do. These theories help sociologists
understand educational systems.
This chapter presents an introduction to the social science theories
of education-consensus and conflict, structural functionalist and
interaction theories as related to education.

Consensus and Conflict Theory Consensus is a

In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be general or
classified into 'consensus' and 'conflict' perspectives let us examine the widespread
definitions of consensus .and conflict. agreement
Dahrendorf (1959, 1968) as cited by Ritzer(2000) is the major among all
exponent of the position that society has two faces (conflict and con- members of a
sensus) and that sociological theory therefore should be divided into two particular
parts, conflict theory and consensus theory. society.

1
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to

society, focus on social order based on tacit agreements, and view social
change as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, conflict
Conflict is a
theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see
clash
social order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups,
between
and view social change as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as
ideas,
subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000).
principles
Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and
and people.
conflict theorists examine conflicts of interest anj the coercion that holds
society together in the face of these stresses. Dahrendorf recognizes that
society can not exis* without both conflict and consensus, which are
prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is
some prior consensus.
Consensus is a concept of society ;n which the absence of conflict if
seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread
Conflict theory agreement among all members of a particular society. Conflict is a
focuses on the disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, or people - this
struggle of can be a covert or overt conflict.
social classes The conf.ict theory, according to Horton and Hunt (1984) focuses on
to maintain the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential distribution of
dominance political and social power. A struggle between social classes and class
and power in conflicts between the powerful and less powerful groups occur. Groups
social which have vested interest and power work for rules and laws,
systems. particularly those that serve their own interests, to be passed to the
exclusion of others.
Conflict theorists ask how schools contribute to the unequal distri-
bution of people into jobs in society so that more powerful members of
society maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups (often
women, racial and ethnic groups) often minority groups, are allocated to
Consensus lower ranks in society. The larger issue for conflict theorists is the role
theory that education plays in maintaining the prestige, power, and economic and
emphasizes on social position of the dominant group in society (Ballantine and Spade,
social order, 2004).
stability and The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best
social regula- understood in terms of conflict or tensions between competing groups.
tion. Such conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor
negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for
members, or disputes over the budget.
Conflict theory grew out of the work of Karl Marx and focuses on
the struggle of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social
systems. It is a theory or collection of theories which places emphasis on
conflict in human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL
DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Social structures produce

patterns of
The conflict model is inequality in the distribution of
concerned with the scarce resources
stresses and conflicts
that emerge in society
because of
competition over Conflict
scarce resources. It
focuses on the in-
equalities that are built
into social structures
rather than on those
that emerge because Reorganisation and Change
of personal
characteristics.

Figure 1. The Conflict Model

(Source: Sociology and Anthropology, Javier et a/., 2002)
The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and
what causes conflict within ? particular human society. Or we can say that
conflict theory deals with the incompatible aspects of society. Conflict
theory emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change.
The conflict theorists are interested in how society's institutions - the
family, government, religion, education, and the media - may help to
maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a Subservient
position. Their emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources
makes conflict theorists more "radical" and "activist" than furctfonplicts
(Schaefer, 2003).
Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or
collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation Conflict
form the base of emphasis. In other words, consensus theory is concerned theorists
with the maintenance or continuation of social order in society, in relation emphasize
to accepted norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or social change
collectively by the society-or within a particular society itself. It emerged and
out of the sociology of social order and social stability/social regulation. redistribution of
The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in ihe resources.
works of certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, and Max Weber and other prominent social theorists such as
Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf
and Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer.
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

tendency to the "optimization of gratification" and whose relation to their

situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a
system of culturally structured and shared symbols.
In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily interested
in its structural components. In addition to a concern with the status-role,
he was interested in such large-scale components of social systems as
collectivities, norms, and values. Parsons was not simply a structuralist
but also a functionalist.

Functional Requisites of a Social System

1. Social system must be structured so that they operate compatibly with other systems.
2. To survive, the social system must have the requisite from other systems.
3. The system mus* meet a sighiricant proportion of the needs of its actors.
4. The system must elicit adequate participation from its members.
5. It must have at least a minimum of coiitrol over potentially disruptive behavior.
6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled.
J. Finally, a social system requires a language in order to survVe.
- Talcott Parsons
The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why a
society assumes a particular form. This perspective assumes that any
society takes its particular form because that form works well for the
society given its particular situation. Societies exist under a wide range of
environmental situations. Some societies have highly advanced tech-
nologies and they also differ in terms of their interactions with other
societies. Thus, what works for one society cannot be expected to work
for another.
Key In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes one
principles of basic argument. Whatever are the characteristics of a society, those
the function- characteristics developed because they met the needs of that society in its
alist theory particular situation. The key principles of the functionalist perspective
• interdepe (Farley, 1990) include the following:
ndency 1. Interdependency. One of the most important principles of
• functions functionalist theory is that society is made up of interdependent
of social parts. This means that every part of society is dependent to some
structure extent on other parts of society, so that what happens at one place
and culture in society has important effects elsewhere. For example, the class
• consensus requires a faculty member to teach a subject and the students to
and learn it. Someone has to provide electricity to light the room, and
cooperation in order for that electricity to be provided, someone had to build a
• equilibrium dam or provide fuel to the power plant.
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to

interdependency is the idea that each part of the social system exists
because it serves some function. This principle is applied by
functionalists to both social structure and culture. Social structure
refers to the organization of society, including its institutions, its
social positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to a
set of beliefs, language, rules, values, and knowledge held in common
by members of a society.
5. Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in
Equilibriu
functionalist theory is that societies have a tendency
m
toward consensus; that is to have certain basic values
characteris
that nearly everyone in the society agrees upon. For
tic of a
example, we all believe in the principles of democracy
society
and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in order
when it has
to achieve cooperation. Functionalists believe that
achieved
inability to cooperate w'll paralyze the society, and
the form
people will devote more and more effort to fighting
that is best
one another rather than getting anything done.
adapted its
4. Equilibrium, A final principle of functionalist theories situation
is that of equilibrium. This view holds that, once a
society has achieved the form that is best adapted to its situation, it
has reached a state of balance or equilibrium, and !t will remain in
that condition until it is forced to change by some new condition.
New technology, a change in climate, or contact with an outside
society are all conditions to which a society might have to adapt.
When such conditions occur, social change will take place: society
will changc just enough to adapt to the new situation. However, once
that adaptation has been made, the society has attained a new state of
balance or equilibrium with its environment, and it will not change
again until some new situation requires further adaptation.

Social structures
provide preset
patterns which evolve
to meet human
^iPj needs

Stability, .Maintenance of
order, and society
harmony
Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer,
2000)
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some social
theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social conflict. They
explained change as emerging from the crisis between human beings and
their society. They argued that Marx's theory was a theory characterized
by class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie (rich owners)
and the proletariat (poor workers).
Status Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular "status
cultures cultures," that is, groups in society with similar interests and positions in
refer to the status hierarchy. Located in neighborhoods, schools are often rather
groups in homogeneous in their student bodies and teach to that constituency, thus
society with perpetuating that status culture. Weber outlines types of education found
similar in societies at different time periods, dist'nguishing between inborn
interests and "charisma" and training in school, and the modern, rational method of
positions in education. Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill
the status needed positions or prepare "cultivated individuals," those who stand
hierarchy. above others because of their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities.
Individuals who had access to this type of education in eariv China were
from the educated elite, thus perpetuating their family status culture
(Sadovnik et al, 1994).
Structural Functionalism
Structural functionalism, especially in the work of Talcott Parsons,
Robert Merton, and their students and followers, was for many years the
Structural dominant sociological theory. However, in the last three decades it has
functionalism declined dramatically in importance (Chriss, 1995) and, in at least some
states that senses, has receded into the recent history of sociological theory.
society is made
Parsons' structural functionalism has four functional imperatives for
up of various
all "action" systems, embodied in his famous AGIL scheme. These
institutions that
functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems are:
work together
in cooperation. 1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational
exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt environment to its
needs.
2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary
goals.
3. Integration-. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its
component parts. It must also manage the relationship among the other
three functional imperatives (A,G,L).
4. Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain,
and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that
create and sustain the motivation.
Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this
theoretical system. The behavioral organism is the action system that
handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the
external world. The personality system performs the goal-attainment
function by defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

them. The social system copes with the integration function by controlling
its component parts. Finally, the cultural system performs the latency
function by providing actors with the norms and values that motivate
them for action (Ritzer, 2000). Parson's four action systems are shown in
Figure 2.
Cultural System Social System

. Action System Personality

System
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Figure 2: Structure of the General Action System

(Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000).

The heart of Parsons' work is found in his four action systems. In the
assumptions that Parson made regarding his action systems we encounter
the problem of order which was his overwhelming concern and that has
become a major source of criticism of his work. Parsons found his answer
to the problem of order in structural functionalism, which operates in his
view with the following sets of assumptions:
1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts.
2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium.
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of
change.
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form
that the other parts can take. Social system
5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments. begins at the
6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes micro level
necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system. with
7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the mainte- interaction
nance of the relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental between the
variations, and control of tendencies to change the system from within. ego and alter
These assumptions led Parsons to make the analysis of the ordered ego, defined as
structure of society his first priority. the most
Parsons' conception of the social system begins at the micro level elementary
with interaction between ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary form of the
form of the social system. He described a social system as something social system.
which consists of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each
other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect,
actors who are motivated in terms of a
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

The structural functional model addresses the question of social

organization and how it is maintained. This theoretical perspective is the
legacy of Durkheim and Spencer. It has its roots in natural science and the
analogy between a society and an organization. In the analysis of living
organism, the scientist's task is to identify the various parts (structures)
and determine how they work (function). In the study of society, a
sociologist with this perspective tries to identify the structures of society
and how they function; hence the name structural functio-nalism (Javier et
al., 2002).
The component parts of a social structure are
The component families, neighbors, associations, schools, churches,
parts of a social banks, countries, and the like. Functionalists maintain
structure that social structures exist in society for the functions
• families they have to carry out (Panopio et al., 1994).
•i neighbors Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of
• associations society that stresses tne interdependence of the social
system; these researchers often examine how well parts
• schools
are integrated with each other. Functionalists view
• churches society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates
• banks with another to produce the dynamic energy required to
• countries make society work. Most important, functionalism
stresses the processes that maintain social order by
stressing consensus and agreement. Although function
alists understand that change is inevitable, they
Schooling per- underscore the evolutionary nature of change. Further,
forms an although they acknowledge that conflict between group
important exists, functionalists argue that without a common bond
function in the to unite groups, society will disintegrate. 1 hus function-
development alists examine the social processes necessary to the
and establishment and maintenance of social order
maintenance of (Ballantine and Spade, 2004).
modern, Structural functionalism puts emphasis on social
democratic order and social stability not on conflict. It claims that
society, society is made up of different institutions or
especially with organizations that work together in cooperation - to
regard to equality achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social
of opportunity for order and social stability. This maintenance of society is
all citizens. Thus, extracted from the internal rules, norms, values and
in modern societ- regulations of these various ordered institutions.
ies, education Modern functionalist theories of education have
becomes the key their origin in the work of Talcott Parsons. As cited by
institution in a Ballantine and Spade (2004), Parsons believes that
meritocratic education is a vital part of a modern society, a society
selection process. that differs considerably from all previous societies.
From this perspective, schooling performs an important
- Ballantine & function in the development and maintenance of a
Spade, 20C4
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

modern, democratic society, especially with regard to equality of

opportunity for all citizens. Thus, in modern societies education becomes
the key institution in a meritocratic selection process.
In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays a
significant function in the maintenance of the modern democratic and
technocratic society. In a political democracy, schools provide citizens
with the knowledge and dispositions to participate actively in civic life
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Q

In ever increasingly technical society, schools provide students with the

skills and dispositions to work in such a society. Although schools teach
specific work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they may
adapt to new work roles and requirements (http://allfreeesays.
com/student/ConsensusConflict/Perspectives/html).

Interactionist Theories
In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and
society are critiques and extensions of the functionalist and conflict
perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that functionalist
and conflict theories are very abstract and emphasize structure and
process at a societal (macro-sociological) level of analysis. While this
level of analysis helps us to understand education in the "big picture",
macro-sociological theories hardly provide us with an ir.terpretable snap-
shot of what schools are like on an everyday level. What do students and
teachers actually do in school?
Interactionist theories attempt to make the "commonplace strange"
by turning on their heads everyday taken-for-granted behaviors and
interactions between students and students and between students and
teachers. It is exactly what most people do not question that is most
problematic to the inieractionist. For example, the processes by which
students arc labeled "gifted" or "learning disabled" are, from an
interactionist point of view, important to analyze because such processes
carry with them many implicit assumptions about learning and children
(Ballantine and Spade, 2004).
• Symbolic Interactionism
Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of
early twentieth century sociologists George Herbert Mead and Symbolic
Charles Horton Cooiey. Mead and Cooley examined the ways in interactionism
which the individual is related to society through ongoing social views the self as
interactions. This school of thought, known as symbolic socially
interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in relation to constructed in
social forces and structures and the product of ongoing negotiations relation to
of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product of human social forces
agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure. and social
The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals structures.
mediated by symbols" in particular, language. The distinctive
attributes of human behavior grow from people's participation in
varying types of social structure which depend in turn, on the
existence of language behavior (http://itsa.ucsf. edu/~eliotf?W.iy I
am alsoaSymbolic.html).
Symbolic interactionists are, of course, interested not simply in
socialization but also in interaction in general, which is of "vital
importance in its own right." Interaction is the process in
 CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

which the ability to think is both developed and expressed. All

types of interaction, not just interaction during socialization, refine
our ability to think. Beyond that, thinking shapes the interaction
process. In most interaction, actors must take others into consid-
eration and decide if and how to fit their activities to others. How-
ever, not all interaction involves thinking.
PRINCIPLES OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONS
1. Human beings unlike lower animals, are endowed w:th a capacity for thought. The
2.
capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction. In social interaction, people learn the
meanings and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively human canity for
thought. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively human action and
4
. interaction.
People are able to modify or alter meanings and symbols that they use in action and
interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation. People are able to make
these modifications and alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact witn
themselves, which allows them to examine possible courses of action, assess their
relative advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one.
The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make up groups and societies.
• Non-Symbolic Interactionism
The differentiation made by Blumer (following Mead) between two
basic forms of social interaction is relevant here. The first, nonsymbolic
interaction - Mead's conversation of gestures - does not involve thinking.
The second symbolic interaction does require mental processes (Ritzer,
2000).
Mead's approach to symbolic interaction rested on three basic pre-
mises.
1. The first is that people act toward the things they encounter on
the basis of what those things mean to them. (Things, in this context, refer
Basic forms of not just to objects, but also to people, activities, and situations).
Social 2. Second, we learn what things are by observing how other people
Interaction respond to them, that is through social interaction.
• non- 3. Third, as a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words),
symbolic gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in dealing with
interaction others acquire symbolic meanings that are shared by people who belong
which does to the same culture. The meaning of a symbolic gesture extends beyond
not involve the act itself. A handshake, for instance, is a symbolic gesture of greeting
thinking among Filipinos. As such, it conveys more than just a mutual grasping of
• symbolic fingers and palms. It expresses both parties' shared understanding that a
interaction social interaction is beginning. In other cultures, such
which require
mental
processes
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

as Japan, willingness to interact is expressed or symbolized in a

bow (Calhoun et al.,1994).
The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected in
their views on objects. Blunter differentiates among three types of objects:
physical objects, such as a chair or a tree; social objects, such as a student
or a mother; and abstract objects, such as an idea or a moral principle.
Objects are seen simply as things "out there" in the real world: what is of
greatest significance is the way that they are defined by actors. The latter
leads to the relativistic view that different objects have different meanings
for different individuals: "A tree will be a different object to a botanist, a
lumberman, a poet, and a home gardener" (Blumer as Looking-glass
cited by Ritzer, 2000). Self-
Another important concept that has long been usedWe see
by symbolic interactionist is the looking-glass self. Thisourselves as
concept was developed by the early symbolicothers ste us.
interactionist theorist Charles Horton Cooley. The basic-Charles Cooley
notion of the looking-glass self can be summed up as
"We see ourselves as others see us." In other words, we come to develop a
self-image on the basis of the messages we get from others, as we un-
derstand them. If your teachers and fellow students give you the message
that you are "smart," you will come to think of your self as an intelligent
person. If others tel! you thai you are attractive, you will likely think of
yourself as attractive. Conversely, if people repeatedly laugh at you and
tease you about being clumsy, you will probably come to decide that you
are clumsy. In Cooley's terms, you use other people as a mirror into which
you look to see what you are like (Farley, 1990)
Summary
Education is one of the major Institutions that constitute society.
There are various social science theories that relate to education -
consensus, conflict, structural functionalist and interaction theones.
Conflict theory deals with the emergence of conflict within a particular
human society while consensus is a concept of society in which the
absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a
general or widespread agreement among all members of a particular
society. The consensus and conflict theories are reflected in the works of
certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx. Emile Durkheim, Max
Weber and other social theorists.
Structural functicnalism is concerned with the functions of schooling
in the maintenance of social order, it asserts that society is made up of
different institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation to
achieve orderly relationship and to maintain social order and
social stability.
Symbolic interactionists are interested not simply in
socialization but in interactions between students and
students and between students and teachers. All types of
interactions refine our ability to think.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION