Fundamentals of

Telecommunications

Raj Jain
Professor of CIS
The Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
Jain@ACM.Org
http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~jain/
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 Overview

q Time Division Multiplexing T1, T3, DS1, E1

q T1 Framing
q Echo Cancellation
q Signaling

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 Time Division Multiplexing
q Voice signal has a bandwidth of 4 kHz
q Nyquist sampling theorem:
Sample at twice the highest signal frequency
⇒ Sample at 8 kHz ⇒ Sample every 125 µsec
q 256 levels ⇒ 8 bits per sample × 8000 samples/sec = 64 kbps
q In 1962, telephone carrier (cable) between Bell System offices
could carry approximately 1.5 Mbps over a mile = Distance
between manholes in large cities = Distance between
amplifiers
q 1500/64 ≈ 24 ⇒ Can multiplex approximately 24 voice
channels on that carrier ⇒ Telecommunication-1 carrier or T1
carrier. Named after the ANSI committee.
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 T1 Frame
q T1= 24 voice channels = Digital Service 1 = DS1
q Used time-division multiplexing:

Framing bit
1 2 3 23 24

T1 Frame = 193 bits/125 µs

q Framing: Add 101010 (1 bit per frame)

Frame 1 Frame 0 Frame 1 Frame 0 Frame 1
q Any other sequence ⇒ Resynchronize
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 T1 Signaling
q Initially, 8th bit of every channel was used for signaling
q Now, every 6th frame, the 8th bit of each channel is used for
signaling
q Net rate = (8 × 5+7)/(125 × 6) = 62.66 kbps
q For digital data service, 24th channel is used for sync byte
which allows faster and more reliable frame
resynchronization. 8th bit in each of the 23 channels
indicates whether the data is user’s or system control
q 8th bit is not reliable
⇒ Use only 7 bits per frame ⇒ 56 kbps
q For mixture of voice and data, all 24 channels can be used.
No sync bytes.
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 Subrate Multiplexing
q Used for data rates lower than 56 kbps.
q One bit of the 7 bits is used to indicate data rate
q 6 bits per channel = 48 kbps
q Five 9.6 kbps subchannels

q Ten 4.8 kbps subchannels

q Twenty 2.4 kbps subchannels

q Five subchannels ⇒ Subchannel 1 uses frames 1, 6, 11, ...

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 Digital TDM Hierarchy

North America European Japan

DS0 64 kbps 64 kbps 64 kbps
DS1 1.544 Mbps E1 2.048 Mbps 1.544 Mbps
DS2 6.313 Mbps E2 8.448 Mbps 6.312 Mbps
DS3 44.736 Mbps E3 34.368 Mbps 32.064 Mbps
DS4 274.176 Mbps E4 139.264 Mbps 97.728 Mbps
DS1C 3.152 Mbps E5 565.148 Mbps 397.200 Mbps

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 300 bps over Single Pair
q 300 bps modems (Bell 108 specification)
q Use frequency shift keying
0 ⇒1070 Hz, 1 ⇒ 1270 Hz in one direction
0 ⇒ 2025 Hz, 1 ⇒ 2225 Hz in the other direction

Signal
Strength

1070 1270 2025 2225

Frequency
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 Echo Cancellation
q Problem: Full duplex transmission over a single pair
q Solution 1: Use different frequencies for the two directions.
Only half of the bandwidth available for each direction
q Solution 2: Use digital signal ⇒ Some part of the signal
returns (echo). Near-end and far-end echoes

Transmitter Receiver
Near-end Far-end
Receiver Transmitter

q Echo Cancellation: Estimate echo and subtract from

received signal. Transmitted signal is known. Reflections
from various distances along the path are estimated and
subtracted from the received signal ⇒ 144 kbps up to 4 km
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 Time-Compression Multiplexing
q Half-duplex transmission
q Central office and subscriber take turns for transmitting
q Some time is allowed for propagation delay and for the line
to turn around
q Wire rate is more than twice the signal rate

X1 Y1 X2 Y2

X1 Y1 X2 Y2

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 Optical Fiber in the Local Loop
q Distribution network uses a star topology
q Feeder cables connect central office to remote nodes
q Initially, feeder cables can be replaced via fiber. May
multiplex using TDM or WDM
q Active star Remote node ⇒ It multiplexes/demultiplexes.
q Passive star remote node ⇒ Subscriber equipment
multiplexes/demultiplexes
Bundles of TP

Individual TP
Central Remote
Office Node
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 Circuit Switching
q Three Phases: Circuit setup, Signal Transfer, Circuit
Disconnect
q Hierarchical System: Subscribers are connected to local
exchanges (or end offices), which are connected via trunks
to other tandem or toll switching centers.
q Routing can be static or adaptive.
Load independent or load dependent.

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 Signaling
q Signal = Control
q Signaling in telephone networks
= Control messages in computer networks
q Examples:
q Connection setup request
= Off-hook signal from telephone to switch
q Connection setup acknowledge = Dial tone

q Destination address = Pulse or tone dialing

q Destination busy = Busy tone

q Destination Available = Ringing tone

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 Other Signaling Functions
q Transmission of dialed number between switches
q Transmission of information between switches indicating
that a call cannot be completed
q Transmission of billing information
q Transmission of information for diagnosing and isolating
failures
q Control of satellite channels

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 Types of Signaling Functions
q Supervisory: To obtain resources to establish/hold/release a
connection. Includes information sent back to the
subscriber's switch about the status of the call.
q Address: Identify destination. Subscriber to switch.
Between switches.
q Call information: Provide call status to the calling
subscriber
q Network Management: Operation, troubleshooting, and
maintenance of the network. Not directly involved in call
establishment/termination.
q Signaling between a subscriber and the network is different
(simple) from that inside the network.
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 Signaling Channel
q In-band signaling ⇒ Signaling over the same channel as
payload
q Out-of-band signaling ⇒ Separate channels for signaling
(but may be same physical circuits)
q Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
⇒ Separate circuits for signaling
⇒ Allows several new functions, such as 800
Payload Signaling

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 Signaling Modes
q Associated Mode: CCS follows the same path as payload
q Nonassociated Mode: CCS uses a separate network

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 Summary

q T1, DS1, DS3, ...

q T1 Frames consist of 193 bits per 125 µs.
q Echo cancellation is required if sharing the same wire-pair
for both directions.
q Optical fiber can be used to replace feeder cable.
q Signaling: In band vs Common Channel, associated vs non-
associated..
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 Homework
q Read chapter 2 and sections 3.1-3.5 of Stallings (ISDN and
Broadband ISDN)
q Submit answer to exercise 2.7

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