+: V × V V: F × V V 1

! " #

$
!" #$ #""% # & '"(( !) * "# +, - .
/" /00, 01 . /% 23 !"2 ) / 456 7 !% # 6 78#
& 9 /00, :"2 * "; #
"2 . 7, <= /> ? :$ :0) * 6

%
% % &'

; * <0@ 7
A !"A # F @ :# 7 V /@"0B#
+ : V × V −→ V 7 . : F × V −→ V C1 D
E * 2 7
A1 : x+y = y+x
A2 : (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
A3 : ∃0 ∈ V | 0+x=x
A4 : ∀x ∈ V ∃−x ∈V | −x + x = 0,
M1 : α(x + y) = αx + αy
M2 : (α + β)x = αx + βx
F
M1 : α(βx) = (αβ)x
M1 : 1x = x. C2 D
>>G V H C IJK# @ :# R I>>G @ :# F /% . / /
!"A # JK#
L% * /@"0B#
H>>G M;# ; n /@"0B# R F

n
HJK# M;# ; n /@"0B# C N

n
H F :# @ :$ / /% m × n 4;# /@"0B# M m×n (F ) O

H
; [a, b] /K /% x P#* n /Q;# >>G /K0R( /@"0B# P ([a, b]) S
n
[a, b] /K T3 U # k VK# >>G W"; /@"0B# C [a, b] X

k
!% #% JK# Y=8# / .*

W A !"A # V * W
$ H :$* /@"0B#* W ⊂ V 7 V
A

/ @ ', 7 W0R / Q
() * +

Z * J
A !# # K2 ', , : V × V −→ C ;7 <0@ V

E%
x, y + αz = x, y + αx, z
x, y = y, x∗
x, x ≥ 0
x, x = 0 −→ x = 0. C3 D
N

EC [
n
C4 D
n

x, y := x∗i yi
i=1
Mn,m '
A, B := tr(AB † ) C5 D
C k [a, b] \

C6 D
b
f, g := f ∗ (x)g(x)dx.
a
!"A # Inner product space K2 ',

)B# K2 ', / /%
E! K2 ',
|x, y|2 ≤ x, xy, y. C7 D
! !A #& v := αx + y E+Q]

f (α, α∗ ) := v, v ≥ 0 −→ αx + y, αx + y ≥ 0
−→ |α|2 x, x + α∗ x, y + αy, x + y, y ≥ 0. C8 D
!6 # ;" "% 7# / !%3 f W; /0%
A
! "#$
E% ;* < /

* :"; # K2 ',
|x| :=

x, x. C9 D
O
E " :"; # ;" "% 7# / /R";
|x, y| ≤ |x||y|. C10D
! "#$
EC [
n
C11D
n

|x|2 := x∗i xi
i=1
M '
n,m
|A|2 := tr(AA† ) C12D

C k [a, b] \

C13D
b
|f | := f ∗ (x)f (x)dx.
a
+" / 7 . /7* ; " # < G !)# /B 7 ;" "% 7#*
cos φ :=
|x, y|
|x||y|
C14D
E^K_# 7# 7
|x + y||x| + |y|. C15D

*
; || || : V −→ R :$ /% V "#$ % $& '(
E1* J

A !"A # N ormed Space
||v|| ≥ 0 ∀v
||v|| = 0 −→ v = 0
||αv|| = |a| ||v||
||v + w|| ≤ ||v|| + ||w||. C16D
[7 H6
* " # ; K2 ', 7* /%
* :0 K2 ',
6
; K2 ', 7* Y#7[
* +Q@ / K2 ', Y#[
*
S
; K2 ', 7* /% 6
* ||f || = sup x∈[a,b] |f (x)| C[a, b] W"; `_# :"@ /
6

ei , ej = δij /% 6 :$ # / :"B) !A #& V {e , i = 1, · · · N } B) /3
i
E"7 J /3 . MG :"; # x ∈ V

C17D
N

x= xi ei .
i=1
/% 6 )
xi = ei , x. C18D
)* + ,-. ' Gram − Schmidt /0 % 1 23
L"6"# 0 LA a7 / /% * a7 / :"; # {v , v , · · · v } <_#

"[ /3 * HK2 ',
1 2 N
E26B) /3 6

E! #1
e := 1
v
|v |
,
1
1
e :=
v − e , v e
2
2
|v − e , v e |
2
1
1
,
2
2
1
e :=
1
v − e , v e − e , v e
3
3
|v − e , v e − e , v e |
3
1
,···
1
3
3
1
1
C19D2
2
3
3
2
2
6
67 .7 b a7 6 Q; 6B) R /3 /% % U>8; G "; #
"2
)* ' +
EC 7 R [
n n
⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛⎞
1 0 0
⎜ 0 ⎟
e1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠
⎜ 1 ⎟
e2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠
⎜ 0 ⎟
en = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠ C20D
0 0 1
X
EM μ×n (C), Mm×n (R) '
Eij , i = 1, · · · m, j = 1 · · · n, C21D
6c :$ / /> 7 F :$ (i, j) / /% 6 ;# E :$ /% ij
; {e (x), f (x),

n n /@"0B# H C [a, b] \
n = 0 · · · ∞} k

en (x) :=
2
b−a
sin(
nπ
b−a
)x, fn :=
2
b−a
cos(
nπ
b−a
)x. C22D
<0; %B) 0LA :$ 7 A& {1, x, x , · · · x } <_# /3 :"; # HP [a, b]
2 n
n
!% # TA7
"2 / .0; .
4;# +" / x /c["# /3 :$ !"; # H!% ' /3 /% 17 78#
E !" * < / "6
⎛ ⎞
x1
⎜ x2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜
x≡⎜
⎜
⎜
x3
·
⎟
⎟.
⎟
⎟
C23D
⎝ · ⎠
xN
E" "2* +" / /3 /c["# [G .

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0
⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜
e1 ≡ ⎜
⎜
⎜
0
·
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
··· eN
⎜
≡⎜
⎜
⎜
0
·
⎟
⎟.
⎟
⎟
C24D
⎝ · ⎠ ⎝ · ⎠
0 1
!"2
$ e = S e :$ /% !& {e } /3 {e } /3 R /
A

i li l

i i

i

x = e , x = S e , x = S x ,
i li l li l C25D
E;
+" / 7
x = xS. C26D
d
# Z * e S /3 <Q; 4;# /% !A # /B G B)7 {e } 7 {e } /3 /% B$*

i i
E%
S †S = I C27D
!"A # 4;# 4;# .(

>["2 4;# :$ H "2 18[ ;#
A !%
; / B
!"A # # Self − Adjoint

*, - ./ % &'
"% /[Q /[Q . !A #& {x , x , · · · x · · ·} <_# * /[Q
1 2 n 4$
" N <_# @ > 0 * /

A >1 +Q@ / " !% f; / . /K
A " #
#
/% 01 /
∀ m, n > N −→ |x − x | ≤ .
n m C28D
:"@ / "A @ :#

A `_# :"@ / 1 "2 Y#7[ "% /[Q G
:# <2 :$ G [7 H6 "% /[Q /(A {(1 + ) } /[Q !& a"2 7
1 n
/[Q G 6 <#% /% $ # 6 >>G @ :# "A @ / gA @ :7 1 "A@
n
"2 "%

/ "2 "% /[Q G
A !"A # <#% 5 ' '(
!# # h <#% /% L 6$ '(
7 >>G @ :# /% B* !# # +QK <#% /% K2 ', 7 4 '(
" <#% " # /26 :# . 7 /% 78# /% % ] :"; # H <#% JK#
6 +QK .7
i
. !A #& f, g = 2
f (x)g(x)dx 6 K2 ', C[−1, 1] >>G W"; E`_#
E!% # ;* W"; /[Q
−1
⎧
⎪
⎪ 0 x ≤ − n1
⎪
⎪
⎨
fn (x) :=
⎪
⎪
1
2 (nx + 1) − n1 ≤ x ≤ 1
n C29D
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1
1 n ≤x
/% 6 /K3 /6"3 W; /[Q .G # 6 "% /[Q /[Q . /% : G "; #
"2
+QK C[−1, 1] . 1 C[−1, 1]
Q_#
"[ W; w :$ /% f, g = w(x)f (x)g(x)dx K2 ', JK# W"; L [a, b]
b ∗ 2
w '(
[$ '% / #

"2 H* /17 /1 . +Q] 6 +QK ||f || < ∞ e 6
a
% /R# ;[$

6 : L 2
w [a, b] <_# +QK E/1
0 1
2
A !"A # Linear operator V2 K0@ V2 <Q; T̂ : V −→ V HV
E* 2
T̂ (x + αy) = T̂ (x) + αT̂ (y) ∀α ∈ F, x, y ∈ V. C30D
E!" # " # j # /3 7 a] ); V2K0@ H:" V2 <[
C31D
N

T̂ ei = Tji ej
j=1
# B) Z" /3
A !"A # {e } /3 T̂ V2 <Q; / e"# 4;# T / T 4;#
i mn
!" !";
e , T̂ e = T .
j i ji C32D
k
E* " "2 +Q@ x 7 T̂ V2 <Q; ]
T̂ x = T̂ x e = x (T̂ e ) = x T e = (T x )e = (T x) e
i i i i i ji j ji i j j j C33D
" # ', x "6 4;# l(* T V2 <Q; 4;# /% 6 :$ x 7 T̂ V2 <Q; ] .
/% !& {e } /3 {e } /3 R / A "2 m"@ V2 <Q; 4;# !% m"@ /3
A

i i
!"2
$ e = S e :$
i li l

ij

i

T = e , T̂ e = S e , T̂ S e = S T S ,
j li l mj m
∗
li lm mj C34D
E6 "* <1*
+" / /%

T = S T S, †
C35D
E" # ; .( 7 " #
"2 S 4;# 18[ S :$ /%†
S † = (S ∗ )T , †
Sij = (S ∗ )ji . C36D
<Q; αÂ + B̂
$ H F :# / UK#
"[ @ α 7 V 7
"[ V2 <Q;7 B̂ 7 Â
A
End(V ) :$ /% # < ; V 7 V2 +nQ; /@"0B# . 6 V 7 V2
; V2 <Q; 7 ', .( ! ! # o0
(ÂB̂)x := Â(B̂x) C37D
/%# . / 6QR /K 6 ); / End(V ) . 6 V2 <Q;
BR QR . 6
; (ÂB̂)Ĉ = Â(B̂Ĉ) T3 % ', <0@ :$ /% 6
C0K0@ BD "R7 /=@ :$ /% # . / 6 (U nital) `" / # (ÂB̂ = B̂Â)
ÂIˆ = IˆÂ = Â* 2
V2 +nQ; . !% # .# /3 /% 17 Q 4;# :"; # V2K0@ / /% !
7 V2 <Q; * :"; # . $ # "R" M (C) 4;# 7 End(V )
n×n
K2 ', / V 7 V2 +nQ; H* ; :"; # cA .6 G / / :$ 4;#
E% <Q;
Â, B̂ = tr(AB ) †
C38D
p
!A #& /% 6 /3 * <># ; . /% : "; #
"2
8 79#4
A ∈ Mn×n (F ) :$ /% x −→ x = Ax +" / <Q; H F [

n
% # <Q;* +" / x ∈ M m×n (F ) /% KQ; HM m×n (F ) '

x −→ x = AxB T , C39D
6 +Q@ .( 7 V2 <Q; .; K% /% % ] :"; # 7 A ∈ M (F ) :$ /%
B ∈ Mn,n (F ) m,m
E* M;; / Z" +nQ; * 0R *

x −→ x :=

A xB . i i C40D
i
/% 6 KQ; H .( 7 V2 <Q; .; K% /% !" !"; # `_# * L)[ C [a, b] \ k
E% # <Q;* +" / f ∈ C (a, b) k

C41D
b

f (x) −→ f (x) := K(x, y)f (y)
a
K(x, y) 7 ` <Q; <Q; . 6T3 U # k "2 /=# 7 / Q /% 6 ; K(x, y) :$ /%
`_# :"@ / E" <c K0@ +" / V2 <Q; :"; # "#* "2 # :$ /
q"* +nQ; T3 U # ) W"; C [a, b] ∞
f (x) −→
r
d
dxr
f (x) f (x) −→ x f (x) r
C42D
E* <Q; <_# 6 V2K0@ )$* V2 M%; 7
f (x) −→ (x
d
2
dx
+
d
dx
2
2
+ 1)f (x). C43D
&') 3$4 56

# ;* /@"0B# :"@ / U + W
$ :$ *7 W 7 U 7 V
A

E!%
U + W := {u|v = u + w, u ∈ U, w ∈ W }. C44D
Fr
6 V * U + W /% " # L"K# G
xy /8c M;; / W 7 U W = {(0, y, z)}7 U = {(x, y, 0)} 7 C O L0;D V = R ! #1 E`_#
3
yz 7
/% 01 / :$ * 7 W 7 U 7 V /% % m

V = U + W E [
c W 7 U . ? #); E '
!" # 7 !"A # (Semi − direct Sum) W 7 U !># /0 W0R V +" .
V = U ⊕ W. C45D
W 7 U !># W0R V /% "2 % !6 W 7 U * < KQ1 `_#
"2
A
7 u ∈ U :$ /% " u + w +" / < / :" v ∈ V A J>7A V = U ⊕ W
w∈W
!
% /B;* +" 7 / v /% % m `G ! E`7 I)R +Q]
V =U ⊕W
v = u + w, v = u + w .
C46D
/% !A # /B

u − u = w − w. C47D
# /B . w − w = 0 7 u − u = 0 !A # /B 6c W 7 U . ? #); Hm /% B$*

6 w 7 u MG v /B; /% !A

:0 6 ? # W 7 U . /% ); /% ! : `G 6 v /B; /% !% # m EL7 I)R +Q]
E"* +" 7 / :"; # . 6 ? # W 7 U . /% !A # x 6c
x = (0 ∈ V ) + (x ∈ W ), 7 x = (x ∈ V ) + (0 ∈ W ). C48D
7 U . ? #); . x = 0 ∈ W 7 x = 0 ∈ V /% !A # /B 6 /B; m :"(
6c W
dim V = dim U + dim W
$ HV = U ⊕ W A
:"; # v ∈ V /% B$* !A #& W {e m+1 , · · · em+n } /37 U {e , · · · e } /3

1 m 74:
FF
!"2 % /B; v = u + w +" / "s /
C49D
m
m+n

v =u+w = u i ei + wj ej .
i=1 j=m+1
dim(V ) = dim(U ) + dim(W ) /B 7 # < ; V /3 {e , e , · · · e 1 2 m+n } .

v = v1 + v2 + · · · vr +" / v ∈ V +" . V = V ⊕ V ⊕ · · · V /% % m1 2 r

E # LB*% /% % ; K0@ P " # /B; j
P v=v . j j C50D
!"2 # V * 7 "=;K0@ P +" .
j j
E* 2 "=; K0@
Pj Pk = δjk Pj
C51D
r

Pj = I
j=1
! #1 L7 7; 6

6 `7 2 +Q]
C52D
r
r

v= vj = Pj v
j=1 j=1
!A # /B L7 2 H 6 t8 v /V . :"(
Pj K0@
$ H "0@ ! V :$ /% V =
j 7 K2 ', V
A
r
j=1 Vj
#
! w 7 v 7 * / 74:
v, P w = v, w
j j C53D
6 # P . P v, w 7 P v, w 7 v , w 6 6 9s ! * :" "0@ s2 / #
j j j j j j
FN
$ (7 *84
/ T̂ ] 8; /% 6 c u .* 6 +Q@ >#
v7 /Kw# !A #& T̂ : V −→ V K0@
H" <Q; "2 * #
T x = λx C54D
/ QT3 :77 T − λI 4;#

A " "2 c u x
det(T − λI) = 0. C55D
: {λ , i = 1, · · · N } )$ /% '"R ; N Y0G JK# @

*"G /% 6 N /R /[# /[# .
i
+7c# ! /0 Y#7[ '"R . !"A # T̂ <Q; >#

v7 :$7 ! #
!"A #>#
v7 :$ / e"#
v7 % # Z T v = λ v /[# /% λ / e"#
i i i i
6 g :$ A7 /R !"A "; g Hλ <_# >#

v7 /%
A
i i i
. 6 λ / e"#

v7 )$ V2 M%; /% 6 ) λ / e"#
v7 y 7 x
A
"A #>#
v7 :$ / e"#
v7 :$ /% #* < ;>#
v7 / UK# /@"0B#
9: . , % ,;*<

E% Z * e /% 6 T̂ <_# K0@ T K0@ IAdjoint 18[ HK2 ',
†

v, T̂ w = T † v, w ∀v, w ∈ V. C56D
E% ]* x"2 G :"; # ; .*

c6
6 V2K0@ "2 V2K0@ 18[ E [
E'
(cA + B)† = ∗
c A +B†
∀c ∈ C, 7 A, B
†
(AB)† = B † A†
(A† )† = A. C57D
FO
% Z T̂ †
e /% " # /cA K0@ / #K0@ K2 ',
= T̂ - ; 0<
% Z T̂ = −T̂ e /% " # /cA K0@ / # 3 K0@

†
" # < ; 7; W"; * /% *K0@ . !A #& D := K0@ C [a, b]
∂ ∞

" "2 # * . P := −iD K0@ /B 6 #3 Cf (a) = f (b) eD
∂x
ycG K2 ', /% " # /cA K0@ / U K0@ HK2 ', $= ; 0<
H%
Û v, Û w = v, w. C58D
% # Z U U †
= U †U = I e K0@ .(
% ycG /0
* A J>7A 6 U K0@ E/1
/0
* U /% % m `G % # ycG
* /% " # L"K# 58 *
c6 U A E+Q]
/% ! # x, y
"[7 * / % ycG
||U x|| = ||x||, ||U y|| = ||y||, ||U (x + y)|| = ||x + y||, ||U (x + iy)|| = ||x + iy||. C59D
U x, U y = x, y /% !A # /B J7 .*
6 # 4;# H #K0@ / e"# 4;# /% % ] "; #
"2
7 #K0@ /% 6 Qs "BR "2 18[ /% 6 K0@ `#K0@ $ )* ; 0<
6 `#
! / x * / A J>7A 6B) A IK0@
||Ax|| = ||A† x||. C60D

. AA† = A† A ! B) A A E`7 )R +Q] 74:
Ax, Ax = A† Ax, x = AA† x, x = A† x, A† x. C61D
FS
!A # /B
"[ 7 y 7 x :$ /% x + iy 7 x, y, x + y (60D 7; * EL7 )R +Q]
†
Ax, Ay = A x, A y, †
∀x, y. C62D
/B
A† Ax, y = AA† x, y, C63D
7
(A† A − A† A)x, y = 0. C64D
6B)K0@ A .7 A A = AA /% !A # /B

"[ y 7 x :"(
† †
A† x = λ∗ x
$ Ax = λx A +" . 6B)K0@ A /% % m
E!% #
c6 <Q1 /1 * `G 6B) A − λI
$ B) A A 74:
||(A − λI)x|| = 0 −→ ||(A − λI)† x|| = 0 −→ ||(A† − λ∗ I)x|| = 0 −→ A† x = λ∗ x. C65D

E$ # 6
6 /B7 /1 .*
>>G #K0@ >#
v7 3 )-$
j[2* K0@ >#

v7 >%3 )-$
"0@ ! 0# >#

v7 z# /% `# K0@
v7
+" . Ay = μy 7 Ax = λx !% m 74:
x, μy = x, Ay = A† x, y = λ∗ x, y, C66D
B$*7
−→ (μ − λ)x, y = 0 −→ x, y = 0. C67D
FX
=> ?92
# < ; /3 B)K0@

v7 78#
6 /1 .* /cA -n% /% /{$ / Q ;

6 K2 +Q] :";# /3 '
v7 .

v7 7>#
v7 Y0G K0@ /% ! # !A #& V 7 A `# K0@
E! # : e 7 λ /s"#
v77>#
1 1
Ae = λ e . 1 1 1 C68D
E$ #* < / A K0@ 4;# +" . :$ "@ .[7 e /% !% # ' /3
1

A=
λ
0 A
b 1 n−1
n−1
C69D
A /% ! # <Q1 /1*# 6 n − 1 V6 b 7 n − 1 4;# A :$ /%
n−1 n−1
/ # A 4;# . !

%
c6 A K0@ :"B)* R . A e = λ e
$ Ae = λ e
† †
1
∗
1 1 1 1 1
E$ # *IV1 /%"K < / A 43 b = 0 # /B7 _K_#b L

n−1

A=
λ1
0
0
An−1
. C70D
:$"# `b6 .0
v7 7>#
v7 <1G 7 6 `#K0@ "2 /" / A `G n−1
E$ #* < / A K0@ 4;# e 7 e :$ =@ .#7 7 .[7 /% /3 /% ! #7 !% #;
2 1
⎛ ⎞
0 0
C71D
λ1
A=⎝ 0 λ2 0 ⎠.
0 0 An−2
" # V1 <#%"s / A H{e , e , · · · e } /3 A

v7 /3 /% ! # <0@ .;
1 2 n
!A # & * 4;# H`_# :"@ / Z B) 4;# K0@ q","# .

B=
1 c
0 1
, c = 0. C72D

1
0
< / /% "R7 4;# .
v7 ); # 7 4;# . >#
v7
< ; /3 "; 0 4;# .
v7 . 6
Fd
½º½¼
/% "R7 <Q; /% 6# . /# . 6 V1 "2
v7 /3 `#K0@ /% !
7 >#
v7 !% # <0@* M;; / <Q; . t L :%3 % # V1 A K0@ 4;#
E!% #3 A
v7
Ae = λ e , i i = 1, · · · n.
i i C73D
.A7>#
v7 / e"#
v7 "0@ ! 0# >#
v7 z#
v7 /% ! #
/ e A % # Z e , e = δ J
v7 . /B !% # "0@ ! 0 LA a7
i i j ij
< / )$ :"B) /V 7 #$ "2 V6 +" / e H!& "6 +" †
i
E!" #* < / S 4;# `G e e = δ " # :* †

i j ij

S = e e ··· e 1

2 n C74D
!"2 /B /A1 S "6 :"@ / e :$ /% i
⎛ ⎞
e†1
⎜ e†2 ⎟
†
⎜
S =⎜
⎜
⎝
·
⎟
⎟.
⎟
⎠
C75D
·
e†N
/% !A # /B e e
†
i j = δij e <[
⎛ ⎞
e†1
⎜ e†2 ⎟
⎜
S †S = ⎜
⎜
⎝
·
⎟
⎟ e1
⎟
⎠
e2 · · · en

= I, C76D
·
†
eN
6 S
!7$ # 6 HAe = λ e /% B$*
i i i
AS = A

e1 e2 · · · en

=

λ1 e1 λ e ··· λ e
2 2

n n C77D
/B7
⎛ ⎞
λ1 0 ··· 0
⎜
S † AS = ⎜
0
⎝ 0
λ2
0
···
···
0 ⎟
⎟.
0 ⎠
C78D
0 0 ··· λn
Fi
6
V1 <Q; A .

v7 * <#% /@"0B# )$ :" A J>7A " #BR B 7 A `# K0@7
? #
Y
/3 :"; # 0G "BR `#K0@ 7 A / :$7 % : :"; # < / /1 .
"A #); /17 1 "[ /3 2 . /% !% %; V1K0@7 :$ /%
1 2 . :$ /% /3 :"; # /%
1 / #
"2 7 #""% # * 0 %& * ! 7 #")c#&* ! /1 .
$ +Q]
/% B$* / {e , e , · · · e } <_# ? #
v7 /@"0B# /% K0@7 B 7 A /% !% m E+Q]
1 2 N
! /3 . % ' /3 :"@ / :"; # /@"0B# . #K0@7 .
Ae = λ e , Be = μ e
i i i i i i C79D
!A # /B :$* /%
ABe = BAe −→ AB = BA −→ [A, B] = 0.
i i C80D
/% !% m 4@

[A, B] = 0
#3* < A Ho
v7 /3 !# # g λ >#
v7 A7 !% # 3 A K0@
v7
i i
%
⎛ ⎞
λ1 Ig1 ×g1
⎜
A=⎜
⎝
·
·
⎟
⎟
⎠ C81D
λk Igk ×gk
* / E!% # <0@* M;; / `G

ei
A(Be ) = B(Ae ) = B(λ e ) = λ (Be ),

i i i i i i C82D
v7 A K0@

v7 Be /% # : Z" /V !
%
c6 B 7 A :BR * :$ /%
i
/3 . /% 6# . / # . 6 J <1 λ

v7 /3 MG Be . 6 λ >#
i i i
Fk
E6 * < / B K0@ C6 V1 :$ A /% /3 :0D
⎛ ⎞
B1g1 ×g1
⎜
B=⎜
⎝
·
·
⎟
⎟.
⎠ C83D
Bkgk ×gk
<Q; :"; # `G 6

V1 /%"K B K0@ 7 V1 A K0@ Z"/3 +Q@ /
⎛ ⎞
S1 g1 ×g1
⎜
S=⎜
⎝
·
·
⎟
⎟.
⎠ C84D
Sk gk ×gk
* * 0 6 A :" V1 <Q; . % V1 B 4;# <% 6 B 4;#
% V1 S :$ /% i i
V1 K0@7 :$ /% 6 /3 R /3 S I S = I †

i i i i

¾º½¼
/ /3 * V v ∈ V !A #& {e , e , · · · e } B) /3 N IV
1 2 N
E6* <
C85D
N
v= ve i i
i=1
E" # /"* +" / a"2 . K2 ',

C86D
N

v, v = vi∗ vi .
i=1
E% ;* < / v| I0 "6 7 |v I0 V6 .( * / :"; #
⎛ ⎞
v1
⎜ v2 ⎟
|v = ⎜
⎝ · ⎠
⎟ C87D
vN
7
v| =

v1∗ , v2∗ , · · · vN
∗

. C88D
Fp
# 7 . /% !% # /R"; / . / `G !) # L Bra v| 7 ket |v
E!% ', !";
C89D
N

v|v = vi∗ vi = v, v.
i=1
q" /% 6 :$ ? TA0 "2 6 4;# 7 ', l( 9s [7 6 K2 ', 6 9s
# <K>; 4;# ', q"* ;K0@ / ! LB 7 !"2 ## /% ;K0@
E% #3 * 7 % o0 e , · · · e /3
1 N
⎛ ⎞ ⎛⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
⎜ 0 ⎟
|1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠
⎜ 1 ⎟
|2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠
⎜ 0 ⎟
|N = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠ C90D
0 0 1
1| =

1 0 0 ··· 0

2| =

0 1 0 ··· 0

N | =

0 0 0 ··· 1

. C91D
E ! .
C92D
n

|v := vi |i.
i=1
C93D
n

v| := vi∗ i|.
i=1
#& 9 v = e +" / ." * 7 ! # o0 7 % +" / L0; / .*
n
i=1 i
:$ / /% 7$ 6 @ 7 % ', ! +" / |w <_# % 7 v| <_# :"; # !%
!"A # %
C94D
n

v|w := vi∗ wi ,
i=1
E6* 2 % . 6 v 7 w 7 . K2 ', :0 W17 /%
Nr
v|w + w = v|w + v|w
v|cw = cv|w
∗
cv|w = c v|w
v|v ≥ 0
v|v = 0 −→ |v = v| = 0 C95D
E/% :"; # G
C96D
N

|v = vi |i, i|v = vi .
i=1
E7$ 6 4;# 7 % ', ! +" / w| <_# 7 |v <_# % :"; #
⎛ ⎞
v1 w1∗ v1 w2∗ v1 w3∗ · v1 wn∗
⎜ v2 w1∗ v2 w2∗ v2 w3∗ · v2 wn∗ ⎟
⎜
|vw| := ⎜
⎜
⎝
v3 w1∗ v3 w2∗ v3 w3∗ · v3 wn∗
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
C97D
· · · · ·
vn w1∗ vn w2∗ vn w3∗ · vn wn∗
E /% 6 t,7
|vw + w | = |vw| + |vw |
|vcw| = c∗ |vw|
|cvw| = c|vw|. C98D
E6* J7 !%
c6 )$* Y0|7 ! / / # 7 % "# /% V7 .0)#
i|j = δij

|ii| = I C99D
i
c6 / ! . 3 o /% /{$ & J7 * /% !)# .G . ? o0
E!" !"; # `_# :"@ / % # 3 <K>; /V7 . *
6
N N
|v = I|v = |ii|v = vi |i,
i=1 i=1

T = |jj|T |ii| = Tji |ji|,
j i i,j
NF
i|AB|j =

i|A|kk|B|j C100D
k
|ij| /3 K0@ MG K0@ J L7 /V H% # : /3 MG J `7 /V
', < G 6 V2 <Q; 7 'K G 4;# /% % # : W17 2$ /V
2b 7 % # :
V2 <Q; 7 :$ 4;#
E6* M;; / : m"@
"8 " # m"@ /c["# !% m"@ /3
A
C101D
n n

v := i |v =
i i |jj|v −→ v = S v i ij j
j=1 j=1
E ;# +" /
v := Sv C102D
6 /3 <Q; 4;# S ij := i |j / S # 4;# :$ /%

E* < / " # m"@ V2 <Q; / /3 P; 8; .( !
i |T |j =

i |ii|T |jj|j −→ T := ST S −1. C103D
i,j
, % &' , @ % &' A @ ;

E% ;* < / :"; # 7 % .
†
: |v −→ v|, †
: v| −→ |v. C104D
E * x"2 " #
# 18[ /% . /% " #
G
|cv† = c∗ v|
|v + w† = v + w|
(|v† )† = |v C105D
NN
V2 <Q; 7 :$ :"; # % # ] 7 ! 7 % 7 ! 18[ K0@ / / /R";
E/% # . / % `0@
†
(A) = (

†
A |ij|) =

ijA |ji| ∗
ij C106D
i,j i,j
E !"2 !%

4;# < / K0@ /
A /B
†
A = (A ) ∗ T
C107D
6 4;#
); # / 0 :$ /%
T
E /% : G :"; # ; . *

c6
|w = T |v −→ w| = v|T †
C108D
E% U>8; )$ 18[ 7 K0@ "# * J7 8 :"; # 2 /V *
c6 7
(AB)† = B † A† ,
(cA)† = c∗ A† ,
((A)† )† = A
(A + B) †
= A† + B † . C109D
1 ? ' ; 0<
!A #& {|i, i = 1, · · · m} <_# /3 W !A #& W <_# :$ * 7 V
K0@ +" .
C110D
m
P := W |ii|
i=1
7 6 #K0@ . % #"=; W 7 K0@ . " #
"2 V 7"=;K0@
% # Z P = P e 2

A !"A # Q_# T K0@ E/4 ; 0<
v|T |v ≥ 0 ∀v. C111D
NO
B) K0@ .(
A 6c 7# A >#
v7 Y0G Q_#K0@ /% 6 t,7
E 6 cs /B;
T =

λP, i i C112D
i
E% ;* +" / K0@ .TR :"; # +" .

C113D
k

1 1
T2 = λi2 Pi .
i=1
$ ' ; 0< @
7
"[ K0@ T /% % m !% ; # K0@ * "; /% !* MKu #""% #
E* J ; f : C −→ C
C114D
∞
n
f (x) = f x n
n=0
" # ; J .0 f (T ) W; +" .

C115D
∞

f (T ) := fn T n .
n=0
" "2 /K0R (

"0 f (T ) W; B)K0@ T A E/1
! 6B) T :"( E+Q]
C116D
k

T = λi Pi ,
i=1
B$*7
C117D
k

Tn = λni Pi
i=1
+" . Pj = gj (T ) /% % m !" :$ :"; 7 T MG P A"=; K0@ !"; # `G
i
!"2
P := g (T ) = g (
j j

jλP)=

g (λ )P
i i j i i C118D
i i
NS
7 F :$># x = λ * //% :( # g (x) W; . g (λ ) = δ !A # /B :$* /%
j j j i ij
E* L ; .( c :$># x = λ * / j
g (x) =
j
x−λ
λ −λ j
k
k
C119D
k=j
/B
P ≡ g (T ) =
j j
T −λ
λ −λ
.
j
k
k
C120D
k=j
( f (T ) W; /B7 T MG /K0R( R ( A"=;K0@ /% # : /V .
" " T MG /K0R ( R
P olar Decomposition

½º½½
K0@ 4;# z# z JIK# @ A /% # . / "R7 Q[R z; K0@ 7 JK# @ .
3 K0@ z# j[2 #""# @ H# K0@ z# >>G @
$ H! JK#
"[
z# 6 j[2 * /% JK# @ .( ! 6 Q_# K0@ z# Q_# @ 7 #
:"; # JK# @ /% :{0 / :$ 7 aA . * o / :"; # z; . 6 K0@
q","# . * /1 % /B; QV1 +" / :"; #
"[ K0@ z = re < / QV1 +=#
iθ
E% # :
#
$ H V 7
"[ K0@ A A P olar Decomposition 48 )
" :";
A = U J = KU, C121D
E* ;Q@ A 7 J K0@ Y0, 6 K0@ U 7 Q_# K0@ K 7 J :$ /%

√
†
J := A A , K := AA .
√
† C122D
" "2 U K0@ H / c >#
v7 A K0@ /{(
NX
6 B) 7 Q_# K0@ J := √A A K0@ /% ! # !% # ] A = U J /V E+Q]
†
H% V1 :$ /3 :"; # .

J|i = λ |i, λ ≥ 0. i i C123D
E! # 1 6c [# λ I>#
v7 /%
v7
i
|e :=
i
A|i
λ
.
i
C124D
E* H # < ; / ## /@"0B# .
e |e =
i j
1
λλ
i|A A|j =
i j
† 1
λλ
i|J |j = δ .
i j
2
ij C125D
/@"0B# 0 LA $ :$* "0@ c >#
v7 z# / Y0, .
0 /3 . @ $ 6 /3 ; !% # /, b / 7 !*6 # / ##
E!*6 # * K0@ `G ! # : |e i
U :=

|e i|. i C126D
i

$ λ = 0 A 6 : {|i} /3 7 A 7 U J K0@ ] /% ! # : `G
i
U J|i = 0 A|i = 0. C127D

$ Hλ = 0 ! A 6c i|A A|i .
* /% " # .* HA|i = 0 ( /% .
i
†
U J|i = U λ |i = λ |e ,
i i A|i = λ |e .
i i i C128D
/B 7 7# ! K0@ 7 . .Q
A = UJ

v7 * ## /6 ' # <0@ *$ * c >#
v7 A /% 17 U :"
" # 0LA J K0@ * λ = 0
E" # ] * M;; / A = KU L7 7;
†
A = U J = U J(U U ) = (U JU )U = KU. †
C129D
Nd
Singular V alue Decomposition
¾º½½
4;# :% V1 # : /% 6 00; * /1 % V1 :"; # B) K0@ /% ! :"%;
" # LB /"(
"[ K0@
4;# D :$ /% " A = U DV +" / :"; #
"0 A
"[ # 4;# A* )
4;# V 7 U 7 6 V1

!" # 7 !% # QV1 /B; A 4;# 74:
A = U J. C130D
V :$ /% J = V †
DV " 7 % V1 :$ :"; # 6 # /B 7 Q_# 4;# J /% B$*
. 6 4;#
† †
A = U J = U (V DV ) = (U V )DV = U DV
C131D
V 7 U :$ /%

% % , &' %4 2 +

.( !% 0 ; /3* <>#7 B# "s / 7 "; ', - . A6
% /R# V2QR '% / "; #
"2 c;
;# /% )$ "; ', :"; #

4;# 7 (B) 7 (A)
A
p×q m×n
E% ;* < / 6 (mp × nq)

(A ⊗ B) := A B
ij,kl ik jl C132D
E" # /Q68# * < / 4;# 7 . ', K0@ }8[ /
⎛ ⎞
a11 B a12 B · a1n B
⎜ a21 B
A ⊗ B := ⎜
⎝ ···
a22 B
···
·
···
a2n B ⎟
··· ⎠
⎟ C133D
am1 B am2 B · amn B
Ni
E% U>8; )$ 8 ; *
c6 "; #
"2 /% 6* x"2 ', .
A ⊗ (B + C) = A⊗B+A⊗C
A ⊗ (αB) = (αA) ⊗ B = α(A ⊗ B)
(A ⊗ B) ⊗ C = A ⊗ (B ⊗ C)
(A ⊗ B)(C ⊗ D) = AC ⊗ BD
(A ⊗ B) †
= A† ⊗ B † C134D
{|j, j = 1 · m} /3 W 7 {|i, i = 1, · · · n} /3 V A `G

/ /3 mn M;; . / !7$ 6 b ; UV# /3 "; ', :"; # ! &
E! # o0 |i, j =2 / )$ /% !7$ # 6 |i ⊗ |j <
|i, j := |i ⊗ |j i = 1 · · · m, j = 1 · · · n. C135D
!"2 # W 7 V "; ', :$ /% % # '7R mn R .
E ! >>G
V ⊗ W := Span{|i, j}. C136D
/3 V
A E`_#

1 0
{|0 = , |1 = }
0 0
E6* /3 S V ⊗ V

$
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞⎛ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0
⎜ 0 ⎟
|0, 0 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎜ 1 ⎟
|0, 1 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎜ 0 ⎟
|1, 0 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎜ 0 ⎟
|1, 1 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ C137D
0 0 0 1
E% ;* < / V ⊗ W :"; # |w 7 |v 7 * /
|v ⊗ |w := v w |i, j i j C138D
', /% % # 73 "2 :0 * ) "s / ', . !"A # |w 7 |v "; ', .
H;#
|v ⊗ (|w + |z) = |v ⊗ |w + |v ⊗ |z
|v ⊗ (α|w) = (α|v) ⊗ |w = α(|v ⊗ |w)
(|v ⊗ |w) ⊗ |z = |v ⊗ (|w ⊗ |z)
Nk
(|v ⊗ |w)† = v| ⊗ w|. C139D
* <_# " |v ⊗ |w +" / :"; 0 #[ V ⊗ W
"[
|ψ := |0, 0 + |1, 1 C140D
+@ns /& !)# <|# * !"A #
; ! .( : # . "; # "2
"2 /%
6
; ! [G . /[V# 6

% j[2 +, / :$ /# /% #""% # 7 #""%
/3 7* < / )$ "; ', :"; # V2 K0@7 B : W −→ W 7 A : V −→ V
A
E% ;
(A ⊗ B)(|i, j) := (A|i) ⊗ (B|j). C141D
E!% # <0@ `"0# Us / K0@ . ;# @ .;
(A ⊗ B) := k, l|A ⊗ B|i, j = k|A|il|B|j = A B
kl,ij ki lj C142D
$ # 6 K0@7 4;# "; ', * K0@ "; ', 4;# # : /%
7 7, #""% +@ns7 +Q68# - /> !) 6
#$ - . /00, /% Q[V#
% & 9 )$ :"2 * "; #
"2
B % C 5 2 "

0 < << 1 :$ /% !A #& * /6"3 W;
⎧
⎪
⎪ 0 x ≤ −
⎪
⎪
⎨
δ (x) :=
⎪
⎪
1
2 −≤x≤ C143D
⎪
⎪
⎩
0 ≤x
E6* 2 W; .

E [
C144D
∞
δ (x)dx = 1,
−∞
Np
H # (−, ) /K /% ; E'

C145D
∞
δ (x)f (x) = f (0) + O()

−∞
6 /Q;# * 0% O() :$ /%

! #17 ! # : δ(x) W; −→ 0 /% 17 δ (x) W; G

δ(x) := lim δ (x).

−→0
C146D
%
K0@ :"@ / :$ / :"; # /K W; δ(x) "2 "2 / !# # ? [ W; :$ 7
# ` * ); /%
E !"2 /B

C147D
∞ ∞
δ(x)dx = 1, δ(x)f (x) = f (0).
−∞ −∞
E6* 2 W; . % ; / # "s / δ(x − b) W; :"; #

C148D
∞ ∞
δ(x − b)dx = 1, δ(x − b)f (x)dx = f (b),
−∞ −∞
# # /[Q . *; ( * A W";* /[Q G :"@ / :"; # ? [ W;
!%
! #1 E 3 4$
gσ (x) :=
1 x2
√ e− 2σ2 ,
σ 2π
C149D
F 6 :$ 8#* tV6 6 x = 0 /V> √1 !0%#7 σ )3 677A ;
~ : /%
! B
σ 2π
δ(x) := lim g (x).

σ−→0
σ C150D
Or
! #1 %3 4$

C151D
T
1 sin T x
δT (x) := eix dt = .
2π −T πx
!

C152D
∞ ∞ ∞
sin y
DT (x)dx = DT (x)dx = dy = 1.
−∞ −∞ −∞ y
! /[Q .

δ(x) := lim DT (x).
T −→∞
C153D
E!6 #* !)# /V / B$*7

C154D
∞
1
δ(x) := eixt dt.
2π −∞
E* / [ W; x"2*
δ(x − x ) = δ(x − x)

df
δ (x − x )f (x )dx = − (x).
dx
C155D
52 % &' % % < C 52 "

W"; A& W"; /3 :"@ / :"; #[ W"; /% ! : !"2 # 01 .
. !% 0 T3 U # 6"3 & W"; .
"= m q" !A # & F [0, 1]
# "2 M>; /% !A #& /3 . N @ * / `G 6 )
; /3 J6"; 1 W"; :$ /% !A #& N −→ ∞ G 456 % '7R W"; ";
! M;; . / !% # !>; 01 N / [0, 1] /K " #
o0
[0, 1] = Δ ∪ Δ ∪ · · · Δ
1 2 N C156D
OF
:$ /%
Δn := [
n−1 n
N
, ]
N
C157D
E!% # ; * W";
en (x) := {
N
0
x ∈ Δn
x∈/ Δn
C158D
EB) # "0@ W"; . 6 7# W"; .* tV6

C159D
1
en , em ≡ e∗n (x)em (x)dx = N δm,n .
0
E ! f ∈ F [0, 1] W; * / /% 2 . .( !

C160D
1
1
en , f ≡ e∗n (x)f (x)dx = N f (x)dx =: N ( f (xn )) = f (xn ),
0 x∈Δn N
E +Q@ / H6 Δ /G W;>#

: "2 M>; /% 6 Δ :7 /V> x
n n n ∈ Δn :$ /%

f (xn ) := x∈Δn
f (x)dx
1 C161D
N
# y := <_# /6"3 4 / "2 R n 4 [G . ! # <# ) 06 / N `G
n
H% # <# δ(x − y) ? [ W; / ! ? W"; "# nYQ1 /% 0 UV# e (x) W;
N
CFD <
6* < / N −→ ∞ G 0% <Q;
"8
n
−→ y
N
en (x) −→ δ(x − y)
|en −→ |y
ON
en (x) d ( x-y )
N
x x
n 1 n y
N N
% # <# δ(x − y) W; / e (x) W; 7 y /6"3 j2 06 / /A j2 HN −→ ∞ G EF <

n
n
N
x|en −→ x|y
en |em = δn,m −→ y|y = δ(y − y ). C162D

< / (160D /V 6 y| +" / :$ I o0 /% ! # : |y +" / [G . e W; n
$ #*

C163D
1
y|f = δ(y − x)f (x)dx = f (y),
0
7; * H y = 7 y = :$ /% ! : K(y, y ) W; :"@ / N δ G .

A
m
N
n
N

m,n

Nδ
1
N
=1 m,n C164D
n
/% !A # /B

K(y, y )dy = lim

Nδ
Δy
Δm
N −→∞
=

Nδ
N
1
m,n= 1. m,n C165D
m m
E"* +" / # (159D /V7 6 ? [ W; :0 K(y, y ) .
y|y = δ(y − y ).
C166D

C167D
1
dxδ(x − y)δ(x − y )dx = δ(y − y ).
0
OO
% +" / f ∈ F [0, 1]W; /% 6 :$ !% %; :$ 7 o . :3 !"2 # /% /{$
H 6 x| /3 7 :$"=; f (x) W; .># ! # o0 f | I |f
f (x) = x|f . C168D
E$ #* < / (167D /V

C169D
1
y|xx|y dx = y|y ,
0
9s7* y| 7 |y .7

C170D
1
|xx|dx = I,
0
6 0K0@ I :$ /%

F (−∞, ∞) 7 F [a, b] W"; /3 . !A& [0, 1] /K A6 ); /% !% %;
# !0; * / J7 . G .( ! 61
' /
2 "
. 7 K2 ', ! # : C[ −L L
2 , 2] . !A #& [− , ] /K
L L
2 2 JK# W";
W"; 6
; f, g = f (x)g (x)dx < /
L
2
−L
2
∗
1 2πinx
en (x) := √ e L ,
L
n∈Z C171D
E6G7)$ /0 L7
" "0@ W"; . !A #&

C172D
L L
2
∗ 1 2 −2πinx 2πimx
en , em = e (x)e (x)dx =
n n e e dx = δ .
L L
n,m
−L
2
L −L
2
E J W"; . MG :"; #

"[ W; H.
7n@
C173D
∞
f (x) = f e (x). n n
n=−∞
OS
E7$ 6* M;; / :"; # f M,
n

C174D
L L
2 1 2 2πinx
fn = en , f = e∗n (x)f (x)dx = √ e− L f (x)dx.
−L
2
L −L
2
# 6 (173D /V (174D R # . /3 < ; {e } W"; /@"0B# . n
!7$
∞
C175D
L L
∞
2 2
f (x) = e∗n (y)f (y)dyen (x) = ( en (y)∗ en (x))f (y)dy
n=−∞ −L
2 −L
2 −∞
/% # : (155D /V />#

C176D
∞

∗
e (y) e (x) = δ(x − y).
n n
n=−∞
!"A # {e } /3 :" <#% /V /V .

n
7 " # ! / <#@ s e (x) W"; [G . ! # <# ) 06 / L `G
2πin
n
IG W"; . < .0 /A :$

7n@ !% j # k := /6"3 j2 )$ /% 6) /B
L
2πn
.0, R /3 W"; # . "2c 0 W"; . <#@ s2 / H!% `0@ L −→ ∞
L
√1
ê (x) R W"; !% ', = # M, /[7 W"; k /6"3 j2 /~A j2 R
L
2πn
k
! #17 ! # :

L
ê (x) := Ae (x)
k k :=
n
2πn
L
C177D
. 6 (176D /V /3 :" <#% / /R";% .
.) " .; # A M, :$ /%
E!" !"; #* +" / /V
∞
∞
Δn
en (y)∗ en (x) = en (y)∗ en (x) Δk
n=−∞
Δk
k=−∞
C178D
∞
1 L
= 2
êk (y)∗ êk (x) Δk = δ(x − y).
C 2π
k=−∞
OX

E !"2 R . ! L
2π C # /% "A ## / /V .
1
êk (x) := √ eikx
2π
C179D
E$ #* < / C178D /V7

C180D
∞ ∞
1
ê∗k (x)êk (y)dk ≡ e−ik(x−y) dk = δ(x − y).
−∞ 2π −∞
R n j2 /% B$* E!% #
C173D /V / % #P; / KQ1 J7 R .
E$ #* +" / /V . 6
k = /6"3 j2 / "2 2πn
L
∞
∞
Δn
f (x) = fn en (x) ≈ fn en (x) Δk
n=−∞
Δk
k=−∞
∞ ∞
L
= fn en (x) Δk = dk fˆ(k)êk (x)
2π −∞
k=−∞
C181D
∞
1
= √ eikx fˆ(k)dk.
2π −∞

E7$ 6 f (x) MG fˆ(k) H(174D /V / /R"; !"; # b /V* fˆ(k) := L
2π fn :$ /%

C182D
∞
L 1
fˆ(k) ≡ fn = √ e−ikx f (x)dx.
2π 2π −∞
IJ7 cR
∞
1
f (x) ≡= √ eikx fˆ(k)dk
2π ∞−∞
fˆ(k) = √
1
2π −∞
e−ikx f (x)dx. C183D
# !0; n / * +" / /V7 . "A #
P# W"; /" <Q;
∞
1
f (x) ≡= √ n eik·x fˆ(k)dn k
2π −∞
C184D
∞
1
fˆ(k) = √ n e−ik·x f (x)dn x.
2π −∞
Od

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dim(V ) = dim(U ) + dim(W ) /B 7  # < ; V  / 3  {e , e , · · · e 1 2 m+n } . 

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U J|i = 0 A|i = 0. C127D