INFLAMMATORY AND IMMUNOLOGIC REACTIONS

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM  The immune system is one of nature's more fascinating inventions.  It protects us against billions of bacteria, viruses, and other parasites.  Most of us never reflect upon the fact that while we hang out with our friends, watch TV, or go to school, inside our bodies, our immune system is constantly on the alert, attacking at the first sign of an invasion by harmful organisms.  The immune system is very complex. It's made up of several types of cells and proteins that have different jobs to do in fighting foreign invaders.

ANTIBODIES

 Antibodies (also referred to as immunoglobulins and gammaglobulins) are are Y-shaped proteins that respond to specific bacteria, viruses or toxins, called antigens. They are produced by white blood cells.  Antibodies can bind to toxins, disabling their chemical actions or signal that an invader needs to be removed.  These antibodies are divided into five classes. Their names are generally BONE MARROW  Bone marrow produces new red and white blood cells.  Red blood cells are fully formed in the marrow and then enter the bloodstream.  Most white blood cells mature elsewhere, however, in factories located inside the long bones of our bodies.  The marrow produces all blood cells from stem cells.  They are called "stem cells" because they are precursors to different cell types.  They can branch off and change into specific types of white blood cells, as needed.

THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM  The first part of the immune system that meets invaders such as bacteria is a group of proteins called the complement system.  These proteins flow freely in the blood and can quickly reach the site of an invasion where they can react directly with antigens - molecules that the body recognizes as foreign substances. When activated, the complement proteins can: trigger inflammation attract eater cells such as macrophages to the area coat intruders so that eater cells are more likely to devour them kill intruders

Phagocytes  This is a group of immune cells specialized in finding and "eating" bacteria, viruses, and dead or injured body cells.  There are three main types, the granulocyte, the macrophage, and the dendritic cell.

Granulocytes  The granulocytes often take the first stand during an infection.  They attack any invaders in large numbers, and "eat" until they die.  The pus in an infected wound consists chiefly of dead granulocytes.  A small part of the granulocyte community is specialized in attacking larger parasites such as worms. Macrophages  The macrophages ("big eaters") are slower to respond to invaders than the granulocytes, but they are larger, live longer, and have far greater capacities.  Macrophages also play a key part in alerting the rest of the immune system of invaders.

 Macrophages start out as white blood cells called monocytes.  Monocytes that leave the blood stream turn into macrophages.

Dendritic cells  The dendritic cells are "eater" cells and devour intruders, like the granulocytes and the macrophages.  And like the macrophages, the dendritic cells help with the activation of the rest of the immune system. They are also capable of filtering body fluids to clear them of foreign organisms and particles.

LYMPHOCYTES - T CELLS AND B CELLS

The lymphatic system

The receptors match only one specific antigen.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS  White blood cells called lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow but migrate to parts of the lymphatic system such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus.

 There are two main types of lymphatic cells, T cells and B cells.  The lymphatic system also involves a transportation system - lymph vessels - for transportation and storage of lymphocyte cells within the body.  The lymphatic system feeds cells into the body and filters out dead cells and invading organisms such as bacteria. y On the surface of each lymphatic cell are receptors that enable them to recognize foreign substances. These receptors are very specialized - each can match only one specific antigen. To understand the receptors, think of a hand that can only grab one specific item. Imagine that your hands could only pick up apples. You would be a true apple-picking champion - but you wouldn't be able to pick up anything else. In your body, each single receptor equals a hand in search of its "apple." The lymphocyte cells travel through your body until they find an antigen of the right size and shape to match their specific receptors. It might seem limiting that the receptors of each lymphocyte cell can only match one specific type of antigen, but the body makes up for this by producing so many different lymphocyte cells that the immune system can recognize nearly all invaders.

T CELLS

 T cells come in two different types, helper cells and killer cells.  They are named T cells after the thymus, an organ situated under the breastbone.

 T cells are produced in the bone marrow and later move to the thymus where they mature.

 Helper T cells  are the major driving force and the main regulators of the immune defense.  Their primary task is to activate B cells and killer T cells. However, the helper T cells themselves must be activated. This happens when a macrophage or dendritic cell, which has eaten an invader, travels to the nearest lymph node to present information about the captured pathogen.  The phagocyte displays an antigen fragment from the invader on its own surface, a process called antigen presentation.  When the receptor of a helper T cell recognizes the antigen, the T cell is activated. Once activated, helper T cells start to divide and to produce proteins that activate B and T cells as well as other immune cells.

 Killer T cell  The killer T cell is specialized in attacking cells of the body infected by viruses and sometimes also by bacteria.  It can also attack cancer cells.  The killer T cell has receptors that are used to search each cell that it meets.  If a cell is infected, it is swiftly killed.  Infected cells are recognized because tiny traces of the intruder, antigen, can be found on their surface.

B Cells  The B lymphocyte cell searches for antigen matching its receptors.  If it finds such antigen it connects to it, and inside the B cell a triggering signal is set off.

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 The B cell now needs proteins produced by helper T cells to become fully activated.  When this happens, the B cell starts to divide to produce clones of itself. During this process, two new cell types are created, plasma cells and B memory cells. Plasma cell  The plasma cell is specialized in producing a specific protein, called an antibody, that will respond to the same antigen that matched the B cell receptor.  Antibodies are released from the plasma cell so that they can seek out intruders and help destroy them.  Plasma cells produce antibodies at an amazing rate and can release tens of thousands of antibodies per second.

When the Y-shaped antibody finds a matching antigen, it attaches to it. The attached antibodies serve as an appetizing coating for eater cells such as the macrophage. Antibodies also neutralize toxins and incapacitate viruses, preventing them from infecting new cells. Each branch of the Y-shaped antibody can bind to a different antigen, so while one branch binds to an antigen on one cell, the other branch could bind to another cell - in this way pathogens are gathered into larger groups that are easier for phagocyte cells to devour. Bacteria and other pathogens covered with antibodies are also more likely to be attacked by the proteins from the complement system.

Memory Cells  The Memory Cells are the second cell type produced by the division of B cells.  These cells have a prolonged life span and can thereby "remember" specific intruders.

 T cells can also produce memory cells with an even longer life span than B memory cells. The second time an intruder tries to invade the body, B and T memory cells help the immune system to activate much faster.  The invaders are wiped out before the infected human feels any symptoms. The body has achieved immunity against the invader.

TONSILS  Tonsils are made of soft glandular tissue and are part of the immune system. You have two tonsils, one on either side at the back of the mouth.  Tonsils vary in size from person to person.  A main function of tonsils is to trap bacteria and viruses (germs) which you may breathe in. Antibodies and immune cells in the tonsils help to kill germs and help to prevent throat and lung infections.  You can normally see your tonsils by opening your mouth wide and looking in a mirror. They are the two fleshy lumps that you can see at the sides and back of the mouth. ADENOIDS  Adenoids help to defend the body from infection.  They trap bacteria and viruses which you breathe in through your nose.  They contain cells and antibodies of the immune system to help prevent throat and lung infections.

  

HORMONES  There are several hormones generated by the immune system. These hormones are generally known as lymphokines. Some hormones in the

body suppress the immune system. These are the steroids and corticosteroids (components of adrenaline).  Lymph nodes are basically filters that trap germs and other foreign bodies. The nodes have armies of lymphocytes to deal with the germs. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell, which neutralizes or destroys germs. The lymph nodes can become swollen when fighting an infection.  Lymphoid organs include the bone marrow and the thymus, as well as lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils and adenoids, the appendix, and clumps of lymphoid tissue in the small intestine known as Peyer's patches.  There are about 2 to 4 pints of lymph fluid in the average body.

SPLEEN  The spleen filters the blood looking for foreign cells.  The spleen is also looking for old red blood cells that need replacement.   It is an organ about the size of a fist in the upper left of the abdomen. The spleen contains two main types of tissue: red tissue that disposes of worn-out blood cells, and white tissue that contains lymphoid tissue. Different part of the spleen specialize in different kinds of immune cells. When microorganisms get carried by the blood into the red tissue, they become trapped by the immune cells known as macrophages.

THYMUS  The thymus is located in your chest, between your breast bone and your heart.  It is responsible for producing T-cells and is important for T cell maturation. The thymus actually chooses which T-cells are best suited for the immune system. The remaining ones are eliminated by the body, assuring a healthy, effective immunity.