Microwave Power Transmission

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Microwave power transmission
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Manish Bansal (C07521)
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C.C.E.T.-26 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Wireless Power Transmission is a means by which large amounts of electrical energy may be transmitted through the atmosphere from a power source in one location to a receiver and consumer of electric power at another location Wireless transmission is useful in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed but interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. Wireless energy transfer is different from wireless transmission of information, such as radio, where the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the percentage of power received becomes critical only if it is too low to adequately recover the signal. With wireless power transmission, efficiency is the more important parameter. The most common form of wireless power transmission is carried out using induction, followed by electrodynamic induction. Other present-day technologies for wireless power include those based upon microwaves and lasers. 1.2 TECHNIQUES FOR WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION Following are the brief introductions to various techniques being used so far for wireless power transmission 1. Near field 2. Far field
1.2.1 Near field Near field is wireless transmission techniques over distances comparable to, or a few times the diameter of the device(s), and up to around a quarter of the wavelengths used. Near field energy itself is non radiative, but some radiative losses will occur. In addition there are usually resistive losses. Near field transfer is usually magnetic (inductive), but electric (capacitive) energy transfer can also occur.
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C.C.E.T.-26 1.2.1.1 Induction
The action of an electrical transformer is the simplest instance of wireless energy transfer. The primary and secondary circuits of a transformer are not directly connected. The transfer of energy takes place by electromagnetic coupling through a process known as mutual induction. (An added benefit is the capability to step the primary voltage either up or down.) The battery charger of a mobile phone or the transformers on the street are examples of how this principle can be used. Induction cookers and many electric toothbrushes are also powered by this technique. The main drawback to induction, however, is the short range. The receiver must be very close to the transmitter or induction unit in order to inductively couple with it. 1.2.1.2 Electrodynamic induction The "electrodynamic inductive effect" or "resonant inductive coupling" has key implications in solving the main problem associated with non-resonant inductive coupling for wireless energy transfer; specifically, the dependence of efficiency on transmission distance. Electromagnetic induction works on the principle of a primary coil generating a predominantly magnetic field and a secondary coil being within that field so a current is induced in the secondary. Coupling must be tight in order to achieve high efficiency. As the distance from the primary is increased, more and more of the magnetic field misses the secondary. Even over a relatively small range the simple induction method is grossly inefficient, wasting much of the transmitted energy. The application of resonance improves the situation somewhat. When resonant coupling is used the transmitter and receiver inductors are tuned to a mutual frequency and the drive current is modified from a sinusoidal to a non sinusoidal transient waveform. Pulse power transfer occurs over multiple cycles. In this way significant power may be transmitted over a distance of up to a few times the size of the transmitter. Unlike the multiple-layer windings typical of non-resonant transformers, such transmitting and receiving coils are usually single layer solenoids or flat spirals with series capacitors, which, in combination, allow the receiving element to be tuned to the transmitter frequency and reduce losses.
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A common use of the technology is for powering contactless smartcards, and systems exist to power and recharge laptops and cell phones 1.2.1.3 Electrostatic induction The "electrostatic induction effect" or "capacitive coupling" is an electric field gradient or differential capacitance between two elevated electrodes over a conducting ground plane for wireless energy transmission involving high frequency alternating current potential differences transmitted between two plates or nodes. The electrostatic forces through natural media across a conductor situated in the changing magnetic flux can transfer energy to a receiving device (such as Tesla's wireless bulbs).[37][38][39] Sometimes called "the Tesla effect" it is the application of a type of electrical displacement, i.e., the passage of electrical energy through space and matter, other than and in addition to the development of a potential across a conductor 1.2.2 Far field Far field methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the distance is much greater than the diameter of the device(s). With radio wave and optical devices the main reason for longer ranges is the fact that electromagnetic radiation in the far-field can be made to match the shape of the receiving area (using high directivity antennas or well-collimated Laser Beam) thereby delivering almost all emitted power at long ranges. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by diffraction.
1.2.2.1 High power Wireless Power Transmission (using microwaves) is well proven. Experiments in the tens of kilowatts have been performed at Goldstone in California in 1975[23][24][47] and more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin on Reunion Island. These methods achieve distances on the order of a kilometre.
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C.C.E.T.-26 1.2.2.2 Laser
In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to visible region of spectrum (10s of microns (um) to 10s of nm), power can be transmitted by converting electricity into a laser beam that is then pointed at a solar cell receiver. This mechanism is generally known as "power beaming" because the power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it to usable electrical energy. There are quite a few unique advantages of laser based energy transfer that outweigh the disadvantages. a) collimated monochromatic wave front propagation allows narrow beam crosssection area for energy confinement over large ranges. b) compact size of solid state lasers-photovoltaics semiconductor diodes allows ease of integration into products with small form factors. c) ability to operate with zero radio-frequency interference to existing communication devices i.e. wi-fi and cell phones. d) control of Wireless Energy Access, instead of omni-directional transfer where there can be no authentication before transferring energy. These allow laser-based wireless energy transfer concept to compete with conventional energy transfer methods. Its drawbacks are: a) Conversion to light, such as with a laser, is moderately inefficient (although quantum cascade lasers improve this) b) Conversion back into electricity is moderately inefficient, with photovoltaic cells achieving 40%-50% efficiency.[50] (Note that conversion efficiency is rather higher with monochromatic light than with insolation of solar panels). c) Atmospheric absorption causes losses. d) As with microwave beaming, this method requires a direct line of sight with the target. The laser "powerbeaming" technology has been mostly explored in military weapons[51][52][53] and aerospace applications and is now being developed for
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commercial and consumer electronics Low-Power applications. Wireless energy transfer system using laser for consumer space has to satisfy Laser safety requirements standardized under IEC 60825. To develop an understanding of the trade-offs of Laser ("a special type of light wave"based system): a) Propagation of a laser beam (on how Laser beam propagation is much less affected by diffraction limits) b) Coherence and the range limitation problem (on how spatial and spectral coherence characteristics of Lasers allows better distance-to-power capabilities
[63]
c) Airy disk (on how wavelength fundamentally dictates the size of a disk with distance) d) Applications of laser diodes (on how the laser sources are utilized in various industries and their sizes are reducing for better integration) Geoffrey Landis is one of the pioneers of solar power satellite
[67]
and laser-based
transfer of energy especially for space and lunar missions. The continuously increasing demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in serious thoughts on a futuristic space elevator that would be powered by lasers. NASA's space elevator would need wireless power to be beamed to it for it to climb a tether. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has demonstrated flight of a lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam.[71] This proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasibility of periodic recharging using the laser beam system and the lack of need to return to ground. "Lasermotive" demonstrated laser power beaming at one kilometer during NASA's 2009 power beaming contest. Also "Lighthouse DEV" (a spinoff of NASA Power Beaming Team) along with "University of Maryland" is developing an eye safe laser system to power an small UAV. Since 2006, "Power Beam" which originally invented the eye-safe technology and holds all crucial patents in this technology space, is developing commercially ready units for various consumer and industrial electronic products
C.C.E.T.-26 1.2.2.3 Electrical conduction
Electrical energy can be transmitted by means of electrical currents made to flow through naturally existing conductors, specifically the earth, lakes and oceans, and through the upper atmosphere starting at approximately 35,000 feet (11,000 m) elevation a natural medium that can be made conducting if the breakdown voltage is exceeded and the constituent gas becomes ionized. For example, when a high voltage is applied across a neon tube the gas becomes ionized and a current passes between the two internal electrodes. In a wireless energy transmission system using this principle, a high-power ultraviolet beam might be used to form vertical ionized channels in the air directly above the transmitter-receiver stations. The same concept is used in virtual lightning rods, the electro laser electroshock weapon and has been proposed for disabling vehicles. A global system for "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" dependent upon the higH electrical conductivity of the earth was proposed by Nikola Tesla as early as 1904. "The earth is 4,000 miles radius. Around this conducting earth is an atmosphere. The earth is a conductor; the atmosphere above is a conductor, only there is a little stratum between the conducting atmosphere and the conducting earth which is insulating. . . . Now, you realize right away that if you set up differences of potential at one point, say, you will create in the media corresponding fluctuations of potential. But, since the distance from the earth's surface to the conducting atmosphere is minute, as compared with the distance of the receiver at 4,000 miles, say, you can readily see that the energy cannot travel along this curve and get there, but will be immediately transformed into conduction currents, and these currents will travel like currents over a wire with a return. The energy will be recovered in the circuit, not by a beam that passes along this curve and is reflected and absorbed, . . . but it will travel by conduction and will be recovered in this way." Researchers experimenting with Tesla's wireless energy transmission system design have made observations that may be inconsistent with a basic tenet of physics related to the scalar derivatives of the electromagnetic potentials, which are presently considered to be nonphysical.
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The intention of the Tesla world wireless energy transmission system is to combine electrical power transmission along with broadcasting and point-to-point wireless telecommunications, and allow for the elimination of many existing high-tension power transmission lines, facilitating the interconnection of electrical generation plants on a global scale. One of Tesla's patents suggests he may have misinterpreted 2570 km nodal structures associated with cloud-ground lightning observations made during the 1899 Colorado Springs experiments in terms of circumglobally propagating standing waves instead of a local interference phenomenon of direct and reflected waves.[88] Regarding the recent notion of power transmission through the earth-ionosphere cavity, a consideration of the earth-ionosphere or concentric spherical shell waveguide propagation parameters as they are known today shows that wireless energy transfer by direct excitation of a Schumann cavity resonance mode is not realizable. "The conceptual difficulty with this model is that, at the very low frequencies that Tesla said that he employed (1-50 kHz), earth-ionosphere waveguide excitation, now well understood, would seem to be impossible with the either the Colorado Springs or the Long Island apparatus (at least with the apparatus that is visible in the photographs of these facilities)." On the other hand, Tesla's concept of a global wireless electrical power transmission grid and telecommunications network based upon energy transmission by means of a spherical conductor transmission line with an upper three-space model return circuit, while perhaps not practical for power transmission, is feasible, defying no law of physics. Global wireless energy transmission by means of a spherical conductor single-wire surface wave transmission line and a propagating TM00 mode Tesla coil earth-resonance transmitter being called for 1.2.2.4 Radio and microwave The earliest work in the area of wireless transmission via radio waves (electromagnetic waves) was performed by Nikola Tesla but he did not publish his work immediately. Later on, Guglielmo Marconi used a radio transmission patent
[91]
may
also be possible, a feasibility study using a sufficiently powerful and properly tuned
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from Nikola Tesla and presented as his own. Nikola Tesla appealed and after many years of court battles The United States Supreme Court awarded the radio transmission and reception patent exclusively to Nikola Tesla. Japanese researcher Hidetsugu Yagi also investigated wireless energy transmission using a directional array antenna that he designed. In February 1926, Yagi and Uda published their first paper on the tuned high-gain directional array now known as the Yagi antenna. While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna has been widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless telecommunications industries due to its excellent performance characteristics. Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized. Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been considered. Power beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that for most space applications the required aperture sizes are very large due to diffraction limiting antenna directionality. For example, the 1978 NASA Study of solar power satellites required a 1-km diameter transmitting antenna, and a 10 km diameter receiving rectenna, for a microwave beam at 2.45 GHz. These sizes can be somewhat decreased by using shorter wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have difficulties with atmospheric absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of the Thinned array curse, it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the beams of several smaller satellites. For earthbound applications a large area 10 km diameter receiving array allows large total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1 mW/cm2 distributed across a 10 km diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants.
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Now, for the rest of the subject, Power transmission through microwaves will be discussed in detail. Further, various technologies and applications which have been evolved will be discussed.
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CHAPTER 2
EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY
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2.1 EVOLUTION OF MICROWAVE POWER TRANSMISSION

Power transmission is defined as a three-step process in which: 1) dc electrical power is converted into RF power, 2) the RF power is then transmitted through space to some distant point, and 3) the power is collected and converted back into dc power at the receiving point. Because the overall efficiency is necessarily the product of the individual efficiencies associated with the three elements of the system, a premium is placed upon efficient conversion technology as well as upon aperture-to-aperture transfer efficiency. In many respects the modern history of free space power transmission has been the development of components for the transmitting and receiving ends of the system that have sought to achieve the combined objectives of high efficiency, low cost, high reliability , and low mass. The period of time covered by this history extends from the early experiments by Hertz to the present time. The modern history is identified with the intentional use of microwaves for this purpose that began about 15 years ago. 2.1.1 The early history of power transmission by radio waves Power transmission by radio waves dates back to the early work of Heinrich Hertz. Not only did he demonstrate electromagnetic wave propagation in free space by using a complete system with a spark gap to generate high-frequency power and to detect it at the receiving end, but he also used parabolic reflectors at both the transmitting and receiving ends of the system. In these respects his experiments resemble present practice more closely than the later better recognized work of Tesla that was based on much longer wavelengths and which did not have any provision for focusing the radio waves. There is an exhibit of Hertzs early experiments in the museum of the University of London that includes these parabolic reflectors.
Nikola Tesla carried out his experiments on power transmission by radio waves at the turn of the century. An acknowledged genius in the area of low-frequency electrical power generation and transmission, he became interested in the broad concept of resonance and sought to apply the principle to the transmission of electrical power
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from one point to another without wires. By means of the alternating surges of current running up and down a mast, Tesla hoped to set up oscillations of electrical energy over large areas of the surface of the Earth, and to set up standing waves into which he would immerse his receiving antennas at the optimum points.
With the advantage of historical perspective, we realize that Teslas attempts at efficient wireless power transmission were decades ahead of the unfolding technology. Not until the early 1930s was another attempt made to transmit power without wires, and this time experiments were cautiously made within the confines of a laboratory, This experiment, performed in the Westinghouse Laboratory by H. V. Noble, consisted of identical transmitting and receiving 1OO-MHZ dipoles located about 25 ft from each other. No attempts were made to focus the energy, but several hundred watts of power were transferred between the dipoles. This experiment was the basis of a demonstration of power transfer at the Westinghouse exhibit at the Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-1934.
The major reason for the lack of serious interest in wireless power transmission during the first fifty years of this century was that knowledgeable people realized that efficient point-to-point transmission of power depended upon concentrating the electromagnetic energy into a narrow beam. The only practical manner in which this could be done would be to use electromagnetic energy of very short wavelengths and to use optical reflectors or lenses of practical dimensions. For the first thirty-five years of this century, devices did not exist to provide even a few milliwatts of energy at these wavelengths. Sufficient power was not even available for experimental work in communication and radar systems. In the late 1930s, however, two developments capable of generating microwave power that were destined to have a profound influence upon the unfolding of this new technology were made. The first of these was the velocity-modulated beam tube, first described by O. Heil, and with certain modifications now tidily known as the klystron tube. The second device, perhaps even more important to the unfolding of this new technology, was the microwave cavity magnetron developed first in Great Britain and then in this country during World War II, under great secrecy.
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While the development of radar in World War 11 did much to develop the antenna and the microwave generator technologies so basic to power transmission, there was no immediate serious consideration for employing the newly won technology in this way, Microwave tubes were still small in their power handling capability and the concept of active phased arrays that could make use of many small tubes had not yet been exploited. Nor was there a power device to convert the microwave power into dc power. More than a decade was to elapse after World War II before serious interest in microwave power transmission began.
2.1.2 The modern history of free space power transmission
Due in part to research programs, such as those funded by NASAs SERT program, and component improvements resulting from the wireless revolution, system components supporting microwave WPT have advanced significantly in the past 15 years. Three major WPT conferences held in the 1990s highlighted the applications, issues and concerns, environmental assessments, and the technology associated with beaming power via microwaves, as well as exposing international interest. The purpose of this section is to status the key microwave components in a WPT system: the transmitter, beam control, and the receiving rectifying antenna (rectenna). The ability to accomplish the task of efficiently delivering electrical power wirelessly is dependent upon the component efficiencies used in the transmitting and receiving apertures and the ability to focus the electromagnetic beam onto the receiving rectenna.Microwave WPT is achieved by an unmodulated, continuous-wave signal with a bandwidth of 1 Hz. The historical frequency of choice for microwave WPT has been 2.45 GHz due to its low-cost power components; location in an industrial, scientific, andmedical (ISM) band; and extremely low attenuation through the atmosphere. Alternatively, the next higher ISM band, centered at 5.8 GHz, has drawn WPT interest from the reduction of transmitting and receiving apertures. However, the penalty for increasing the beaming frequency is higher atmospheric attenuation in severe thunderstorms. Other frequencies where power beaming demonstrations have been performed include 8.5 GHz , 10 GHz, and 35 GHz. At the transmitting antenna, microwave power tubes, such as magnetrons and klystrons, have been extensively studied as primary RF power
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sources. However, at frequencies below 10GHz, high-power solid-state devices have promise as a possible alternative. For beam safety and control, retrodirective arrays are applied in WPT systems due to their inherent self-phasing capability. The mobile communications industries have also shown interest in retrodirectivity to dynamically minimize interference and maximize intended signal reception. Whereas transmitter components and retrodirective phased-array antennas have direct applications in the communications industry, the rectenna is a component unique to WPT systems. The rectenna was conceived by Brown, of the Raytheon Company, in the early 1960s. He eventually developed rectennas at 2.45GHz with conversion efficiencies greater than 90%. Rectenna efficiency records have now been established at higher frequencies and continue to be broken in research labs across the world. The following sections describe the component performances used in transmitters, beam control systems, and rectennas.
2.1.2.1
Transmitters
The key transmitter requirement is its ability to efficiently convert dc power to RF power and radiate the power in a controlled and low loss manner. The complexity of the transmitter is dependent on the WPT application. Transmitters in small-scale WPT applications could simply be a single high-power RF source feeding a mechanically steered reflecting antenna. Large-scale WPT applications, such as an SPS, would require a phased-array antenna to distribute the RF power sources across the aperture and electronically control the power beam. The transmitters efficiency not only drives the end-to-end efficiency but also the thermal management system, which is particularly difficult in space. Any heat generated from inefficiencies in the dc-RF conversion or in the antenna feed system must be removed from the transmitter for long-life and reliable operation. Although operating at elevated temperatures takes advantage of the fourth power relationship between the quantity of heat radiated per unit area to the temperature, it also reduces the lifetime of the RF devices and control electronics. An efficient and reliable transmitter design is not a trivial matter, and many trades must be performed to meet overall system requirements.
In the SERT program, a 5.8-GHz, 500-m diameter phased-array transmitter was selected as the baseline aperture size for the GEObased SPS. Common to the 2.45Manish Bansal (C07521) Page 15
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GHz DOE/NASA Reference System study in the late 1970s, a 10-dB Gaussian amplitude tapered beam was used to efficiently couple the power from the transmitter to the Earth-based rectenna. The transmitters RF output power is approximately 2 GW to deliver 1.2GWe to the electric grid.
Three dc-to-RF power converters were considered: klystron, magnetron, and solidstate amplifiers. Since these RF converters are the dominant heat-generating component in the transmitter, efficiency and mass comparisons of the three approaches were developed.
Klystron and magnetron devices were extensively studied in the Reference System Study for a 2.45-GHz power beam. Although the klystron operated at a higher power level, the magnetron was preferred due to its efficiency, spectral purity, and reliability. In the 5.8-GHz klystron transmitter, the output power of the most powerful tube located at the array center is 26 kW with an operating voltage and current of 28 kV and 1.12 A, respectively. Although not validated by measured results, the highefficiency 5.8-GHz klystron design is based on previously built units that have efficiencies over 70%. This modified design uses a multicavity configuration with one of the cavities tuned to the second harmonic and with five stages of depressed collectors. The tube body and solenoid operate at 300 C, and the collectors operate at 500 C. Preliminary design simulations revealed that the overall efficiency (i.e., combined electronic and circuit efficiencies) to be a conservative 76% without the depressed collectors. Including the collector recovery of 50%, the overall efficiency is 83%. The second tube approach to the 5.8-GHz transmitter applies a phase-locked magnetron directional amplifier (MDA), whose proposed output power and efficiency are 5 kW and 85.5%, respectively.
The third type of transmitter studied in the SERT program uses solid-state devices. Unlike the slotted waveguide array where a tube would feed many radiating slots, the solid-state transmitter places a 5.8-GHz power amplifier and phase shifter behind every radiating element. Because a phase shifter is located at every element, the
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advantage of this approach over the tube transmitters is the elimination of grating lobes when electronically steering the beam. However, microwave filters are needed on each element to suppress both close-in carrier noise and harmonics generated by the power amplifier.
Finally, the design goals of the three transmitter types for a 5.8-GHz SPS are compared in Table 1. The key difference between the three approaches is the converters RF output power that drives the quantities and operating voltage. However, the specific masses are relatively the same.
Table 2.1 Comparison of Klystron, Magnetron and Solid state
2.1.2.2
Beam control
A key system and safety aspect of WPT is its ability to control the power beam. Retrodirective beam control systems have been the preferred method of achieving accurate beam pointing. As depicted in Figure 2.1, a coded pilot signal is emitted from the rectenna towards the SPSs transmitter to provide a phase reference for forming and pointing the power beam. To form the power beam and point it back towards the rectenna, the phase of the pilot signal captured by receivers located at each sub array is compared to an onboard reference frequency distributed equally throughout the array. If a phase difference exists between the two signals, the received signal is phase conjugated and fed back to the phase control circuitry of each dc-RF converter. In the absence of the pilot signal, the transmitter will automatically dephase its power beam, and the peak power density decreases by the ratio of the number of transmitter
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elements. This aspect of retrodirective beam control is an inherent safety feature of the system.
Fig. 2.1 Retrodirective beam control concept with an SPS Todays wireless service industries are continually discovering methods to expand their networks and capacity to accommodate greater volumes of voice and data traffic. To handle the increased demand, smart antenna technology is being deployed globally to reduce signal interference. Retrodirective beam control is one such technique the wireless industry could use to track a mobile phone user.
2.1.2.3
Rectennas
Since the early 1960s, rectennas have been researched and developed at varying levels of intensity. Brown was a pioneer in developing the first 2.45-GHz rectennas that included the basic circuit components still evident in todays rectenna designs. Measured in 1977, Browns aluminium bar-type rectenna still holds the highest recorded efficiency of any rectenna in the microwave frequency range at 91.4%.
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CHAPTER 3
RECTENNA
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3.1 RECTENNA
A rectenna is a rectifying antenna, a special type of antenna that is used to directly convert microwave energy into DC electricity. Its elements are usually arranged in a multi element phased array with a mesh pattern reflector element to make it directional. A simple rectenna can be constructed from a Schottky diode placed between antenna dipoles. The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Schottky diodes are used because they have the lowest voltage drop and highest speed and therefore waste the least amount of power due to conduction and switching. Following is the schematic diagam of a rectenna:-
Fig 3.1 Schematic of rectenna circuit
3.2 EVOLUTION OF RECTENNA

There have been several distinct steps in the technological evolution. The first step involved a transition from a three plane rectenna construction format as shown in Figure I-I to a two plane format shown in Figure I-2 and i-3 in which nearly all of the rectenna functions are carried out on the foreplane.
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CC
Mi
i i
Fig T T l ne Rectenn C nst cti n C nsisted of (I) t e Pl ne of t e H lf W ve Di oles, (2) t e Pl ne of t e Reflecting Surf ce, nd (3) t e Pl ne of t e DC Bussing Function. T e Filtering nd Rectific tion Functions of t e Elements Ran Transverse to t ese Planes.
Fig 3.3 T e reorientation of t e rectenna elements into a two plane construction
format
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Fig 3.4 Schematic diagram showing the function performed on the foreplane of the two plane rectenna construction format. The second step in the evolution involved redesigning the rectenna element to operate at a higher impedance level to retain good efficiency at relatively low incident microwave power densities that were felt to be desirable for rectennas in the upper atmosphere, in space, or at the edges of the rectenna for the solar power satellite concept. There are various potential applications for low power density rectenna. One application is for a transponder in a communications or sensar system in which the interrogating transmitter also supplies power to the transponder. Even though the incident microwave power level is very low, the rectified DC energy can be accumulated over long periods of time in capacitors or batteries to provide substantial amounts of stored energy for those short periods of time when substantial power levels are needed. Application areas would be where the transponder is inaccessible to replace batteries and where solar or other light is not available for photovoltaic power supplies.
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An important high-microwave-power-density spinoff of this technology that is already being used for demonstrations of beamed microwave power transmission at the Center for Space Power at Texas A&M University is a new rectenna format specifically for space use in which the inherent "nondirectivity" of the standard rectenna is preserved around one axis of the rectenna but not the other. Such rectennas can be used without compromise for Earth to space transmission systemswhere all elements, the satellite as well as the transmitter, are located in the equatorial plane. For those systems, nondirectivity is required in the West to East direction but not North to South. The benefits derived from this arrangement are that many less diodes are used, they are used at higher efficiency levels, and there is ample opportunity to put in adequate filters for harmonic and intermodulation suppression.
Since the middle-to-late 1980s, interest in rectenna development has shifted to higher frequencies, dual and circular polarization, and printed-circuit formats. Emphasis has been placed on thin, lightweight, low-cost approaches to make power beaming to high-altitude communication platforms more feasible.
Fig 3.5 Dual-frequency rectenna operating at 2.45 and 5.8 GHz
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Table 3.1 lists some of these printed rectennas and their performances.
Table 3.1 Printed rectenna performances
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CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS
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4.1 APPLICATIONS
Although there are various potential applications of microwave power transmission, following are the two major applications which are being explored from past many years. They are:-
1. Solar power satellites 2. Microwave beam to power and position a helicopter
4.1.1 Solar power satellites (SPS) The concept of placing enormous solar power satellite (SPS) systems in space represents one of a handful of new technological options that might provide large scale, environmentally clean base load power into terrestrial markets. In the United States, the SPS concept was examined extensively during the late 1970s by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). More recently, the subject of space solar power (SSP) was re-examined by NASA from 1995-1997 in the Fresh Look Study and during 1998 in an SSP Concept Definition Study. As a result of these efforts, in 1999-2000, NASA undertook the SSP Exploratory Research and Technology (SERT) program, which pursued preliminary strategic technology research and development to enable large, multi megawatt SSP systems and wireless power transmission (WPT) for government missions and commercial markets (in space and terrestrial). During 2001-2002, NASA has been pursuing an SSP Concept and Technology Maturation (SCTM) program follow-up to the SERT, with special emphasis on identifying new high-leverage technologies that might advance the feasibility of future SSP systems. In addition, in 2001, the U.S. National Research Council (NRC) released a major report providing the results of a peer review of NASAs SSP strategic research and technology (R&T) roadmaps.
One of the key technologies needed to enable the future feasibility of SSP/SPS is that of WPT. Advances in phased-array antennas and rectennas have provided the building blocks for a realizable WPT system. These key components include dc-RF converters in the transmitter, the retrodirective beam control system, and the receiving rectenna.
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4.1.2 Microwave beam to power and position a helicopter One of the potential applications for free-space microwave power transmission is a hovering platform in the form of a helicopter which receives all the power that it needs for its propulsion and useful payload from a microwave beam. The platform need not be manned and, supplied continuously with "weightless fuel," it can stay on station for periods of time measured in days or even in weeks. The elimination of chemical fuel also provides the potential capability of a high payload fraction. Such platforms could provide useful communication and surveillance functions. The available microwave antenna and component technology, together with helicopter technology, is such that microwave-powered helicopters capable of operation at altitudes of as high as 60 000 feet are possible.
The feasibility of the microwave-powered helicopter was examined experimentally at the Raytheon Company under a contract with the Rome Air Development Center of the U. S. Air Force. Continuous flights of as long as ten hours in which a small helicopter received all its propulsion power from a microwave beam were successfully completed. In these experiments the helicopter was held over the microwave beam by means of lateral tethers which were designed to provide no vertical support.
A second study, also supported by the U. S. Air Force, demonstrated experimentally that a microwave beam can also be used to supply position information to the helicopter so that it can automatically position itself on the beam. With this additional capability the helicopter is freed from any physical connection to the ground and is then free to ascend to any altitude within the constraints of its own aerodynamic design and the design of the microwave beam.
4.1.2.1 The Principles of a Microwave-Powered Helicopter System A microwave-powered helicopter system consists of an appropriate microwave power transfer system and the helicopter device itself. As illustrated in Fig, the microwave power transmission system is made up of a dc power supply, a means of converting this power into microwave energy, a transmitting antenna which focuses the
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microwave energy into a narrow beam, and a means of receiving and rectifying the energy on board the helicopter.
Fig 4.1 The basic elements of a microwave-powered helicopter system. A significant portion of this system, especially as applied to full scale systems, is the efficient generation of large amounts of microwave power. In recent years microwave tubes which will produce several hundred kilowatts of power have been developed at frequencies of 3000 and 7800 MHz, corresponding to wavelengths of 10 and 3.8 cm, respectively. The generation of such large amounts of power in the 3,000 MHz region has also been accomplished at efficiencies of as high as 75 percent.
The transmitting antenna system for establishing the microwave beam may be of several different types, including the feed horn and parabolic or ellipsoidal reflector, phased array, or Gaussian beam antenna. With all these antennas the sharpness of the
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beam is proportional to the ratio of the antenna diameter to the wavelength of the radiation being employed. Good-sized transmitting aperture diameters are required to obtain sharp microwave beams at the wavelengths at which there are adequate amounts of power available. The size is such that such antennas cannot be readily moved or mechanically steered; however, the size is practical for fixed installations in which the antenna beam is pointed vertically or nearly so. Transmitting antenna aperture diameters range from 30 or 40 feet for a helicopter operating at 10 000 feet and employing 3 cm radiation, to 200 feet for a helicopter flying at 50 000 feet and supported by microwave energy at a wavelength of 10 cm.
At the helicopter itself the microwave energy must be captured and then converted into dc or low frequency ac power for utilization in the electric motor which drives the rotor. Although these functions could be separated, there are great advantages to combining the rectification process with the RF capture process in a device which is called the "rectenna". In this device the large receiving aperture is broken down into a large number of small apertures, typically half-wave dipoles, and the microwave power collected by these small apertures is converted into dc power by means of efficient semiconductor diode rectifiers. The diodes are located within the small aperture itself and the dc power is collected by buses and transmitted to a common dc load. A number of advantages are afforded with this arrangement:
1. the directivity of the large aperture is identical to the directivity of the small aperture so that substantial amounts of roll and pitch can be accommodated without significant power collection loss 2. the heat losses in the rectification process are transmitted to immediately adjacent heat sinks and the heat removed in the downwash of the helicopter rotor;
3.
a high degree of reliability is afforded since a small percentage of the diodes may fail in random locations with only slight degradation of the total output; and 4) mechanical tolerances are greatly relaxed.
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The success of the concept of the microwave-powered helicopter depends greatly upon the weight of the rectenna since this is the portion of the microwave power transfer system which is carried on board the helicopter. Fortunately, the rectenna, even though it is in the preliminary stages of development, has demonstrated a high ratio of power output to weight. The power output to weight ratio depends significantly upon the power density of the incident microwave energy since the weight of the supporting structure of the rectenna becomes proportionately less for the higher power densities. Typical ratios of power output to weight are 500 W/lb in a structure with 20 W/ft2 of dc output to 1 kW/lb for structures with 100 W/ft2 of dc output.
The combined capture and rectification efficiency of the rectenna can be substantial. The combined efficiency at the present time is about 55 percent. However, the rectification efficiencies of the diodes themselves have been measured at 80 percent and the reflection and internal losses of the rectenna itself are sufficiently low so that an overall efficiency of the rectenna of as much as 70 percent should be realized with the optimum design.
4.1.2.2 The Use of a CW Microwave Beam as a Position Reference for an Aerospace Vehicle It was early realized that a practical microwave powered helicopter would have to be automatically positioned over the microwave beam by electronic means. Although there are a number of ways to do this, it would be highly desirable to use the microwave beam that supplies the power to also provide a position reference which could be utilized by suitable microwave sensors mounted on the helicopter to provide position error information. The position error information could then be utilized by an autopilot to reposition the helicopter.
Fortunately, a simple CW microwave beam does provide position information with respect to roll, pitch, yaw, and translational motion in a plane transverse to the axis of the microwave beam. This information is sufficient to control the helicopter in five of the six degrees of freedom available to an aerospace vehicle. Moreover, this position reference is very accurate and invariant with time. In a less accurate frame of
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reference, altitude information can also be provided if the microwave beam is divergent; however, in a power transmission application the beam may very well be non divergent and altitude information would have to be supplied by some other means.
The way in which a microwave beam may be used to supply position information is examined with the aid of Figure. Roll and pitch information is obtained from the phase front of the microwave beam by means of two-port sensors which are phase sensitive. Yaw or bearing information is obtained from the polarization of the beam and a two-port sensor which is amplitude sensitive. The translational position of the helicopter is obtained from the variation of the power density of the beam along a plane normal to its axis and a set of two-port sensors which are amplitude sensitive.
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Fig 4.2 General configuration of the five sensor elements of a beam-riding helicopter With the position error information provided by the interaction of the microwave position sensors with the microwave-beam position reference, a control system can be designed so that the helicopter will tend to stay on or near the center of the beam even in the presence of disturbances such as wind gusts. The overall control problem was the subject of a feasibility experiment discussed in the next section.
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4.1.2.3 Examples of Applications of Microwave- Powered Vehicles There are a number of potential surveillance and communication functions for microwave-powered helicopter stations. One hypothetical example is used which suggests both the type of application for which such a device may be employed as well as the microwave beam requirements: an educational TV station operated at 50 000 feet altitude on a 24 hour basis for several weeks at a time. At that altitude, the earth's horizon is 275 miles away, and the helicopter sees an area of 60 000 square miles, or 100 times as much as a 500 foot transmitting tower. The helicopter would support in addition to its own rectenna an extremely lightweight antenna whose purpose is to reflect a portion of the power beam which is frequency modulated at a video rate to the receiving antennas below. The helicopter absorbs a substantial portion of the transmitted energy for its own propulsion. The overall system designed for a frequency centered at 2450 MHz, together with transmitter power requirements and transmitting antenna diameter, is shown in Fig. 13. The raw electrical energy cost of this installation at $0.01/kW-h would be between $10 and $15 per hour. The installation cost of the antenna and microwave power source using Fig. 12 is seen to be about $2 000 000.
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Fig 4.3 Schematic of a helicopter which is held on station by a microwave beam which reflects a portion of the frequency modulated beam to television receivers below. The microwave-powered helicopter is but one example of the use of microwave beams for power transfer purposes. Another aerospace vehicle which could be considered for a microwave power application is the balloon. In this case, the balloon does not require microwave power for its lift but does have a need for microwave energy to provide power to payloads carried on board. In order to prevent the balloon from drifting away from the microwave power source, it is necessary either to tether the balloon or to supply propulsion to the balloon itself. Under conditions of sufficiently high altitude at the proper geographical latitudes, the microwave power requirements to provide this propulsion appear to be practical.
One interesting area of application of microwave power transmission is on the surface of the moon. Because of the logistics of transporting materials to the moon, a nearly weightless power transfer system has great appeal. The absence of atmosphere makes it possible to use microwaves of a very short wavelength, thereby greatly decreasing
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the size of the transmitting apertures involved. Again, weight considerations and the need for substantial amounts of power on the moon make it highly probable that the source of power for a settlement on the moon will be nuclear. While the main transmission link of power from the nuclear reactor to the settlement might be by wire, the additional distribution of power could well be by means of electromagnetic beam. Mobile exploration units could make extended trips of exploration within a few miles of a nuclear power source without the need for the use of either heavy powercable connections or heavy and limited-life batteries.
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CHAPTER - 5
FUTURE OUTLOOK
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5.1 FUTURE ALL-ELECTRIC VEHICLE TRANSPORTATION VIA WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION
This wireless power transmission system provides for all-electric transportation, eliminating gasoline and diesel driven vehicles from our highways, utilizing a renewable energy source. The major drawbacks to all-electric replacing gasoline and diesel driven vehicles are the distance between fuel fill-ups and the time required to refuel; this system eliminates both these problems. This non-polluting all-electric transportation system provides the same range, power, mobility and maneuverability people expect and currently have with gasoline and diesel powered vehicles. The wireless power beam can be microwave, laser, or any other power beam that can be transmitted over a substantial distance from the power transmitter to the vehicle with minimal power attenuation in the atmosphere.
The system also provides an excellent transition, using hybrid electric, from today's transportation system to all electric; the system can start with public transportation, then grow to incorporate the private sector. The transportation system can be initiated in city traffic where pollution is the worst and gradually be expanded to the suburbs and to rural areas. This charging system can be used with any proposed all electric system of today: battery, flywheel, ultra-capacitor, fuel cell, etc.
With the energy being transferred via wireless power beams, there will be minimum impact on current traffic patterns because most of the work will be performed along the roadside and overhead.
The proposed transportation system can start with an intra-city downtown public transportation demonstration to display the efficacy of the system. The transportation system will be cost effective, pay as you go and grow; the user pays for the system. The system could also be demonstrated on a golf course either to recharge electric golf carts during nighttime storage or to power the carts during the day while they are in service on the course.
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The next generation transportation system for the country will be a multi-billion dollar industry. This system can capture that market.
The cost to produce a 40-watt demonstration recharge system is estimated to be $35,000. A prototype stationary multi-battery recharge system (golf carts at night) would cost approximately $1.7MM. A prototype multi-vehicle stationary or mobile vehicle recharge system would cost approximately $3.75MM
Fig 5.1 Wireless power beam network
5.2 CONCLUSION
Considerable progress has been made in the critical area of microwave power transmission. At 5.8 GHz, dc-RF converters with efficiencies over 80% are achievable today. Rectennas developed at 5.8 GHz have also been measured with efficiencies greater than 80%.With optimized components in both the transmitter and rectenna, an SPS system has the potential of a dc-to-dc efficiency of 45%. Although not considered to be a significant technology barrier, the beam control system based on retro directivity needs to be demonstrated in a large scale WPT system.
Future large-scale SSPs will form a very complex integrated system of systems requiring numerous significant advances in current technology and capabilities. Ongoing technology developments have narrowed many of the gaps, but major
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technical, regulatory, and conceptual hurdles remain. Continuing systems concept studies and analyses will be critical to success, as will following a clear strategic R&T road map. This road map must assure both an incremental and evolutionary approach to developing needed technologies and systems is followed, with significant and broadly applicable advances with each increment. In particular, the technologies and systems needed for SPS must support highly leveraged applicability to needs in space science, robotic and human exploration, and the development of space.
The decades-long time frame for SPS technology development is consistent with the time frame during which new space transportation systems, commercial space markets, etc., could advance. The question of ultimate large-scale SPS economic viability remains open. However, ongoing studies suggest that economic targets may be achievable in the far term, but only if key investments in technology development and infrastructure can be justified on the basis of non-SPS space applications.
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REFERENCES
[1] Brown, W.C.;(1984) The history of power transmission by radio waves Microwave Theory and Techniques, IEEE Transactions on Volume: 32 , Issue: 9 Publication Year: 1984 , Page(s): 1230 1242.
[2] Brown, W.C.;(1969) Experiments Involving a microwave beam to power and position a helicopter, Aerospace and Electronic Systems, IEEE Transactions on Volume: AES-5 , Issue: 5, Page(s): 692 702 [3] Brown, W.C.;(1991) An experimental low power density rectenna, Microwave Symposium Digest, Page(s): 197 - 200 vol.1
[4] McSpadden, J.O.; Mankins, J.C.;(2002) Space solar power programme and microwave wireless power transmission technology, Microwave Magazine, IEEE Volume: 3 , Issue: 4 , Page(s): 46 57
[5] Parise, Ronald J.;(1998) Vehicle remote charge All electrical transportation system, IECEC98, Colorado springs, CO, Paper No. IECEC-98-135. [6]William C. Brown; RECTENNA TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM: Ultra Light 2.45 GHz Rectenna and 20 GHz Rectenna. www.nss.org/ssp/rectenna/
[7] http://parisetech.com/wirelessbus.html
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power_transmission
[9] http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-rectenna.htm
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C.C.E.T.

Microwave power transmission

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C.C.E.T.-26 1.1 INTRODUCTION

Microwave power transmission

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C.C.E.T.-26 1.2.1.1 Induction

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Microwave power transmission

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C.C.E.T.-26 1.2.2.2 Laser

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Microwave power transmission

C.C.E.T.-26 1.2.2.3 Electrical conduction

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Manish Bansal (C07521)

Microwave power transmission

Microwave power transmission

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2.1 EVOLUTION OF MICROWAVE POWER TRANSMISSION

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2.1.2 The modern history of free space power transmission

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Microwave power transmission

Microwave power transmission

Table 2.1 Comparison of Klystron, Magnetron and Solid state

Manish Bansal (C07521)

Microwave power transmission

Manish Bansal (C07521)

Microwave power transmission

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Microwave power transmission

Fig 3.1 Schematic of rectenna circuit

3.2 EVOLUTION OF RECTENNA

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Fig 3.3 T e reorientation of t e rectenna elements into a two plane construction

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Fig 3.5 Dual-frequency rectenna operating at 2.45 and 5.8 GHz

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Table 3.1 Printed rectenna performances

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Microwave power transmission

1. Solar power satellites 2. Microwave beam to power and position a helicopter

Microwave power transmission

Microwave power transmission

Microwave power transmission