International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

A Review on Wireless Power Transfer

Mohamed M. El Rayes 1, Gihan Nagib 2, Wahied G. Ali Abdelaal 3
1
Teaching Assistance, Electrical Engineering Department, Fayoum University, Egypt
2
Associate Professor, Electrical Engineering Department, Fayoum University, Egypt
3
Professor, Computer & Systems Engineering Department, Ain Shams University, Egypt

Abstract— Wireless power is one of the new terms wireless power transmission, but the tower was not
that define this century. In the age of mobility, the completed due to lack of fund.
need for wireless power transfer (WPT) is growing
fast. There are several approaches for transferring
the electric power wirelessly. In this paper, different
methodologies for WPT are investigated as well as
advantages, disadvantages and possible applications
for each one. In addition, health safety and
economical aspects of each applicable approach are
discussed. A qualitative comparison between main
methods has been achieved based on separation
distance, transmitting power, cost, efficiency, and
safety. Qi wireless power transfer standard is
spreading in low power mobile devices up to 5 Watts
and showed great potential for charging high power
devices in the future.

Keywords — wireless power transfer, Laser power

transfer, magnetic resonance, microwave power Fig. 1 Wardenclyffe Tower [3]
transfer, Qi standard. William Brown introduced great contributions to
the development of microwave power transmission,
I. INTRODUCTION which are of great importance recently [2]. He
invented the rectifying antenna, called rectenna,
Wireless power transmission (WPT) has become which can receive microwaves and convert them to
one of the most important research points in this DC current. In 1964, he demonstrated the rectenna
century. The research motivations and its relative ability by powering a helicopter through microwaves
importance are related to real time applications. only.
Portability is the main motivation for wireless power Wireless power transfer can be achieved by
transfer as the number of portable devices is several alternative methods (will be demonstrated
enormously increasing and wired chargers will limit and discussed later), but only three of them are the
their portability. Electric vehicles and mobile robots mostly utilized. The first method is the inductive
wide spreading is bonded to the availability of coupling between two separated coils; the second
wireless battery chargers because mobility is their one is the microwave power transmission and the
main concern. Losses in power transmission grid, third method is using laser technology for electrical
which can reach 30% of the transmitted power is a power transfer. Motivations for WPT can be
problem that could be solved with microwave power summarized as [4]:
transmission. Increase the device mobility
Nicole Tesla was the first one to introduce the Avoid the wiring hazards
wireless power transfer concept [1]. In 1891, he Improve electric vehicles reliability
began his work on wireless power transmission at Safe the wiring cost and its isolation
his laboratory in Colorado, USA. He managed to Immune to chemicals, dirt and water.
power a small incandescent lamp by current induced
Enhance the research of biomedical
in a three-wound coil and the circuit was grounded
applications
at one end and the other end was free [2]. The
Maintenance free and no electrical plugs
transmitter used a resonant circuit and was
connected to ground. Tesla’s successful experiment II. WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER METHODS
was the first demonstration of wireless power
transfer concept. The Wardenclyffe tower, shown in A. Inductive Coupling WPT
Fig. 1, was designed by Tesla for trans-Atlantic The electrical transformer, represented in Fig. 2 is
wireless telephony. He demonstrated the concept of the simplest application of wireless energy transfer
between two coils [5].

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

sending electromagnetic waves around in a highly

angular waveguide, which leads to forming
evanescent waves [7]. An evanescent wave is near-
field standing wave that exhibits exponential decay
with distance and carries no energy. When an
appropriate resonant waveguide is close to the
transmitter, evanescent waves allow the energy to
tunnel, so electromagnetic waves would not
propagate through the air causing radiation that
wastes power and disturbs electronic devices.
In resonant magnetic coupling, the power
transmitter and the power receiver inductors are
tuned to the same resonant frequency and power
transfer occurs over several cycles. This allows
Fig. 2 Basic transformer circuit [6] significant amount of power to be transferred over
distance up to multiple times of the transmitter coil
In mutual induction, the electrical power is size [8]. Transmitting and receiving coils are usually
transformed from DC into AC at the transmitter and single layer solenoids or flat spirals with less
magnetic field is created around the transmitter coil. parasitic capacitance, in contrary to non-resonant
The receiver coil cuts some of the magnetic field coils which are made of multi-layer windings as
generated by the transmitter coil, and AC current is shown in Fig.3.
induced in it. The received AC power is rectified and
filtered to produce DC output. As the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver coils
increases, the receiver coil misses more lines of the
magnetic field of the transmitter even in very short
distance, so systems built on inductive coupling have
low efficiency, so most of the transmitted power is
wasted. This method can allow wireless power
transfer in the range of millimeters and can reach at
most few centimeters [7].
One typical application for electromagnetic
induction is electric toothbrush [7]. Most electric Fig. 3 (a) Single-layer coil (b) Multi-layer coil [9]
toothbrushes use inductive coupling for recharging Electrical energy transfer phenomena depend on
because daily exposure to water makes charging the principle that if varying electrical current passes
through an electric plug is unsafe. Wireless through the transmitter coil, a varying magnetic field
recharging allows completely sealed toothbrushes. is formed around that coil. As this varying magnetic
This application represents one of advantages of field intersects the receiver coil, varying electric
wireless power transfer. current is induced in the receiver coil. This
phenomenon is called mutual induction. If the two
B. Magnetic Resonance Inductive Coupling coils are tuned to the same resonance frequency, it is
called magnetic resonance [10]. Resonance enables
Resonant inductive coupling or electro-dynamic
power transfer with higher efficiency between
inductive effect is the solution for the main problems
mutually tuned LC circuits with relatively low
associated with non-resonant inductive wireless
coupling factor, so it maximizes energy transfer [5].
power transfer systems, specially the efficiency
However, choosing the proper resonant frequency
dependence on the power transmission distance [8].
for certain coil size is also an important factor for
By using the resonance concept, power can be
optimizing the electrical power transfer.
transferred between two coils separated by a
Magnetic resonance induction or near-field, far-
distance of a few meters efficiently.
edge is main idea used for building mid-range power
How can the resonance do that? Each object or
transfer systems. Mid-range can be specified by
structure has a certain natural frequency that is a
distance up to ten times the transmitting coil
function of its mass and stiffness. If the excitation
diameter [11]. Systems using inductive coupling can
frequency and the natural frequency of the structure
transmit power up to the diameter of the transmitting
are matched; the resonance phenomenon occurs. At
coil. By implementing magnetic resonance in mid-
resonance frequency, the object vibrates with
range power transfer systems, they become nearly
maximum amplitude. That means; a maximum
omnidirectional and still efficient with low losses
energy is transferred to the object. For that reason,
and low interference with environmental objects [12].
electrical energy can tunnel with maximum
Magnetic resonance is considered the best choice for
efficiency from one coil to another one if they have
home devices and appliances as magnetic fields do
the same resonant frequency. That was proved by

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

not interact with most common materials. Power resonator, which is used in standard Qi transmitters,
transfer is nearly not affected by humans and can be increased by lowering the resistance and/or
common everyday objects such as wood, metals and capacitance [15] as illustrated by Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
electronic devices, when placed between the primary Resistance can be lowered by using high quality
and secondary coils even if the line of sight is wires for building coils or thicker wires. However,
completely obstructed [13]. However, they have a lowering the capacitance can lead to higher
noticeable effect when they are within few frequency in (1), which limits the current and in
centimeters from one of the two coils. Humans and turns the amount of power to be transferred due to
metals can just shift the resonant frequency, but that skin effect which causes the resistance of the coil
can be solved though feedback circuits. Other wire to be proportional to the frequency. Also, single
materials like wood can lower the Q factor of coils layer coils are preferable as multi-layer coil parasitic
when placed very close to either one of them, which capacitance increases the overall capacitance,
in turns decreases the efficiency of the power lowering Q.
transfer.
Tuning the transmitter and receiver to the same
resonant frequency ensures that the receiver has a
low impedance at the resonance and that leads to
optimal absorption of transmitted energy. At the
receiver side, the voltage gain is affected by the ratio
of the secondary coil inductance to the primary
inductance; as the voltage gain is proportional to that
ratio [8]. One primary coil can deliver electrical
power wirelessly to many receivers as long as they
are tuned to the same resonant frequency. One can
think that the closer the transmitting and the
receiving coils, the more efficient energy transfer,
but this is not the case. The highest reachable
efficiency can be achieved at a certain distance
between the two coils [14]. This distance depends on Fig. 5 Effect of coil resistance on Q factor.
the chosen resonant frequency and the coil sizes.
Increasing the Q factor of the LC circuit leads to
increasing the power transfer efficiency. The ratio of
the stored power in an LC circuit to dissipated power
is the figure of merit or the Q factor. Q factor
represents the selectivity of the tuned circuit for
resonant frequency.

Fig. 6 Effect of inductance to capacitance ratio on Q

factor

Fig. 4 Series LC circuit In [16], researchers point out that the main
challenge is to adjust the lumped capacitances at the
1 terminals of the receivers when their position is
f (1) changed with respect to the transmitter coil and with
2 LC respect to each other.
1 L In [17], high efficiency switched-mode class-E
Q (2) power transmitter was used for achieving low power
R C loss via inductive coupling using planar air coils.
This WPT system was able to achieve a desirable
Where f is the resonant frequency, Q is the quality power-delivery response across a wide range of load
factor, L is the inductance, C is the capacitance of resistances without adding any control mechanism.
the tank circuit and R is the coil wire resistance. Advantages of magnetic resonance WPT [8]:
From (2), it is obvious that Q factor for series LC Higher efficiency

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

Longer distance compared to non-resonant rectenna, then they pass through a low pass filters, to
inductive coupling. finally produce DC power.
Allows the use of smaller single-layer For the microwave generator, devices that are
planer coils which can be implemented in called Microwave Vacuum Tubes are used to
MEMS circuits for portable and implanted generate microwaves and they have several types
devices. including klystron, magnetron, and the Travelling
Magnetic fields are not affected by Wave Tube (TWT). Magnetron is the most used
surrounding objects. They can wrap around device [18] which generates microwave by passing
or penetrate obstacles such as wood, electrons through magnetic field [19]. Travelling
plastics, glass, brick…, Etc. which are Wave Tubes are too expensive and power limited,
transparent to magnetic fields. making it unsuitable for practical implementation of
Safer for people, animal and environment power transfer systems [2]. Klystron is the best
as there is no electromagnetic radiation microwave generator for WPT applications, but it is
during energy transfer. somewhat expensive. Magnetrons are efficient and
cheap, but their output frequency is not precisely
Disadvantages of magnetic resonance WPT: controllable as TWT or klystron. Using small
Lower efficiency and increased heating magnetrons are advantageous because 300W to 1kW
compared to power transfer using wires. magnetrons are already mass produced for
Cannot be used in long range applications. microwave ovens [2]. 2.45GHz is proven practically
to be the most efficient frequency to be used in
microwave power transmission [18, 20]. For the
C. Wireless Power Transfer Using Microwaves transmitter antenna, micro strip patch, parabolic dish
antennas and slotted wave guide are usually used.
Microwave power transmission (MPT) is now the Due to its high efficiency, slotted wave guide is used
most efficient far-field technique which allows in high power applications.
power transmission for several kilometers in range Rectenna, which is used in microwave power
[5]. This method includes microwave frequencies receivers, stands for rectifying antenna. It was
from 1GHz up to 1000GHz [10]. In microwaves and invented by W.C. Brown in his work in WPT in the
optical power transmission systems, the reception 1960s [21, 22]. The rectenna is used to convert
area can be shaped. This can be achieved through microwave energy to DC power. The basic rectenna,
high directivity antennas in microwaves case and shown in Fig. 8, consists of a dipole antenna and RF
laser beams in optical systems case [5]. This is why diode connected between the dipoles [23]. The diode
they can be used to transfer electric power wirelessly rectifies the received high-power microwave signal
over long distances. and delivers the rectified current to later stages for
smoothing and controlling the output DC power
delivered to the connected load [10]. As mentioned
before, experiments showed that 2.45 GHz
frequency achieves the best efficiency for the
rectenna. Efficiency exceeding 95% has been
realized for modern rectennas [7]. Table I shows a
comparison of some types of printed rectennas.

TABLE I
EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT PRINTED RECTENNA
Fig. 7 Block diagram of microwaves power transfer [18]
system. Measured
Operating
Type of Peak
Frequency
Rectenna Conversion
Microwave power transfer begins with producing (GHz)
Efficiency (%)
the microwaves by using a microwave generator.
Generated radio waves then pass though Coax to Printed Diplomo 2.45 85
Waveguide adapter to the waveguide circulator to
isolate the microwaves generator and prevent Circular Patch 2.45 81
detuning its desired frequency. Then, a tuner and
directional coupler are used to separate the waves Printed Dual
5.6 78
according to their propagation direction [18]. Finally, Rhombic
microwaves are transmitted through antenna. At the
receiver terminal, microwaves are received by a Square Patch 8.51 66

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

The main problem associated with SPS power

transmission is its effect on human and animal health.
Mega-watt microwaves beams can cause undesirable
side effects to human or animal tissues if they
diffract from their targeted receiver station. A large
receiving area can be utilized to power many smaller
receivers and in the same time, retain low power
Fig. 8 Simple rectenna [24] density for electromagnetic exposure safety. A
distributed power density of 1mW/cm2 over an area
In 1980s, Canada's Communications Research with 10 Km diameter can achieve a total power of
Centre introduced the first practical application for 750 Megawatts while keeping the radiation level in
MPT system by designing a small unmanned the safe zone [5].
airplane powered by microwaves beamed from
ground [7]. This plane was called the Stationary
High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP) and it was
used as a communication relay. The SHARP could
fly in a circle with 2-kilometer diameter at altitude
of about 21 kilometers. But, the most impressive
ability of this plane is that it can fly for months
without landing.

Fig. 10 Solar Power Satellite [24]

D. Power Transfer by Laser

Laser power beaming is mainly researched in
military weapons development and space
applications [5]. When it comes to power transfer,
Fig. 9 The SHARP unmanned plane [7] this technology is used in relatively short distance
application. This is because laser beams can harm
A large disk-shaped rectenna behind its wings humans and animals if they cut the laser beam path.
receives the transmitted microwaves sent by ground- For electric power transmission by laser, the electric
based power transmitter, and converts them into current is first converted to high density laser (light)
rectified electrical current. As the plane flies in the and at the receiver side, high efficiency photo voltaic
power transmitter effective range which is circular, it cells are used to convert the received laser beam
can receive continuous electric power. This is why back into electricity. The overall laser power
its flight path is circular. transmission system efficiency is about 50% which
The new application that uses microwaves to is quite low compared to the other wireless power
transmit power, is Solar Power Satellites (SPS). transfer methods [10].
Satellites equipped with large solar panels, convert
the generated electricity by these solar panels, to
high power microwaves beams and direct them
toward ground-based receiver stations that have very
large rectennas. To maintain a good lock on the
rectenna, the satellite needs to have a retrodirective
transmitter which locks on to a pilot beam sent from
the ground station [2]. Most researches depend on
frequencies in 2.4GHz to 5.8GHz range to achieved
reasonable efficiencies, but this can cause spectrum
regulatory issues as many communication devices
already operate in the same range. Japan is planning
to send low earth orbit satellite with power Fig. 11 Wireless Power Transmission through Laser
transmission capability of 10 to 100 kW, to prove its [3]
feasibility [25].

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

E. Summary of WPT methods between two planer coils to transfer power form the
A comparison of different wireless power transfer transmitter and the receiver. The key advantage of
methods is shown in Table II. This comparison this standard is that it makes use of coils for control
highlights the strong and weak points for each data transmission from the receiver to the transmitter,
technique. so the communication is only one way from the
receivers to the base station [28].
TABLE II
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT WPT METHODS
Distance between transmitter and receiver circuits
Inductive a few millimeters
Coupling
Magnetic a few meters
Resonance
Microwaves up to 100 kilometers
Laser a few meters but could be used for
longer distances by using high
intensity beam
Transmitted Power
Inductive Up to a few watts
Coupling
Magnetic Up to a few kilo watts
Resonance
Microwaves Up to hundreds of Megawatts
Laser Up to hundreds of Megawatts [26]
Efficiency Fig. 12 Basic Qi system overview [29]
Inductive Low Wireless power consortium added an
Coupling improvement to the Qi standard by including
Magnetic High magnetic resonance wireless charging. The charging
Resonance distance was increased to allow devices to be
Microwaves High charged from distance up to 40mm while keeping
Laser Low compatibility with Qi standard [28].
Cost
A. The Power Transmitter Under Wireless
Inductive Economical because the used Charging Standard
Coupling equipment are cheap and available
In this standard, the power transmitter design is
Magnetic Economical because the used
restricted to certain implementations to ensure
Resonance equipment are cheap and available
compatibility with different power receiver devices.
Microwaves Relatively expensive compared to The receiver presents itself to the transmitter as a
other methods compliant device and provides the required charging
Laser same economic conditions of configurations. The device can have fixed or moving
inductive coupling coil configurations. The transmitter operates in
Safety resonant mode with controllable duty cycle and
Inductive It is safe from biological point of frequency which can be changed between 100 and
Coupling view 205 kHz, depending on the power demands [29].
Magnetic It is safe from biological point of The input voltage ranges from 5 VDC to 19 VDC
Resonance view according to the transmitter type. The design of the
Microwaves Dangerous on health due to high transmitter is limited to three types: Guided
frequency rays (1 GHz to 1000 positioning, free positioning moving transmitter coil
GHz) and free positioning coil matrix [28].
Laser injurious to human health

III. QI STANDARD
In 2008, the Wireless Power Consortium was
founded and more than 220 international companies
are now members of it [27]. The first wireless power
standard was released by the consortium for low-
power mobile devices up to 5 Watts. The standard Fig. 13 Positioning of receiver coil with respect to
includes systems that uses inductive coupling the transmitter coil [28]

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

A power transmitter can serve only one power More flexibility for positioning devices to
receiver at a time, but a base station may contain be charged.
multiple power transmitters to serve several devices. Ability to charge up to 8 devices
simultaneously.
B. Received Power Under Wireless Charging
Use of Bluetooth for communication, which
Standard
exists in wide range of devices
The received voltage is full-wave rectified with C. Disadvantages of Rezence standard
efficiency equals about 70% for an output of 500mA Lower efficiency than Qi standard.
at 5VDC [28]. The power transfer is achieved by No compatibility with Qi standard, which is
magnetic coupling between the power transmitter implemented in large number of devices.
and receiver. But, uncoupled field lines do not
represent a loss as they rotate around the primary
coil, except if there is a parasitic load (e.g. eddy-
current loss in metals). Unlike to the power
transmitters, the design of power receivers is left
free to the device manufacturer [28].

IV. REZENCE STANDARD

Rezence is a newly-developed wireless power
transfer standard introduced by Alliance for Wireless
Power. This standard is developed to provide more
features than the Qi Standard.

A. Description
Rezence depends on magnetic resonance Fig. 14 Rezence WPT System
technology to transfer power between a power
transmitter and a power receiver. In contrary to Qi V. FEASIBILITY OF WPT
systems, Rezence systems relay on loose coupling The use of WPT is feasible for the following
between the power transmitter unit (PTU) and the advantages [4, 28]:
power receiver unit (PRU) [30]. This means that the A. Safety
system can operate efficiently with low coupling No electric shocks or short circuiting.
factor. As a result, the standard allows higher
Safe on humans and animals.
distance between the PTU and PRU compared to Qi
Sealed power sources and devices allow
systems (up to 50 mm) and the system is tolerant to
misalignment of the charging coils which increases more children protection.
flexibility. A system overview is represented by Fig. No corrosion can happen.
14. B. Durability
Another difference between Rezence and Qi No moving mechanical parts that require
standards is that the first operates at high frequency maintenance.
of 6.78 MHz and a single PTU can charge up to 8 Water proof and weather proof (for
PRUs at the same time at a maximum of 50 Watts in inductive coupling).
total. The communication between the PTU and Impervious to chemicals and dirt.
PRUs is carried over 2.4GHz Bluetooth links using Rugged and tough devices are possible.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) technology which is Low-profile, does not occupy much space
available in most new Bluetooth-enabled devices. No wires to be cut or worn.
The PTU uses this BLE links for identification and Consistent and secure connections.
controlling power levels of valid loads and C. Ease of use
protection of non-compatible devices. No need for electrical plugs.
Unlike Qi standard, Rezence does not impose Data can be transmitted wirelessly at the
constrains in the design of PTUs nor PRUs. The same time of charging process.
loose coupled coils which allows spatial freedom Auto charging, so one cannot forget to
comes at the cost of efficiency. Qi standard provides plug-in.
higher power transfer efficiency than Rezence A universal charger can be designed.
standard at the same load and good coils alignment.
Easier implanted devices charging.
D. Aesthetics
B. Advantages of Rezence standard
Avoids unnecessary street clutter.
Perceive historic city aesthetics.
Higher maximum transmitter power up to
50 W. Maintain precious footpath area.

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 International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume-40 Number-5 - October 2016

Unpleasant overhead cables can be B. Duracell’s myGrid

removed. It uses technology licensed from WildCharge [14].
It consists of a conductive grid, arranged so that it
Disadvantages of WPT: will always match the electrode spacing of the
The main concern about wireless power ―warts‖ which the user adds on a mobile device.
transfer is its biological effects. Resonant This allows WPT from the myGrid electrode shown
inductive coupling has far lower effects in Fig. 15, to the wart at about 100% efficiency.
compared to microwaves power
transmission technique, but has a far lower
range.
Safety studies and researches pointed out
that the radiation level of WPT is nearly
equal to or slightly than the radiation of
cellular phones. [31].
The very high initial cost for implementing
WPT systems is a problem that can lead to
lower spreading rate. Fig. 15 Duracell’s myGrid [14]
Security is required as power can be easily C. Powermat Charging Pad
stolen [32].
These inductive charging pads designed by
Lower efficiency and increased resistive
Powermat. Powermat has over 40 applied patent for
heating compared to direct contact [28].
achieving efficiencies ranging from 80% to 92%
Qi standard is available only for low power
[14]. However, to achieve these efficiencies, the
transfer up to 5W.
mobile should be placed with millimeter precision.
Clear line of sight is a must for microwaves
power transmission. D. Fulton Inductive Coupling
MPT can cause interference problems for Fulton Innovation used inductive coupling in its
existing communication systems. system and claims that it is superior because it can
Microwaves behavior depends on media optimize the power transfer in real-time thanks to its
through which they travel. So, weather can intelligent resonant frequency tuning subsystem [14].
easily affect the MPT efficiency [33]. The system can achieve up to 98% efficiency.
Beam-forming and directivity is extremely
important for achieving high efficiency
wireless power transfer through using
microwaves [34].
MPT is not suitable for powering a moving
target because the directional antenna
should be locked onto the moving receiver
and this cannot happen in practice. Also,
omnidirectional antennas are very Fig. 16 Fulton Innovations’ eCoupled Wireless
inefficient. inductive coupling charger [14]
E. Power Pad by Philips
VI. PRODUCTS BASED ON WPT
Philips Research has developed wireless charging
A. Wireless Power Broadcasting pad called ―Power Pad‖ shown in Fig. 17 [28]. It
consists of an array of transmitter cells and each cell
This is a one-to-many system in which one
contains a detector which controls the cell activation
wireless power source can deliver electric power to
and termination. The cell is activated only when a
many devices with different power requirements
device is placed on it. However, the Power Pad is
[11]. Despite of being a very important application
not compatible to Qi standard. It operates at 500 kHz
for WPT especially for indoor use, many challenging
can transmit 1.2W with one transmitter cell.
problems will face the system designer. For
achieving good efficiency and lower heat dissipation,
transmitted power should be tailored to the power
demand because the load can change with time
either by increasing or decreasing power demand. So,
communications between the source and target
devices should be maintained to track the power
demand. Broadcasting power can lead to
interference issues which threat the system
Fig. 17 Philips’ Power Pad [28]
efficiency and even functionality.

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VII. CONCLUSION International Conference on Robotics and Automation

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