INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS PART-1 CURRENT & VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (FOR ELECTRIC T&D, POWER PLANTS &, INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS)

(S. R. JAVED AHMED)

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INTRODUCTION
In any Electrical system power system, Instrument Transformers forms part of main components in Metering (reading instruments, recording instruments, tariff systems), Protection & Control system applications. Voltage & Current are main Electrical analog quantities from which all other analog quantities are derived and used in various Metering & Protection applications (like measurement of frequency, power factor, active/reactive power, energy, and Protective relays which are based on Voltage & Current inputs). Some quantities like frequency can be derived from either current or voltage in steady state condition (however for frequency measurement Voltage is most commonly used since the required level of voltage is available almost always excluding during faults). Almost all Metering, Protection & Control devices are handled by the personnel & need Human interactions. However, the Voltage & Current as it is in the Electric system most of the time cannot be used for these applications due to the level of Voltage & currents are much higher than the safe values and it is much easier to deal at low energy. Accordingly, these devices are designed for lower Voltage & current levels which can be relatively made safe for qualified personnel in these industries (with or without PPE). Voltage Transformers (VTs) & Current Transformers (CTs) are therefore used to transform the Power system (called the Primary system) Voltage & Currents to the level required for these applications (called secondary systems). Some cases CTs & VTs are used just to provide galvanic Isolation from one system to other (Isolating Transformers, input transformers etc).

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CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
The Current Transformers transform current from system to other system (e.g. Primary system to secondary system). Since the application is current transformation, it is obvious that the CT should produce Secondary current (Is) exactly proportional to that flowing in the primary system (Ip). Therefore, a CT shall satisfy equation Ip = (k x Is) at all values of currents; where k is a constant. Called Transformation ratio (can be conversely described as a ratio k= Ip/Is) In an AC system, the Voltages & Currents, due to their periodically varying wave pattern (sinusoidal), need another aspect to define their value in reference to a time frame (either fixed or rotating at constant angular velocity). This aspect is called the phase angle. Therefore, it is also obvious that the CT should produce Secondary current (Is) exactly in phase with the current flowing in the primary system (Ip). PRACICAL CURRENT TRANSFORMERS A rated value of a CT is the value of current which is maximum value intended to flow continuously in the applied primary system (this is the value on which performances and life of the equipment is based on). A CT rated primary current value is indicated as Ipn and is selected based on the current which is maximum intended continuous current at which its performance is based. A CT rated secondary current (Isn), however, is fixed value depending on the rated current of secondary device it feeds and is standardized as 1A, 5A commonly to meet almost all applications (may use non standard values for specific application). Accordingly, the current ratio is defined as rated Transformation ratio (or current ratio) Kn. Expressed as a ratio equation Kn = (Ipn/Isn). IEC 60044-1 defines the following standard rated currents:

IEEE C57-13 defines the following standard rated currents:

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An Ideal CT can be defined as the CT which meets the requirement of constant (non-changing) value of k and zero phase displacement between the Ip & Is over the entire range of interest. It is possible to achieve this requirement to any imaginable accuracy. But achieving higher and higher accuracy requires more sophisticated designs and most of the time is not feasible due to cost and size of such a CT. A Practical CT is one which is designed to meet an particular application maintaining a minimum level of accuracy within the constraints of cost & size. Thus a Practical CT differs from an Ideal CT due to its accuracy in k (which we can also call as current ratio of a CT) and phase displacement from zero.

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Measuring Class CTs:

A practical CT which is designed in view of meeting accuracy required for metering applications. These CTs are intended for measurement which is close to normal operating current values (load). In AC systems, thus are designed to provide accuracy within a band close to normal rated values of current at fundamental frequency of primary system. These CTs and associated Meters shall be as accurate as desired within the band of current close to rated current. Where the operating current may reach very low values depending on the primary system loading, it often becomes necessary to have an accuracy guaranteed up to that specific value. This is also important when such a current is used for revenue (billing) purposes. Thus special application to meet load as low as 1% of rated at specific accuracy becomes important. In IEC 60044-1 & IS standard, the following standard accuracies for Metering class CTs are defined:

IEC standard accuracy class of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1 for Normal Metering purpose (this value indicates percentage ratio error at 100% & 120% of rated primary current).

IEC standard accuracy class of 0.2S & 0.5S for Tariff Metering purpose (this value indicates percentage ratio error at 20%, 100% & 120% of rated primary current).

IEC standard accuracy class of 3 & 5 for rough Display reading meters (which is not required to be very accurate) and this value indicates percentage ratio error at 50% & 120% of rated primary current.

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For Metering class CTs Indian Standard IS 2704-2 is same as IEC standard above IEEE C37-13 accuracy class for Metering class CTs:

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RELAYING CLASS (PROTECTIVE) CTs: A practical CT which is designed in view of meeting accuracy required for Protective Relaying applications. These CTs are intended for measurement which is usually at rated values as well as at high currents encountered during system faults. In AC systems, thus are designed to provide accuracy within a band close to normal rated values of current at fundamental frequency of primary system and accuracy at higher current expected at faults. it often becomes necessary, due to techno-commercial feasibility, to have an accuracy guaranteed up to that specific value of fault current at which some saturation is allowed. Since errors of such saturated waveform current cannot be compared with the primary sinusoidal currents.

IEC Standard Protective CT Classes & IS Standard CT classes:

IEC defines accuracy classes for Protective class CTs based on steady state performance as well as on Transient performances. All CTs are indicated with letter P. IEC standard classes for Protective CTs based on Steady State performances: Classes defined: 5P, 10P, PX, 5PR, 10PR IS standard (Indian) for Protective CTs based on Steady State performances: Classes defined: 5P, 10P, 15P IEC standard classes for Protective CTs based on Transient performances: Classes defined: TPX, TPY, TPZ, TPS

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IEC Standard CTs for Steady State performances: Protective class CTs in IEC standard for Steady State performances are defined for meeting accuracy based on fundamental component of AC fault current. Transient DC component performance is not defined for these CTs. These CTs are defined in three groups without limit on remanence flux (5P, 10P), with 10% limit on remanence flux (5PR, 10PR) and a CT with 0.25% limit turns error having low leakage reactance design (PX). 1. Steady State performanceClass-5P & 10P CTs (No limit defined for remanence flux & turns ratio error):

IEC 60044-1 defines instantaneous current integrated over a cycle period as a percentage error with respect to the rms value of primary current and defines it as composite error c.

Indian standard IS 2705-3 class- 5P, 10P is same as IEC class-5P & 10P respectively. IS standard has additional 15P class with 5% Current error at rated primary current & composite error of 15% 2. Steady State performance Class-PX CTs (turns error limit defined & no limit defined for remanence flux):

These CTs are also protective class CTs with letter P but must be low leakage flux type. CT turns error shall not exceed 0.25% and the knee-point of CT must be declared (knee-point is point on the secondary excitation characteristics of CT at which 10% raise in rms secondary voltage results in 50% raise in the rms excitation current.

Application of Class PX CTs: For sensitive application which compare phase or neutral (or residual) currents from more than one CT such as high impedance protection or sensitive differential protections, it is necessary to have CTs which are with low

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leakage flux and secondary characteristics can be used to evaluate performances of protection (e.g. to evaluate performance based on differences in secondary current outputs, differences in time to saturate of CTs etc). These CTs in IEC 60044-X are defined by their knee-point voltage, secondary characteristics, secondary winding resistance and the exciting current at Vk or any specific value of secondary voltage. Indian standard IS 2705-4 class- PS is same as IEC class-PX 3. Steady State performance Class-PR CTs (limit defined for remanence flux & no limit defined for turns ratio error)::

These CTs are also protective class CTs with letter P but must not exceed remanence flux equal to 10% of saturation flux in the core. Other accuracy is similar to standard Class-P CTs. Application of Class PR CTs: For sensitive application which encounters repeated high current faults which otherwise leave CTs saturated for long time after interruption. In such cases a previously saturated CT performance is not acceptable. Such application as reclosing etc is typical application. These CTs may have air-gaps in the core to comply with 10% remanence flux limit.

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IEC Standard CTs for Transient performances: Four Protective class CTs are defined in IEC60044-6 standard based on the Transient Performances. Letter T is prefixed with letter P for these class CTs. These are Class TPS, TPX, TPY & TPZ. These CTs performances are defined for dc component current in addition to ac current. Flux in the core due to dc current component is X/R times the flux due to ac component. Thus in applications which are fast and are requiring transient performances like Distance Protection, these CTs can be evaluated. Steady state performance CTs can also be used for such application as long as they are over dimensioned for dc flux based on evaluation of CT time to saturate, relay operation time and relay design. Since steady state CTs other than class PR in IEC are not designed for remanent flux in the core additional factor may have to be considered for Auto-reclosing applications. 1. Transient performance Class-TPS (No limit defined for remanence flux, but turns ratio error shall be less than 0.25%):

These CTs are also protective class CTs with letter TP but must be low leakage flux type. CT turns error shall not exceed 0.25% and the knee-point of CT must be declared (knee-point is point on the secondary excitation characteristics of CT at which 10% raise in rms secondary voltage results in 100% raise in the peak excitation current. These CTs are with Iron core without air-gap.

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Transient performance Class-TPX (No limit defined for remanence flux & turns ratio error):

These CTs shall be assigned duty cycle like auto-reclose attempts. These CTs are with Iron core without air-gap. 3. Transient performance Class-TPY (10% defined for remanence flux & no limit on turns ratio error):

These CTs shall be assigned duty cycle like auto-reclose attempts. These CTs may have small air-gaps. Auto reclose
duty may have to be considered.

4.

Transient performance Class-TPZ (remanence flux negligibly small & no limit on turns ratio error):

These CTs shall be assigned duty cycle like auto-reclose attempts. These CTs may have large air-gaps.

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Accuracy limits defined for TPX, TPY & TPZ class CTs:

AUTO-RECLOSE DUTY CYCLES: As applied to TPX & TPY class CTs:

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IEEE Standard Relaying Class CTs: IEEE defines C. K & T classes for Protective class CTs. Class H & L are no longer used.

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LITERATURES ON CTs

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