Army Engineer Mil. Nonstandard Fixed Bridging

FM 3-34.
343 (FM5-446)
Military Nonstandard
Fixed Bridging
HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public relase; distribution is unlimited.

*FM 3-34.343 (FM 5-446)
Field Manual Headquarters

No. 3-34.343 Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 12 February 2002
Military Nonstandard Fixed Bridging

Contents
Page
PREFACE.................................................................................................................vii
PART ONE BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

Chapter 1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ........................................................................... 1-1
General Concepts ................................................................................................... 1-2
Bridge Design ......................................................................................................... 1-4
Army Facilities Components System ...................................................................... 1-4
Classification Information........................................................................................ 1-5
Engineer Responsibilities........................................................................................ 1-6
Supporting Information............................................................................................ 1-6
Chapter 2 RECONNAISSANCE AND PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS............................ 2-1

Hasty Reconnaissance ........................................................................................... 2-1
Deliberate Reconnaissance .................................................................................... 2-1
Repair or Reconstruction ........................................................................................ 2-1
New-Bridge Construction ........................................................................................ 2-2
Site Requirements .................................................................................................. 2-3
Survey Control ........................................................................................................ 2-6
Survey Drawings..................................................................................................... 2-6
PART TWO CLASSIFICATION, REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR, AND POSTING

Chapter 3 CLASSIFICATION.................................................................................................. 3-1
Section I - Bridge-Classification Considerations............................................... 3-2
Section II - Expedient Classification ................................................................... 3-2
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
*This publication supersedes FM 5-446, 3 June 1991..
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FM 3-34.343
Page
Hasty Method ......................................................................................................... 3-2

Track Commander’s Bridge-Crossing Booklet ....................................................... 3-3
Section III - Correlation-Curve Classification .................................................... 3-3
Correlation-Curve Applications............................................................................... 3-8
Bridge Condition..................................................................................................... 3-8
Span Length ........................................................................................................... 3-8
Correlation-Curve Uses........................................................................................... 3-9
Section IV - Analytical Bridge Classification ................................................... 3-10
Classification Assumptions................................................................................... 3-10
Moment Classification for Simple Spans.............................................................. 3-15
Moment Classification for Continuous Spans....................................................... 3-16
Roadway-Width Classification and Clearance Restrictions.................................. 3-18
Solid-Sawn and Glue-Laminated Timber-Stringer Bridges .................................. 3-18
Steel-Stringer Bridges .......................................................................................... 3-22
Composite-Stringer Bridges ................................................................................. 3-26
Steel-Girder Bridges............................................................................................. 3-29
Truss Bridges ....................................................................................................... 3-46
Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridges ....................................................................... 3-55
Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridges ................................................................. 3-59
Reinforced Concrete Box-Girder Bridges............................................................. 3-64
Prestressed Concrete Bridges ............................................................................. 3-65
Arch Bridges......................................................................................................... 3-74
Movable Bridges................................................................................................... 3-81
Suspension Bridges ............................................................................................. 3-82
Other Bridges ....................................................................................................... 3-83
Chapter 4 REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR......................................................................... 4-1

Basic Considerations.............................................................................................. 4-1
Hasty or Emergency Repairs ................................................................................. 4-4
Stringer Supports ................................................................................................... 4-7
Stringer Reinforcement .......................................................................................... 4-9
Steel Floor-Beam Reinforcement ......................................................................... 4-11
Truss Reinforcement and Repair ......................................................................... 4-11
Flooring Repair..................................................................................................... 4-17
Masonry-Pier and -Abutment Repair.................................................................... 4-18
Masonry-Arch-Bridge Repair................................................................................ 4-20
Chapter 5 POSTING ............................................................................................................... 5-1

Bridge-Classification Signs...................................................................................... 5-1
Traffic Controls ....................................................................................................... 5-5
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FM 3-34.343
Page
PART THREE DESIGN

Chapter 6 BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURES ............................................................................ 6-1
Design Phases........................................................................................................ 6-1
Design Sequence.................................................................................................... 6-1
Chapter 7 SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN ................................................................................... 7-1

Abutment Design Procedure................................................................................... 7-1
Abutment Designs................................................................................................. 7-12
Intermediate-Support Design ................................................................................ 7-34
Chapter 8 SUSPENSION-BRIDGE DESIGN .......................................................................... 8-1

Descriptions ............................................................................................................ 8-1
Bridge Sites............................................................................................................. 8-2
Design Factors........................................................................................................ 8-3
Live Load ................................................................................................................ 8-4
Panels ......................................................................................................................8-4
Suspenders............................................................................................................. 8-8
Main Cables ............................................................................................................ 8-9
Backstays.............................................................................................................. 8-13
Towers .................................................................................................................. 8-13
Anchorages........................................................................................................... 8-16
Chapter 9 CONNECTIONS ..................................................................................................... 9-1

Timber Connections.................................................................................................9-1
Steel Connections................................................................................................... 9-9
Chapter 10 CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................. 10-1

Planning Process .................................................................................................. 10-1
Material Preparation, Timber Framing .................................................................. 10-9
Material Preparation, Steel Fabrication................................................................. 10-9
Safety.................................................................................................................. 10-11
Erection-Equipment Capacity ............................................................................. 10-12
Special Equipment .............................................................................................. 10-13
Truck- and Crawler-Mounted Cranes.................................................................. 10-13
Derricks............................................................................................................... 10-14
Cableways .......................................................................................................... 10-14
Hoists .................................................................................................................. 10-14
Jacks................................................................................................................... 10-14
Falsework............................................................................................................ 10-15
Erection-Equipment Techniques......................................................................... 10-15
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FM 3-34.343
Page
Derrick Elevation ................................................................................................ 10-19

Special Launching Methods (Steel Erection) ..................................................... 10-22
Precautions ........................................................................................................ 10-27
Suspension-Bridge Construction........................................................................ 10-29
Chapter 11 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................... 11-1

Inspection ............................................................................................................. 11-1
Maintenance......................................................................................................... 11-5
Chapter 12 BRIDGING IN ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC ENVIRONMENTS ........................... 12-1

Permafrost............................................................................................................ 12-1
Transportation ...................................................................................................... 12-2
Thaw Effects......................................................................................................... 12-3
Explosives ............................................................................................................ 12-3
Steel ..................................................................................................................... 12-4
Wood .................................................................................................................... 12-4
Concrete............................................................................................................... 12-4
Engineer Equipment............................................................................................. 12-4
Construction Schedules ....................................................................................... 12-4
Bridge Foundations and Substructures ................................................................ 12-4
Native Materials.................................................................................................... 12-6
Foundation Survey ............................................................................................... 12-7
Intermediate Supports .......................................................................................... 12-8
Abutments .......................................................................................................... 12-10
Ice Removal ....................................................................................................... 12-12
Superstructure Principles ................................................................................... 12-14
Panel-Truss Bridges........................................................................................... 12-14
Timber-Truss Bridges......................................................................................... 12-14
Steel-Truss Bridges............................................................................................ 12-14
Fords .................................................................................................................. 12-14
Ice Crossings...................................................................................................... 12-16
Expedient Ice-Bridge Construction..................................................................... 12-18
Expedient Ice-Bridge Reinforcement and Repair ............................................... 12-19
Appendix A CONVERSION CHARTS ....................................................................................... A-1
Appendix B VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION................................................................................. B-1

Hypothetical Vehicles ..............................................................................................B-1
Standard Classification Curves ............................................................................ B-14
Analytical Classification Procedure ...................................................................... B-14
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FM 3-34.343
Page
Expedient Classification Procedure ..................................................................... B-20

Vehicle-Classification Signs................................................................................. B-20
Appendix C TIMBER PROPERTIES ......................................................................................... C-1

Civilian-Design Stress............................................................................................. C-1
Military-Design Stress ............................................................................................. C-1
Appendix D STEEL PROPERTIES ........................................................................................... D-1

All-Purpose Steel ................................................................................................... D-1
High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steel .............................................................................. D-1
Quench- and Tempered-Alloy Steel....................................................................... D-1
Steel Strengths ...................................................................................................... D-2
Structural Shapes ................................................................................................... D-2
Unlisted-Beams Section Properties ..................................................................... D-12
Appendix E STRUCTURAL MECHANICS................................................................................ E-1

Dead, Live, and Impact Loads ............................................................................... E-1
Stresses ................................................................................................................. E-1
Static Equilibrium ................................................................................................... E-6
Internal Reactions .................................................................................................. E-8
Shear and Moment Diagrams .............................................................................. E-10
Appendix F CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES ............................................................................ F-1

Notations................................................................................................................ F-1
Timber-Stringer Bridge........................................................................................... F-4
Steel-Stringer Bridge.............................................................................................. F-8
Composite Steel-Concrete Stringer Bridge.......................................................... F-11
Steel-Girder Bridge .............................................................................................. F-17
Truss Bridge......................................................................................................... F-24
Reinforced Concrete-Slab Bridge ........................................................................ F-31
Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridge................................................................... F-35
Reinforced Concrete-Box-Girder Bridge .............................................................. F-39
Prestressed Concrete Bridge............................................................................... F-43
Masonry-Arch Bridge ........................................................................................... F-48
Appendix G CONCRETE PROPERTIES................................................................................... G-1

General Properties................................................................................................. G-1
Cement Types........................................................................................................ G-2
Mass-Concrete Structures ..................................................................................... G-4
Steel-Reinforced Concrete..................................................................................... G-4
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FM 3-34.343
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Appendix H SOIL PROPERTIES............................................................................................... H-1
Appendix I SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN EXAMPLES .......................................................... I-1

Notations ................................................................................................................. I-1
Timber-Stringer Superstructure with a Timber Deck ............................................... I-3
Steel-Stringer Superstructure with a Concrete Deck............................................... I-9
Glossary ...................................................................................................................Glossary-1
Bibliography ............................................................................................................ Bibliography-1
Index .........................................................................................................................Index-1
vi
Preface
This manual provides essential technical information on nonstandard fixed bridges for engineer
staff officers. It is the doctrinal source of information for the United States (US) Army on the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Bridge and Vehicle Classification System. This
manual also provides various methods for classifying and designing nonstandard fixed bridges in
military theaters of operation (TOs).
This manual provides detailed technical data on the classification (analysis) and design of
bridges. It is NOT intended to replace civilian classification or analysis codes and procedures and
should NOT be used for civilian construction or classification. Engineer officers should note that
the methods shown in this manual are for conservative classification and design. Qualified
engineers also might use appropriate civilian methods for military classification and design.
Appendix A contains an English-to-metric measurement conversion chart.
The proponent for this publication is HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recommendations on
Department of the Army (DA) Form 2028 directly to the US Army Engineer School (USAES),
Attention: ATSE-DOT-DD, Directorate of Training, 320 Maneuver Support Center (MANSCEN)
Loop, Suite 336, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri 65473-8929.
The provisions of this publication are the subject of the following international standardization
agreements (STANAGs) and Quadripartite STANAG (QSTAG): STANAG 2010 Engineer (ENGR)
(Edition 5), STANAG 2021 ENGR (Edition 5), STANAG 2101 Land Force Tactical Doctrine and
Operational Procedures (TOP) (Edition 10), and QSTAG 180 (Edition 4).
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively
to men.
This publication contains copyrighted material.
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FM 3-34.343
Page
viii
PART ONE
Basic Considerations
A bridge is a structure that is erected over obstacles such as a river or other
watercourse, a chasm, or a railroad to make a passageway from one bank to the
other. A bridge is usually constructed of wood, stone, brick, concrete, steel, or iron.
This book identifies methods and procedures for performing bridge reconnaissance,
vehicle and bridge classification, and analytical design of superstructures and
substructures; constructing bridge connections; and repairing or reinforcing existing
bridges.
Reconnaissance is critical to any military operation and for analyzing existing and
potential bridge sites. Information must be gathered for bridge use and construction
that might normally be overlooked. The engineer and reconnaissance elements must
be knowledgeable and prepared for the mission. Proper vehicle and bridge
classification is also an important engineer responsibility that helps keep lines of
communication (LOC) through the preservation of existing bridges in the TOs.
The purpose of bridge reconnaissance is to collect data that is necessary to support
operational planning and movement. Existing bridges are inspected to determine their
load-carrying capacity and the requirement for repair and reinforcement. The
alternatives might revolve around the erection of a new semipermanent bridge or the
repair of a damaged permanent structure. When a demolished bridge is to be
replaced, reconnaissance should include a report of the serviceability of structural
members and accessories, which might be useful for the contemplated construction.
This chapter implements STANAGs 2010 (Edition 5)

and 2021 (Edition 5) and QSTAG 180 (Edition 4).
Chapter 1
Background Information
Rapid movement on the battlefield requires existing road networks or
natural high-speed avenues that cross an assortment of wet and dry gaps.
Many existing bridges in the TOs will adequately support military loads
and only need to be classified for safe use. Gap crossings might be needed
where none currently exist. Reinforcing or repairing a bridge can serve
tactical purposes; however, mobility of the force is the key issue.
Background Information 1-1

FM 3-34.343
GENERAL CONCEPTS
1-1. To maintain a high momentum, the forces must use bridges in the order
discussed below. Each method has specific benefits.
EXISTING BRIDGES, INTACT

1-2. Engineers should first consider the bridges in the TO that do not need
repair. Engineers must classify them for military use before using. The
classification depends on the type of construction (concrete, steel, timber, or
suspension) and the bridge’s intended use. The bridge and vehicle
classification systems established by STANAGs 2010 and 2021 and
QSTAG 180 permit the use of bridges at their maximum safe military
capacities. The classification systems relate bridge capacity to the overall
loading effect a vehicle might impose on a bridge. The classification systems—
• Protect existing bridges from overload and subsequent damage or
failure.
• Prevent loss or damage of equipment and costly time-consuming
delays due to bridge failure.
DETOURS AND BYPASSES

1-3. Engineers should consider detours and bypasses after analyzing the
existing bridges. The assumption is that finding and using detours and
bypasses is quicker than reinforcing or repairing existing bridges. The
engineer commander will determine the best alternative. Road and approach
conditions (along with detours and bypasses) are important considerations.
The work necessary to make the roads usable might outweigh the advantages
of a detour or bypass. Traffic-supporting properties, grade and alignment, and
s h a rp c u r v e s o r c o r ne rs i nv o l v i n g c l e a r a n ce s a r e a l s o i mp o r t a n t
considerations. Usually, detours and bypasses are—
• Alternate routes over undamaged bridges.
• Alternate routes over minimally damaged bridges.
• Alternate highway routes over railroad bridges.
• A grade crossing around an overpass.
• Fords.
• Local ferries, rafts, or barges.
• Ice bridges.
EXISTING BRIDGES, REINFORCED OR REPAIRED

1-4. The third consideration is to reinforce or repair existing bridges.
Frequently, military load-carrying requirements will necessitate this action.
TACTICAL BRIDGES
1-5. The fourth consideration is tactical bridges, which are generally used in
an assault and provide a rapid means of crossing gaps. The bridges’ assets are
temporary, and advancing forces should remove and carry the bridges forward
as they advance. Sustained mobility of forces and logistical support depend on
1-2 Background Information

FM 3-34.343
the tactical bridges, which support existing permanent bridges. Standard,

tactical bridges are discussed below.
Armored Vehicle-Launched Bridge

1-6. The armored vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) can carry military-load-
classification (MLC) 70 traffic over a 48-foot-wide gap and MLC 60 traffic over
a 60-foot-wide gap. The AVLB’s eight main sections come with the necessary
bracing, diaphragms, and pins. The AVLB—
• Is crew-served and highly mobile.
• Can be rapidly launched or retrieved from either end with minimum
personnel exposure to enemy fire.
• Can be emplaced with little or no site preparation.
1-7. Prior reconnaissance of potential launch sites is often limited to
preliminary studies of maps, aerial photos, and intelligence reports. Consider
the weight of the AVLB (57 tons with the M60 chassis launcher) when
selecting a launch site. See Technical Manual (TM) 5-5420-203-14 for more
information on the AVLB.
Medium-Girder Bridge
1-8. The medium-girder bridge (MGB) is a lightweight, hand-built, easily
transportable bridge that can be erected in various configurations to cover a
full range of military and emergency bridging requirements. The deck units
are fitted between two longitudinal girders to provide a 13-foot-wide roadway.
A bridge set has sufficient components to construct one 102-foot bridge in a
double-story configuration or three 31-foot bridges in a single-story
configuration. The MGB is constructed on rollers and launched using a
detachable launching nose. It is transported on 5-ton trucks with trailers.
Ribbon Bridge
1-9. The ribbon bridge is a floating modular asset with an integral
superstructure and floating supports. Individual bays are joined to form rafts
or bridges for river-crossing operations. Ribbon bridges and rafts provide a
reliable and responsive means of crossing wet gaps.
Expedient Bridge
1-10. Expedient bridges, built with locally procured materials, might be
substituted for tactical military bridges if tactical bridging assets are not
available.
LINES-OF-COMMUNICATION BRIDGES
1-11. Semipermanent, fixed, or float LOC bridges replace tactical assets until
permanent bridges are constructed. The Army currently uses the Bailey
bridge, Army Facilities Components System (AFCS) preengineered bridges,
and nonstandard fixed bridges. See FM 5-277 for more information on the
Bailey bridge. For information on in-depth design methods for permanent
bridges, see the latest edition of the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges (published by the American Association of State Highway and

FM 3-34.343
Transportation Officials [AASHTO]). See TM 5-304 for more information on

AFCS bridges.
BRIDGE DESIGN
1-12. Engineers design nonstandard fixed bridges to match specific conditions
of a particular site when standard fixed bridges are not available or are
needed forward of the proposed bridge site. Available structural materials,
site details, proposed traffic, and time will influence the design. While
constructing nonstandard fixed bridges is usually limited to rear areas, the
tactical situation might require reinforcing or repairing a damaged bridge or
constructing a new bridge in the combat zone (CZ).
1-13. The design of military nonstandard fixed bridges is similar to that of
civilian fixed bridges. Military methods, however, include several
simplifications and assumptions about the loads to be carried, the type of
construction, and the material types available. Therefore, use the methods in
this manual for temporary (3 to 5 years) military construction. Use the
analytical method whenever possible. The design chapters in Part Three of
this manual outline the specific assumptions made for military design.
ARMY FACILITIES COMPONENTS SYSTEM

1-14. The Theater Construction Management System (TCMS) is an
automated personal computer (PC) based construction planning, design,
management, and reporting system that is used by military engineers for
contingency construction activities. Its primary purpose is to support outside
continental US (OCONUS) requirements. It combines state-of-the-art
computer hardware and software with AFCS design information to support
and enhance the accomplishment of engineer mission activities in the TO or
other mission arenas.
1-15. The TCMS is the approved method for distributing AFCS designs and
related information according to Army Regulation (AR) 415-16. TM 5-304 is
the AFCS user’s manual. The TCMS is updated and distributed annually.
1-16. The TCMS provides the automation tools necessary to use the AFCS
information. This enhances the accomplishment of TO engineering and
construction activities and supports mission requirements.
BRIDGE DATA
1-17. The AFCS does not include bridge installations (sets of material). The
TCMS includes bills of materials with material cost data, construction
drawings, and labor and equipment estimates (LEEs) for 84 bridging
facilities. The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Engineer Support
Center, Huntsville, Attention: CEHNC-ED-SY-F, 4820 University Square,
Huntsville, Alabama 35816-1822, maintains current data for facilities and
installations in the AFCS.

FM 3-34.343
FACILITY CODING
1-18. A physical plant (such as real estate and improvements [including a
separate building, a bridge, or a piece of equipment]) that serves a function is
referred to as a facility. A facility is any piece of equipment that, as an
operating entity, contributes or can contribute by providing some specific type
of physical support. Facilities are uniquely identified in the AFCS by a seven-
character alphanumeric code (five numeric and two alpha characters) (for
example, 85120NA: BRIDGE, TIMBER FRAME TRUSS, FOR 30-FOOT
SPAN, DOUBLE LANE, CLASS 60). AFCS numbers are based on the facility
class and construction category codes listed in AR 415-28. Each facility has an
associated facility number, description, unit of issue, shipping volume,
shipping weight, and cost. Several facility numbers might be required to
complete a functional facility.
LABOR AND EQUIPMENT ESTIMATES

1-19. The LEEs within the TCMS are divided into three categories—vertical,
horizontal, and general. This information can be exported to project
management software and presented in any desired format.
Vertical
1-20. Vertical data is an estimate of the number of hours (by skill) required to
construct a particular facility. A military occupational specialty (MOS)
represents each skill (such as carpenters or electricians).
Horizontal
1-21. Horizontal data is an estimate of the number of hours of equipment
needed to construct a facility. For example, bulldozers and backhoes.
General
1-22. General data is an estimate of the unskilled labor required in each area
(horizontal and vertical). The general data consists of two figures—the
vertical workhours and the horizontal workhours.
CLASSIFICATION INFORMATION
1-23. Local Army engineer units research bridges and maintain files on the
bridges in their areas of operation (AOs). This information is passed to
engineers at a higher level for consolidation and dissemination to all
interested parties. As-built plans for military bridges are also available.
Foreign countries maintain engineer intelligence studies that can provide
classification information.
1-24. Local civilian authorities are the most important source of bridge-
classification information. In most jurisdictions, as-built plans and
information on material properties are available. Local and state officials in
the US and most foreign countries will impose maximum load limits or
permissible stresses on bridges. Consult with these officials to determine the
maximum MLC of bridges for peacetime or military purposes.

FM 3-34.343
ENGINEER RESPONSIBILITIES
1-25. Engineer units are responsible for classifying bridges of military
significance (using the analytical method if possible). If a nonengineer unit
classifies a bridge, a responsible engineer officer should verify the
classification as soon as possible. If the temporary class is accurate, it may be
used as the permanent class. The engineer determining the actual bridge
class will post the permanent markings.
1-26. Engineer units will maintain records for bridges in its AOs. As a
minimum, the file should contain a copy of DA Form 1249 and other sketches,
plans, calculations, and assumptions that were used to determine the bridges’
classification. The unit should also maintain files of as-built plans of military
nonstandard fixed bridges, along with the classification calculations. In many
cases, the actual classification is higher than the design classification due to
rounding in the design process.
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
1-27. Appendixes A through H contain the following additional information:
• Appendix A contains an English-to-metric measurement conversion
chart.
• Appendix B contains information on vehicle classification.
• Appendix C contains information on timber properties.
• Appendix D contains information on steel properties.
• Appendix E contains information on structural mechanics.
• Appendix F contains classification examples.
• Appendix G contains information on concrete properties.
• Appendix H contains information on soil properties.
• Appendix I contains superstructure design examples.

Chapter 2
Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations

This chapter provides basic information on bridge-reconnaissance
operations. It focuses on providing engineers with the information needed
to allow them to obtain technical bridge-site data. The time and
availability of qualified engineers will determine which type of bridge
reconnaissance to use—hasty or deliberate.
HASTY RECONNAISSANCE
2-1. The hasty method limits obtaining bridge-site data because of time or
other factors. At a minimum, the data should include the serial number, the
geographic location, the MLC (if posted), the overhead clearance, and the
available bypasses of the bridge. FM 5-170 includes details of hasty
reconnaissance methods. For military purposes, a hasty reconnaissance
primarily concerns civilian bridges, which range from simple steel- or
concrete-stringer bridges to multispan arch, truss, or suspension bridges.
Army engineers usually classify military bridges (including floating, standard,
and nonstandard fixed bridges) after constructing them.
DELIBERATE RECONNAISSANCE
2-2. The deliberate method requires time and qualified personnel to analyze
the reconnaissance information for either repairing or demolishing a bridge.
Proper reconnaissance prevents unnecessary repairs or construction delays.
When possible or if required, collect and record data on the approaches, the
type of crossing or obstacles, the abutments, the intermediate supports, the
bridge structure, any repair information, any demolition information, and any
alternate crossing sites. Record this data on DA Form 1249 as shown in
FM 5-170.
REPAIR OR RECONSTRUCTION
2-3. Use existing bridges whenever possible. Bridges located on established
routes require less work on the approaches, which saves time and material
and permits the release of tactical bridging assets to other areas. Also, bridge
repair often eliminates long detours and difficult bypasses. If necessary,
determine how the characteristics of the gap will affect additional bents or
pile piers and where there are alternate sites.
Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations 2-1

FM 3-34.343
2-4. Use DA Form 1249 to record and report the data needed to repair or
reinforce an existing bridge. The data should include—
• The type of bridge; the number and width of lanes; the number,
length, and arrangement of spans; and the length of the panels.
• The height above the gap, the overhead clearance for vehicles, and the
bridge’s classification.
• The general condition of the bridge.
• The watercourse’s width and depth; current velocity; direction of the
flow; type and estimated bearing capacity of the bottom; and the
bank’s height, slope, and nature.
• Specifics on the access roads and approaches, particularly the work
estimates on approaches and access roads between the existing road
network and the bridge.
• Sites near the bridge for turnarounds, access, and concealment.
• Types, dimensions, and relative positions of the abutments and
intermediate supports.
• The number, type, size, and spacing of stringers in each span.
• The type and dimensions of the decking.
• The number and types of local boats and barges.
• The location of locks, dams, and so forth in the vicinity.
• Methods and work estimates used to restore and strengthen the
damaged bridge to its original specified capacity.
• A large-scale sketch of the site showing concealment, turnarounds,
parking areas, detours, and expedient crossings.
NEW-BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
2-5. New-bridge construction requires preliminary information that is
adequate for planning and design. The construction method used will depend
on site constraints and the availability of equipment, materials, and
manpower. A thorough reconnaissance can prevent needless return trips to
the proposed site. Before making any final decisions pertaining to
construction, consider the following factors:
• Access roads. Locate the bridge to take advantage of the road
network on both sides of the watercourse or gap.
• Approach roads. Study the construction required for bridge
approaches at each site. Often, the time required to construct
approaches is the controlling factor in site selection. Approaches
should be straight and gently sloped. Include a turnaround near the
bridge site that will allow oversize and overweight vehicles to leave
the site without obstructing traffic.
• Width. Determine the width of the watercourse at normal and flood
stages. Check with local authorities for information on frequency and
severity of floods.
• Banks. Estimate the character and shape of the banks accurately
enough to establish abutment positions. The banks should be firm and
2-2 Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations

FM 3-34.343
level to limit the need for extensive grading. Select straight reaches to
avoid scour.
• Flow characteristics. Determine the stream velocity and record
erosion data on the rise and fall of the water. A good bridge site has a
steady current that flows parallel to the bank at a moderate rate of
about 3 feet per second (fps).
• Stream bottom. Record the characteristics of the bottom. This will
help in determining the type of supports and footings required (soil
samples might be needed).
• Elevation. Determine and record accurate cross-sectional dimensions
of the site for determining the bridge’s height. Note any required
clearances if the bridge will pass over existing roads, railroads, or
navigable waterways.
• Materials. Use standard military materials when possible for quality
and speed of construction. Steel is preferred over timber. If military
materials are not available, use locally procured items of adequate
quality. Local sources might include standing timber, nearby
demolished buildings or bridges, and local markets.
SITE REQUIREMENTS
2-6. Desirable bridge sites have certain terrain and stream characteristics.
These include—
• Concealment for personnel and equipment on both sides of the gap.
• Firm banks to support the abutment and provide good approaches.
High banks require excessive grading and low banks might be
threatened by flooding, which requires that the bridge be lengthened.
• Terrain that will permit rapid construction of short approach roads to
the existing road network on both sides of the gap.
• Access routes to the road network (necessary for transporting
equipment to the assembly sites).
• Turnarounds for construction equipment.
• Large trees or other holdfasts near the banks for fastening anchor
cables and guy lines.
• A steady, moderate current that is parallel to the bank.
• A bottom that is free of snags, rocks, and shoals and is firm enough to
permit some type of spread footing.
• Several assembly sites for floating portions of the bridge, either
upstream or downstream. If the current is strong, locate all assembly
sites upstream from the bridge site.
2-7. Figure 2-1, page 2-4, shows an example of a construction-site layout for a
proposed bridge project. Determine the final location of the bridge by following
the three stages discussed below.
STAGE ONE
2-8. Develop a detailed study of the proposed site by using topographic and
geologic maps and air photos (if available). Stereo air photos with a scale of

FM 3-34.343
Construction
area
Abutment Construction
materials materials
Existing New
bridge site River
Abutment
materials
Construction
materials Construction area Fabrication area for
Exit
Exit road floor beams, stringers, Stock

Finished and bracing material
Access road
member storage
storage yard
area Equipment
Fabrication area for and motor
truss member park
Tools Stores Office
Existing road
Figure 2-1. Construction-Site Layout
1:20,000 or smaller are particularly useful for a map study. These photos
usually indicate stream conditions (such as channel locations and bar
positions). Air photos often enhance a reasonably accurate estimate of bank-
soil conditions.
STAGE TWO
2-9. Perform an on-ground reconnaissance. Some, if not all, of the following
factors will influence the ultimate location and design of the bridge:
• Location of the existing road network.
• Availability of useful abutments and piers from a demolished bridge.
• Location of an existing channel that might restrict pier construction or
require minimum clearance for navigation.
• Soil or rock profile of the bottom as it affects the type and position of
bridge piers.
• Availability of stringer material (in required lengths and sizes) for the
required spacing of intermediate supports.
• Site restrictions (such as existing structures) that might influence the
location of the centerline.
• Availability of construction resources (especially labor and
equipment).

FM 3-34.343
STAGE THREE
2-10. Begin detailed planning. Establish horizontal and vertical controls at
each end of the proposed centerline. Prepare a topographic map of about 1:250
with a contour interval of 2 feet. Use this map to plot design constraints such
as the location of obstacles, required distances, and necessary elevations.
Determine any unique physical characteristics of the site that would limit
normal construction methods. Also, prepare a soil profile of the proposed
centerline of the bridge to use in designing the foundation (Figure 2-2).
240
Span A Span B Span C
OH
230
SC
Elevation (ft)
220 SM
210
SW
GP
200
GW
Bedrock
24+00 24+50 24+00 24+50
Station number
(along the bridge centerline)
Figure 2-2. Soil Profile
2-11. A soil profile represents the properties of soil layers. Take borings along
the bridge’s centerline, assuming that the soil a short distance away has the
same characteristics. Because piers and abutments support substantial loads,
take borings at each pier to determine soil properties. See FM 5-430-00-1 and
FM 5-410 for more information on soil analysis and exploration.
2-12. A test pit (dug deep enough to inspect the soil visually) yields the most
accurate soil profile. Test pits are not well suited to military bridge-
construction purposes. Unless the anticipated loads are unusually great and
considerable time is available to excavate and sheet the pit, do not use this
method because it is expensive. Instead, obtain soil samples using an auger, a
sounding rod, or a penetrometer.

FM 3-34.343
SURVEY CONTROL
2-13. A survey of a proposed bridge site furnishes accurate information from
which to develop the bridge’s layout, to requisition material, and to outline the
construction procedure. FM 5-233 gives further details on surveying for bridge
construction. Submitted as drawings, a survey shows the site’s plan and
elevation, with a graphical presentation of subsurface conditions. The
complexity of the bridge-construction project will determine the amount and
accuracy of survey control. Survey considerations are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 10.
SURVEY DRAWINGS
2-14. Include a location map in the survey drawings that shows the
relationship of the site to the communication routes and the bivouac areas for
construction personnel. Also show sources of sand, gravel, timber, and other
construction materials. Include a detailed site plan (Figure 2-3) with a scale
no greater than 1:480. The plan should show the—
• Alignment of the structure and the tentative position of bents or piers
and abutments.
• Position and the details of piers and abutments of any existing
structure.
• Course of the stream, the bank lines, and the direction and
distribution of flow.
• Natural features (such as drainage courses, eroding banks, exposed
rock ledges, trees, and wooded areas).
• Existing installations (such as power and utility lines, sewers,
buildings, roads, dikes, walls, and fences).
• Contour elevations extending at least 100 feet to each side of the
bridge’s centerline and 200 feet beyond each abutment.
• Location of all the benchmarks and their elevations, all reference
points, and all borings and soil tests.
2-15. Include a profile of equal horizontal and vertical scales of not less than
1:480. The profile should show the—
• Ground surface on the centerline of the proposed bridge, extending not
less than 200 feet beyond each abutment.
• Elevation of high and low water.
• Foundation materials as disclosed by test pits or borings.

Face of
Face of End of beam 325′-4″ End of beam back wall
bulkhead
Span 1 Tower 1 Span 2 Tower 2 Span 3 Tower 3 Span 4 Tower 4 Span 5
Top of tie Top of tie
180.00 24′-11¼″ 25′-0″ 50′-0″ 25′-0″ 50′-0″ 25′-0″ 50′-0″ 25′-0″ 49′-11¼″
180.00
Exposed
14′ 20′ rock Sandy clay
EL 162.27 EL 156.27 rock
33′ 33′
Silt Rock outcrop
clay Boring
EL 143.27 No. 5
Sandy Sandy
clay Silt clay
clay
Sandy clay Fine Rock

Boring sand
No. 1 Boring
Fine sand No. 4
Boring
Boring No. 3
No. 2
Elevation
Cap
Face of
bulkhead
STA 1 + 19.88
STA 1 + 20.38
Face of
back wall
STA 5 + 20.12
STA 3 + 95.00
STA 3 + 70.00
STA 2 + 20.00
STA 2 + 45.00
STA 1 + 70.00
STA 4 + 45.00
STA 4 + 70.00
STA 1 + 45.00
13′-3″ 19′-7″ 21′-7″ 15′-3″
Tower 1 Tower 2 Tower 3 Tower 4
West abutment East abutment

140
145
150
155
140
175
160
165
145
150
170
155
170
165
160
175
Foundation Plan
FM 3-34.343

Figure 2-3. Site Plan
FM 3-34.343

PART TWO
Classification, Reinforcement and Repair,

and Posting
A highly mobile Army will make use of existing bridges. Before using a bridge for
military traffic, engineers must first determine if the bridge can safely support the
loadings. For this purpose, the Army uses the MLC system. Several methods exist for
determining a bridge’s MLC, each with different degrees of complexity and accuracy.
These methods are discussed in Chapter 3.
Often, existing bridges might be in need of repair due to years of maintenance neglect
or war damage. Other bridges might be in good shape physically, but their load
capacities (classifications) might be too low to support the military vehicles that must
use them. Chapter 4 provides guidance for the repair of existing bridges and methods
to upgrade the load capacity of typical bridges.
Once a bridge has been classified using the "analytical method" discussed in
Chapter 3 , signs must be posted on the bridge to inform users of its classification.
Standard methods for posting bridges are provided in Chapter 5.
This chapter implements STANAG 2021 (Edition 5)
Chapter 3
Classification
A classification number is assigned to a given bridge to represent how
much military vehicular traffic the bridge can carry. Width and height
restrictions also affect a bridge ’s classification. A bridge might have a dual
classification (such as for wheeled and tracked vehicles) when its capacity
is greater than Class 50. The classification procedures presented in this
chapter are based on guidance found in STANAG 2021. Other criteria (not
covered by the STANAG) have been adopted from the AASHTO’s Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges. Follow the same procedures in this
chapter when analyzing foreign bridges, but be aware of and allow for any
differences in material properties and design criteria.
Classification 3-1
FM 3-34.343
SECTION I - BRIDGE-CLASSIFICATION CONSIDERATIONS
3-1. The two primary methods of classifying bridges are the expedient and the
analytical. The analytical method is the most accurate and desirable. Between
these two extremes are many combinations, some of which are discussed in
this chapter. The classification method used will depend on the situation and
the available time and information. A complete analytical classification might
be needed if using a bridge is very important. Also, only the results from the
analytical method can be posted and reported as a permanent load
classification for a bridge.
3-2. Bridge reconnaissance is necessary for classification. Even if bridge plans
are available, conduct an on-site inspection to ensure the accuracy of the
bridge data. If key bridges are behind enemy lines, perform reconnaissance by
long-range patrols or aerial photography. Local civilians are a valuable source
of information and should not be overlooked during on-site reconnaissance.
See FM 5-170 for more information on conducting a bridge reconnaissance.
3-3. Engineer units are responsible for gathering and maintaining bridge-
classification data for bridges in their areas. These units report this
information to higher engineer echelons for consolidation and distribution. As-
built plans are included as part of the bridge-classification data.
3-4. Local highway authorities are the most important source of bridge-
classification information. In most jurisdictions, these authorities maintain
as-built plans and information on material properties of the bridges. Local,
state, and country officials in the US and most foreign countries often impose
maximum load limits or permissible stresses on their bridges. It is very
important that military units consult local officials when determining the
maximum MLC of a bridge intended for use during peacetime maneuvers. If
they do not, the provisions of STANAG 2021 and this chapter will govern
bridge classification.
SECTION II - EXPEDIENT CLASSIFICATION
3-5. In some situations, an engineer’s estimate based on an expedient method

might be sufficient. The classifications resulting from an expedient method
will be less accurate as well as conservative. The expedient method chosen
will depend on the amount of bridge data and time available for conducting a
classification.
HASTY METHOD
3-6. A hasty classification is the most expedient but inaccurate classification
method. It is based on how many and what types of civilian vehicles cross a
bridge regularly. This information can be obtained through reconnaissance,
from local officials, or from observation of the type of route that the bridge is
on (for example, rural road or secondary or major highway).
3-7. Once the type of civilian vehicles that use the bridge have been identified,
it can be assumed that military vehicles of similar weight and axle
3-2 Classification
FM 3-34.343
configurations could also cross the bridge safely. In many cases, this method
will severely limit the allowable military vehicles since many of them are
much heavier than typical civilian vehicles. A more in-depth classification
method will likely reveal that the bridge has a higher MLC than the hasty
method indicates. Use the hasty method only when a rapid crossing is
required. Do not post the resulting classification.
TRACK COMMANDER’S BRIDGE-CROSSING BOOKLET

3-8. Graphic Training Aid (GTA) 5-7-12 contains information for armor
personnel to use in determining if a bridge is capable of carrying their
vehicles. This method is very conservative; use it only during high-mobility
operations. Do not post this rating.
SECTION III - CORRELATION-CURVE CLASSIFICATION
3-9. A direct correlation between known civilian design loads and an

equivalent MLC can be made by equating the respective design criteria and
the vehicle’s load effects. The bridge’s original design load can be determined
from the following sources (listed in decreasing order of reliability):
• Civilian bridge-inspection reports.
• Original design drawings or calculations.
• Federal or local highway authority bridge-design standards.
• Route requirements.
• Reconnaissance on known civilian vehicle usage (similar to the hasty
classification).
3-10. Besides knowing the original civilian design load, the bridge’s span
length must be known. Use the design load and the span length to determine
a temporary MLC using the correlation curves shown in Figures 3-1 through
3-7, pages 3-4 through 3-7.
Classification 3-3
FM 3-34.343
10,000
5,000
H20
Military live-load moment (kip-feet)
HS20
1,000
H15
500
HS15
100
10 50 100 500 1,000
Span length (in feet)
Figure 3-1. Correlation Curves for the United States
3-4 Classification
FM 3-34.343
70
60
50
Class A
Military class
40
30
Class B
20
The relationship between British design
loads Class A and B and MLC is based
on—
10 • 50 percent overstress (included).
• 2 lanes (loaded).
To obtain caution-crossing loads, multiply
the class by 125 percent.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Span (in feet)
Figure 3-2. Correlation Classification for Civilian Bridges (British)
60
The relationship between Czechoslovakian
design loads Class I, II, and III and MLC is
based on—
40
Class I
Military class
30
20 Class II
10 Class III
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Span (in feet)
Figure 3-3. Correlation Classification for Civilian Bridges (Czechoslovakian)
Classification 3-5
FM 3-34.343
70
The relationship between Danish
design loads Class I, II, and III and MLC
is based on—
To obtain caution-crossing loads,
multiply the class by 125 percent.
50
Class I and II
40
Military class
30
Class III
20
Class IV
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Span (in feet)
Figure 3-4. Correlation Classification for Civilian Bridges (Danish)
70
The relationship between German
design loads Class I, II, and III and MLC
is based on—
50
Class I
40
Military class
30
Class II
20
Class III
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Span (in feet)
Figure 3-5. Correlation Classification for Civilian Bridges (German)
3-6 Classification
FM 3-34.343
70
The relationship between Russian
design loads N8, N10, and N13 and
MLC is based on—
50
40
Military class
30
N13
20 N10
10
N8
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Span (in feet)
Figure 3-6. Correlation Classification for Civilian Bridges (Russian)
70 The relationship between Norwegian design

loads Class I, II, and III and MLC is based
on—
50
Class I
40
Military class
Class II
30
Class III
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Span (in feet)
Figure 3-7. Correlation Classification for Civilian Bridges (Norwegian)
Classification 3-7
FM 3-34.343
CORRELATION-CURVE APPLICATIONS
3-11. Only temporary MLCs are allowed with the correlation method.
However, the method is soundly based on bridge-design theory and, when
used properly, can result in a competent rating. Use these curves only on
bridges that were designed using the appropriate design loadings and
appropriate design criteria. Consequently, do not use the correlation-curve
method on bridges in the back country or in third-world locations because
careful design practices were probably not followed.
BRIDGE CONDITION
3-12. The correlation-curve method assumes that a bridge is in good condition
(no significant deterioration). Because original bridge designs were probably
conservative, allow for a small degree of deterioration before lowering the
bridge’s MLC. However, if the bridge appears significantly deteriorated,
reduce the MLC accordingly. There are no firm guidelines to use when
downgrading the MLC based on deterioration. However, a simple rule of
thumb is as follows: if a member appears to have lost “X” percentage of its
original cross section, reduce the computed MLC by the same percentage.
SPAN LENGTH
3-13. The correlation curves were developed for simply supported spans;
however, other types of bridges can be classified by using the adjusted or
equivalent span length. The adjusted or equivalent span length takes into
consideration the positive moment on continuous or cantilevered spans. For
truss, arch, and suspension bridges, apply the special considerations
discussed below to determine the equivalent span length.
3-14. The correlation-curve method can be used for all bridge types. However,
for truss and suspension bridges, use the procedure very carefully. If not
careful and if using the wrong span length, the results could be too liberal for
classification purposes. For each of these bridge types, determine the two span
lengths as follows. After determining the truss span length and the panel
length, use the lowest MLC rating.
• First span length. Follow the guidelines in paragraphs 3-15 through
3-17 (using the total span length) for all other types of bridges to
determine the first span length. For single-span trusses, use the
actual span length. For continuous-span trusses, use the equivalent
span length (paragraph 3-42). For cantilever truss spans, use the span
length of the suspended span. For steel-arch and suspension bridges,
use the single longest span length.
• Second span length. Follow the guidelines in paragraphs 3-15
through 3-17 (using a span length equal to the stringers composing
the floor system). These spans will be much shorter than those from
the first span length. If stringer measurements are unavailable, use
the following aids:
■ For trusses, floor stringers are equal in length to the truss-panel
lengths, which is the distance between intersections of truss
diagonals. If panel lengths vary, use the longest.
3-8 Classification
FM 3-34.343
■ For steel arches, floor stringers are equal in length to the

horizontal distance between the vertical supports running from
the main arch to the bridge deck.
■ For suspension bridges, floor stringers are equal in length to the
horizontal distance between hanger cables, which are the vertical
cables suspended between the main suspension cable and the
bridge deck.
CORRELATION-CURVE USES
3-15. Once the span length has been determined, use correlation curves to
determine the MLC. The process differs with US and foreign bridges.
UNITED STATES BRIDGES

3-16. Figure 3-1, page 3-4, shows the correlation curves for bridges in the US.
The four standard classes of highway loading (as defined by AASHTO) used in
the US are H15, H20, HS15, and HS20. The correlation curve that is used will
depend on the year in which the bridge was designed and the route it is on.
For newer or reconditioned bridges on major US highways, it will most likely
be HS20. If unable to determine the original design load for older US bridges,
the H15 curve can usually be used.
3-17. Locate the appropriate span length and the AASHTO loading on the
graph, and read left to get the live-load moment. If the bridge normally carries
two-way civilian traffic but a one-way MLC is needed (this will be higher than
a two-way MLC and is used for caution crossings), multiply the live-load
moment by the appropriate adjustment factor (K) from Table 3-1, page 3-10.
Do not use the adjustment factor for a two-way MLC. Determine the live-load
moment from Figure 3-1. Using this value of live-load moment along with the
span length, determine the wheeled and tracked MLC from Table B-2, pages
B-6 through B-9. Adjust the MLC downward to account for width and height
restrictions (see paragraph 3-44 for more information).
FOREIGN BRIDGES
3-18. Figures 3-2 through 3-7, pages 3-5 through 3-7, show the correlation
curves for other countries. Use the particular country’s chart, locate the span
length, and move up to intersect the appropriate bridge category. Then read
the MLC from the scale on the left. These curves give a two-way MLC. For a
one-way MLC, multiply the resulting MLC by the appropriate adjustment
factor from Table 3-1.
Classification 3-9
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-1. Two-Way to One-Way Traffic Adjustment Factors

Adjustment
Floor Type
Factor (K)
Timber
Plank 1.07
4 inches thick or multiple-layer floors over 5 inches thick 1.12
Nail laminated
6 inches or more thick 1.18
up to 4 inches thick on glue-laminated stringers 1.12
> 6 inches thick on glue-laminated stringers 1.20
Glue laminated
up to 4 inches thick on steel stringers 1.12
> 6 inches thick on steel stringers 1.17
Concrete
Concrete on steel I-beam stringers and prestressed concrete girders 1.27
Concrete on concrete T-beams 1.08
Concrete on timber stringers 1.20
Concrete box girders 1.14
SECTION IV - ANALYTICAL BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION
3-19. The analytical classification method is basically the reverse of the

design method. In the design method, engineers establish the desired MLC
and then determine the required size and quantity of bridge components to
meet that MLC. In the analytical method, the bridge already exists and
engineers must determine the composition, the dimensions, and the type of
construction to obtain a permanent bridge classification. The analytical
classification is based on classical methods of engineering analysis, but no
rigid rules apply to the techniques used.
3-20. The difficulty of analytical bridge classification varies with the bridge
type. The degree of accuracy depends on the information available, the
techniques used, and the amount of detail covered. Some information
gathering might be too difficult or time-consuming to be worth the effort. The
engineer must make reasonable assumptions based on the information
available. The classification techniques have been simplified as much as
possible, consistent with good engineering practices, to permit a reasonably
accurate bridge classification. Only qualified engineers should make
permanent classifications.
CLASSIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS
3-21. The superstructure is almost always the controlling feature in bridge
classification. Because the superstructure must span large distances, its
elements must be made as lightweight as possible (designs must be
optimized). This can be done effectively since superstructure loadings are
fairly predictable. Substructures, however, must be more conservative (less
efficient) in design to account for unpredictable loadings (stream and ice flow,
3-10 Classification
FM 3-34.343
barge impact) and unknown soil conditions. Do not check the substructure
unless it appears to be significantly deteriorated or unstable due to scour or
settlement, or is improperly designed or constructed.
CONTROLLING FEATURES
3-22. Figure 3-8 shows typical bridge components. The deck structure is
generally stronger than its supporting superstructure; therefore, it is not
considered in most classifications. The only exception to this rule is timber
decking, which may be weaker than the rest of the superstructure.
Longitudinal direction is along the length of the bridge parallel to traffic.
Deck
Railing
Superstructure
The superstructure
consists of the deck, the
railing, and the stringers.
Stringer
Substructure
The substructure
consists of the piers, the Abutment
abutments, and the Pier
wing walls.
Wing wall
Figure 3-8. Typical Bridge Components
3-23. Generally, connections are also stronger than the superstructure

beams; therefore, they do not have to be considered in most classifications.
The only exception is when a connection is deteriorated due to such factors as
overstress or rust. In these cases, reduce the computed MLC (based on the
superstructure beams) by an appropriate amount. If possible, study and
document the connection carefully. Afterwards, an engineer can make a more
accurate assessment of the connection’s load capacity.
3-24. For bending-moment calculations on beams, assume the midspan to be
the controlling location. The list below gives examples of where the midspan
may not be the controlling location. Despite these possibilities, using midspan
moments in all cases should give reasonable classifications.
• Steel girders with cover plates, where the worst case may be at the
ends of the cover plates.
• Variable-depth plate girders, where the worst case may be at changes
in the cross section.
• Reinforced concrete beams, where the worst case may be at bar cut-off
points throughout the beam.
• Interior supports of continuous-span structures.
Classification 3-11
FM 3-34.343
3-25. Bridges with longitudinal stringers may have smaller exterior stringers
than interior stringers. The reason is because exterior stringers, by virtue of
location, do not receive as much of the vehicular loading as interior stringers.
For rating purposes, assume that the interior stringers control. This is a
reasonable assumption since military convoy loadings are generally
concentrated toward the center of a bridge. If this case does not occur,
consider the capacity of the exterior stringers separately.
BRIDGE CONDITIONS
3-26. Classification procedures assume that a bridge is sound. Because
original bridge designs are generally conservative, allow for a small degree of
deterioration before reducing the computed classification. However, if the
bridge appears significantly deteriorated, reduce the MLC accordingly. If a
careful on-site inspection can be conducted, account for deterioration by
reducing the cross-sectional dimensions of the members (or reinforcing steel)
or by reducing material strengths. If an inspection is not possible, then
compute the classification based on normal conditions and make conservative
assumptions about the MLC to account for the deterioration.
MEASUREMENTS
3-27. Measure the spans of simply supported bridges from center to center of
the supports. The supports may be bearing plates or rollers. In a multispan
bridge, measure the weakest span for classification purposes. If not sure
which spans to measure, measure and classify all of them. Measure the spans
to the nearest 1/2 foot, always rounding up. Prepare sketches showing all the
bridge’s dimensions and cross sections that were used to classify it. For
moment calculations, measure the cross-section dimensions at the midspan
and indicate the complete details of the main structural component. For shear
calculations, measure the cross-section dimensions near the span supports. If
using as-built plans and specifications to classify a bridge, survey the bridge
to verify the drawings and check the existing bridge conditions. For more
information on bridge reconnaissance, see FM 5-170.
DEAD LOAD
3-28. The dead load is usually computed as a uniformly distributed load
acting along the length of a member. Compute the dead load, based on
member dimensions, using the typical weights shown in Table 3-2. Dead load
consists of the weight of—
• The main structural members (stringers, girders, or trusses).
• The decking.
• All accessories and hardware (curbs, handrails, bracing, nails, and
bolts).
3-29. The weight of a 1-foot length of the bridge span is computed to
determine the uniform dead load. To compute the dead load, determine the
weight per foot of all members supporting the loads and add it to the weight of
all the bridge components carried by the members in a 1-foot length of the
span. Equations 6-35 through 6-43 are simpler for determining the dead load.
3-12 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Next, compute the portion of the dead load that each member is carrying as
follows:
W ′ DL
w DL = ------------
- (3-1)
NS
where—
wDL = dead load carried per member, in kips per foot (kpf)
W′DL = total dead-load weight of the bridge per foot of span, in kips
NS = number of stringers or girders in the span
Table 3-2. Typical Unit Weights for Dead Load
Material Unit Weight (lb/cu ft)

Steel or cast steel 490
Cast iron 450
Aluminum alloys 175
Timber (treated or untreated) 50
Concrete (plain or reinforced) 150
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast 120
Loose sand, earth, and gravel 100
Macadam or gravel (rolled) 140
Cinder filling 60
Asphalt pavement 150
Railway rails, guard rails, and fastenings (per linear foot of
200
track or roadway)
Stone masonry 170
LIVE LOAD
3-30. Vehicle loads are assumed to be the only live load acting on a bridge.
The standard NATO vehicles in Appendix B are the vehicles that should be
used to rate bridges. Assume the standard NATO convoy spacing of 100 feet
between vehicles when rating. Because of this large spacing, usually only one
vehicle will be on any single span of the bridge at a time. If significant
pedestrian traffic is expected (refugees and dismounted military units), treat
these as line loads of 75 pounds per foot, each over a 1-foot width. Place these
line loads where the lines of people might be expected.
IMPACT LOAD
3-31. Increase the live loads by 15 percent to account for impact. Use this
factor for all bridge types and span lengths except for timber-stringer or
floating bridges. The impact on these bridges is zero.
Classification 3-13
FM 3-34.343
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
3-32. Each structural component of a bridge shares, to varying degrees, in
carrying the applied live loads. This load-sharing concept is accounted for in
the bridge rating procedure by the number of effective stringers. The values in
Table 3-3 are for longitudinal stringers and depend on the deck stiffness and
stringer type and spacing. The specific use of these factors for different bridge
types is discussed below. Distribution equations for other members (such as
girders and trusses) are provided in their respective sections.
Table 3-3. Number of Effective Stringers on a Bridge
Floor Type One Traffic Lane Two or More Traffic Lanes
Timber
Plank 8/Ss 7.5/Ss
4″ thick or multiple-layer
9/Ss 8/Ss
floors over 5″ thick
Nail-laminated
panels 10/Ss (if Ss is > 5′,
6″ or more thick 8.5/Ss (if Ss is > 6.5′, use N2 = 1.3)
use N1 = 2)
Up to 4″ thick on glue-
9/Ss 8/Ss
laminated stringers
> 6″ thick on glue- 12/Ss (if Ss is > 5.5′,

10/Ss (if Ss is > 7.5′, use N2 = 1.3)
laminated stringers use N1 = 2)
Glue-laminated
panels Up to 4″ thick on steel
9/Ss 8/Ss
stringers
10.5/Ss (if Ss is > 6′,

> 6″ thick on steel stringers 9/Ss (if Ss is > 7′, use N2 = 1.3)
use N1 = 1.9)
Concrete
Concrete on steel I-beam stringers and 14/Ss (if Ss is > 10′,

11/Ss (if Ss is > 14′, use N2 = 0.8)
prestressed concrete girders use N1 = 1.4)
13/Ss (if Ss is > 6′,

Concrete on concrete T-beams 12/Ss (if Ss is > 10′, use N2 = 1.2)
use N1 = 2.2)
12/Ss (if Ss is > 6′,

Concrete on timber stringers 10/Ss (if Ss is > 10′, use N2 = 1)
use N1 = 2)
16/Ss (if Ss is > 12′,

Concrete box girders 14/Ss (if Ss is > 16′, use N2 = 0.88)
use N1 = 1.3)
LEGEND:
Ss = stringer spacing, in feet
N1 = number of effective stringers for one-way traffic
N2 = number of effective stringers for two-way traffic
3-14 Classification
FM 3-34.343
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
3-33. A load classification will only be as good as the definition of the material
properties (for example, yield point or modulus of elasticity). Determine these
properties as accurately as possible. Obtain accurate data from property
testing (nondestructive testing, concrete cores, steel coupons), an original
design, or as-built drawings/records. Once obtained, reduce the maximum
material properties by specific amounts to obtain the safe usable portion of the
property, referred to as the allowable stress. Allowable stresses based on
deflection, bearing stress, and fatigue are not considered in this manual. The
following list tells where to find allowable stresses and specific material
properties for the different elements:
• Timber, paragraph 3-47.
• Steel, paragraph 3-63.
• Concrete, paragraph 3-132.
• Prestressed concrete, paragraph 3-164.
MOMENT CLASSIFICATION FOR SIMPLE SPANS

3-34. Compute the total moment capacity of the main structural component
(stringer, girder, or floor beam) as follows:
Fb S
m = --------
- (3-2)
12
where—
m = total moment capacity of the individual structural component, in kip-feet

Fb = allowable bending stress of the member, in kips per square inch (ksi)
S = section modulus, in cubic inches (Appendix C for timber and Appendix D
for steel)
DEAD LOAD AND DEAD-LOAD MOMENT OF A COMPONENT

3-35. Determine the portion of the dead load carried by the structural
component (paragraph 3-28) and the dead-load moment that applies to that
component. See Appendix D for concentrated dead loads. For uniformly
distributed dead loads, use the following equation:
2
w DL L
m DL = --------------- (3-3)
8
where—
mDL = dead-load moment per component, in kip-feet

wDL = total dead load per stringer, in kpf (equation 3-1)
L = span length, in feet (equivalent span length for continuous spans)
Classification 3-15
FM 3-34.343
LIVE-LOAD MOMENT OF A COMPONENT

3-36. Compute the live-load moment of a component as follows:
m – m DL
m LL = -------------------
- (3-4)
1+x
where—
mLL = live-load moment per component, in kip-feet
m = total moment capacity, in kip-feet (equation 3-2)
mDL = dead-load moment per component, in kip-feet (equation 3-3)
x = impact factor (0 for timber; 0.15 for steel or concrete)
NUMBER OF EFFECTIVE COMPONENTS

3-37. Determine the number of effective components that support the live
loads for one- and two-lane traffic. Each bridge-classification procedure
addresses the number of effective bridge components.
TOTAL LIVE-LOAD MOMENT PER LANE

3-38. Compute the total live-load moment per lane as follows:
M LL = N 1,2 m LL (3-5)
where—
MLL = total live-load moment per lane, in kip-feet

N1,2 = number of effective components supporting the live load, for either one-
or two-lane traffic (Table 3-3, page 3-14)
mLL = live-load moment per component, in kip-feet (equation 3-4)
MOMENT CLASSIFICATION FOR VEHICLES

3-39. Determine the moment classification for wheeled and tracked vehicles
and for one- and two-lane traffic. To do this, use the hypothetical vehicle-
moment tables or curves in Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9, or Figures B-1
or B-2, pages B-15 and B-16.
MOMENT CLASSIFICATION FOR CONTINUOUS SPANS

3-40. Continuous-span bridges are often used for multispan bridge structures
(Figure 3-9). This type of bridge results in a savings of material or in longer
spans for the same amount of material when compared to a simply supported
bridge. The efficiency of a continuous-span bridge lies in the principle that the
total moment imposed on a bridge is distributed between positive moment at
the midspan and negative moment over the continuous supports. Due to this
redistribution of moment, a smaller bridge member (stringer, girder, truss)
will be required to resist the moment caused by the applied loads. Figure 3-10
compares a simply supported and a continuous-span bridge.
3-16 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Figure 3-9. Typical Continuous-Span Bridge
Controlling span
M max
Inflection points
M max
M+
Equivalent span
Simple-Span Moment Continuous-Span Moment
LEGEND:
M = moment
Figure 3-10. Comparison Between a Simple-Span and Continuous-Span Bridge
EQUIVALENT SPAN LENGTH

3-41. Continuous-span beams are always indeterminate. Therefore, accurate
bending moments within the spans can only be determined by rigorous
indeterminate analysis (such as moment distribution or matrix methods).
Such an analysis is not practical in most situations; therefore, an expedient,
yet reliable, method is needed. Ordinary continuous-span bridges can be rated
approximately, using the concept of an equivalent simple span. A simple span
is often thought of as the distance between the live-load inflection points on a
continuous-span bridge. Actually, the equivalent span length is the length of a
simple span that would receive the same maximum live-load moment that
would be produced on a continuous span by the same loading.
Classification 3-17
FM 3-34.343
3-42. The equivalent simple-span length is 0.80 times the length of the end
span or 0.70 times the length of the interior span. If a bridge has all equal
span lengths, analyze the exterior span. If a bridge has various span lengths,
analyze the span that results in the longest equivalent span length. The
applicability of these factors decreases for bridges with spans greater than
90 feet or with large differences in the cross section or the span length. In
these cases, consider using a more in-depth indeterminate analysis.
FINAL CLASSIFICATION
3-43. After selecting the controlling span and its equivalent span length,
classify the bridge the same as a simply supported span. Note that for this
situation, use the equivalent span length for calculating dead-load moment.
Obtain the live-load moment from the tables and curves in Appendix B.
ROADWAY-WIDTH CLASSIFICATION AND CLEARANCE

RESTRICTIONS
3-44. Minimum roadway-width restrictions shown in Table 3-4 are based on
NATO military-vehicle classifications (see STANAG 2021). If a bridge with a
specific classification meets these width requirements, all standard military
vehicles bearing the same or lower classification may cross the bridge. If a
one-lane bridge meets all the requirements except the minimum width, post a
width restriction without downgrading the classification. Two-lane bridges
must meet the requirements in Table 3-4. If necessary, downgrade the two-
lane classification for width requirements. The desirable minimum overhead
clearance for bridges is 14 feet 9 inches. Post a clearance-restriction sign and
a telltale for bridges not meeting overhead-clearance requirements. Posting
requirements are discussed in Chapter 5.
Table 3-4. Minimum Roadway Widths

Minimum Curb-to-Curb Width
Bridge Classification
One Lane Two Lanes
4 to 12 9 ft 0 in (2.75 m) 18 ft 0 in (5.5 m)
13 to 30 11 ft 0 in (3.35 m) 18 ft 0 in (5.5 m)
31 to 60 13 ft 2 in (4.00 m) 24 ft 0 in (7.3 m)
61 to 100 14 ft 9 in (4.50 m) 27 ft 0 in (8.2 m)
101 to 150 16 ft 5 in (5.00 m) 32 ft 0 in (9.8 m)
SOLID-SAWN AND GLUE-LAMINATED TIMBER-STRINGER BRIDGES

3-45. Timber-stringer bridges (Figures 3-11 and 3-12) are very common
because they are often more economic and expedient than steel or concrete
bridges. The timber may be native or dimensioned or glue-laminated sections.
The spans are usually simply supported and rarely exceed 20 feet. The decks
are either plank or laminated timber. Some civilian bridges may have asphalt
wearing surfaces, which will significantly affect the dead load on the bridge.
3-18 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Figure 3-11. Timber-Stringer Bridge
Deck
Stringers
Pile cap
Piles
End View
Figure 3-12. Timber-Stringer Bridge Components
3-46. The kinds and qualities of timber vary greatly, depending on such
factors as geographic location, age, load history, defects, and moisture content.
If the species and grade of the timber are known (as-built or design drawings),
use the allowable stresses from Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6, or the
design drawings (if provided). In most cases for military loadings, these values
may be increased by a factor of 1.33 to account for lower traffic volume
(shorter cumulative load duration, which is significant for timber). Do not
apply this factor for nonengineered bridges. Apply other modification factors
to the allowable stress to account for such variables as lumber thickness/width
Classification 3-19
FM 3-34.343
ratios, edgewise or flatwise use, repetitive member use, and moisture content
(see Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6, notes). In most cases, timber decking
and stringers will retain moisture on their horizontal surfaces and should be
considered in wet-service conditions as shown in Table C-1.
3-47. If the species and grade of the timber cannot be determined, use
Table C-2, page C-7, to get allowable moments and shears or compute them
using assumed values. For solid-sawn timber, assume the allowable bending
stress to be 1.75 ksi and the allowable horizontal-shear stress to be 0.095 ksi.
For glue-laminated timber, assume the allowable bending stress to be 2.66 ksi
and the allowable horizontal-shear stress will be 0.200 ksi. Do not apply the
increase factor of 1.33 (as discussed above) to these assumed values. However,
apply the adjustment factors listed from the Table C-1 notes.
TIMBER DEFECTS
3-48. Use extreme care when classifying timber-stringer bridges. Stringers
and bents are subject to rot and insect attack, especially in areas where they
come into contact with the ground. In tropical or wet areas, fungus or other
biological growth may weaken timber stringers considerably. Adjust the cross-
sectional dimensions of the member to allow for this type of damage.
STRINGER MOMENT-CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

3-49. Determine the moment classification of the stringers (paragraph 3-34)
using the allowable bending stress (paragraph 3-46) and the value for the
number of effective stringers from Table 3-3, page 3-14. For one- and two-way
traffic, compute the moment classification twice, using the appropriate values
for each way.
STRINGER SHEAR-CLASSIFICATION PROCDURE

3-50. Timber is relatively weak in horizontal shear. Always check the shear
capacity. Determine the allowable shear stress as discussed in
paragraphs 3-46 and 3-47.
Shear Capacity per Stringer

3-51. Compute the shear capacity per stringer as follows:
v = AvFv (3-6)
where—
v = shear capacity per stringer, in kips

Av = effective shear area of the stringer, in square inches (Tables C-4 and C-5,
pages C-9 and C-10)
Fv = allowable shear stress, in ksi (paragraphs 3-46 and 3-47)
Applied Dead-Load Shear per Stringer

3-52. Compute the dead-load shear per stringer as follows:
w DL L
v DL = -------------  1 – ------
d
(3-7)
2  6L
3-20 Classification
FM 3-34.343
where—
vDL = dead-load shear per stringer, in kips

wDL = applied dead load per foot of stringer, in kpf (equation 3-1)
L = span length, in feet
d = stringer depth, in inches
Live-Load Shear Capacity per Stringer

3-53. Compute the live-load shear capacity per stringer as follows:
v LL = v – v DL (3-8)
where—
vLL = live-load shear capacity per stringer, in kips

v = shear capacity per stringer, in kips (equation 3-6)
vDL = dead-load shear per stringer, in kips (equation 3-7)
Total Live-Load Shear for One or Two Lanes

3-54. For wheeled and tracked vehicles on solid-sawn timber bridges and for
wheeled vehicles on glue-laminated bridges, use the following equation:
1
V LL = 5.33v LL ----------------------------- (3-9)
0.6 +  ---------
2
 N 1,2
where—
VLL = allowable vehicle shear, in kips

vLL = live-load shear capacity per stringer, in kips (equation 3-8)
N1,2 = effective number of stringers from Table 3-3. Use N1 for one-lane traffic
or N2 for two-lane traffic.
3-55. For tracked vehicles on glue-laminated stringer bridges, use the
equations below:
• One-way traffic.
V LL = 2v LL (3-10)
where—

• Two-way traffic.
Ss
V LL =  ------------- v LL (3-11)
 S s – 2
where—
Classification 3-21
FM 3-34.343

Shear Determination
3-56. Using the value for the allowable vehicle shear (equations 3-9, 3-10, or
3-11), refer to Table B-3, pages B-10 through B-13, or Figures B-3 or B-4,
pages B-17 and B-18, and find the MLC that produces a shear less than or
equal to this value. If considering both one- and two-way traffic, compute
twice, using the appropriate values for each way.
DECK CLASSIFICATION
3-57. Timber decks are either plank (wide dimension, laid horizontal with no
interconnection between the planks) or laminated (wide dimension, laid
vertical with the boards nailed or glued together). If timber decks control the
load rating, check them.
Plank Decking
3-58. Use Figure 3-13 to determine the deck classification. Read the deck
thickness on the vertical axis and the stringer spacing on the horizontal axis.
Interpret the values between the curves, if necessary. For multilayer plank
decking, subtract 2 inches from the total deck thickness. Then use Figure 3-13
to find the deck classification, which is the same as for single-layer decks.
Laminated Decking
3-59. Laminate the deck material to interconnect the adjacent boards in shear
and allow them to share in the applied loadings more effectively. As a result,
the applied wheel loads are effectively spread out to more deck boards than
with a conventional plank deck. This increases the deck’s rating over that of a
plank deck with the same thickness.
3-60. For load-rating purposes, lamination indirectly has the effect of
shortening the deck span between stringers by about 25 percent. Therefore, if
the deck is effectively laminated (well nailed or glued over the full length of
the boards), multiply the actual stringer spacing by 0.75 and use Figure 3-13
to find the deck classification.
WIDTH AND FINAL CLASSIFICATIONS

3-61. Check the width restrictions (paragraph 3-44 and Table 3-4, page 3-18).
The lowest of the moment, shear, deck, or two-lane width classifications is the
bridge’s final classification.
STEEL-STRINGER BRIDGES
3-62. Steel stringers may consist of standard rolled shapes (more common in
spans that are less than 100 feet) or of built-up sections from welded, bolted,
or riveted steel plates (which are used for longer spans). Figure 3-14,
page 3-24, shows a steel-stringer bridge. Rolled and built-up stringers may
have cover plates in areas of maximum positive and negative moment
(Figure 3-15, page 3-24). These plates increase the beam’s section modulus
and thus increase the allowable load. Because of the highly varied dimensions
3-22 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Class 50 - 150
8
Class 40
7
Required deck thickness (td) (in)
Class 30
6
Class 16
5
Class 8
4
Minimum thickness = 3″
20 30 40 50 60 70
Stringer spacing (in)
Figure 3-13. Timber-Deck Classification
and details associated with steel-stringer bridges, accurate analytical

classification of steel-stringer bridges is difficult without complete design or
as-built data.
YIELD AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

3-63. Allowable stresses are always given as percentages of the yield strength
of steel. Consider the following:
• If the bridge’s design or as-built drawings are available, the yield
strength should be listed.
• If the yield strength is unknown, use the recommended values in
Table 3-5, page 3-25.
• If the steel type or the date the bridge was built is not known, use
30 ksi.
Once the yield strength is determined, determine the allowable stresses using
Classification 3-23
FM 3-34.343
Composite
Noncomposite
Overlay
Diaphragms
End View
Figure 3-14. Steel-Stringer Bridge
Cover plate
End view Side view
(1) Rolled beam with cover plates.
End view Side view
(2) Welded, built-up beam with variable flange thickness.
Figure 3-15. Typical Steel Stringers
3-24 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-5. Yield Stresses of Steel

Approximate Date Bridge
was Built (Steel is Unknown) Known Steels
Designation 1905 1937
Before to to After Silicon >1 1/8″″ to
1905 1936 1963 1963 Carbon (>2″″ to ≤4″″) Nickel ≤1 1/8″″ ≤2″″
AASHTO — — — — M94 M95 M96 — —
ASTM — — — — A7 A 94 A8 A 94 A 94
Steel yield strength
26 30 33 36 33 45 55 50 47
(Fy), in ksi
Table 3-6. Allowable Stresses for Steel

Stress Condition Allowable
1. Axial Ft = 0.75Fy
2. Tension in extreme fibers of all rolled shapes, girders, and built-up sections causes bridges to
be subject to bending. Compression in extreme fibers of those members is not an issue in
Fb = 0.75Fy
developed countries because original designs were accomplished by engineers using established
bridge-design criteria that provided proper detailing to prevent local and lateral-torsional buckling.
3. For those members where the quality of the original design is suspect or where deterioration/
removal of lateral bracing has occurred, determine the allowable compression in extreme fibers of
members in bending as follows:
(a) Supported laterally its full length. The following deck conditions are considered to provide full Fb = 0.75Fy
lateral support:
Concrete decks on top of compression flange of beam (embedded or not).
Corrugated metal decks on top of compression flange of beam.
Laminated timber decks on top of compression flange of beam.
(b) Partially laterally braced, where the unbraced length does not exceed either of the following:
Fb = 0.75Fy
76b f 20,000A
---------- or ---------------------f (values are in inches)
Fy dFy
where—
bf = flange width, in inches
Af = area of flange, in inches
d = total depth of the beam, in inches
Fy = steel yield strength, in ksi
(c) Unbraced length exceeds the limits in (b) above. The value of Fb should be conservative for
Fb = 0.55Fy
military TO bridges. If a less conservative value is needed, make a more accurate assessment
of Fb by using local design codes. This process is often complex. If required, use the operating
level of stress to account for the lower traffic volumes and speeds associated with military TO
bridges.
4. Shear in webs of rolled shapes, girders, and built-up sections (use gross section of web only). Fb = 0.45Fy
LEGEND:
Fb = maximum allowable bending stress of the member, in ksi
Ft = allowable tension in the axially loaded member, in ksi
Fy = steel yield strength, in ksi
Classification 3-25
FM 3-34.343
STRINGER MOMENT-CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

3-64. Compute the moment classification of the stringers (paragraph 3-34).
Use the allowable bending stress (paragraph 3-63) and the appropriate value
for the number of effective stringers from Table 3-3, page 3-14. If considering
both one-way and two-way traffic, compute twice, using the appropriate
values for each way. To classify built-up stringers, use the dimensions of the
beam at the center of the span (the point of maximum positive moment).
DECK CLASSIFICATION
3-65. Decks distribute the live load to the stringers. Decks do not contribute
to the moment capacity of the steel stringers unless composite construction is
used. Reinforced concrete and steel-grid decks are used in civilian
construction. Both decks are seldom critical in bridge classification. Classify
timber decks as outlined in paragraph 3-57.

The lowest of the moment, deck, or two-lane width classifications is the
COMPOSITE-STRINGER BRIDGES
3-67. Composite-stringer bridges are difficult to recognize or distinguish from
noncomposite steel-stringer bridges. If in doubt, classify the bridge as a
noncomposite steel-stringer bridge, which results in a more conservative
classification. Appendix F contains classification examples.
COMPOSITE -BEAM ACTION

3-68. When structurally connected, the concrete deck and steel stringer form
a composite beam. Figure 3-16 shows a typical composite beam using a
standard rolled beam and cover plate. The top flange takes maximum
advantage of the compressive strength of the concrete deck. The bottom flange
and cover plate are efficiently used in tension. Shear connectors or studs
connect the concrete to the steel stringer and resist the horizontal shear forces
between the concrete and the top flange.
SUPPORTED AND UNSUPPORTED CONSTRUCTION

3-69. During construction, steel beams are placed on the supports with
cranes. The concrete-deck formwork is then constructed on top of these beams
and the concrete deck is poured. During the deck placement, the steel beams
may or may not have beam shoring along their length (supported or
unsupported). If the beams are shored (supported) until the concrete of the
deck cures, the resulting composite beam will be effective for the entire dead
load of both the beam and slab, as well as live loads. If the beams are
unshored (unsupported) during construction, then the steel beam by itself
must support its own dead load, and the composite beam section will only be
effective for the dead load of the deck and live loads. Normally, the cost of
shoring is not practical when compared with the small increase in material
costs required for unsupported construction. Unless the method of
3-26 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Transformed concrete area

b″
b′
Compression
Shear connectors
na Rolled section or welded,
built-up section
Tension
Cover plate
LEGEND:
b″ = effective concrete-flange width, in inches
b′ = transformed section, representing the equivalent
steel-flange width, in inches
Figure 3-16. Composite-Beam Section
construction is definitely known, assume that unsupported construction

methods were used. The analytical procedure shown below makes this
assumption.
MOMENT-CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE
3-70. The total moment that the composite beam resists, assuming
unsupported construction, has two parts. They are the dead-load moment
(that the steel beam alone resists) and the live-load moment (that the
composite beam resists).
Dead-Load Moment
3-71. Determine the dead-load moment per stringer (paragraph 3-35). Note
that the stringer must carry its own weight plus the weight of a portion of the
concrete deck.
Stringer Section Modulus

3-72. Determine Ssteel, which is the section modulus for the steel stringer by
itself. Refer to Table D-2, pages D-3 and D-4.
Effective Concrete-Flange Width

3-73. The effective width of the concrete flange is the lesser value of the
following:
• One-fourth the span length, in inches (reduce the span length by
20 percent for continuous spans).
• Twelve times the concrete-flange thickness, in inches.
• The center-to-center stringer spacing, in inches.
Classification 3-27
FM 3-34.343
Equivalent Steel-Flange Width

3-74. The concrete-flange width is represented as an equivalent steel-flange
width for section-modulus calculations. Compute the equivalent steel-flange
width as follows:
b″
b′ = ----- (3-12)
rm
where—
b′ = transformed section representing the equivalent steel-flange width,

in inches
b″ = effective concrete-flange width, in inches (paragraph 3-73)
rm = modular ratio (Table 3-7)
Table 3-7. Modular Ratios

Modular Ratio (rm) Concrete Strength (f′′c)
15 2.0 to 2.4 ksi
12 2.5 to 2.9 ksi
10 3.0 to 3.9 ksi
8 4.0 to 4.9 ksi
6 5.0 ksi or more
Section Modulus of Composite Section

3-75. Compute Scomposite, which is the section modulus of the entire composite
beam (including the concrete deck) with respect to the bottom of the stringer.
Use the methods described in paragraph D-14 to compute the section modulus
or use the value from Table D-8, page D-8.
Stress Due to Dead Load

3-76. Compute the stress induced in the steel by the dead-load moment as
follows:
m DL 12
F DL = ---------------
- (3-13)
S steel
where—
FDL = stress induced in the steel by the dead-load moment, in ksi

mDL = dead-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet (equation 3-3)
Ssteel = steel’s section modulus, in cubic inches (paragraph 3-72)
Live-Load Moment per Stringer

3-77. Compute the live-load moment per stringer as follows:
( F b – F DL )S composite
m LL = ------------------------------------------------
- (3-14)
( 1 + x )12
3-28 Classification
FM 3-34.343
where—
mLL = live-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet

Fb = allowable bending stress, in ksi (Table 3-6, page 3-25)
FDL = stress in the steel induced by dead-load moment, in ksi
(equation 3-13)
Scomposite = section modulus of the composite section, in cubic inches
(paragraph 3-75)
x = impact factor (0.15 for steel or concrete)
Final-Moment Determination
3-78. Use the procedure shown in paragraph 3-34 to compute the remainder
of the moment classification.

The lowest of the moment, deck, or two-lane width classifications is the
STEEL-GIRDER BRIDGES
3-80. A steel-girder bridge consists of two main flexural members (girders)
that are built from steel plates. In older bridges, the members are built up
with riveted plates and angles and a floor beam supports the stringers and the
deck. In some cases, stringers are omitted and the floor beams alone transmit
deck loads to the girders. For load-classification purposes, check the capacities
of the deck, the stringers, the floor beams, and the girders. The limiting values
will determine the load classification. Figure 3-17 shows a girder bridge.
Figure 3-18, page 3-30, shows a through- and a deck-girder bridge.
Figure 3-19, page 3-30, shows the main components of a girder bridge.
Appendix F contains classification examples.
Figure 3-17. Girder Bridge
Classification 3-29
FM 3-34.343
Sg
Girder
br
Deck
Floor beam
Stringer
Through Girder
br
Deck
Floor beam
Stringer
Girder
Sg
LEGEND: Deck Girder
Sg = center-to-center girder spacing, in feet
br = curb-to-curb deck width, in feet
Figure 3-18. Girder Bridges
Stringer (spans between

floor beams)
Girder (spans substructure

to substructure)
Floor beam (spans

between girders)
Figure 3-19. Girder-Bridge Components
3-30 Classification
FM 3-34.343
YIELD AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

3-81. Determine the yield and allowable stresses as shown in Table 3-6,
page 3-25. This applies to all girder-bridge components discussed in the
paragraphs below.
GIRDER CLASSIFICATION
3-82. Using the values below, determine the girder moment classification. If
the girders are of composite construction, use the procedure in
paragraph 3-70. Compute the yield and the allowable stresses from Table 3-6.
Because there are no other checks required for steel girders (for example,
shear), the resulting moment classification will be the only one.
Effective Number of Girders for One-Lane Traffic

3-83. Compute the maximum effective number of girders for one-lane traffic
as follows:
2S g
N 1 = ---------------------------
- (3-15)
S g + b r – 10
where—
N1 = maximum effective number of girders for one-lane traffic

br = curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet
Effective Number of Girders for Two-Lane Traffic

3-84. Figure 3-20, page 3-32, shows assumed loading conditions for normal
two-lane bridges. Compute the number of girders for two-lane traffic using
equations 3-16 and 3-17.
C v = b r – 2S e – 3 ≥ 2 ft (3-16)
where—
Cv = minimum spacing between vehicles in adjacent lanes, in feet
Se = 7 feet or the actual axle width (center-to-center spacing of the tires or
tracks for the desired vehicle)
Sg
N 2 = ---------------------------------------
- (3-17)
S g + b r – 17 – C v
where—
N2 = maximum effective number of girders for two-lane traffic

(equation 3-16)
Classification 3-31
FM 3-34.343
Se
Sg
One-Way Traffic
Se Cv Se
Sg
LEGEND:
Cv = spacing between adjacent vehicles Two-Way Traffic
Se = axle width (center to center of tires or
tracks), in feet
Figure 3-20. Assumed Loading Conditions for Maximum Moment in Floor Beams
3-85. For bridges with more than two lanes, the value of the minimum
spacing between vehicles in adjacent lanes will generally be too conservative.
In these cases, an engineer should determine the spacing requirement based
on the—
• Actual curb-to-curb width.
• Expected travel lanes for the convoys.
• Presence of median strips and convoy speed.
• Degree of traffic control.
3-32 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Total Moment Capacity per Girder

3-86. Compute the total moment capacity of one girder as follows:
Fb S
m = --------
- (3-18)
12
where—
m = total moment capacity of one girder, in kip feet
Fb = allowable bending stress of the member, in ksi (paragraph 3-63)
S = section modulus of one girder, in cubic inches (paragraph D-12)
Dead Load per Girder

3-87. Use equations 3-19 through 3-21 to compute the various components of
the uniform dead load per girder and use equation 3-22 to compute the total
dead load per girder.
γs As Ns γ f A f S g Sf ( N f – 1 )
w FS = ( t d W d γ d ) + ( t ov b r γ ov ) +  ---------------- +  --------------- ---------------------------- (3-19)
12 12S f 12,000N g L g
where—
wFS = uniform dead load on the girder due to the deck, stringers, and floor
beams, in kpf
td = deck thickness, in inches
Wd = total deck width (including curbs), in feet
γd = unit weight of deck material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2,
page 3-13)
tov = deck overlay thickness (if present), in inches
br = curb-to-curb width, in feet
γov = unit weight of deck overlay material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2)
γs = unit weight of stringer material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2)
As = cross-sectional area of a stringer, in square inches (Table D-2, pages D-3
and D-4)
Ns = number of stringers across the width of the bridge
γf = unit weight of floor-beam material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2)
Af = cross-sectional floor-beam area, in square inches (Table D-2)
Sg = center-to-center girder spacing or floor-beam length, in feet
Sf = center-to-center floor-beam spacing, in feet
Nf = total number of floor beams on the bridge, including those at the ends of
the span
Ng = total number of girders (normally equal to 2)
Lg = length of a girder (should equal the bridge-span length). Do not use
equivalent span length in this equation.
γg Ag
w g = ------------------
- (3-20)
144,000
where—
wg = uniform dead load due to the girder itself, in kpf
Classification 3-33
FM 3-34.343
γg = unit weight of girder material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2,
page 3-13)
Ag = cross-sectional area of a girder, in square inches (Table D-2, pages D-3
and D-4)
γb Ab Lb Nb
w b = -------------------------------
- (3-21)
N g L g 144,000
where—
wb =
uniform dead load due to lateral bracing of floor stringers, in kpf
γb =
unit weight of lateral brace material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2)
Ab =
cross-sectional area of a typical brace, in square inches (Table D-2)
Lb =
length of a typical lateral brace, in feet (if lengths vary, choose the
longest)
Nb = total number of lateral braces (do not count those at abutments or piers)
Ng = total number of girders (normally equal to 2)
Lg = length of a girder (should equal the bridge-span length). Do not use
equivalent span length in this equation.
w DL = w FS + w g + w b (3-22)
where—
wDL = total uniform dead load along the length of the girder, in kpf
wFS = uniform dead load on the girder due to the deck, stringers, and floor
beams, in kpf (equation 3-19)
wg = uniform dead load due to the girder itself, in kpf (equation 3-20)
wb = uniform dead load due to lateral bracing of floor stringers, in kpf
(equation 3-21)
Dead-Load Moment per Girder

3-88. Compute the dead-load moment per girder as follows:
2
w DL L
m DL = --------------- (3-23)
8
where—
mDL = dead-load moment per girder, in kip-feet
wDL = total dead load per girder, in kpf (equation 3-22)
L = span length, in feet (use equivalent span length for continuous spans)
(paragraph 3-42)
Live-Load Moment per Girder

3-89. Compute the live-load moment per girder as follows:
m – m DL
m LL = -------------------
- (3-24)
1+x
where—
mLL = live-load moment per girder, in kip-feet
3-34 Classification
FM 3-34.343
mDL = dead-load moment per girder, in kip-feet (equation 3-23)

x = impact factor (0.15 for steel)
Total Live-Load Moment per Lane

M LL = N 1,2 m LL (3-25)
where—
N1,2 = effective number of girders, one- or two-lane traffic (equation 3-15 or
3-16)
Moment Classification
3-91. Determine the moment classification for both wheeled and tracked
vehicles and for one- and two-lane traffic. Use the hypothetical vehicle-
moment tables or curves in Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9, or Figures B-1
or B-2, pages B-15 and B-16.
STRINGER MOMENT CLASSIFICATION

3-92. The stringers of a girder bridge act as a subspan that span the gap
between the floor beams. The stringers are assumed to be simply supported
with a span length equal to the center-to-center floor-beam spacing.
Determine the stringer moment classification using the procedure found in
paragraph 3-64 for noncomposite construction and paragraph 3-70 for
composite construction. Compute the uniform dead load per stringer as
follows:
γs As
w DL = ( t d S s γ d ) + ( t ov S s γ ov ) +  ---------- ----------------
1
(3-26)
 12  12,000
where—
wDL = uniform dead load carried by the stringer, in kpf

Ss = center-to-center stringer spacing, in feet
γd = unit weight of deck material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2)
As = cross-sectional area of a stringer, in square inches (Table D-2)
STRINGER SHEAR CLASSIFICATION

3-93. Shear will seldom be critical if the stringers sit on top of the floor beams.
However, if the stringers are connected to the floor beams by bolts or rivets,
check for shear as follows:
Classification 3-35
FM 3-34.343
• Shear capacity per stringer.
v = AvFv (3-27)
where—
v = shear capacity per stringer, in kips

Av = effective shear area of the stringer, in square inches (Table D-2,
pages D-3 and D-4)
Fv = allowable shear stress, in ksi (paragraph 3-63)
• Dead-load shear per stringer.
w DL S f
v DL = -------------- (3-28)
2
where—
vDL = dead-load shear per stringer, in kips

wDL = uniform dead load on the stringer, in kpf (equation 3-26)
Sf = center-to-center floor-beam spacing or the stringer span length,
in feet
• Live-load shear capacity per stringer.
v LL = v – v DL (3-29)
where—
vLL = live-load shear capacity per stringer, in kips

v = shear capacity per stringer, in kips (equation 3-27)
vDL = dead-load shear per stringer, in kips (equation 3-28)
• Total live-load shear, one and two lanes.
2vLL
V LL = ----------
- (3-30)
1.15
where—
VLL = total live-load vehicle shear for one- or two-lane traffic, in kips
• Shear determination. Use Table B-3, pages B-10 through B-13, or
Figures B-3 or B-4, pages B-17 and B-18, for classification.
FLOOR-BEAM MOMENT CLASSIFICATION

3-94. Floor beams run perpendicular to the line of traffic (Figure 3-19,
page 3-30). Do not confuse these beams with stringers. The loading
transmitted to a floor beam is a function of the span length (girder spacing),
the floor-beam spacing, the dead load, and the weight and dimensions of the
vehicles.
3-36 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Total Moment Capacity of the Floor Beam

3-95. Compute the total moment capacity of the floor beam as follows:
Fb S
m = --------
- (3-31)
12
where—
m = total moment capacity of the floor beam, in kip feet
Fb = allowable bending stress of the floor beam, in ksi (paragraph 3-63)
S = section modulus of the floor beam, in cubic inches (Table D-2)
Dead Load and Dead-Load Moment

3-96. The floor beam spans transversely across the bridge and supports the
longitudinally spanning stringers and the deck above. Thus, in addition to its
own self-weight, the floor beam must also support that part of the dead weight
of the deck and stringers. Thus, compute the uniform dead load on the floor
beam as follows:
γs As Ns γf Af Sg Sf
w DL = ( t d W d γ d ) + ( t ov b r γ ov ) +  ---------------- +  -------------- ---------------------- (3-32)
 12   12S f  12,000S g
where—
wDL = uniform dead load on the floor beam, in kpf

Wd = total deck width (including curbs), in feet
γd = unit weight of deck material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2,
page 3-13)
br = curb-to-curb width, in feet
As = cross-sectional area of a stringer, in square inches (Table D-2)
Ns = number of stringers across the width of the bridge
γf = unit weight of floor-beam material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 3-2)
Af = cross-sectional floor-beam area, in square inches (Table D-2)
and—
2
w DL S g
m DL = ----------------- (3-33)
8
where—
mDL = dead-load moment per floor beam, in kip-feet

wDL = uniform dead load on the floor beam, in kpf (equation 3-32)
Classification 3-37
FM 3-34.343
Live-Load Moment
3-97. Compute the live-load moment per component as follows:
m – m DL
m LL = -------------------
- (3-34)
1+x
where—
mDL = dead-load moment per component, in kip-feet (equation 3-33)
Maximum Allowable Floor-Beam Reactions

3-98. Compute the maximum allowable floor-beam reactions as follows (also
see Figure 3-20, page 3-32):
P e = 2m LL  ----------------
1
(3-35)
 S g – S e
where—
Pe = maximum allowable floor-beam reactions for one-way traffic, in
kips
Se = axle width (center to center of tires or tracks), in feet. Se will
either be the axle width of the vehicle from the previous
controlling rating (deck, stringer, and so forth) or 7 feet, which
will usually be conservative.
P e = m LL  ----------------------------
1
(3-36)
 S g – S e – C v
where—
Pe = maximum allowable floor-beam reactions for two-way traffic, in
kips
mLL = live-load moment per component, in kip-feet (equation 3-34).
Cv = spacing between adjacent vehicles, in feet (equation 3-16)
3-99. To determine the moment classification, refer to the floor-beam reaction
curves in Figures 3-21 through 3-24, pages 3-39 through 3-42. Find the vehicle
MLC (wheeled or tracked) which produces a maximum allowable floor-beam
reaction that is equal to or less than the computed values from equations 3-35
and 3-36.
3-38 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Floor-beam loading
Deck
Stringers
R R
Floor beams
Girders or
trusses
End View Side View
35
W30
30
Maximum wheel line reaction (Pe) (kips)
W24
25
W20
20
W16
15
W12
10
W8
5
W4
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Floor-beam spacing (ft)
Figure 3-21. Maximum Wheel Line Reactions for Wheeled Vehicles (W4-W30)
Classification 3-39
FM 3-34.343
Floor-beam loading
Deck
Stringers
R R
Floor beams
Girders or
trusses
End View Side View
140
W150
120
W120
100
W100
W90
80
W80
W70
60 W60
W50
40 W40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 3-22. Maximum Wheel Line Reactions for Wheeled Vehicles (W40-W150)
3-40 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Floor-beam loading
Deck
Stringers
R R
Floor beams
Girders or
trusses
End View Side View
42
T40
36
30
T30
24
T24
T20
18
T16
12
T12
T8
6
T4
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 3-23. Maximum Wheel Line Reactions for Tracked Vehicles (T4-T40)
Classification 3-41
FM 3-34.343
Floor-beam loading
Deck
Stringers
R R
Floor beams
Girders or
trusses
End View Side View
140
T150
120
T120
100
T100
80 T90
T80
60 T70
T60
T50
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 3-24. Maximum Wheel Line Reactions for Tracked Vehicles (T50-T150)
3-42 Classification
FM 3-34.343
FLOOR-BEAM SHEAR CLASSIFICATION

3-100. Shear will seldom be critical if the floor beams bear directly on the
supporting girders (not connected via bolts or rivets). However, if the floor
beams are connected to the girders by bolts or rivets, check for shear as
described below.
Shear Capacity per Floor Beam

3-101. Compute the shear capacity per floor beam as follows:
v = AvFv (3-37)
where—
v = shear capacity per floor beam, in kips

Av = effective shear area of the floor beam, in square inches (Table D-2,
pages D-3 and D-4)
Fv = allowable shear stress, in ksi (paragraph 3-63)
Dead-Load Shear per Floor Beam

3-102. Compute the dead-load shear per floor beam as follows:
w DL S g
v DL = --------------
- (3-38)
2
where—
vDL = dead-load shear per floor beam, in kips

wDL = uniform dead load on the floor beam, in kpf (equation 3-32)
Live-Load Shear Capacity per Floor Beam

3-103. Compute the live-load shear capacity per floor beam as follows:
v – vDL
v LL = ----------------
- (3-39)
1+x
where—
vLL = live-load shear capacity per floor beam, in kips

v = shear capacity per floor beam, in kips (equation 3-37)
vDL = dead-load shear per floor beam, in kips (equation 3-38)
Maximum Allowable Floor-Beam Reactions

3-104. Compute the maximum allowable floor-beam reactions for one-way
and two-way traffic as follows:
P e = v LL S g  ----------------------------------------- ≥ v LL
1
(3-40)
 S g + b r – 3.0 – Se
Classification 3-43
FM 3-34.343
where—

kips
vLL = live-load shear capacity per floor beam, in kips (equation 3-39)
v LL S g 1
P e = ------------- -------------------------------------------------------- ≥ 2v LL (3-41)
2 S g + b r – 3.0 – 2S e – C v
where—

kips
Cv = spacing between adjacent vehicles, in feet (equation 3-16)
Special Allowance for Caution Crossing

3-105. If the load rating for shear needs to be higher than the rating that was
computed from equations 3-40 and 3-41, compute a special caution-crossing
allowance using the equations below. These equations will provide the highest
possible rating for floor-beam shear. However, for these equations to be
effective, the convoys must be carefully monitored on the bridge. The drivers
must drive as close to the center of their respective lanes as possible. If they
cannot do this, do not use these equations.
• One-way caution-crossing traffic.
P e = v LL (3-42)
where—

kips
• Two-way caution-crossing traffic.
v LL
P e = ------- (3-43)
2
3-44 Classification
FM 3-34.343
where—

kips
Shear Classification
3-106. Using the floor-beam reaction curves in Figures 3-21 through 3-24,
pages 3-39 through 3-42, find the MLC (wheeled or tracked) which produces a
maximum allowable floor-beam reaction that is equal to or less than the
computed values from equations 3-40 and 3-41. For caution situations, use
equations 3-42 and 3-43.
DECK, WIDTH, AND FINAL CLASSIFICATIONS

3-107. Consider the following when determining deck, width, and final
classifications:
• Decks distribute the live load to the stringers. Decks do not contribute
to the moment capacity of the steel stringers unless composite
construction is used. Reinforced concrete and steel-grid decks are used
in civilian construction and are seldom critical in bridge classification.
Classify timber decks as outlined in paragraph 3-57.
• Paragraph 3-44 and Table 3-4, page 3-18, apply to width restrictions.
• The final classification is the lowest of the girder, floor-beam, stringer,
deck (if checked), or two-lane-width classification.
Classification 3-45
FM 3-34.343
TRUSS BRIDGES
3-108. A truss (Figure 3-25) is a structure composed of straight members
joined at their ends to form a system of triangles. It has the same function as
the beams and girders and carries loads that produce bending moment in the
structure as a whole. Many different types of trusses and truss combinations
are used in long spans where beams and girders are not economical. These
spans vary from 150 feet to over 1,000 feet. Some light truss bridges have
simple spans as short as 60 feet.
3-109. Bending is resisted by the top chords in compression and the bottom
chords in tension. Diagonals act as a web and resist shear. The end
connections can be pinned, riveted, welded, or bolted. Pinned and riveted
connections appear in the older structures, while the post-World War II
structures have shop-welded and field-bolted connections.
Lx
Top chord
Dia
Ly
go
na
l
End post
Vertical
Brace
Panel
Bottom chord
LEGEND:
Lx = unbraced length in the vertical direction
Ly = unbraced length in the horizontal direction
Figure 3-25. Truss Nomenclature
3-110. The floor system of a truss bridge (Figure 3-26) has floor beams that
are connected at the panel points (intersection of diagonal truss members).
The floor beams support floor stringers, which span between the floor beams
and carry the load the same as those of a stringer bridge. For a proper
analysis, the following types of truss and span configurations must be
understood:
• Pony truss. A pony truss is a half-through truss that does not have
an overhead bracing system and is normally used on relatively short
spans (Figure 3-27).
3-46 Classification
FM 3-34.343
• Through truss. A through truss is used for longer spans and has an
ov e r h ea d bra c ing s ys te m . Tra ff ic p as se s th r o u g h the t r u ss
(Figure 3-28).
St
ri ng
er
am
r be
Floo
Di
re
ct
io
n
of
tra
ffi
c
Figure 3-26. Truss Floor System
Figure 3-27. Pony-Truss Bridge
Figure 3-28. Through-Truss Bridge
Classification 3-47
FM 3-34.343
• Deck truss. A deck truss is used for longer spans and carries the
traffic on the top chord (the truss system is below the bridge deck)
(Figure 3-29).
Figure 3-29. Deck-Truss Bridge
TRUSS SPANS
3-111. Trusses can be continuous over their interior supports (Figure 3-30).
Refer to paragraph 3-42 to determine the equivalent span length. Classify a
continuous-truss bridge using the end span or the longest interior span,
whichever controls.
Figure 3-30. Constant-Section Continuous-Truss Bridge
3-112. Most of the long-span truss bridges use cantilevered construction

(Figure 3-31), which consists of two end spans and a suspended span. The end
spans are anchored to the abutment by an anchor arm, and a cantilever arm
projects from the pier. A suspended span is hinged to the two ends of and
supported between the cantilever arms. This type of bridge should be
classified using the suspended span, assuming that the suspended span is
simply supported between the supporting hinges. In some cases, hinges are
not used but the suspended span can be identified by the geometry of the
bridge. The suspended span extends between 3/8 and 1/2 of the clear span
between the piers.
3-48 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Cantilever arms
Anchor arm
Suspended span
Center
of span Supporting
hinges
Figure 3-31. Suspended Truss Span
EXPEDIENT CLASSIFICATION
3-113. A complete reconnaissance of a truss bridge can be very time-
consuming. If time or access to the bridge is limited, a reasonable expedient
classification can be achieved by considering only the floor system (stringers
and floor beams [Figure 3-26, page 3-47]). The floor system of a truss bridge is
the same as that of a steel-girder bridge. Refer to paragraphs 3-92 through
3-106 to rate the stringers and floor beams. If a quicker classification is
needed, use the correlation-curve method (pay close attention to the span-
length requirements of paragraphs 3-13 and 3-14).
ANALYTICAL CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

3-114. The analytical classification of a truss bridge consists of classifying the
truss on the basis of positive moment capacity of the truss and checking the
capacity of the floor beam and floor stringers.
Total Dead Load

3-115. Dead-load computations on a truss bridge can be rather lengthy,
because it has many differently sized members. If possible, determine the
actual dead load of the bridge by its individual components. Do this by—
• Analyzing each panel.
• Adding all of the weights of the components for the total dead-load
weight.
• Dividing the total dead-load weight by the length of each panel.
3-116. If the above method cannot be used, use one of the following equations
and Figure 3-32, page 3-50, to compute the total dead load of the bridge:
• Pony-truss bridges.
b r ( A t + 2.5d′ + N s + x d t d )
W DL = -------------------------------------------------------------
- (3-44)
1,000
Classification 3-49
FM 3-34.343
Midspan
St
d′
br
T
Side View End View
LEGEND:
C = compression force, in kips
St = center-to-center spacing between trusses
d′ = vertical distance between the centroids of the top
and the bottom chords
br = curb-to-curb width
T = tensile force, in kips
Figure 3-32. Truss Dimensions
where—
WDL = total dead load of the bridge, in kpf

At = total cross-sectional area of the tension chord (bottom chord) of
one truss, in square inches
d′ = distance between the tension and compression truss chords at
midspan, in feet
Ns = number of floor stringers per bay
xd = deck-material factor (Table 3-8)
td = average deck thickness, in inches
• Through- or deck-truss bridges.
190b r + 25At + 260t d + 120N s – 2,400
W DL = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-45)
1,000
where—
WDL = total dead load of the bridge, in kpf

At = total cross-sectional area of the tension chord (bottom chord) of
one truss, in square inches
Ns = number of floor stringers per bay
3-50 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-8. Material Factor
Deck-Material
Deck
Factor (xd)
Timber 5
Concrete 14
Steel grating 6
Concrete-filled steel grating 15
Dead Load per Truss

3-117. Compute the dead-load weight per truss as follows:
W DL
w DL = ---------- (3-46)
Nt
where—
wDL = dead-load weight per truss, in kpf
WDL = total dead-load weight, in kpf (compute or use equation 3-44 or 3-45)
Nt = number of trusses
Dead-Load Moment per Truss

3-118. Compute the dead-load moment per truss as follows:
2
w DL L
m DL = --------------- (3-47)
8
where—
mDL = dead-load moment per truss, in kip-feet

wDL = dead-load weight per truss, in kpf (equation 3-46)
L = span length, in feet (see paragraph 3-40 for continuous spans)
Tensile Force in Bottom Chord

3-119. Compute the maximum allowable tensile force in the bottom chord as
follows:
T = Ft An (3-48)
where—
T = maximum allowable tensile force in the bottom chord, in kips
Ft = allowable tensile stress for the bottom chord, in ksi (paragraph 3-63)
An = net area of the bottom truss chord (rivet and bolt holes deducted), in
square inches
Classification 3-51
FM 3-34.343
Compressive Force in Top Chord

3-120. Check the two different buckling coefficients as follows:
KL x ⁄ r x (3-49)
and—
KL y ⁄ r y (3-50)
where—
K = 0.75 for the chord members with riveted end connections, or 0.88 for
those with pinned ends
Lx = unbraced length in the vertical direction, in inches (Figure 3-25,
page 3-46)
rx = radius of gyration (paragraph D-15)
Ly = unbraced length in the horizontal direction, in inches (Figure 3-25)
ry = radius of gyration (paragraph D-15)
3-121. Table 3-9 gives the allowable compressive strength in truss members
(in pounds per square inch [psi]). Divide the answer by 1,000 to get the ksi for
use in equation 3-51. Use the larger KL/r coefficient from equation 3-49 or
3-50 and compare it to the appropriate buckling coefficient (denoted by Cc) in
Table 3-9. Note that the value of Cc depends on the steel type and the yield
stress. Use the appropriate equation from Table 3-9 to compute the allowable
compressive stress (denoted by Fc).
Table 3-9. Allowable Compressive Stress in Truss Members
Unknown Steels Known Steels
Silicon
Before 1905 to 1937 to Carbon Nickel >1-1/8″″
After 1963 Steel ≤1-1/8″″
1905 1936 1963 Steel Steel to ≤2″″
>2″″ to ≤4″″
Cc 148.4 138.1 131.7 126.1 131.7 112.8 102.0 107.0 110.4
Fc = (in psi)
15,290 - 17,650 - 19,410 - 21,180 - 19,410 - 26,470 - 32,350 - 29,410 - 27,650 -

KL
------- ≤ C c KL 2 KL 2 KL 2 KL 2 KL 2 KL 2 KL 2 KL 2 KL 2
r 0.35  ------- 0.46  ------- 0.56  ------- 0.67  ------- 0.56  ------- 1.04  ------- 1.55  ------- 1.28  ------- 1.13  -------
r r r r r r r r r
168,363,840
KL ---------------------------------
------- > C c KL 2
 -------
r  r 
LEGEND:
KL
------- = least value from either equation 3-49 or 3-50
r
3-52 Classification
FM 3-34.343
C = Fc Ag (3-51)
where—
C = allowable compressive force, in kips
Fc = allowable axial compressive stress, in ksi (Table 3-9)
Ag = gross cross-sectional area, in square inches (do not subtract the rivet or
bolt holes)
Moment Capacity per Truss

3-122. Compute the total moment capacity as follows:
m = F′d′ (3-52)
where—
m = total moment capacity, in kip-feet

F ′ = the smaller of T or C from equation 3-48 or 3-51
d ′ = vertical distance from the centroid of the top and bottom chords, in feet
(Figure 3-32, page 3-50)
Live-Load Moment
3-123. Compute the live-load moment per truss as follows:
m – m DL
m LL = -------------------
- (3-53)
1.15
where—
mLL = live-load moment per truss, in kip-feet

mDL = dead-load moment per truss, in kip-feet (equation 3-47)
Effective Number of Trusses

3-124. Compute the maximum effective number of trusses for one-lane and
two-lane traffic as follows:
• One-lane traffic.
2S t
N 1 = --------------------------
- (3-54)
S t + b r – 10
where–
N1 = maximum effective number of trusses for one-lane traffic

St = center-to-center truss spacing, in feet (Figure 3-32)
br = curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet (Figure 3-32)
• Two-lane traffic. First compute—
C v = b r – 2S e – 3.0 ≥ 2.0 feet (3-55)
Classification 3-53
FM 3-34.343
where—

br = curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet (Figure 3-32, page 3-50)
Se = 7.0 feet or the actual axle width (center-to-center spacing of the
tires or tracks for the desired vehicle)
then compute—
St
N 2 = --------------------------------------
- (3-56)
S t + b r – 17 – C v
where—
N2 = maximum effective number of trusses for two-lane traffic
St = center-to-center truss spacing, in feet (Figure 3-32)
br = curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet (Figure 3-32)
Cv = minimum spacing between the vehicles in adjacent lanes, in feet
• Bridges with more than two lanes. The value of the minimum
spacing between vehicles in adjacent lanes will generally be too
conservative. An engineer can determine the spacing based on the
actual curb-to-curb width, expected travel lanes for the convoys, the
presence of median strips, the convoy speed, and the degree of traffic
control.
Total Live-Load Moment per Lane

M LL = N 1,2 m LL (3-57)
where—

N1,2 = effective number of trusses supporting the live load (equation 3-54 or
3-55)
Truss Moment Classification

3-126. Determine the truss classification, based on bending moment, for both
wheeled and tracked vehicles and for one- and two-lane traffic. Use Table B-2,
pages B-6 through B-9, or Figures B-1 or B-2, pages B-15 and B-16. For simply
supported trusses, use the actual span length. For continuous or cantilever
trusses, use the span length as discussed in paragraph 3-111.
Stringers and Floor Beams

3-127. Determine the classifications of the stringers and floor beams using
the same procedure as that for girder bridges in paragraphs 3-92 through
3-106. Check the bending moment and the shear capacity.
3-54 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Deck Classification
3-128. Decks distribute the live load to the stringers. They do not contribute
to the moment capacity of the steel stringers unless composite construction is
used. Reinforced concrete and steel-grid decks are used in civilian
construction. Both decks are seldom critical in bridge classification. Classify
timber decks as outlined in paragraph 3-57.
Width and Clearance Restrictions and Final Classification

3-129. Check width restrictions as discussed in paragraph 3-44 and
Table 3-4, page 3-18. Through-truss bridges have overhead bracing and
require overhead clearance consideration. The final classification is the lowest
of the girder, floor beam, stringer, deck (if checked), or two-lane-width
classification.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB BRIDGES

3-130. Concrete is very strong in compression and is a very efficient
structural material. However, concrete is very weak in tension. Therefore, any
concrete areas that may be subject to tensile stresses must be reinforced with
steel reinforcing bars. Reinforced concrete slabs are often used for short-span
bridges (Figure 3-33). Because of the highly varied dimensions and reinforcing
details associated with reinforced concrete bridges, accurate analytical
classification (as discussed later in this chapter) will be impossible without
design or as-built details. If these are not available, use the other methods
discussed in Sections II and III of this chapter.
Figure 3-33. Typical Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridge
Classification 3-55
FM 3-34.343
ASSUMPTIONS
3-131. The analytical method (described later in this chapter) only applies to
slab bridges with the main reinforcement running parallel to the direction of
traffic. T he sl ab acts as a one-way sla b in the direction o f traff ic
(Figure 3-34A). Assume that the area above the neutral axis acts in
compression and that the reinforcing steel in the bottom of the slab carries all
of the tension and the concrete carries no tension. The assumed stress
distribution is shown in Figure 3-34B. Only the moment capacity is
determined for the slab since shear generally will not control in thin,
reinforced-concrete members. Only a one-foot-wide strip of slab at the
midspan should be considered. For continuous spans, convert the span length
to an equivalent span length as outlined in paragraph 3-41.
bs
br
Wearing surface
d
A. Typical Cross Section
0.85f′c
LEGEND:
Ast = area of tension steel
br = roadway width
do C
c bs = slab width
c = na location
C = compression force
d d′ d = slab depth
d′ = depth to tensile steel
Ast do = depth of concrete
resisting compression
T f′c = compressive strength
1 ft of the concrete
B. Assumed Stress Distribution T = tensile force
Figure 3-34. Details for a Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridge
CONCRETE STRENGTH
3-132. Try to obtain the ultimate strength of the in-place concrete from as-
built drawings (listed on drawings as 28-day strength) or from concrete core
tests. If this is not possible and the concrete is in satisfactory condition, refer
to Table 3-10. If the year the bridge was built is unknown, use 2.5 ksi for the
concrete strength.
3-56 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-10. Concrete Strength Factors

(When Unknown)
Concrete Strength
Year Built
(f'c) (ksi)
Before 1959 2.5
1959 and after 3.0
REINFORCING STEEL STRENGTH

3-133. Try to obtain the yield strength of the reinforcing steel from as-built
drawings. If this is not possible, use Table 3-11. If Table 3-11 does not show
the needed yield strength, use 40 ksi for a bridge that appears relatively new
and 33 ksi for a bridge that appears very old or deteriorated.
Table 3-11. Reinforcing Strength (When Unknown)
Grade of Reinforcing Yield Stress (Fy) (ksi)
Structural or unknown grade before 1954 33
Grade 40 billet, intermediate, or unknown grade 1954 and

40
beyond
Grade 50 rail or hard 50
Grade 60 60
REINFORCING STEEL RATIO

3-134. Compute the reinforcing steel ratio as follows:
12A
A st = -----------b- (3-58)
Sb
where—
Ast = area of the tension steel in a 12-inch-wide section at midspan of the slab,
in square inches
Ab = area of one reinforcing bar, in square inches
Sb = center-to-center spacing of the reinforcing bars, in inches
then compute—
A st
R s = ----------
- (3-59)
12d′
where—
Rs = reinforcing steel ratio

Ast = area of the tension steel in a 12-inch-wide section at midspan of the slab,
in square inches (equation 3-58)
d ′ = distance from the top of the beam to the center of the tension steel, in
inches
Classification 3-57
FM 3-34.343
COMPRESSIVE-STRESS-BLOCK DEPTH
3-135. Compute the compressive-stress-block depth as follows:
A st F y
d o = ----------------
- (3-60)
10.2f ′c
where—
do = compressive-stress-block depth, in inches (Figure 3-34B, page 3-56)
Ast = area of the tension steel, in square inches (equation 3-58)
Fy = yield strength of the reinforcing steel, in ksi (paragraph 3-133)
f ′c = concrete compressive strength, in ksi (paragraph 3-132)
SLAB MOMENT CAPACITY

3-136. Compute the moment capacity per foot width of slab as follows:
d
m = 0.075A st F y  d′ – ----o- (3-61)
 2
where—
m = moment capacity per foot width of slab, in kip-feet

d′ = distance from the top of the beam to the center of the tension steel, in
inches (Figure 3-34B)
do = compressive-stress-block depth, in inches (equation 3-60)
DEAD-LOAD MOMENT
3-137. Assume that the total dead load of the bridge, including the roadway
and the curbs, is distributed over the full width of the slab. As shown in
Figure 3-34A, the slab width may or may not equal the roadway width.
Compute the dead-load moment as follows:
2
W DL L
m DL = ---------------- (3-62)
8b s
where—
mDL = total dead-load moment per foot width of slab, in kip-feet

WDL = total dead load per foot length of the bridge, in kpf (paragraph 3-29)
bs = slab width, in feet
ALLOWABLE LIVE-LOAD MOMENT

3-138. For normal operating conditions, compute the allowable live-load
moment per foot width of slab as follows:
m – 1.3m DL
m LL = ---------------------------
- (3-63)
1.5
3-58 Classification
FM 3-34.343
For emergency conditions where a higher allowable loading is required,

compute the live-load moment as follows:
m – 1.3m DL
m LL = ---------------------------
- (3-64)
1.15
where—
mLL = allowable live-load moment per foot width of slab, in kip-feet
m = moment capacity per foot width of slab, in kip-feet (equation 3-61)
mDL = dead-load moment on a 1-foot width of slab, in kip-feet (equation 3-62)
EFFECTIVE SLAB WIDTH

3-139. Compute the effective slab width as follows:
b e = 8 + 0.12L ≤ 14 feet (3-65)
where—
be = effective slab width, in feet (it must be less than 14 feet)

L = slab length, in feet (do not adjust for continuous spans)
TOTAL LIVE-LOAD MOMENT

3-140. Compute the total live-load moment for the entire slab as follows:
M LL = b e m LL (3-66)
where—
MLL = total live-load moment for the entire slab, in kip-feet

be = effective slab width, in feet (equation 3-65)
mLL = allowable live-load moment per foot width of slab, in kip-feet
(equation 3-63 or 3-64)
MOMENT CLASSIFICATION
3-141. Use the total live-load moment from equation 3-66 and the span length
(adjusted for continuous span if necessary) with the moment values from
Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9, or Figures B-1 or B-2, pages B-15 and B-16,
to determine the moment classification. The total live-load moment is the
same for both one- and two-way traffic with this type of bridge. Therefore,
two-way traffic will only be limited by the lane-width restrictions shown in
REINFORCED CONCRETE T-BEAM BRIDGES

3-142. Figure 3-35, page 3-60, shows a typical reinforced concrete T-beam
bridge. T-beams are used to obtain longer span lengths than those allowed by
slab bridges (paragraph 3-130). The deck of the bridge acts integrally with
and forms the top portion of the T-beam. The vertical leg of the T-beam (the
stem) serves to position the reinforcing steel at a greater distance from the
neutral axis. Because of the highly varied dimensions and reinforcing details
Classification 3-59
FM 3-34.343
associated with reinforced concrete bridges, accurate analytical classification

(discussed below) will be impossible without design or as-built details. If these
are not available, use the other methods discussed in Sections II and III of this
chapter.
br
Overlay
td Deck
Webs
Primary deck
reinforcement
Ss
Reinforcement for T-beam
LEGEND:
br = curb-to-curb road width
Ss = stringer spacing
td = deck thickness
Figure 3-35. Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridge
ASSUMPTIONS
3-143. Figure 3-36 shows the assumed stress distribution of the T-beam. An
analysis should be based on a typical interior T-beam. The exterior beams are
assumed to have equal or greater capacity than the interior beams. As with
the slab bridge, the T-beam bridge is analyzed only on the basis of moment
capacity, which means shear will generally not control the rating. The deck is
also assumed to have sufficient thickness that it will not control the rating
and is thus not rated.
CONCRETE AND REINFORCING STEEL STRENGTHS

3-144. For concrete and reinforcing steel strengths, refer to paragraphs 3-132
and 3-133.
EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH

3-145. The deck width that carries the compressive stresses for an individual
T-beam is the effective flange width and is the lesser of the following:
• One-fourth the span length, in inches (do not modify the span length
for continuous spans).
• Twelve times the concrete-slab thickness plus the stem width, in
inches.
• Center-to-center T-beam spacing, in inches.
3-60 Classification
FM 3-34.343
b″ 0.85f′c
C
td
c do
d′
d na
Ast T
b
LEGEND:
Ast = area of steel
b = stem width
b″ = effective flange width
c = na depth
C = compression force
d = beam depth
do = depth of concrete resisting compression
f ′c = concrete compressive strength
T = tensile force
td = deck thickness
Figure 3-36. Assumed Stress Distribution in a T-Beam
TENSILE FORCE IN REINFORCING STEEL

3-146. Compute the tensile force in the reinforcing steel. First compute—
A st = A b N B (3-67)
where—
Ast = total area of the reinforcing steel, in square inches

Ab = cross-sectional area of one reinforcing bar, in square inches
NB = total number of main reinforcing bars in the bottom of the T-beam
then compute—
T = A st F y (3-68)
where—
T = allowable tensile force in the reinforcing steel, in kips
Ast = total area of the reinforcing steel, in square inches (equation 3-67)
Classification 3-61
FM 3-34.343
COMPRESSIVE-STRESS-BLOCK DEPTH
3-147. Compute the compressive-stress-block depth as follows:
A st F y
d o = ----------------------
- (3-69)
0.85f ′cb″
where—
do = compressive-stress-block depth, in inches (Figure 3-36, page 3-61)
Ast = area of the reinforcing steel, in square inches (equation 3-67)
b″ = effective flange width, in inches
MOMENT CAPACITY OF T-BEAM

3-148. If the compressive-stress-block depth is less than or equal to the
concrete-deck thickness, compute the moment capacity as follows:
d
m = 0.075A st F y  d′ – ----o- (3-70)
2
where—
m = moment capacity of the T-beam, in kip-feet
d′ = distance from the top of the deck to the center of the tension steel, in
inches
do = compressive-stress-block depth, in inches (equation 3-69)
3-149. If the compressive-stress-block depth is greater than or equal to the
concrete-deck thickness, determine the moment capacity. First compute—
0.85f ′c ( b″ – b )t
A sf = -----------------------------------------d (3-71)
Fy
where—
Asf = area of reinforcement to develop the compressive strength of the
overhanging flanges, in square inches
b = beam width, in inches
then compute—
As = Ab NB (3-72)
where—
As = total area of the reinforcing steel in the bottom half of the beam at the
midspan, in square inches
3-62 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Ab = cross-sectional area of one nonprestressed bar, in square inches

NB = total number of nonprestressed bars in the bottom half of the beam
and—
( A s – A sf )F y
d o = ----------------------------
- (3-73)
0.85f ′cb
where—
do = new compressive-stress-block depth, in inches

As = total area of the prestressed steel in the bottom half of the beam at
midspan, in square inches (equation 3-72)
Asf = area of reinforcement to develop the compressive strength of the
overhanging flanges, in square inches (equation 3-71)
b = beam width, in inches
and finally, compute—

d
m = 0.075F y ( A st – A sf )  d′ – ----o- + A sf ( d′ – 0.5t d ) (3-74)
 2
where—
m =
moment capacity of the T-beam, in kip-feet
Fy =
yield strength of the reinforcing steel, in ksi (paragraph 3-133)
Ast =
area of the tension steel, in square inches (equation 3-67)
Asf =
area of reinforcement to develop the compressive strength of the
overhanging flanges, in square inches (equation 3-71)
d′ = distance from the top of the deck to the center of the tension steel, in
inches
do = new compressive-stress-block depth, in inches (equation 3-73)
DEAD-LOAD MOMENT
3-150. Assume the total dead load is distributed equally to each T-beam. The
dead-load moment per T-beam would be as follows:
2
w DL L
m DL = --------------- (3-75)
8
where—
mDL = dead-load moment carried by a single girder, in kip-feet

wDL = dead load carried by a single girder, in kpf (equation 3-1)
L = span length, in feet (use an equivalent span length if the span is
continuous)
Classification 3-63
FM 3-34.343
ALLOWABLE LIVE-LOAD MOMENT

3-151. For normal operating conditions, compute the allowable live-load
moment on a single T-beam as follows:
m – 1.3m DL
m LL = ---------------------------
- (3-76)
1.5
For emergency conditions where a higher allowable loading is required,
compute the live-load moment as follows:
m – 1.3m DL
m LL = ---------------------------
- (3-77)
1.15
where—
mLL = allowable live-load moment on a single T-beam, in kip-feet

m = moment capacity, in kip-feet (equation 3-70)
mDL = dead-load moment, in kip-feet
TOTAL ALLOWABLE LIVE-LOAD MOMENT

3-152. Multiply the allowable live-load moment by the effective number of
T-beams for one- and two-lane traffic to obtain the allowable live-load moment
as follows:
M LL = N 1,2 m LL (3-78)
where—
MLL = total live-load moment, in kip-feet

N1,2 = effective number of girders (Table 3-3, page 3-14)
MOMENT CLASSIFICATION
3-153. Use Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9, or the moment curves in
Figures B-1 or B-2, pages B-15 and B-16, to determine the moment
classification. Compare the values of the total live-load moment and the span
length (or equivalent span length if the span is continuous).

3-154. Check the width restrictions in paragraph 3-44 and Table 3-4,
page 3-18. The lowest of the moment or two-lane width classifications is the
final bridge classification.
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES

3-155. Reinforced concrete box-girder bridges (Figure 3-37) are used to
acquire even greater span lengths than T-beam bridges. The deck of a box-
girder bridge acts integrally with and forms the top portion of the thin-webbed
I-shaped girders.
3-64 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Typical Cross Section

t1
b″
LEGEND:
b″ = effective flange width
S = stringer spacing
t1 = thickness of top flange
t2 S (excluding wearing surface)
t2 = thickness of bottom flange
Figure 3-37. Typical Box-Girder Bridge
ASSUMPTIONS
3-156. The box-girder bridge is analyzed as a series of connected concrete
I-beams, with flange widths equal to the spacing between the webs of the
I-beams. As with T-beams, the exterior beams are assumed to have an equal
or greater capacity than the interior beams. The box-girder bridge is analyzed
only on the basis of moment capacity (shear will generally not control the
rating). The deck is also assumed to have a sufficient thickness and a short
enough span length so that it will not control the rating and is therefore not
rated.
PROCEDURE
3-157. Use the same procedure as outlined for concrete T-beams in
paragraph 3-143 to determine the classification of concrete box girders. Use
the following equation to compute the effective flange width:
b
b″ = -----f (3-79)
Ns
where—

bf = total flange width across the entire width of the box (Figure 3-37)
Ns = total number of webs within the box
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES

3-158. Structural prestressing is placing a member in compression before it is
loaded (Figure 3-38, page 3-66). This action is an improvement to conventional
reinforced concrete. Normal concrete is very weak in tension and is very prone
to cracking. Water penetrates the concrete and the concrete deteriorates.
Prestressing prevents cracking under normal loads by placing the member’s
entire cross section in compression.
Classification 3-65
FM 3-34.343
Unloaded
Loaded
Reinforced
Unloaded
Loaded
Prestressed
Figure 3-38. Conventional Reinforced Concrete Compared to Prestressed Concrete
RECOGNITION
3-159. There are many different forms of prestressed concrete beams, and
they are sometimes difficult to distinguish from conventional reinforced
beams. Compared to conventional beams, prestressed beams are usually
precast and much more shapely than conventional poured-in-place beams.
The most common form in the short- to medium-span ranges is the standard
I-girder with a cast-in-place composite deck slab (Figure 3-39). Precast,
pretensioned solid or voided slabs are used for shorter spans. Many long-span
box-girder and T-beam bridges are also prestressed. Some bridges may be of
segmental posttensioned construction (another form of prestressing).
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
3-160. Prestressed beams are generally made composite with a concrete deck.
This allows the deck to form a large part of the top flange of the beam. The
roughened concrete surface and steel-shear reinforcement provide resistance
to horizontal-shear forces between the deck and the precast beams. While it is
very difficult to distinguish (visually) between composite and noncomposite
construction, most prestressed construction is composite. Therefore, the
an alytical procedure discussed in this chapter assumes composite
construction.
3-66 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Overlay
Deck
Prestressed Posttensioned
Figure 3-39. Prestressed Concrete Bridges
SUPPORTED AND UNSUPPORTED CONSTRUCTION

3-161. Precast, prestressed beams are placed on their supports with cranes
during construction. The concrete-deck formwork is constructed on top of
these beams and the concrete deck is poured. During the deck placement, the
prestressed beams may or may not have beam shoring (supported or
unsupported) along their length. If the beams are shored (supported) until the
concrete of the deck cures, the resulting composite beam will be effective for
the entire dead load of the beam and the slab, as well as live loads. If the
beams are unshored (unsupported) during construction, the precast beam
alone must support its own dead load and the composite beam will only be
effective for the dead load of the deck and the live loads. Normally, the cost of
shoring is not practical when compared with the small increase in material
costs required for unsupported construction. Unless the method of
construction is definitely known, assume unsupported construction.
Therefore, the analytical procedure discussed in this chapter assumes
unsupported construction.
LOAD-CLASSIFICATION METHODS
3-162. The analytical load-classification method gives the most accurate load
classification. However, its use depends on complete details of the internal
prestressing, which are generally not available without the original design
drawings. If they are not available, use the other methods discussed in
Sections II and III of this chapter.
ANALYTICAL CLASSIFICATION
3-163. If the interior and exterior beams are different, base the analysis on a
typical interior beam. The exterior beams are assumed to have equal or
greater capacity than the interior beams. Prestressed beams are analyzed on
the basis of ultimate moment capacity, since shear will generally not control
the classification. Also, the deck is assumed to have sufficient thickness that it
will not control the classification and is thus not considered. The assumed
stress distribution for prestressed beams is shown in Figure 3-40, page 3-68.
Classification 3-67
FM 3-34.343
b″ 0.85f ′c
td C
Deck
c do
na
d′
d tw
Ast T
LEGEND:
Ast = total area of the steel do = depth of concrete resisting compression
b″ = effective flange width f′c = concrete strength
c = na depth T = tension force
C = compression force td = deck thickness
d = total depth of composite beam tw = web thickness or stem width
Figure 3-40. Assumed Stress Distribution in a Prestressed Beam
Concrete and Steel Strengths

3-164. Prestressed beams may have a combination of prestressed and
conventional nonprestressed steels. Obtain conventional reinforcing steel
stren gths as described in p aragraph 3-133. Strength properties of
prestressing can be obtained from the design drawings or from Table 3-12.
Concrete strengths can be obtained from the design drawings or, if they are
not known, use 4,000 psi.
Table 3-12. Properties of Prestressing Strands and Bars
Ultimate Strength Yield Strength

Material Grade or Type Diameter (in)
(fpu) (ksi) (fpy) (ksi)
250 ksi 0.250 to 0.600 250 Stress relieved = 0.85fpu

Strand
270 ksi 0.375 to 0.600 270 Low relaxation = 0.90fpu
Type 1, plain 0.750 to 1.375 150 0.85fpu

Bar
Type 2, deformed 0.625 to 1.375 150 0.80fpu
3-68 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Effective Flange Width

3-165. For T-beams or precast beams that are composite with the slab, the
width of the deck that helps carry the compressive stresses for a beam is the
effective flange width (Figure 3-40). The effective flange width is the lesser of
the following:
• One-fourth of the span length, in inches (do not modify the span
length for continuous spans).
• Twelve times the concrete-slab thickness plus the stem width, in
inches.
• The center-to-center beam spacing, in inches.
Steel Reinforcement Ratios

3-166. Compute the steel reinforcement ratio (Figure 3-40). First compute—
A ps = A p N B (3-80)
where—
Aps = total area of the prestressed steel in the bottom half of the beam at
Ap = cross-sectional area of one bar or tendon, in square inches
NB = total number of prestressed bars or tendons in the bottom half of the
beam
then compute—
A ps
R ps = ------------
- (3-81)
b″d ps
and—
As
R s = ----------
- (3-82)
b″d s
where—
Rps = prestressed steel ratio

Aps = total area of the prestressed steel in the bottom half of the beam at
dps = distance from the top of the slab to the center of the prestressed steel, in
inches (if there are multiple layers, use the middepth of the layers)
Rs = nonprestressed steel ratio
As = total area of the reinforcing steel in the bottom half of the beam at the
midspan, in square inches (equation 3-72)
ds = distance from the top of the slab to the center of the nonprestressed steel,
in inches (if there are multiple layers, use the middepth of the layers)
Classification 3-69
FM 3-34.343
Reinforcement Index
3-167. Compute the reinforcement index as follows:
R ps f pu R s d s f sy
R r = --------------
- + ----------------- (3-83)
f ′c d ps f ′c
where—
Rr = reinforcement index
Rps = prestressed steel ratio (equation 3-81)
fpu = ultimate strength of the prestressed steel, in ksi (from design drawings or
Table 3-12, page 3-68)
Rs = nonprestressed steel ratio (equation 3-82)
ds = distance from the top of the slab to the center of the nonprestressed steel,
in inches (if there are multiple layers, use the middepth of the layer)
fsy = yield strength of the nonprestressed reinforcing steel, in ksi
(paragraph 3-133)
dps = distance from the top of the slab to the center of the prestressed steel, in
inches (if there are multiple layers, use the middepth of the layer)
Average Stress in Prestressed Steel

3-168. Compute the average stress in prestressed steel at maximum load as
follows:
f ps = f pu ( 1 – 0.5R r ) (3-84)
where—
fps = average stress in the prestressed steel at maximum load, in ksi

fpu = ultimate strength of the prestressed steel, in ksi (from design drawings or
Table 3-12)
Rr = reinforcement index (equation 3-83)
Maximum Tensile Force

3-169. Compute the maximum tensile force developed by a beam as follows:
T = Aps f ps + A s f sy (3-85)
where—
T = maximum tensile force developed by the beam, in kips

Aps = total area of the prestressed steel, in square inches (equation 3-80)
fps = average stress in the prestressed steel at maximum load, in ksi
As = total area of nonprestressed reinforcing steel, in square inches
(equation 3-72)
fsy = yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcing steel, in ksi
(paragraph 3-133)
3-70 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Area of Concrete Resisting Compression

3-170. Compute the steel reinforcement (Figure 3-40, page 3-68) as follows:
T
A c = ------------ (3-86)
x r f ′c
where—
Ac = area of the concrete resisting compression, in square inches
T = maximum tensile force developed by the beam, in kips (equation 3-85)
xr = reduction factor. If f ′c < 4 ksi, use xr = 0.85. If f ′c ≥ 4 ksi, use xr = [0.85 –
0.05(f ′c – 4)], but not less than 0.65.
Area of the Concrete Flange

3-171. Compute the area of the concrete flange available to resist compression
as follows:
A f = t f b″ (3-87)
where—
Af = area of the concrete flange available to resist compression, in square

inches
tf = top-flange thickness, in inches. For T-beams and all beams composite
with the deck, use tf = the deck thickness. This equation is not required
for rectangular beams that are not composite with the deck.
Moment Capacity
3-172. Below are four equations used to compute the beam moment capacity.
To choose the proper equation, compare the reinforcement index, the area of
the concrete flange available to resist compression, and the area of the
concrete resisting compression and then choose the equation for which all the
comparisons are true.
• If Rr < 0.3 and Af > Ac, then—
R r d ps
d o = ------------
- (3-88)
xr
and—
d
m = 0.075T  d ps – ----o- (3-89)
 2
where—
Af = area of the concrete flange available to resist compression, in

square inches
do = depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, in inches
Classification 3-71
FM 3-34.343
dps = distance from the top of the slab to the center of the prestressed
steel, in inches (if there are multiple layers, use the middepth of
the layers)
xr = reduction factor (equation 3-86)
m = moment capacity per beam, in kip-feet
(equation 3-85)
• If Rr < 0.3 and Af < Ac, then—
Ac – Af
d o = ---------------- (3-90)
tw
and—
tf d
A f  --- + d o t w  t f + ----o-
 2  2
d cs = --------------------------------------------------- (3-91)
Ac
and—
m = 0.075T ( d ps – d cs ) (3-92)
where—

Af = area of the concrete flange, in square inches (equation 3-87)
(equation 3-86)
tw = minimum web thickness, in inches (Figure 3-40, page 3-68)
dcs = distance from the top of the deck to the center of portion of the
web in compression, in inches
tf = top-flange thickness, in inches. For T-beams and all beams
composite with the deck, use tf = the deck thickness. For
rectangular beams that are not composite with the deck, use
tf = 0.
(equation 3-85)
the layers)
• If Rr > 0.3 and Af ≥ Ac, then—
2
m = 0.1875 ( f ′cb″d ps ) (3-93)
where—

Af = area of concrete flange, in square inches (equation 3-87)
Ac = area of concrete resisting compression, in square inches
(equation 3-86)
3-72 Classification
FM 3-34.343

the layers)
• If Rr > 0.3 and Af < Ac, then—
2
m = 0.075 [ 0.25f ′ct w d ps + 0.85f ′ct f ( b″ – t w ) ( d ps – 0.5t f ) ] (3-94)
where—

Af = area of the concrete flange, in square inches (equation 3-87)
(equation 3-86)
tw = minimum web thickness, in inches (Figure 3-40)
the layers)
tf = top-flange thickness, in inches. For T-beams and all beams
composite with the deck, use tf = the deck thickness. For
rectangular beams that are not composite with the deck, use
tf = 0.
Dead-Load Moment
3-173. Assume the total dead load is distributed equally to each prestressed
beam. The dead-load moment per beam would be computed as follows:
2
w DL ( L )
m DL = -------------------- (3-95)
8
where—
mDL = dead-load moment carried by a single girder, in kip-feet

wDL = dead load carried by a single girder, in kpf (equation 3-1)
L = span length, in feet (use an equivalent span length if the span is
continuous)
Allowable Live-Load Moment

3-174. Compute the allowable live-load moment as follows:
• For normal operating conditions, compute the allowable live-load
moment on a single prestressed beam as follows:
m – 1.3m DL
m LL = ---------------------------
- (3-96)
1.5
Classification 3-73
FM 3-34.343
• For emergency conditions where a higher allowable loading is

required, compute the live-load moment as follows:
m – 1.3m DL
m LL = ---------------------------
- (3-97)
1.15
where—
mLL = allowable live-load moment on a single prestressed beam, in

kip-feet
m = moment capacity, in kip-feet (equation 3-89, 3-92, 3-93, or 3-94)
mDL = dead-load moment, in kip-feet (equation 3-95)
Live-Load Moment per Lane

3-175. Compute the live-load moment per lane as follows:
M LL = N 1,2 m LL (3-98)
where—
MLL = total live-load moment, in kip-feet

N1,2 = effective number of girders (Table 3-3, page 3-14)
3-176. Determine the moment classification using the values of MLL and the
span length (or an equivalent span length if the span is continuous). Refer to
Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9, or Figures B-1 or B-2, pages B-15 and B-16.

3-177. Check the width restrictions in paragraph 3-44 and Table 3-4,
page 3-18. The lowest of the moment or the two-lane width classification is the
final bridge classification.
ARCH BRIDGES
3-178. An arch is one of the most efficient structural shapes and one of the
oldest methods of building relatively long spans. Some masonry-arch bridges
that were built by the Roman legions are still in use today. Modern arch
bridges are constructed with reinforced concrete and steel. Figure 3-41 shows
general types of arch bridges. The masonry arch is a form of the deck arch.
Except for the masonry arch, all arches have a floor system just like a truss or
girder bridge. The floor beams are connected to the arch at support points.
The support points usually have vertical, column-type members that carry the
floor-beam loads to the main arch members.
MODERN-ARCH BRIDGE
3-179. The analytical classification procedure for masonry-arch bridges is
presented below. A complete reconnaissance of other arch bridges can be very
time-consuming, and an exact analysis of these bridges is very tedious and
time-consuming. A reasonable classification can be achieved by only
classifying the stringers and floor beams of the floor system (the same as for a
3-74 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Deck Deck through
Tied
Figure 3-41. Types of Arch Bridges
girder bridge [paragraphs 3-92 through 3-106]). If an even more expedient

classification is required, use the classification-by-correlation procedure
discussed in Section III of this chapter (see paragraph 3-13 for span-length
requirements).
MASONRY-ARCH BRIDGE
3-180. A masonry-arch bridge is very difficult to analyze accurately. An
empirical formula that is based solely on the bridge’s dimensions is provided
below.
PROVISIONAL LOAD CLASSIFICATION

3-181. Measure the critical dimensions (arch span length and total crown
thickness) of the bridge (Figure 3-42, page 3-76). Plot these dimensions on the
nomograph in Figure 3-43, page 3-77, to determine the provisional load class
(PLC). With a span length of 30 feet and a total crown thickness of 42 inches,
use the nomograph as follows:
• Find the arch span length (denoted by L) in Column A.
• Find the total crown thickness (t + d) in Column B.
• Draw a straight line through the points in Columns A and B. The
point at which the line intersects Column C is the PLC. For this
example, the PLC is 96.
Classification 3-75
FM 3-34.343
t
h
LEGEND:
d = depth of cover (not including arch ring)
h = thickness of the arch ring
L = arch span length measured from inside face to
inside face of the supports
t = thickness of the arch ring
Figure 3-42. Critical Dimensions of a Masonry-Arch Bridge
MILITARY LOAD CLASSIFICATION

3-182. Obtain the one-lane, tracked MLC. Multiply the PLC by the
appropriate bridge factors (Tables 3-13 through 3-19 and Figure 3-44,
pages 3-78 through 3-80) as follows:
MLC = PLC(A)(B)(C)(D)(E, F, or G) (3-99)
where—
A through G = critical factors for masonry-arch bridges (Tables 3-13

through 3-19)
3-183. Apply the E, F, and G factors with discretion. For example, if an arch is
deformed and cracked because of abutment faults, do not downgrade the
bridge for all three factors. In such cases, apply the E, F, and G individually to
the PLC, modified by A through D. Use the lowest of the three results as the
one-lane MLC. If the bridge is wide enough for two lanes of traffic, multiply
the one-lane MLC by 0.9 to get the two-lane MLC. Use Figure 3-45, page 3-81,
to equate one- and two-lane, tracked classifications to respective wheeled
classifications.
3-76 Classification
FM 3-34.343
A. Arch Span Feet B. Total Crown Thickness C. Provisional Load

Classification
300
t+d
60
Inches Feet 150
140
72 6
130
50 66
120
60 5 110
54 100
40
48 4 90
42 80
70
36 3
30
60
30
50
24 2
20 40
18
30
12 1
20
10 9 ¾
10
Figure 3-43. Provisional Load Carrier for a Masonry-Arch Bridge
Classification 3-77
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-13. Profile Factors
Profile Profile Factor (A)
For a span-to-rise ratio up to 4 1.0
For a span-to-rise ratio over 4 Figure 3-44
1.0
0.9
Profile factor
0.8
0.7
0.6
4 5 6 7 8
Span/rise ratio
Figure 3-44. Profile Factors for Arch Bridges
3-78 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-14. Material Factors
Material Material Factor (B)
Granite, whinstone, and built-in course masonry 1.5
Concrete or blue engineering bricks 1.2
Good limestone masonry and building bricks 1.0
Poor masonry or brick (any kind) 0.7 – 0.5
Table 3-15. Joint Factors
Joint Joint Factor (C)
Thin joints (1/10 inch or less) 1.25
Normal joints (width up to 1/4 inch, pointed mortar) 1.00
Normal joints (unpointed mortar) 0.90
Joint over 1/4 inch wide (irregular, good mortar) 0.80
Joint over 1/4 inch wide (mortar containing voids

0.70
deeper than 1/10 of the ring thickness)
Joints 1/2 inch or more wide (poor mortar) 0.50
Table 3-16. Abutment Factors
Abutment Abutment Factor (D)
Both abutments satisfactory 1.00
One abutment unsatisfactory 0.95
Both abutments unsatisfactory 0.90
Both abutments massive (clay fill suspected) 0.70
Arch supported on one abutment and one pier 0.90
Arch supported on two piers 0.80
Table 3-17. Deformation Factors

Consideration Deformation Factor (F)
The rise over the affected portion is always Span-rise ratio of affected portion applied to the whole
positive arch
Flat section of profile exits Maximum: Class 12
A portion of the ring is sagging Maximum: Class 5 (if fill at crown exceeds 18 inches)
Classification 3-79
FM 3-34.343
Table 3-18. Abutment Fault Factors
Fault Abutment Fault Factor (G)
Inward movement of one abutment 0.75 to 0.50
Outward spread of abutments 1.00 to 0.50
Vertical settlement of one abutment 0.90 to 0.50
Table 3-19. Crack Factors
Crack Factor (E) Comment
Longitudinal cracks within 2 feet of the edge of Outward force acts on the spandrel walls,
the arch. If wider than 1/4 inch and longer than caused by lateral spread of the fill
1/10 the span in bridges:
Wider than 20 feet between parapets. 1.0
Narrower than 20 feet between parapets. 0.9 to 0.7
(1) Longitudinal cracks in the middle third of Varying amounts of subsidence found along the
the bridge width: length of the abutment. Large cracks are
(a) One small crack under 1/8 inch wide and 1.0 danger signs indicating that the arch ring has
shorter than 1/10 the span. broken up into narrower, independent rings.
(b) Three or more small cracks as above. 0.5 Lateral cracks are usually found near the
quarter points and result from permanent
(c) One large crack wider than 1/4 inch and 0.5
deformation of the arch, which may be caused
longer than 1/10 the span.
by partial collapse of the arch or by abutment
(2) Lateral and diagonal cracks less than movement. Diagonal cracks, usually starting
1/8 inch wide and shorter than 1/10 to the arch 1.0 near the sides of the arch at the springing and
width. spreading toward the center of the arch at the
crown, are probably due to subsidence at the
(3) Lateral and diagonal cracks wider than 1/4 inch and sides of the abutment. They indicate that the
longer than 1/10 the arch width: bridge is in a dangerous condition.
Restrict the load class to 12 or to the computed class
using all other applicable factors, whichever is less.
(1) Cracks between the arch ring and spandrel The fill spreads and pushes the wall outwards.
or parapet wall greater than 1/10 the span due 0.9 The flexible ring is moved away from a stiff fill
to fill spread. so that the two act independently. This type of
failure often produces cracks in the spandrel
(2) Cracks between the arch ring and spandrel or parapet
wall near the quarter points.
wall due to a dropped ring:
Reclassify from the nomograph (Figure 3-43, page 3-77),
taking the crown thickness as that of the ring alone.
Classification 3-80
FM 3-34.343
Tracked vehicles Wheeled vehicles

120
100
90
150
80
120
70
60 100
90
50 80
70
40
60
30 50
40
30
20
20
16
16
12
12
Figure 3-45. Bridge Classification Correlations
MOVABLE BRIDGES
3-184. When a highway crosses a navigable waterway with light boat traffic,
movable bridges are often constructed as a cost-saving measure (Figure 3-46,
page 3-82). The three general types of movable bridges are swing, bascule, and
vertical-lift. Construction is usually a truss or girder system with machinery
to move the bridge away from the navigation channel. Determine the MLC the
same as for fixed bridges of the same type (girder, truss, and so on). The
machinery/gearing for moving the bridge should have no effect on the MLC.
Special warning signs should be posted indicating the presence of a movable
bridge.
3-81 Classification
FM 3-34.343
Trunnion swing
Counterweight swing
Single-leaf-trunnion bascule
Rolling-lift bascule
Double-trunnion bascule
Vertical lift
Figure 3-46. Typical Movable Bridges
SUSPENSION BRIDGES
3-185. A suspension bridge (Figure 3-47) is used mainly for long spans where
support from below is impracticable (for example, when a water current is too
swift or when the gap to be bridged is too deep). Most spans over 2,000 feet are
of suspension construction. Like truss and girder bridges, all suspension
bridges have a floor system consisting of stringers and floor beams. The floor
beams are connected to the suspension cables at hanger points.
3-186. The load capacity of a suspension bridge may be based on many
limiting elements, such as the support towers and the suspension cables,
anchorages, and hangers. The reconnaissance and analysis effort for all of
these elements would be very time consuming. A reasonable classification can
Classification 3-82
FM 3-34.343
Figure 3-47. Typical Suspension Bridge
be achieved by only considering the floor system (such as the stringers and
floor beams that are suspended between the hangers [the vertical cables hung
from the suspension cables]). The floor system of a suspension bridge is the
same as that of a steel-girder bridge. Use paragraphs 3-92 through 3-106 to
rate the stringers and floor beams. If a more expedient classification is
required, use the classification by correlation procedure discussed in
Section III of this chapter (pay careful attention to the span length
requirements of paragraph 3-13).
OTHER BRIDGES
3-187. This section may not have covered all bridge types found in the TO
(especially in foreign countries). Local civilian authorities are the best source
for obtaining a reasonable MLC on these bridges; otherwise, an analysis of the
superstructure will usually suffice.
3-83 Classification
Chapter 4
Reinforcement and Repair

Sometimes a bridge outlives its usefulness. Tactical loads may be greater
than the capacity of the existing structure, or the bridge may have
deteriorated or been damaged. A well-designed reinforcement will usually
increase a bridg e’s period of usefulness. T he purpose of bridge
reinforcement is to increase a bridge’s load-carrying capacity. This can be
done by adding materials to strengthen the component parts or by
reducing the span length.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
4-1. Reinforcing existing bridges can save time and materials. Using the
bridges on established routes will allow LOC to be operable quickly. Use
serviceable bridge components (such as abutments and piers) when available.
The following factors may influence reinforcement plans:
• Maintenance reduction. Reinforcing a bridge will often eliminate
the need for long detours and difficult bypasses with attendant
maintenance and traffic problems. Smooth deck surfaces will ease
traffic movement.
• Weather conditions. Heavy rains that increase the stream’s flow
and render bypasses and fords impassable may dictate the need for
bridge reinforcement. Anticipate such conditions to affect timely
reinforcement measures.
• Tactical bridging assets. Reinforcement of existing bridges may
allow the release of tactical or LOC bridging assets. Although the
M2 B ail ey - br id g e comp o n en ts a r e of te n u s ed fo r e x pe d ie n t
reinforcement, other types of bridging (including fixed and floating
types) may be released.
CONSTRUCTIONS FACTORS
4-2. Many factors influence the final decisions about reinforcement
construction. Construction methods depend on the site locations, the
equipment available, and the nature of the repairs.
4-3. When selecting a construction site, consider the—
• Parts of the original structure that are still usable.
• Type of bridge and the span lengths.
• Characteristics of the waterway (particularly the use of additional
bents or pile piers).
• Condition of the approaches to a reinforced bridge.
• Available alternate sites.
4-4. Standard steel and timber units that the military stocks are preferred
over civilian materials. When there is an adequate supply of military
Reinforcement and Repair 4-1
FM 3-34.343
materials, the construction quality and speed is better and repairs are better
accommodated. Sometimes only civilian resources will be available.
CONVERSIONS
4-5. A bridge may be converted from one type to another (for example,
converting a railroad bridge to a highway bridge). Converting a highway
bridge to a railroad bridge is seldom practical since railroad loadings are
usually heavier than highway loadings. FM 5-277 describes the use of panel-
bridge components for railroad-bridge construction.
4-6. The bridge shown in Figure 4-1 is a one-lane railroad, through-girder
bridge. The same construction could be used for other types such as a deck-
girder, a deck-truss, or a through-truss bridge. The same principles also apply
to installing a two-lane highway deck on a double-track railroad bridge. Many
railroad bridges have less than the required 18-foot roadway width for two-
lane military highway traffic. A through-girder railroad bridge may be able to
be converted to a two-lane military bridge (Figure 4-2).
Through girder Curb tied to floor

beams and
bolted to ties
10′
5″ Timber tread 3″
and 2″, spiked
directly to ties
Stringers
Floor beam Cross ties
Figure 4-1. Conversion of a One-Lane Railroad, Through-Girder Bridge

to a One-Lane Highway Bridge
CONTINUOUS SPANS
4-7. Civilian bridges are frequently designed with continuous spans. A
continuous-span bridge spans one or more intermediate supports without a
break in the main load-carrying members. The top portion of the stringer is in
compression over the major part of the span and in tension over the
intermediate supports. Conversely, the bottom portion is in tension over the
major part of the span but is in compression over the support (Figure 4-3).
4-2 Reinforcement and Repair

FM 3-34.343
Tread Handrail
23′
Handrail
Deck
Curb fill Curb
Stringer
Cap
Post
Rail Stringer Through girder

Cross tie
Floor beam
Cross Section Longitudinal Section
Figure 4-2. Conversion of a One-Lane Railroad Bridge to a Highway Bridge
Load (P), center span

Compression
Beam
P/
P 2
/2 2 x P/2 = P
Support Tension
Span Span
Two Simple Beams Under Load

Compression
Beam Tension
5 5
/16P 2 x 11/16P = 22/16P Tension /16P
Support
Span Span
A Two-Span, Continuous Beam Under Load

Compression
Beam Tension
Compression
Tension
Support
Span Span Span
A Three-Span, Continuous Beam Under Load
Figure 4-3. Stress Reversals in Continuous-Span Structures

FM 3-34.343
4-8. When an ordinary, noncontinuous truss is propped up by bents or other

supports are placed under the lower-chord panel points, the effect for which a
truss was designed is reversed. Some truss members are designed to carry
tension and others are designed to carry compression. By adding supports to a
simply supported bridge, its condition may become continuous. This
continuity may cause stresses to reverse so that the tension members become
compression members resulting in failure. Furthermore, the magnitude of
stress may increase. In general, compression members are heavy enough to
carry tension but lighter members designed for tension ordinarily will not
resist compression. Continuous trusses or trusses made continuous by new
construction should be carefully analyzed by a qualified engineer to ensure
that the propping of the tension members will not cause a stress reversal.
Advantages
4-9. A continuous design is somewhat more economical regarding materials
for long spans because of the reduction of the midspan moment due to
continuity. Also, deflections of the spans are greatly reduced due to continuity.
Disadvantages
4-10. Uneven settling of supports may occur when all the foundations do not
rest on substantial soil. If a pier settles appreciably under load, the settling
creates added stresses that may be detrimental to the superstructure.
HASTY OR EMERGENCY REPAIRS

4-11. Emergency repairs are usually governed by the need for an expedient
crossing, with immediate need dictating the capacity and permanence of the
structure. Where possible, use standard items to expedite repairs (including
Bailey-bridge components). If tactical bridging or standard items are not
available, expedient methods will often satisfy repair requirements, assuming
that most emergency structures will later be reinforced, replaced, or repaired.
Bridge structures, site characteristics, and subsequent repair methods vary.
4-12. An engineer commander will select the repair method. This decision is
based on the—
• Type of bridge.
• Nature of damage.
• Tactical situation and bridge requirements.
• Site characteristics (including usable bypasses).
• Available troops and equipment.
• Standard-stock bridging materials, the available accessories, and the
time needed to get them to the site.
• Available local civilian materials.
• Time needed to perform the bridge repair versus the time needed to
establish a detour or prepare a bypass.
• Skill and ingenuity of the engineers and construction force.

FM 3-34.343
REPAIRING GAPS IN BRIDGE DECKS

4-13. The most common failure or damage to a bridge is to the deck. Partial
demolition or structural failure of the flooring, stringers, or arch crowns may
cause gaps. The discussion below assumes that the original deck or the
approaches on both sides of the gap are still intact or that adequate support
exists around the same elevation as the undamaged deck.
Considerations
4-14. Use a military bridge design when developing a plan for deck repair.
Consider the—
• Moment and shear capacities of the stringers, flooring, trusses, and so
forth.
• End reactions of added components, including the rated capacity and
the dead load of the structure.
• Bearing capacities of the end-support devices (which may require
special care at some locations). For example, unless the computed end
reactions are extremely small and can be placed anywhere on the deck
of the remaining structure, employ special measures to support end
reactions of the new sections directly over the piers or other supports.
• Resistance to impact where a change in deck elevation occurs (special
end ramps may be necessary).
• Maximum slope of long ramps for traction (special deck surfaces may
be necessary for traction).
Expedients
4-15. Deck Balk. When assembled as simple spans, deck balk from the M4T6
floating-bridge set can bridge gaps up to 45 feet.
4-16. Bailey-Type Panel Bridging. This bridging is the most versatile type
of military stock bridging and can cover gaps up to 210 feet with a single-span
structure. However, Bailey panels require more time to place than balk and
may require more time to install than emergency expedients, depending on
the circumstances. Some considerations are the gap length versus feasible
bypasses, the availability of local materials versus availability of Bailey
equipment, and the hauling distance.
4-17. Timber Construction. Dimensioned lumber is available through the
military supply system or can be procured locally in most situations. Timber is
extremely versatile for repairs. If the repairs are correctly designed and
constructed, timber can be configured to carry any weight classification if
enough of it is available for the job. Timber has a versatile layout, is usually
available, and does not tie up tactical equipment.
4-18. Log Construction. The weight-carrying capacity of log construction is
acceptable if it is correctly designed and constructed and if sufficient material
of adequate size exists. Although more time is required to use logs than
dimensioned lumber, logs may be easier to obtain and more economical.
4-19. Existing Piers. Bridge superstructures are much more susceptible to
military demolition than piers. A bridge’s superstructure may be nearly

FM 3-34.343
destroyed while the piers remain intact and capable of supporting military
bridging (emergency or otherwise). Existing piers used for repair must be
sound all the way up to the level finally selected for the supporting pedestal.
Most arch bridges or suspension bridges with masonry towers will have
ragged tops. The tops of these towers must be made into level platforms or
must be made usable. Offset the tops before using them as supports for
military bridging.
4-20. Dirt or Rock Fill. An easy method of spanning gaps over dry crevices,
shallow streams, or waterways with very low velocity is to fill the gap with
dirt or rock. Except in extreme emergencies, make provisions for the passage
of water that may be dammed by such a structure.
4-21. Other Materials and Expedients. There are many methods for
applying local materials to repair gaps in bridge decks. Suitable solutions may
simply require ingenuity on the part of the engineers and construction force.
REPAIRING PIER FAILURES

4-22. Demolitions, collisions, floods, debris, ice, or scour can cause pier
failure. Grade and track-alignment requirements for railroad bridges present
problems during pier repair that are not common in repairing highway
bridges.
Major Pier Settlement

4-23. To determine if settlement has stabilized or if it is likely to continue,
investigate the cause of the settlement. If it appears that settlement is likely
to continue, stabilize the base of the pier with rock cribs, piles, or spread
footings. The superstructure can then be jacked up and supported on the
cribbing at the top of the old pier, or a new pier can be built around the old
one.
Pier Failure, Top Portion

4-24. Failure of the top portion of the pier (where the superstructure rests)
occurs on masonry piers. To repair this condition, jack the superstructure up
off the pier, square the top of the pier, and place cribbing on top of the
masonry to support the superstructure.
Scour
4-25. Excessive scour is a problem that has caused many bridge failures
throughout the world. When enough soil is removed through water action
around the pier, the pier fails. See Chapter 7 for methods of preventing scour.
Expedients
4-26. Standard Parts. Many standard military-bridge items are extremely
useful in emergency pier construction. The most adaptable construction item
is the Bailey-type component (FM 5-277). AFCS steel trestles also are
versatile and are quickly assembled into many sizes, shapes, and capacities
for use as emergency piers.
4-27. Timber Piers. Standard, dimensioned lumber can be used to make
bents or crib piers for emergency pier construction. Such timbers lend

FM 3-34.343
themselves to design flexibility, although more time is required to use

dimensioned lumber than standard parts.
4-28. Log Piers. Timber from local sources can be effective for emergency
construction of piers and bents. However, more time is required in their use
than for any of the standard parts.
STRINGER SUPPORTS
4-29. Adding stringers increases the carrying capacity of the flooring. The
disadvantage is that this method almost always requires removing the
flooring. Analyze existing stringers according to the methods described in
paragraph 3-45 for timber, 3-62 for steel, and 3-67 for composite. Determine
the number and size of necessary additional stringers by the design methods
described in Chapter 6.
CONSIDERATIONS
4-30. Some viable structures require one additional stringer per lane. Place
these stringers about one-fourth the lane width from each side of the lane’s
centerline.
4-31. Different materials have different stiffnesses, which must be considered
when adding stringers. Steel has a much greater modulus of elasticity than
timber, so its resistance to deflection is greater. Timber and steel stringers
used together to support a bridge floor must have the same deflection
resistance. The load each material carries is, among other factors,
proportional to its deflection. The timber stringer will carry much less than its
proportional share of the applied load, forcing the steel stringer to carry more
than its proportional share. Avoid overstressing by using stringers similar to
the original stringers’ depth and material.
4-32. If available materials are not the same as those used for the original
design, the decks of some spans may have to be removed for use on other
spans of the structure and new decking may have to be placed on the empty
spans. Each span of the structure will then have like members.
4-33. Connections for standard construction and material combinations are
typical. However, problems such as connecting timber stringers to steel floor
beams may require special solutions in the field. See Chapter 9 for additional
information.
REPAIRING CONTINUOUS SPANS

4-34. When stringers that are continuous over two or more spans have been
damaged, they can be replaced with noncontinuous stringers that function as
simply supported stringers. Slightly heavier (and in some cases deeper)
stringers may be required since the maximum moments under loads are
higher near the midspan for simply supported spans than for continuous
spans. No additional strength will be required for shear because end shear is
less in simple spans than in continuous spans. Simply supported stringers
should be designed the same as for new bridges (Chapter 6).

FM 3-34.343
4-35. Follow these steps to repair a bridge deck that is supported by steel
stringers.
Step 1. Jack up the deck to clear the stringers.
Step 2. Place new stringers alongside the existing stringers.
Step 3. Remove the existing stringers.
Step 4. Move the new stringers laterally into the correct position.
Step 5. Lower the bridge deck to rest on the new stringers.
4-36. Bridge decks constructed of reinforced concrete T-beams are not usually
salvageable because the slab is destroyed if it separates from the stem.
Replace this type of structure if the damage is extensive. To avoid removing
the damaged structure, place a new steel-stringer deck on top of the existing
concrete deck, with at least 1 inch of clearance between the stringers and the
concrete (add bearing plates on the concrete deck over the supports). This
expedient method can only be used when there are adequate end bearings for
the new stringers. Substructures adequate for continuous structures also will
be adequate for simple spans, assuming that the dead load causes no further
settling.
REINFORCING TRESTLE BENTS

4-37. After strengthening the superstructure, consider whether the
substructure bents need strengthening to carry the increased load. Reinforce
posts by nailing 2- x 6- or 2- x 8-inch planks to the posts (Figure 4-4) and by
adding another post if necessary (Figure 4-5). Drive solid, tapered wedges
between the top of the new post and the cap beam, and nail them in place to
prevent dislodgment.
Flooring Treadway
Curb
Stringers
Cap
Post
2″ x 6″ or 2″ x 8″
vertical reinforcement
Footing
Sill
Figure 4-4. Timber-Trestle Reinforcement Post

FM 3-34.343
Stringers
Cap
Wedge
Wedge
Extra post
Post
Figure 4-5. Installation of an Extra Post
STRINGER REINFORCEMENT
4-38. Stringer reinforcement can be accomplished in several different ways.
The paragraphs below describe various methods.
EXTRA FLOOR BEAM

4-39. An extra floor beam can be added on a truss or girder bridge if the beam
can be supported and connected at the panel points. Place the beam beneath
the stringers so that it carries the stringer loads by bearing only instead of
with a shear connection, which is typical of regular construction. Installing
the floor beam in a truss involves special problems, unless the bottom chord
has been designed to carry loads between the panel points. In most cases,
suspend the new floor beam from the tension rods that are connected at the
panel points of the chord. The new stringer capacity depends on the moment
and the shear capacities.
KING OR QUEEN TRUSS

4-40. An inverted king or queen truss can supply additional stringer support
(Figure 4-6, page 4-10). This type of support does not require a bent or pier,
which is advantageous where a new support would be excessively tall or when
footing conditions or stream velocity would create additional problems. The
disadvantage of this method is that the truss requires the stringer to function
as a member of the truss, which causes it to become a compression member
resisting both direct and stress bending. All stringers used in the span should
provide equal load-carrying capacities. The most practical king truss is one
made of a short section of a standard timber bent, with a cap and sill.

FM 3-34.343
King
Inverted king
Queen
Inverted queen
Figure 4-6. King and Queen Trusses
A-FRAME
4-41. Several types of A-frames are effective for providing additional stringer
support (Figure 4-7). A-frames may not require additional footings.
Adequately brace substructure bents longitudinally for spans adjacent to
those in which an A-frame is placed. Doing this helps the bridge resist the
horizontal forces acting through the members of the frame.
Figure 4-7. A-Frame

FM 3-34.343
KNEE BRACES
4-42. Use knee braces (Figure 4-8) the same as for A-frames. Firmly anchor
the piers against lateral movement for this arrangement.
Knee bracing Caps
Figure 4-8. Knee Brace
BENTS, PIERS, AND TOWERS

4-43. Bents, piers, and towers may also provide stringer support. See
Chapter 7 for additional information. The main consideration is the economy
of time and material. The requirements for adequate footings or for tall
structures may take more time and material than adding stringers to the
superstructure.
STEEL FLOOR-BEAM REINFORCEMENT

4-44. Floor beams are exceptionally difficult to reinforce because of the
construction details and loading characteristics. Steel stringers connected to
the webs of the steel floor beams prohibit placing additional beams beside the
existing beams. One way to reinforce steel floor beams is to weld plates to the
top and bottom flanges (if the two flanges can be exposed). Place additional
beams (if necessary) below the existing floor beam if they can be adequately
connected to the main supporting structure. If the stringers are above the
existing floor beams, place additional floor beams beside the existing ones or
on both sides of each (if necessary). The connections to the supporting
structure may create a problem that must be solved according to the details of
the particular structure involved.
TRUSS REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR

4-45. A truss is a major load-carrying structure composed of straight
members intersecting at panel points. The straight members form triangles in
which the primary stresses are tensile or compressive rather than flexural.
The bottom chord is ordinarily a tension member throughout its length,

FM 3-34.343
whereas the top chord is a compression member. The chords resist the
moment in the truss span, while the web members (verticals and diagonals)
resist the shear. Each member is designed to provide for the maximum direct
stress that it is expected to resist.
4-46. Trusses are advantageous for long spans because they are able to carry
greater loads, in proportion to their weight, than would be possible with solid
members such as plate girders. Although the fabrication cost of trusses is
high, their use reduces the overall dead load of the structure. Truss analysis is
discussed in Chapter 3.
4-47. Trusses are often intact and require little repair. If a single member has
been damaged it should be repaired. In some cases, a truss may be intact;
however, a pier fails and the truss dislodges from its piers. In such cases, jack
the truss back up onto its original pier or onto a repaired pier. Seldom can
trusses be completely replaced. They are usually repaired or reinforced. In
most cases, reinforcing the flooring and the stringers is satisfactory. However,
the truss members may need to be reinforced if stress analysis indicates that
the structure is inadequate and additional supports are not practical. Truss-
member reinforcement may consist of—
• Replacing existing members with heavier sections.
• Increasing the capacity of existing members by adding material.
• Adding additional supports at panel points.
INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS
4-48. Additional intermediate supports are the simplest, most effective means
of strengthening a truss (if the truss characteristics and the situation allow).
The practicality of using intermediate supports will depend on the required
height, spacing, footing conditions, stream characteristics, and so forth. Some
situations could require more material and time than would be required for
discarding the old span and building a new structure on the existing piers.
The intermediate supports (pile piers, timber bents, towers, or any of the
standard prefabricated steel components [such as the Bailey]) may be any of
the various means of transferring loads to the ground.
4-49. Always locate intermediate supports at panel points. Supports located
in other areas will produce bending stresses in the chord members, which will
result in structure failure. Carefully select panel-point supports to avoid
stress reversals. Determine the locations of the intermediate supports only
after a structural engineer carefully analyzes the stresses resulting from the
assumed location of supports. Should the analysis indicate that any members
are inadequate to carry the resulting forces, change the support locations or
strengthen the members.
CONNECTIONS
4-50. Reinforcing connections is just as important as reinforcing members to
avoid failure. Connections between steel tension and compression members
are usually made with splice plates that are welded, riveted, or bolted to the
members.

FM 3-34.343
REINFORCING COMPRESSION MEMBERS

4-51. The strength of a compression member depends on the cross-sectional
area of the steel section and on the arrangement of the area about the section
centroid. Considering buckling resistance, 1 square inch of steel that is
10 inches from the centerline is four times as effective as 1 square inch of steel
that is 5 inches from the centerline. Member stiffness is a function of the
member’s smallest width. For example, the stiffness of a 12- x 16-inch
rectangular section is governed by the 12-inch dimension. The stiffness is also
affected by the ratio of the effective unsupported length of the least radius of
gyration. The slenderness ratio is computed as follows:
KL
R s = ------- (4-1)
r
where—
Rs = slenderness ratio
K = effective length factor (Table D-9, page D-9)
L = member length, in inches
r = least radius of gyration, in inches (paragraph D-15)
4-52. Increase the stress-carrying capacity of a compression member by
adding plates or shapes on the outside of the section and by adding extra
plates to the existing member (Figure 4-9A). Assume that the added strength
is proportional to the increase in area if the following conditions are observed:
• The plates or shapes are added on the outside of the section.
• The attachment (riveted or bolted) is designed to cause the new
section and the old section to act together.
• The new member is continuous from one end to the other or is
properly spliced.
• The end connections of the member are adequate for the new stress.
Lacing
Plate added
to channel
Angles added
to plate
Lacing
A B
Figure 4-9. Strengthening Truss Members

FM 3-34.343
4-53. Reinforce truss compression members as described in the example

below. Reinforce an existing steel-truss compression member with riveted and
bolted members (Figure 4-9A, page 4-13) to carry a total force of 350 kips.
Each standard channel is 12 inches high and weighs 0.0207 kpf. The back-to-
back distance of channels is 12 inches. The member length is 340 inches from
panel point to panel point.
Load Capacity
4-54. Use the steps in the following example to determine load capacity:
Step 1. Find the area for the two channels using the web area (Table D-2,
pages D-3 and D-4). For this example, the channel area is 12.2 square inches.
Step 2. Find the radius of gyration in paragraph D-15. For this example, the
radius of gyration is 4.61 inches.
Step 3. Find the slenderness ratio as follows:
KL 0.75 ( 340 ) 255
R s = ------- = ------------------------ = ---------- = 55.31 (4-2)
r 4.61 4.61
where—
Rs = slenderness ratio
L = member length, in inches (paragraph 4-53)
r = radius of gyration, in inches (step 2)
Step 4. Find the allowable unit stress for the column (assume American
Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM] A36 steel) from Table 3-6,
page 3-25. For this example, the allowable unit stress is 17.9 ksi.
Step 5. Find the maximum compressive load as follows:
P = F a A = 17.9 ( 12.2 ) = 218 kips (4-3)

where—
P = maximum compressive load, in kips

Fa = allowable axial compressive stress, in ksi (step 4)
A = area of the two channels, in square inches (step 1)
Plate Additions
4-55. Recompute for load capacity if plates are added to the members. For this
example, use the numbers from the example in the previous paragraph.
Compute as follows:
Step 1. Find the total channel area by adding two 11- x 1/4-inch plates to the
original channel area:
A t = A + A p = 12.2 + 2 [ 11 ( 0.25 ) ] = 17.7 sq in (4-4)

FM 3-34.343
where—
At = total channel area, in square inches

A = original channel area, in square inches (paragraph 4-54, step 1)
Ap = plate area, in square inches
Step 2. Use 4.61 inches for the radius of gyration (paragraph 4-54, step 2).
Step 3. Use 55 for the slenderness ratio (paragraph 4-54, step 3).
Step 4. Use 17.9 ksi for allowable unit stress (paragraph 4-54, step 4).
Step 5. Find the maximum compressive load as follows:
P = F a A t = 17.9 ( 17.7 ) = 316.8 kips (4-5)

where—
P = maximum compressive load, in kips

Fa = maximum compression, in ksi (step 4)
At = total area of the two channels, in square inches
4-56. The result is an increase of 45 percent over the original capacity of
218 kips. Bolt, rivet, or weld the added 1/4-inch plates rigidly to the channels
to make them part of the member. Connect the reinforcing plates with
sufficient strength to develop the plates. With the length as the center-to-
center spacing of the bolts, rivets, or welds, space the connecting elements
between the ends so that the slenderness ratio is not greater than the entire
member.
REINFORCING TENSION MEMBERS

4-57. Tension members are often steel bars, rods, wire, or cable. Arrangement
of the area has no great effect on a tension member. Increase the area by
placing the rods or the cables alongside the existing members and tightening
them with turnbuckles. The truss tension member shown in Figure 4-9B
consists of two 18- x 3/8-inch plates and four 3- x 3- x 3/8-inch angles. The
example below further explains reinforcing tension members.
Area of the Tension Member

4-58. Compute the area of the tension member as follows:
A 1 = N pl A pl + A a N a = 2 ( 18 )  --- + 4 ( 2.11 ) = 21.94 sq in

3
(4-6)
 8
where—
A1 = area of the tension member, in square inches

Npl = number of plates
Apl = plate area, in square inches
Aa = angle area, in square inches
Na = number of angles

FM 3-34.343
Maximum Tensile Load

4-59. Compute the maximum tensile load as follows:
P 1 = F t A 1 = 27 ( 21.94 ) = 592.38 kips (4-7)

where—
P1 = maximum tensile load, in kips

Ft = allowable tensile strength for the steel, in ksi (Table 3-6, page 3-25). For
this example, Ft = 0.75Fy. Using A36 steel, Iy = 36; therefore, Ft = 27.
A1 = total area of the tension member, in square inches
Angle Addition
4-60. Add four 2 1/2- x 2 1/2- x 1/4-inch angles and recompute.
Step 1. Find the tensile area of the angles as follows:
A 2 = N a A a = 4 ( 1.19 ) = 4.76 sq in (4-8)

where—
A2 = total area of the angles, in square inches

Na = number of added angles
Aa = area of each angle, in square inches
Step 2. Find the total member area as follows:
A = A 1 + A 2 = 21.94 + 4.76 = 26.7 sq in (4-9)

where—
A = total member area, in square inches

A1 = area of the tension member, in square inches
A2 = area of the angles, in square inches
Step 3. Find the maximum tensile load as follows:
P = F t A = 27 ( 26.7 ) = 720.9 kips (4-10)

where—
P = maximum tensile load, in kips
Ft = allowable tensile strength for the steel, in ksi (Table 3-6).
For this example, Ft = 0.75Fy . Using A36 steel, Iy = 36; therefore,
Ft = 27.
A = total member area, in square inches
The result is a 22 percent increase over the original force of 636 kips. End
connections must develop the full strength of each reinforcing angle, but
intermediate connections may be located at nominal spacing.

FM 3-34.343
REPLACING DAMAGED MEMBERS

4-61. Bent or twisted steel-truss members may be impossible to repair while
they remain in the truss. Remove such members from the truss by dislodging
them from the end gusset-plate connections. Straighten bent and twisted
parts or repair damaged and broken parts, if possible. It is usually best to
replace such members with identical fabricated sections. A truss member with
bolted connections is relatively easy to remove. In riveted trusses, cut off the
rivet heads and force the rivet shank out. Truss members with welded end
connections are nearly impossible to remove. If the truss is to remain in
position while the damaged members are replaced, try to prevent truss failure
when removing the damaged members. Use cribbing under the truss where
the replacements are being made (if the site conditions permit crib
construction). Otherwise, use straps or cables to carry the dead-load stress of
the removed member.
FLOORING REPAIR
4-62. The flooring of existing civilian bridges is usually designed to conform to
the bridge’s capacity. However, the difference of military loads and wheel
arrangements of military vehicles may require heavier floors than those
assumed for a given stringer design. The reinforcement of the main bridge
members may require that the flooring be strengthened for the desired MLC.
Further, bridge floors in existing structures may have considerable wear or
damage that greatly reduces its usefulness. For example, many timber floors
in civilian structures consist of a single layer of decking, without a tread to
protect the deck from wear. Always check the floors during a bridge analysis
or classification.
TIMBER
4-63. Timber is the most common bridge flooring in foreign countries. A
popular form consists of one layer of decking, perpendicular to the bridge
centerline, without an added wearing surface. When wearing surfaces exist,
they may be of several types (ribbon tread or a tread covering the entire
surface) that are similar to US standard military construction for
semipermanent bridges. Other surfaces may consist of bituminous macadam
that is applied monolithically or is in preformed planks. The use of treated or
untreated wood blocks is also common.
4-64. Another method is to reinforce existing timber floors with an additional
layer of decking and tread. This method may require removing the original
wearing surface. The most practical solution in most cases is to replace the
existing floor with a timber floor. If standard lumber is not available, use local
lumber or squared logs.
STONE MASONRY
4-65. In some parts of the world, bridges are built almost exclusively of stone.
Often they are a simple masonry-arch bridge with a horizontal deck. The
flooring for these bridges is often cobblestone or larger stones set over a rubble
fill between the supporting arch and the road surface. Failure may occur
because of wear, stone dislodgment, failure of supporting fill, military

FM 3-34.343
demolition, or accidents. If the bridge is in place, the floor is likely to be intact

except for potholes, which may be patched with concrete. Bituminous
macadam or concrete topping makes an ideal wearing surface. Flooring
reinforcement for this type of bridge is not necessary except for installing a
wearing surface.
CONCRETE
4-66. In Europe, some concrete bridge floors have thinner sections than those
in the US. Stringer and floor replacements are frequently required to repair
these bridges.
MASONRY-PIER AND -ABUTMENT REPAIR

4-67. Permanent masonry piers and abutments are seldom destroyed. Use
them to the fullest extent possible in bridge repair. First, clear damaged piers
and abutments of all loose debris. Then clean them down to solid material,
leaving a level platform. Some damaged structures may require two or more
benched levels, depending on the details of the structure. Standard steel
panels and trestle units make ideal combinations for either constructing new
piers and abutments or repairing existing structures.
4-68. Large cracks in masonry may not be serious, depending on the type of
crack and the direction of the forces on the structure. For example, a
horizontal crack in a massive masonry pier may not be serious, but it may be
critical in an abutment. Vertical cracks may be permissible under certain
conditions. Large diagonal cracks are usually highly undesirable, unless they
are in the wing walls of an abutment where they are easily repaired.
4-69. Repair cracks by banding the structure with straps (steel or iron) or
beams pulled tightly (by straps) in the direction that tends to close the crack.
Grout or seal cracks to allow bearing and shear stresses to transfer and to
prevent the accumulation of water inside the structure.
BAILEY-TYPE COMPONENT
4-70. The Bailey-type component is ideal to use in repairing destroyed and
damaged piers and abutments. The basic unit and the various special parts
lend themselves to an infinite number of combinations that provide the
desired capacity, height, or arrangement. FM 5-277 describes the components
and their uses for these purposes. Figures 4-10 and 4-11 show ways to use the
Bailey panels for repairing damaged piers and abutments.
HYDRAULIC EFFECTS OF ADDITIONAL SUPPORTS IN WATERWAYS

4-71. Waterways usually adjust themselves to existing piers or abutments.
However, new piers and abutments may have an immediate influence on the
hydraulic behavior of a waterway. Any obstruction placed in flowing water
creates turbulence and slows the flow near the obstruction proportionately
greater than the actual width of the object. Some bridging situations require
constructing many new piers, which appreciably restrict water flow. The
volume of water that must pass through the bridge site cannot be altered
except by diversion. If the area is constricted by piers, the waterway must

FM 3-34.343
Figure 4-10. Bailey Panels Over a Broken Masonry Arch
Figure 4-11. Bailey Panels Over a Demolished Masonry Arch

FM 3-34.343
retain its flow by increased water depth and velocity between obstructions.
Turbulence and increased velocity cause scouring and require special
protective measures such as those outlined in Chapter 7.
4-72. A stream’s ability to carry sediment varies with the velocity. For
streams with a high-sediment content, local velocity reduction may cause the
sediment to drop. This deposited sediment creates an additional obstruction
that modifies the water flow. Therefore, it is best to keep new obstructions to a
minimum in flowing water. When bridging considerations require a large
number of new piers, it may be necessary to divert part of the water through
culverts that are placed in the approach fill.
MASONRY-ARCH-BRIDGE REPAIR
4-73. Masonry bridges present problems in reinforcement and repair different
from other types of bridges. Piers of multiple-span masonry-arch bridges are
designed so that the horizontal components of dead-load thrust from the two
arches meeting on a pier balance each other. When a span is destroyed, the
unbalanced horizontal forces from the remaining spans (arches) tend to
overturn the piers on either side of the gap, causing collapse (unless suitable
repairs are made). Many masonry-arch bridges have piers thick enough to
eliminate reinforcing the piers that are adjacent to the demolished arches. If
piers are thicker than one-fifth the span and are in good condition, test
loadings are recommended before undertaking reinforcement.
4-74. Figure 4-12 shows the forces in a masonry arch. If a standing pier is a
massive structure, assume that it is stable enough to withstand the horizontal
dead-load thrust of the arch. Therefore, design the new construction to resist
only the horizontal live-load thrust plus impact. The total horizontal force
required to resist the horizontal live-load thrust on a pier, including impact, is
the total of the horizontal dead-load and live-load thrusts. Both components
are computed as follows:
W DL L
H DL = -------------
- (4-11)
8R′
where—
HDL = horizontal dead-load thrust, in kips

WDL = dead load of the pier, in kips
R′ = rise of the arch, in feet
and—
W LL L
H LL = ------------- (4-12)
4R′
where—
HLL = horizontal live-load thrust, in kips

WLL = live load of the pier, in kips
L = pier length, in feet
R′ = rise of the arch, in feet

FM 3-34.343
W DL WLL WDL
------------ ------------ Roadway
2 S 2
----
4
h
R′ d S
H ---- H
2
S
W DL + WLL WDL + W LL
------------------------------ ------------------------------
2 2
WDL LEGEND:
W DL ------------
W -----------
- 2
W h = height of spill
----- 2 WLL h -----
2 2 S = arch shard
W = total load (WDL + WLL)
WDL = dead load
H H
WLL = live load
H = horizontal force
Horizontal forces Horizontal forces R′ = rise of the arch
unbalanced on pier balanced on pier
d = depth
Figure 4-12. Forces in Masonry Arches
REPAIR METHODS
4-75. There is not a "most suitable" method of repairing masonry-arch
bridges. After considering the acting forces, available materials, site
conditions, and results of previous solutions, use the methods discussed below
(individually or in combination) to solve the problem.
Demolition
4-76. Where all arches but one of a multispan bridge have been destroyed,
demolish the remaining arch (especially if it is shattered). Complete the
demolition before materials and equipment to be used for reconstruction
arrive on the site.
Ties in Adjacent Arches

4-77. Unbalanced horizontal live-load thrust can be distributed to interior
piers by placing tie rods across the spans next to the gap. This is the best
method if rock drills are available. The tie rods allow a crane to repair the

FM 3-34.343
main gap on the spans safely. Place the tie rods at about the level of the
springing lines and anchor them to the piers by any of the following methods:
• Tie rods through piers. Connect the ends of the tie rods to the steel
wall plates or the beams extending across the back face of the piers
(Figure 4-13). This method is not practical if heavy rock drills are not
available.
• Tie rods attached to steel plates. Attach the tie rods to the steel
plates that are anchored to the sides of the piers by the bolts that are
set in concrete (Figure 4-14). Clusters of light steel rails also make
good tie rods (Figure 4-15).
• Tie rods around piers. Bend the tie rods around the piers where
they bear against a frame that is supported by pieces of rail set in the
face of the pier (Figure 4-14).
• Tie rods attached to I-beams. Attach the tie rods to the I-beams
that extend across the back face of the pier (Figure 4-16).
• Turnbuckles and wedges. Tighten and maintain the tension in tie
rods with turnbuckles, tie rods with threaded ends, or wedges.
Threaded connections should be as strong as the ties in tension. In a
long span, use sag rods to support the rods that are under the arch
(Figure 4-13).
Sag rod
Threaded
coupling Steel wall plate
Tie rod
Figure 4-13. Tie Rods Connected to Wall Plates
Struts Across the Gap

4-78. Spans Under 25 Feet. When the main gap is short and materials are
available, timber struts placed across the gap at the springing level provide
resistance against the unbalanced horizontal thrust (Figure 4-17, page 4-24).
The struts bear against transverse wall beams that are supported on trestle
bents erected against the inner face of the piers. Brace the structure
longitudinally and laterally, and use wedges to obtain the full bearing of the
strutting against the face of the piers.
4-79. Spans Over 25 Feet. Place trusses between the struts vertically
(Figure 4-18, page 4-24), place intermediate ground supports, or use
horizontal bracing. Arrange the intermediate supports to allow the
demolished piers in the gap to be rebuilt and to support rebuilt arches.

FM 3-34.343
Screw
couplings
Rail (set in pier to

Steel plate (bolted support frame)
to anchor bolts set
in frame)
Figure 4-14. Bolts Set in Concrete
Cluster of Short center rail

steel rails (bolted between two
rails to take the thrust
of the rail wedge)
Rail wedge
I-beams Timber sleepers
Figure 4-15. Tie-Rod Clusters
Threaded
coupling
I-beams
Figure 4-16. Tie Rods Attached to I-Beams

FM 3-34.343
Wedges
Strut
Trestle bent
Brace
Figure 4-17. Timber Struts Across a Short Span
Figure 4-18. Trussed Struts Across a Long Span
4-80. Buttresses and Shoring. Demolishing several successive piers leaves

a gap too wide for strutting. In such cases, construct a buttress wall or a
shoring of mass concrete, rubble, masonry, or brickwork (Figure 4-19).
4-81. Relieving Girders. One of the easiest repair methods is to bridge the
span next to the gap with relieving girders (Figure 4-20). Usually, the load
will not have to be relieved from arches that are intact. However, in multiple-
arch viaducts, relieving girders may be required on each side of the gap. Rail
clusters; I-beam spans; plate-girder spans; or through-type, standard steel
bridges are the best relieving girders, since low construction is essential.

FM 3-34.343
Simple spans should meet on the centers of the piers. Continuous-span

bridges are supported on the centers of the piers.
Figure 4-19. Masonry or Concrete Buttress
4-82. Unless there is time to provide even bearing and to grout anchor bolts,
construct timber bridge seats with the ends of the girders resting on them,
rather than directly on the masonry. Level the damaged masonry until all
cracked portions are removed, and fill the holes with concrete. A perfect finish
to the masonry surface under the timber is not necessary.
I-beams
spanning gap
I-beam relieving girders
Tie rods
Concrete
Top of arch cut to

accommodate
relieving girders
Cribbing
Figure 4-20. Relieving Girders
4-83. Centering in Adjacent Arches. Use timber framework (centering)

where spans across the gap are shattered. This will prevent the spans from
deforming and relieve the adjacent piers from horizontal thrust (Figures 4-21
through 4-23, pages 4-26 and 4-27). Centering can be used in combination
with tie rods and struts. If not using tie rods or struts to distribute the

FM 3-34.343
horizontal thrust, ensure that the vertical framework supports are seated well
down on the pier or independent of the pier under the arch. Design the
framework to support the entire live load. The framework must support the
arch in at least three places and must transmit the load to the piers. Do not
wedge the framework too tightly against the arch because this may weaken
the arch rather than strengthen it. Use only folding wedges to hold the
bracing in place.
Wedge
Figure 4-21. Pier Supports
Figure 4-22. Intermediate Supports

FM 3-34.343
Wedge
Figure 4-23. Tie Rods and Pier Supports
WIDENING MASONRY-ARCH BRIDGES

4-84. The main requirement for widening a roadway is that the existing
structure has adequate strength to support the load of the additional roadway.
Many arch bridges meet this requirement but are only wide enough for one
lane.
4-85. Figure 4-24, page 4-28, shows a revision of a typical masonry-arch deck
with a new concrete slab placed over it and supported by the existing bridge
deck. Wheel loads on the cantilevered portion of the slab may be distributed
over a 3-foot length of slab in the direction of traffic. Determine the slab
thickness and the size and spacing of the reinforcing bars in the top of the slab
from the dead- and live-load moments. Determine these moments at
Section A-A (Figure 4-24); do not rely on the concrete ribs for support. The ribs
beneath the slab support the railing posts. Space these ribs 5 to 6 feet apart,
center to center, and anchor them to the existing deck with anchored
reinforcing rods set into drilled holes. Remove the existing railing or any
portions of the existing structure that project above the roadway. Drill holes
for the anchor rods and dowels, set the reinforcing steel in position, and place
the concrete ribs and deck.

FM 3-34.343
Figure 4-24. Widened Masonry-Arch Deck

Chapter 5
Posting
When a bridge is classified, it is assigned a bridge-classification number.
This number represents the safe military load-carrying capacity of the
bridge. Classifying units will post temporary classification markings on
the bridges that they classify. If a nonengineer unit classifies a bridge, the
responsible engineer unit will verify the classification as soon as possible
and post the permanent bridge markings.
BRIDGE-CLASSIFICATION SIGNS
5-1. Do not post special classification numbers on standard bridge signs.
Other signs, however, need to be placed where they will help maintain an even
flow of traffic (Figure 5-1). Place signs indicating height restrictions on the
center of the obstruction (the same as civilian signs). The minimum overhead
clearance is 15 feet 6 inches. Place advance warning signs on bridge
approaches. Theater commanders may make special arrangements to indicate
obstructions that will affect exceptionally wide vehicles or a low overhead.
35 44
60
Ferry
Class 60
Ferry Ahead
Turnout
Turnout
35 44 Ahead
Bridge
.5 KM
Figure 5-1. Standard Bridge Signs and Supplementary Signs
Posting 5-1
FM 3-34.343
CIRCULAR-SHAPED SIGNS
5-2. All classified bridges in the TO are marked with circular signs to indicate
the MLC. Place circular signs at both ends of the bridge so they are clearly
visible to all oncoming traffic. These signs have a yellow background with
black inscriptions as large as the sign allows. Circular signs come in two
types—normal and dual-classification.
Normal
5-3. Signs for single-lane bridges are at least 16 inches in diameter
(Figure 5-2). Signs for dual-lane bridges are at least 20 inches in diameter and
are divided into right and left sections by a vertical line (Figure 5-3). The
classification for dual-lane traffic is on the left half of the sign with two
parallel vertical arrows beneath the number. The classification for single-lane
traffic is on the right half of the sign with one vertical arrow beneath the
number.
Figure 5-2. Typical Single-Lane, Bridge-Classification Sign
Dual Classification
5-4. A bridge may have a dual classification—wheeled and tracked. A special
circular sign indicates both classifications (Figure 5-4). For single-lane
bridges, a single sign (20 inches in diameter) is divided into two sections by a
horizontal line. The top section shows the wheeled class, and the bottom
section shows the tracked class. Symbols representing wheeled and tracked
vehicles appear to the left of the corresponding class. For dual-lane bridges,
two signs (20 inches in diameter) show the wheeled class on the top and the
tracked class on the bottom. As with normal signs, the dual-lane class is on
the left and the single-lane class is on the right. Symbols representing
wheeled and tracked vehicles appear at the top of the corresponding sign.
5-5. Full NATO bridge signs (Figure 5-5, page 5-4) are used to standardize
double-flow bridges. The sign has a yellow background with black inscriptions.
It is one square meter and contains a circle with a diameter of 20 inches. The
right and bottom sides of the circle are 10 inches from the right and bottom
5-2 Posting
FM 3-34.343
Figure 5-3. Typical Dual-Lane, Bridge-Classification Sign
30 55
67 Dual lane
54
25 32
Single lane
Figure 5-4. Typical Dual-Lane, Bridge-Classification Sign
edges of the square sign. The circle is divided into equal thirds. A small circle
is centered in the upper third. The left half of the small circle is shaded and
shows the two-way wheeled-vehicle classification. The right half of the small
circle is unshaded and shows the one-way wheeled-vehicle classification. A
small rectangle is centered in the middle third of the symbol. The left half of it
is shaded and shows the two-way tracked-vehicle classification. The one-way
tracked-vehicle classification is shown at the right of the unshaded side of the
rectangle. The bridge serial number is shown in the lower third of the symbol,
the bridge width is placed below the symbol, and the overall bridge length is
shown at the right of the symbol.
Temporary
5-6. Temporary signs are posted to show expedient classifications. Post them
as indicated in Chapter 3 and Appendix B.
Posting 5-3
FM 3-34.343
80 100
4.5 M 60 90 135 M
B3
8.2 M
Figure 5-5. Full NATO Bridge Sign
RECTANGULAR-SHAPED SIGNS
5 -7. P l a ce r e c t a n g u la r s i g n s ( o t h e r t h a n t h o s e i n d ic at i n g h e i g h t
restrictions) immediately below the circular signs. Rectangular signs show
additional instructions and technical information. The signs are a minimum of
5 x 16 inches and have a yellow background with black inscriptions as large as
the sign allows. Separate signs show height or width restrictions (Figure 5-6).
Height and width signs are not required on bridges where civilian signs
clearly show the necessary information. Use international height and width
signs in countries that conform to the Geneva Convention of 1949.
Restrictions may be in English, metric, or both units of measure. The units of
measure used must be clearly indicated on the sign.
Height sign
5″ min
Width sign
11′6″ 5″ min
11′6″ 16′ min
16′ min
10′
Yellow background with black
letters, figures, and symbols.
Figure 5-6. Height and Width Signs
5-4 Posting
FM 3-34.343
MUTILANE SIGNS
5-8. Bridges with three or more lanes must have postings for each lane.
Minimum widths for the respective MLC (Table 3-4, page 3-18) determine the
number of lanes. Heavier loads can often be carried on a restricted lane, such
as the center lane of a bridge or the line of rails on a combination road and rail
bridge. In such cases, each lane has a bridge-classification sign. Rectangular
multilane signs indicate the location and type of traffic allowed to use the
restricted lanes (marked by paint, studs, or barricades) (Figure 5-7).
Figure 5-7. Typical Classification and Regulatory Signs for Multilane Bridges
TRAFFIC CONTROLS
5-9. Different types of traffic controls are established for different crossings.
The paragraphs below discuss traffic controls for normal and special
crossings.
NORMAL CROSSINGS
5-10. Normal crossings are possible when the vehicle ’s classification number
is equal to or less than the bridge ’s classification number. Normal convoy
discipline is imposed with a minimum spacing of 100 feet and a maximum
speed of 25 miles per hour (mph).
One Way
5-11. One-way crossings are possible when the vehicle ’s classification number
is equal to or less than the classification number posted on a single-lane
bridge. If a one-way crossing on a dual-lane bridge is necessary, oncoming
traffic is stopped and the vehicle is driven down the middle of the roadway.
Posting 5-5
FM 3-34.343
Two Way
5-12. Two-way crossings are possible when the vehicles’ classification number
is equal to or less than the dual-lane classification number of a multiple-lane
bridge. Dual-lane traffic may be in the same or in opposite directions.
SPECIAL CROSSINGS
5-13. Under exceptional conditions, the theater commander may authorize
vehicles to cross bridges when the bridge ’s classification number is less than
the vehicle ’s classification number. These special crossings carry restrictions
on vehicle speed and spacing (Table 5-1). Special crossings are limited to
caution and risk crossings and are not posted on standard bridge signs.
Caution
5-14. Obtain the caution classifications for nonstandard fixed bridges by
multiplying the normal one-way classification number by 125 percent. Obtain
caution classifications from published NATO data for standard, prefabricated
fixed and floating bridges. Table 5-1 outlines these restrictions.
NOTE: Consider AFCS bridges as nonstandard for the purposes of
special crossings.
Risk
5-15. Obtain risk classifications from the published data for standard, fixed
and floating bridges. Risk crossings are not made on nonstandard fixed
bridges. These crossings are made only in emergencies when authorized by
the responsible commanders. Table 5-1 outlines restrictions on travel under
risk conditions. A qualified engineer officer must inspect the bridge for signs
of failure after each risk crossing. Damaged parts must be replaced or
repaired before the bridge is reopened.
Table 5-1. Special-Crossing Considerations
Type of Crossing
Considerations
Normal Caution Risk
Standard bridges: as published Standard bridges: as published
Classification As posted Nonstandard bridges:

125 percent of normal one-way Nonstandard bridges: no crossing
classification
Spacing 100 feet 150 feet One vehicle on bridge at a time
Speed 25 mph 8 mph 3 mph
Location In lane Bridge centerline Bridge centerline
No stopping, braking, or No stopping, braking, or accelerating;

Other None
accelerating inspect the bridge after each crossing
5-6 Posting
PART THREE
Design
Military, semipermanent, nonstandard fixed highway bridges are designed for a given
MLC. Simply supported stringer bridges are recommended since they are easy to
design and construct. The materials available and the capabilities of the construction
unit must be known before conducting the design process. The design should be
economical in materials and construction effort but should not require excessive
maintenance.
Chapter 6
Bridge Superstructures
Steel is not always readily available and requires special equipment for its
use in construction. However, steel stringers are preferred over timber
stringers because of their strength and capability for supporting longer
spans. Use steel stringers for TO nonstandard fixed bridges whenever
possible. The deck should normally be plank or laminated timber. The
wearing surface should be either timber planks or asphalt. Use a concrete
deck if concrete is available and a more durable structure is desired.
DESIGN PHASES
6-1. Design is a two-phase process. The first phase involves determining the
design loads and their effects in terms of moment and shear forces. The second
phase involves selecting members that have sufficient strength to resist the
effects of the intended loads on the bridge. Before considering the design
process complete, the failure modes (lateral buckling, excessive deflection, end
bearing, and so forth) as well as moment and shear must be checked.
DESIGN SEQUENCE
6-2. A logical design sequence is necessary to prevent design omissions and to
eliminate unnecessary effort. Select and design members and accessories to
prevent any of the five modes of beam failure (excessive vertical deflection,
bending, shear, lateral deflection, and bearing).
Bridge Superstructures 6-1

FM 3-34.343
6-3. The superstructure design sequence is discussed below and includes

beam failure as part of the design process. The first nine steps are discussed
in this chapter, and step 10 is discussed in Chapter 9.
Step 1. Perform a reconnaissance of the bridge site and determine the
bridge’s requirements.
Step 2. Determine the number of stringers.
Step 3. Design the deck.
Step 4. Design the stringers.
Step 5. Check the vertical deflection.
Step 6. Design the lateral bracing.
Step 7. Check the dead load.
Step 8. Check the shear forces.
Step 9. Design the end-bearing components.
Step 10. Design the connections.
RECONNAISSANCE
6-4. Perform a reconnaissance of the bridge site as outlined in Chapter 2.
Before proceeding with the bridge design, determine the—
• Span length of the bridge (in feet).
• Design classification (wheeled, tracked, or both).
• Number of lanes.
• Available construction materials.
• Equipment and personnel required.
• Site constraints.
6-5. After determining the specifications, design the superstructure of the
bridge as discussed below. Design the substructure according to the
procedures outlined in Chapter 7.
NUMBER OF STRINGERS DETERMINATION

6-6. After determining the bridge specifications, estimate the minimum
number of stringers required for a given span length. The total number of
stringers depends on the moment capacity of an individual stringer, the
roadway width, and the center-to-center stringer spacing. The goal is to
produce the most economical, safe bridge design using the least number of
stringers possible.
6-7. Determine the minimum number of stringers by using the maximum
center-to-center stringer spacing and the roadway width (Figure 6-1). Stringer
spacing should not exceed 6 feet for timber-deck bridges and 8 feet for
concrete-deck bridges. Use Table 6-1 to determine the number of stringers
required according to the bridge classification, the roadway width, and the
deck type.
6-2 Bridge Superstructures

FM 3-34.343
bR
Ss
LEGEND:
bR = roadway width
Ss = center-to-center stringer spacing
(≤6 ft for timber decks and ≤8 ft for concrete decks)
Figure 6-1. Stringer Spacing
Table 6-1. Number of Stringers Required
One Traffic Lane Two or More Traffic Lanes
Bridge Curb-to- Curb-to-

Classification Curb Concrete Curb Concrete
Timber Deck Timber Deck
Roadway Deck Roadway Deck
Width (bR) Width (bR)
4 to 12 9 ft 0 in 4 4 18 ft 4 4
13 to 30 11 ft 0 in 4 4 18 ft 4 4
31 to 60 13 ft 2 in 4 4 24 ft 5 4
61 to 100 14 ft 9 in 4 4 27 ft 6 5
101 to 150 16 ft 5 in 4 4 32 ft 7 5
6-8. The number of stringers required can also be determined if the roadway
width and the desired stringer spacing is known. Compute as follows:
b
N s = -----R + 1 (6-1)
Ss
where—
NS = total number of stringers, raised to the next higher whole number if a

noninteger
bR = curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet
SS = center-to-center stringer spacing, in feet

FM 3-34.343
6-9. After finding the number of stringers required (by either method),
compute the actual stringer spacing as follows:
bR
S s = -------------- (6-2)
Ns – 1
where—
SS = actual center-to-center stringer spacing, in feet
NS = total number of stringers, raised to the next higher whole number if a
noninteger (equation 6-1)
DECK DESIGN
6-10. The deck system includes the structural deck, the wearing surface, and
the curb and handrail systems. The deck of a stringer bridge supports the
vehicles and distributes the load to the stringers. In a deck design (for either
timber or concrete decks), the effective span length over which the loads are
distributed must be known. Use this measurement to compute the dead load
that is supported by the stringers.
6-11. For a deck supported on timber stringers, first compute for the clear
distance between the support stringers (equation 6-3) and then compute for
the effective span length (equation 6-4).
t
L c = S s – -----s- (6-3)
12
where—
Lc = clear distance between supporting stringers, in feet

SS = actual center-to-center stringer spacing, in feet (equation 6-2)
tS = thickness of stringer, in inches (Table D-2, pages D-3 and D-4)
t
S eff = L c + -----s- (6-4)
24
where—
Seff = effective span length, in feet

Lc = clear distance between supporting stringers, in feet (equation 6-3)
tS = thickness of stringer, in inches
6-12. For timber stringers, a standard stringer nominal width of 4 inches is
suggested for initial design calculations. The effective span length should not
exceed the distance between the edges of the top flange of the supporting
stringers plus the thickness of the deck. If the deck is supported on steel
stringers, compute for the distance between the edges of the top flange of the
support stringers (equation 6-5) and then for the effective span length
(equation 6-6).
b
L e = S s – -----f- (6-5)
12

FM 3-34.343
where—
Le = distance between edges of top flange of supporting stringers, in feet

bf = stringer-flange width, in inches
b
S eff = L e + -----f- (6-6)
24
where—

Le = distance between edges of top flange of supporting stringers, in feet
(equation 6-5)
bf = stringer-flange width, in inches
6-13. For steel stringers, assume an initial flange width of 12 inches for the
deck computations. The effective span length should not exceed the distance
between the edges of the top flange of the supporting stringers plus the
thickness of the deck.
Timber Deck
6-14. Timber decks are constructed with the long dimension of the planks
placed either horizontally (flat) (plank deck) or vertically (on edge) (laminated
deck). The vertically oriented planks of a laminated deck are nailed to each
other. Figure 6-2 shows a sketch of both timber-deck orientations. Install a
wearing surface to prevent wear. On timber-deck bridges, the wearing surface
should consist of a 2- or 3-inch-thick timber treadway. On one-lane bridges,
the treadway should be limited to the path of the wheels or tracks. On two-
lane bridges, the treadway should fully cover the deck. Place the treadway
between the curbs rather than under the curbs.
Plank decking
Laminated decking
Figure 6-2. Timber-Deck Orientations

FM 3-34.343
Plank Deck
6-15. A plank deck is the simplest to design and construct. It consists of a

series of sawn lumber planks placed flatwise across supporting beams. Each
plank is normally 10 or 12 inches wide and 4 inches thick. Plank decks are
used primarily on low-volume or special-use roads. They are not suitable for
asphalt pavement because of large live-load deflections and movements from
moisture changes in the planks.
6-16. Determine the required deck thickness by using Figure 6-3. Plot the
effective span length (equation 6-4) and the desired MLC. The minimum deck
thickness is 3 inches. Use a laminated deck when the required deck thickness
exceeds 6 inches. Use deck planks made from dimensioned lumber having a
thickness equal to or greater than the required deck thickness. If the available
deck material is not thick enough, layer planks until achieving the required
thickness plus 2 inches. The extra 2 inches will compensate for the structural
inefficiencies of layered planks.
6-17. Normally, install the decking in a perpendicular direction to the bridge’s
centerline for ease and speed of construction. Install the decking with a 1/4-inch
space between the planks for expansion, better drainage, and air circulation.
Laminated Deck
6-18. Large stringer spacing and high design classifications usually require a
thicker decking (laminated decks are more economical in this case). Although
layering strengthens the plank decks, laminated decks are much stiffer.
6-19. Required Deck Thickness. Loads are spread out more effectively in a
laminated deck than in a conventional plank deck. Lamination has the effect
of shortening the effective deck span between stringers by about 25 percent.
To design a laminated deck—
• Adjust the effective span length (equation 6-6) by multiplying its value
by a factor equal to 0.75. This value will now become the adjusted
effective span length.
• Determine the required deck thickness of the laminated deck from
Figure 6-3 (assuming that it equals that for a plank deck). Use the
adjusted effective span length and the MLC. The minimum deck
thickness required is 3 inches.
6-20. Lamination. The performance of live-load deflections depends on the
effectiveness of the nails in transferring loads between adjacent boards. To
create a laminated deck, place the planks vertically. Make sure that the deck
is well-nailed or -glued to the adjacent board over the full length. Nails should
be placed at a minimum of 1 1/2 inches on center along the length of the
boards. The nail pattern should be staggered to prevent splitting of the
lumber.

FM 3-34.343
Class 50-150 Class 40
7
Effective deck thickness (inches)—classification
Required deck thickness (inches)—design
Class 30
6
Class 16
Class 8
Minimum thickness: 3 inches
30 40 50 60
Stringer spacing (inches)
Figure 6-3. Required and Effective Deck Thicknesses (Timber Deck)
Reinforced Concrete Deck
6-21. To build a more permanent structure, use a concrete deck (Figure 6-4,
page 6-8). Reinforced concrete decks can span greater distances than timber
decks. Concrete decks use fewer stringers, which can be spaced up to 8 feet
apart. The construction process is more difficult because of the required
formwork, procuring and setting of steel, placing of concrete, and curing.
However, if material and time are available, use concrete decking for a
stronger flooring system.

FM 3-34.343
Railing (2″ x 4″)

Roadway centerline
Posts (4″ x 4″ x 40″)
2″
Ss 10″
-----
4 9″
Ss Ss
PLL
wDL
LEGEND:
bf = stringer-flange width bf
Le = distance between
edges of top flange of Le
supporting stringers
PLL = critical concentrated
live load per axle
Ss = actual center-to-center
stringer spacing
wDL = dead load of slab Ss
Figure 6-4. Cross Section of a Steel-Stringer Bridge With a Concrete Deck
6-22. Concrete Compressive Strength. In the US, the design strength of

concrete corresponds to the compressive strength (in psi) of test cylinders that
are 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches high and are measured on the 28th day
after they are placed. Table 6-2 lists various concrete compressive strengths
used in structural design. In most situations, use a compressive strength
equal to 3,000 psi for design purposes unless what will be available from the
concrete source is known.

FM 3-34.343
Table 6-2. Compressive Strength of Concrete
Concrete Type f′′c (in psi)
Nonprestressed 3,000 to 4,000
Prestressed 5,000 to 6,000
Special situations 6,000 to 12,000
High strength 10,000 to 15,000
6-23. Reinforcing Steel Yield Strength. Steel reinforcement may consist of

bars, welded-wire fabric, or wires. In the US, reinforcing bars are available in
sizes of 3/8 to 2 1/4 inches nominal diameter. Table 6-3 lists various steel yield
strengths for reinforcing steel used in structural design.
Table 6-3. Yield Strength of Reinforcing Steel
ASTM Designation Grade Bar Size No. fy (in psi)
40 3 to 6 40,000
A615-94 (billet steel)
60 3 to 18 60,000
50 3 to 11 50,000
A616-93 (rail steel)
60 3 to 11 60,000
40 3 to 11 40,000
A617-93 (axle steel)
60 3 to 11 60,000
A706-81 (low-alloy steel) — 3 to 18 60,000
6-24. Slab Dimensions. Design a concrete deck as a one-way slab

(continuous at both ends) with a design span equal to the effective span length
(equation 6-6). In designing a one-way slab, consider, for example, a typical
12-inch-wide strip. The continuous slab may be designed as a continuous
beam having a known width of 12 inches; the slab thickness is now the only
unknown. For design calculations, assume a slab thickness equal to 7 inches.
6-25. Wearing Surface. If desired, use a wearing surface such as asphalt. If
asphalt is used, the wearing-surface thickness should be 1 1/2 inches.
6-26. Dead Load. Compute the dead-load weight of the slab by considering
its own weight and any wearing surface for a 12-inch-wide strip. Compute the
slab’s dead-load weight and dead-load bending moment as follows:
ts Uc + t w Uw
w DL = 1.4  ----------------------------- (6-7)
 12,000 
where—
wDL = dead load of slab, in kpf of width

tS = slab thickness, in inches (paragraph 6-24)

FM 3-34.343
Uc = unit weight for concrete, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 6-4)
tw = wearing-surface thickness, in inches (paragraph 6-25)
Uw = unit weight for wearing-surface material, in pounds per cubic foot
(Table 6-4)
2
w DL S eff
M DL = -------------------
- (6-8)
10
where—
MDL = dead-load bending moment of the slab, in kip-feet per foot of width
wDL = dead load of slab, in kip-feet per foot of width (equation 6-7)
Seff = effective span length, in feet (equation 6-4)
Table 6-4. Unit Weights for a Dead-Load Computation

Unit Weight
Material
(lb/ft3)
Steel or cast steel 490
Cast iron 450
Aluminum alloys 175
Timber (treated or untreated) 50
Concrete (plain or reinforced) 150
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast 120
Loose sand, earth, or gravel 100
Macadam or gravel (rolled) 140
Cinder filling 60
Asphalt pavement 150
Railway rails, guard rails, and fastenings (per linear foot of track) 200
Stone masonry 170
6-27. Live Load. Determine the live-load bending moment acting on a

12-inch-wide strip of slab with reinforcement perpendicular to the traffic. The
live load is that for the desired wheeled vehicle (Appendix B) with the tire load
positioned so that it produces the most critical loading between the stringers.
6-28. Compute the critical, concentrated live load per wheel used for design
and the live-load moment for the slabs as follows:
P LL = P max (6-9)
where—
PLL = critical concentrated live load per wheel, in kips

Pmax = maximum single-axle load, in tons (Table B-1, pages B-2 through B-5,
Column 4)
and—

FM 3-34.343
S eff + 2
M LL = 1.564  ----------------- P LL (6-10)
 32 
where—
MLL = live-load bending moment of slab, in kip-feet per foot of width

Seff = effective span length, in feet (equation 6-4)
PLL = critical concentrated live load per axle, in kips (equation 6-9)
6-29. Required Nominal Strength. Compute the required nominal
strength as follows:
M DL + M LL
m = --------------------------
- (6-11)
0.9
where—
m = required nominal strength, in kip-feet per foot of width
MDL = dead-load bending moment of the slab, in kip-feet per foot of width
(equation 6-8)
MLL = live-load bending moment of slab, in kip-feet per foot of width
(equation 6-10)
6-30. Reinforcing Steel Ratio. For a concrete compressive strength of
3,000 psi, use 0.85 for the B-factor to find the maximum reinforcement ratio in
Table 6-5. Use the concrete compressive strength (f ′c) and the B-factor to find
the reinforcing steel ratio from Table 6-5.
Table 6-5. Reinforcing Steel Ratio (Rs)
Yield Strength f′′c = 3,000 psi f′′c = 3,500 psi f′′c = 4,000 psi f′′c = 5,000 psi f′′c = 6,000 psi
(fy) B = 0.85 B = 0.85 B = 0.85 B = 0.80 B = 0.75
40,000 psi 0.0139 0.0163 0.0186 0.0219 0.0246
50,000 psi 0.0103 0.0121 0.0138 0.0162 0.0182
60,000 psi 0.0080 0.0094 0.0107 0.0126 0.0142
Note: Rs = 0.375Rbs
6-31. Strength Coefficient of Resistance. Compute the strength

coefficient of resistance as follows:
2 2
Rs fy
R n = R s f y –  --------------- (6-12)
 1.7f ′c
where—
Rn = strength coefficient of resistance, in psi

RS = selected reinforcing steel ratio for design (Table 6-5)
fy = yield strength of reinforcing steel, in psi (Table 6-3, page 6-9)
f ′c = compressive strength of concrete, in psi (Table 6-2, page 6-9)

FM 3-34.343
6-32. Effective Depth. Assuming that number (No.) 6 steel bars are used
(nominal diameter of the bar equals 3/4 inch plus an additional 3/4 inch for
protective concrete cover) and that the bars will fit in one layer, compute the
required overall depth as follows:
1,000m
req h = ----------------- + 1.125 (6-13)
Rn
where—
req h = required overall depth, in inches
m = required nominal strength, in kip-feet per foot of width (equation 6-11)
Rn = strength coefficient of resistance, in psi (equation 6-12)
6-33. Increase the required overall depth by about 1/2 inch (or by an amount
that will round the required overall depth to the next complete inch or half-
inch, whichever is closest). This will become the final thickness of the concrete
deck. Compute the effective depth as follows:
1,000m
d′ = ----------------- + 0.5 (6-14)
Rn
where—
d′ = effective depth, in inches

m = required nominal strength, in kip-feet per foot of width (equation 6-11)
Rn = strength coefficient of resistance, in psi (equation 6-12)
6-34. Revised Reinforcing Steel Ratio. Compute the required area of
tension steel to be placed in the transverse direction of the slab. Compute the
revised value of the reinforcing steel ratio and the required steel area as
follows:
0.85f ′c 2,350m
R s = ----------------- 1 – 1 – ------------------2- (6-15)
fy f ′c ( d′ )
where—
RS = revised reinforcing steel ratio
m = required nominal strength, in kip-feet (equation 6-11)
d′ = effective depth, in inches (equation 6-14)
and—
A st = 12R s d′ (6-16)
where—
Ast = required area of tension steel, in square inches
RS = revised reinforcement ratio (equation 6-15)

FM 3-34.343
6-35. Bar Selection and Placement. Select the actual number of bars that
will meet the tension steel area (equation 6-16) using Table 6-6. Use at least
two bars wherever flexural reinforcement is required. Do not use more than
two bar sizes at a given location in the span. The selected bars should not be
more than two standard sizes apart (for example, No. 7 and No. 9 bars may be
acceptable, but No. 4 and No. 9 would not).
Table 6-6. Total Areas for Various Numbers of Reinforcing Bars
Bar- Nominal
Weight Number of Bars
Size Diameter
(lb/ft)
No. (in) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3 0.375 0.376 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.10
4 0.500 0.668 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
5 0.625 1.043 0.31 0.62 0.93 1.24 1.55 1.86 2.17 2.48 2.79 3.10
6 0.750 1.502 0.44 0.88 1.32 1.76 2.20 2.64 3.08 3.52 3.96 4.40
7 0.875 2.044 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00
8 1.000 2.670 0.79 1.58 2.37 3.16 3.95 4.74 5.53 6.32 7.11 7.90
9 1.128 3.400 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
10 1.270 4.303 1.27 2.54 3.81 5.08 6.35 7.62 8.89 10.16 11.43 12.70
11 1.410 5.313 1.56 3.12 4.68 6.24 7.80 9.36 10.92 12.48 14.04 15.60
6-36. Locate the bars symmetrically about the vertical axis of the beam
section (in one layer if practical). Select a bar size so that no less than two and
no more than five or six bars are put in one layer. When using several layers
of different bar sizes, place the largest bars in the layer nearest to the face of
the beam. When placing bars within the beam’s width, follow these guidelines
for determining the minimum clear spacing required between the bars that
will allow for proper concrete placement around them:
• For one layer of bars, the minimum clear spacing is 1 inch or the
nominal diameter of the larger bar (Table 6-6), whichever is greater.
• For two or more layers of bars, the minimum clear spacing is equal to
or greater than 1 inch.
6-37. Ensure that the bar spacing obtained with equation 6-16 is greater than
the minimum clear spacing obtained previously with equation 6-15. Compute
the actual spacing between the bars as follows:
10.5 – ( number of bars x d b )
bar spacing (in) = ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (6-17)
total number of bars - 1
where—
number of bars = number of reinforcing bars selected from Table 6-6 that
will accommodate the total area of steel (equation 6-16)
db = nominal diameter of the bar, in inches (Table 6-6)
total number of bars = total number of bars to be accommodated within the
beam’s width

FM 3-34.343
6-38. Design Check. Compute the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress
bl o ck ( e qu a t i o n 6-1 8) and th e n th e d e s ig n st r e n g th o f t h e se c t io n
(equation 6-19). First compute—
A st f y
d o = ----------------
- (6-18)
10.2f ′c
where—
Ast = required area of tension steel, in square inches (equation 6-16)
then compute—
d
m′ = A st f y  d′ – ----o- ----------------
1
(6-19)
 2  12,000
where—
m′ = design strength of the section, in kip-feet

Ast = required area of tension steel, in square inches (equation 6-16)
fy = yield strength of reinforcing steel, in psi (Table 6-3)
(equation 6-18)
6-39. The section is acceptable in flexure if m′ from equation 6-19 is greater
than or equal to m from equation 6-11. If the condition is not satisfied, go back
to equation 6-14 and increase the effective depth of slab slightly and redo all
the necessary calculations until the condition is satisfied.
6-40. Temperature and Shrinkage. Reinforcing bars (parallel to traffic)
are required in the top of the slab. Use the following guidelines for computing
the minimum temperature reinforcement ratio (denoted by Rtemp):
• The Rtemp is 0.0020 when using grade 40 or 50 bars for the slabs.
• The Rtemp is 0.0018 when using grade 60 bars for the slabs.
6-41. Compute the area of temperature and shrinkage steel as follows:
A temp = 12R temp d′ (6-20)
where—
Atemp = area of temperature and shrinkage steel, in square inches

Rtemp = minimum temperature reinforcement ratio
Place the temperature reinforcement bars at a minimum spacing equal to
three times the slab thickness. Do not exceed a spacing of 18 inches.
6-42. Shea r Check. Because of practical space limitations, shear
reinforcement is not used in a slab. Slabs designed for bending moment should
be considered satisfactory in shear.

FM 3-34.343
Curbs and Handrails

6-43. A curb system guides traffic on the bridge. For timber-deck bridges,
place 6- x 6-inch timbers on 5-foot centers on the curb risers. Risers of 6- x 12-
x 30-inch material provide an adequate curb system. Rigidly attach the curbs
to the decking. Figure 6-5 shows the minimum specifications for a curb system
on timber-deck bridges. The curb system will not withstand the impact of a
heavy vehicle that is out of control. To design such a system would require a
curb system of excessive size and cost. For concrete-deck bridges, form the
curb as a part of the deck. Pour the curb at the same time as the main deck.
Provide drain holes in the curb at 10-foot intervals on both sides of the bridge.
6-44. Include a handrail system if necessary. Place handrails on bridges with
heavy foot traffic and where the danger of falling exists. If handrails are not
used, mark the bridge edges. One marking method is to place 2- x 4-inch posts
with reflectors at 10-foot intervals along both sides of the bridge. Figure 6-5
shows the minimum specifications for handrails on timber-deck bridges.
14″ or 10″ minimum clearance

14″
2″ x 4″ knee brace 2″ x 4″ handrail
4″ x 4″ x 4′ handrail post
Extend the floor
plank every 5′ for
knee brace. 6″ x 6″ curb
6″ x 12″ x 30″ curb riser
2″ x 12″ tread
td = 3″ minimum
3″
LEGEND: Placement control for outside stringer

td = deck thickness
Figure 6-5. Curb and Handrail Systems for Timber-Deck Bridges
STRINGER DESIGN
6-45. Stringer design involves computing the dead-load weight, the live-load
moment, and the total design moment. Various factors must be considered in
the stringer selection (timber or steel).

FM 3-34.343
Dead Load
6-46. The dead load includes the weight of all the parts of a structure,
including the deck and accessories (railings, curbs, lateral bracing, and
connections) as well as the stringers. Since the stringers are not yet sized,
their weight must be estimated. The dead load is considered to be uniformly
distributed along the span and equally shared by each stringer.
6-47. For the initial design calculations on a timber-deck bridge, assume a
dead-load weight of 0.1 kpf for any accessories and a weight equal to 0.2 kpf
per stringer. For a concrete-deck bridge, assume a dead-load weight of 0.4 kpf
for any accessories (includes curbs and handrails) and a weight equal to
0.3 kpf per stringer. Compute the dead-load weight of the deck (equation 6-21)
and the estimated design dead load (equation 6-22). First compute:
bs Um ts bR Uwtw
w DL =  ---------------- +  ------------------ (6-21)
 12,000  12,000 
where—
wDL = dead-load weight of the deck, in kpf

bS = deck width in the transverse direction, in feet
Um = unit weight of the material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 6-4,
page 6-10)
tS = timber deck or concrete-slab thickness, in inches
bR = curb-to-curb width, in feet
(Table 6-4)
tw = wearing-surface thickness, in inches
then compute—
W DL = w DL + w acc + w s N s (6-22)
where—
WDL = estimated design dead load of the span, in kpf

wDL = dead-load weight of the deck, in kpf (equation 6-21)
wacc = assumed dead-load weight of the accessories, in kpf
wS = assumed dead-load weight per stringer, in kpf (paragraph 6-47)
NS = total number of stringers (equation 6-1)
6-48. Assume that the dead load of the bridge is equally shared by all of the
stringers. Compute the design dead-load moment per stringer as follows:
2
W DL L
m′ DL = ---------------- (6-23)
8N s
where—
m′DL = design dead-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet

WDL = estimated design dead load of the span, in kpf (equation 6-22)
L = design span length, in feet
NS = total number of stringers (equation 6-1)

FM 3-34.343
Live Load
6-49. Vehicle loads are assumed to be the only live load acting on the bridge.
Find the design values for the live load by using the moment and shear curves
in Appendix B. Use the larger value of wheeled and tracked moment and both
values of wheeled and tracked shear for further calculations. If the bridge is
for civilian traffic, use the provisions in Chapter 3, Section III, and Figure 3-1,
page 3-4, to determine the equivalent MLC of the civilian traffic for design
calculations.
6-50. NATO traffic restrictions apply for design purposes, which is 25 mph
and 100-foot spacing. Because of this long spacing, usually only one vehicle
will be on any single span of a bridge at a time. If significant pedestrian traffic
is expected (refugees and dismounted military units), treat these as line loads
of 75 pounds per foot, each over a 1-foot width. Post these line loads in all
locations that lines of people might be expected.
6-51. Determine the total live-load moment according to the design vehicle
class (Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9). Compute the live-load moment that
a stringer must resist (including impact effects) as follows:
1.15M′ LL
m′ LL = ---------------------- (6-24)
N 1,2
where—
m′LL = design live-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet

M′LL = total design live-load moment according to vehicle class, in kip-feet
(Table B-2)
N1,2 = effective number of stringers (Table 3-3, page 3-14)
Total Design Moment per Stringer

6-52. The total design moment that each stringer resists is the summation of
the dead- and live-load moments per stringer. Compute as follows:
M = m′ DL + m′ LL (6-25)
where—
M = total design moment per stringer, in kip-feet

m′DL = design dead-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet (equation 6-23)
m′LL = design live-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet (equation 6-24)
Timber-Stringer Selection
6-53. If the species and grade of timber is known, use the allowable stresses
from Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6, for the design. Convert these values
from psi to ksi by dividing the tabulated stress by 1,000. Generally, the
tabulated values assume that the material will be in continuously dry
conditions. However, timber decking and stringers may retain moisture on
their horizontal surfaces; therefore, consider its use under wet conditions.

FM 3-34.343
6-54. Apply some modification factors (see the notes in Table C-1, pages C-3
through C-6, toward the tabulated allowable bending stress to account for
various effects (lumber thickness/width ratios, edgewise or flatwise use,
repetitive member use, and moisture content). For military loads, apply an
additional factor equal to 1.33 to account for lower traffic volume (see
Appendix I). Whenever the species and grade of solid-sawn timber cannot be
determined, assume an allowable bending stress equal to 1.75 ksi and an
allowable horizontal-shear stress equal to 0.095 ksi. For glue-laminated
timber, assume an allowable bending stress equal to 2.16 ksi and an allowable
horizontal-shear stress equal to 0.2 ksi. These values must be adjusted for the
various applicable conditions stated in the notes of Table C-1. The
modification for lower traffic volume has already been considered in those
assumed values.
Steel-Stringer Selection
6-55. The allowable bending stress for steel members is 0.75 times the steel
yield strength (Table 6-7), assuming that the stringers are braced properly
(paragraph 6-59). The allowable shear stress for steel members is 0.45 times
the steel yield strength.
Table 6-7. Steel Yield Strength
Quenched and High Yield Strength,

Structural High-Strength,
Type Tempered, Low- Quenched and
Steel Low-Alloy Steel
Alloy Steel Tempered, Alloy Steel
AASHTO M 270 M 270 M 270 M 270 M 270

designation (Grade 36) (Grade 50) (Grade 50) (Grade 70W) (Grades 100/100W)
ASTM A 709 A 709 A 709 A 709 A 709

designation (Grade 36) (Grade 50) (Grade 50W) (Grade 70W) (Grade 100/100W)
Plate > 2 1/2 to

Up to 4 in Up to 4 in Up to 4 in Up to 4 in ≤ 2 1/2 in
thickness ≤ 4 in
Fy (ksi) 36 50 50 70 100 90
Required Section Modulus

6-56. Once the total moment each stringer must resist is known, compute the
section modulus a stringer requires for a given allowable bending stress as
follows:
12M
S req = ----------- (6-26)
Fb
where—
Sreq = required section modulus, in cubic inches

M = total design moment per stringer, in kip-feet (equation 6-25)

FM 3-34.343
Fb = allowable bending stress, in ksi (paragraph 6-53 for timber and

paragraph 6-55 for steel)
6-57. Select a stringer (Table C-2, page C-7, for timber and Table D-2,
pages D-3 and D-4, for steel) with a section modulus greater than or equal to
the required section modulus from equation 6-26. The available stringer sizes
may not be large enough to provide sufficient section modulus. If this
happens, add a stringer to the bridge section and recompute (equation 6-23).
Compute the total design moment per stringer (equation 6-25) and the
required section modulus (equation 6-26) until a suitable steel stringer size
(as listed in Appendix D) is obtained.
VERTICAL-DEFLECTION CHECK
6-58. Compute the vertical deflection of the stringers due to the live load
(including impact) as shown below. The deflection should not be greater than
dmax = (L/200) x 12 (in inches).
2
331M′ LL L
d LL = --------------------------
- (6-27)
N 1, 2 ESd s
where—
dLL = deflection due to the live load plus impact, in inches

M′LL = total design live-load moment according to vehicle class, in kip-feet
(Table B-2, pages B-6 through B-9)
N1,2 = effective number of stringers from Table 3-3, page 3-14
E = modulus of elasticity, in ksi (Appendix C for timber and Appendix D
for steel)
S = section modulus of the selected stringer, in cubic inches
dS = depth of the stringer, in inches
LATERAL-BRACING DESIGN
6-59. When a beam is loaded and deflected downward, the upper portion of
the beam shortens and the lower portion of the beam lengthens. This
reshaping results from the internal moments induced by the loading. The
beam will experience compressive forces in the upper portion and tensile
forces in the lower portion of the section. The upper portion of the member
tends to compress or buckle, just as a column does with respect to its weaker
axis. The buckling effect is always accompanied by some lateral twisting. This
action is called lateral buckling. Figure 6-6, page 6-20, shows the lateral-
buckling effect in a beam (timber or steel).
6-60. To prevent lateral buckling in a beam, use cross frames or diaphragms
and bracing systems for lateral support. One of the primary factors affecting
lateral-beam stability is the distance between the points of a lateral support
along the beam’s length (the unsupported or unbraced length).

FM 3-34.343
Load
Lateral deflection
LEGEND:
= before deflection
= during deflection Rotation
Figure 6-6. Lateral Buckling
Timber Stringers
6-61. For timber beams, provide lateral support by locating transverse
bracing at the beam’s end supports and at every one-third point along the
beam span (Figure 6-7). This distance (spacing) between the lateral braces
along the length of the beam is the unbraced length. For simple-span beams
and any loading condition, compute the effective beam length and then the
beam slenderness factor as follows:
12L u
If ------------ is ≥ 14.3, use L e = 22.1L u (6-28)
ds
or—
12L u
If ------------ is < 14.3, use L e = 19.6L u + 3d s (6-29)
ds
where—
Lu = unbraced length, in inches

dS = depth of the timber stringer, in inches
Le = effective beam length, in inches
Le ds
Cs = - ≤ 50
---------
2
(6-30)
bs
where—
CS = slenderness factor (nondimensional)

Le = effective beam length, in inches (equation 6-28 or 6-29)
dS = depth of the timber beam, in inches
bS = stringer width, in inches
6-62. If the result of equation 6-30 is not ≤50, increase the number of braces
along the beam’s span to reduce the unsupported length and then recompute.
When the unbraced length varies substantially along the beam’s span, check
the slenderness factor for each unsupported length. Typically, the slenderness

FM 3-34.343
Load
Minimum = 3 inches
Lateral brace depth

should be at least half
the stringer depth but no
less than 3 inches.
Lateral braces
Stringers
Figure 6-7. Lateral Bracing for Timber Stringers
factor at the center portion of the beam (where bending stress is higher) will
control the lateral-bracing design.
Steel Stringers
6-63. A steel beam should be braced laterally, perpendicular to the plane of
the web. Lateral bracing provides adequate lateral stability of the
compression flange so that the beam section can develop its maximum design
bending strength.
6-64. Maximum Allowable Unbraced Length. Establish the maximum
allowable unbraced length for a steel stringer by using the smaller of the
values obtained from the following equations:
6.33b
L c = ---------------f (6-31)
Fy
or—
1,667
L c = ---------------- (6-32)
d s
 ----- F
 A f y
where—
Lc = maximum allowable unbraced length for a steel stringer, in feet

bf = flange width of the steel section, in inches (Appendix D)

FM 3-34.343
Fy = yield strength of steel, in ksi (Table 6-7, page 6-18)

dS = depth of the steel section, in inches (Appendix D)
Af = area of the compression flange, in square inches (Appendix D)
6-65. Number of Braces. The number of lateral braces needed will depend
on the length of the beam’s span and the maximum unbraced length for a
given steel section. Compute for the number of lateral braces needed as
follows:
L
N b = ----- + 1 (6-33)
Lc
where—
Nb = number of lateral braces (rounded to the next higher whole number)

Lc = maximum allowable unbraced length for a steel stringer, in feet (the
smaller of the value’s from equations 6-31 and 6-32)
6-66. Spacing of Lateral-Bracing. Distribute the number of lateral braces
by spacing them along the beam span at the distance computed below. Locate
a lateral brace at each end support and the remaining braces along the beam’s
length.
L
L u = --------------- (6-34)
Nb – 1
where—
Lu = spacing of lateral bracing , in feet
Nb = number of lateral braces (rounded to the next higher whole number)
(equation 6-33)
6-67. Bracing-System Selection. The type of lateral bracing depends on the
availability of materials. Diaphragms or cross frames are satisfactory braces.
Diaphragms are generally more economical for rolled shapes that are less
than 32 inches deep. Cross frames are generally more economical for built-up
beams that are 32 inches and deeper.
6-68. Diaphragms are rolled shapes used in a lateral-bracing system
(Figure 6-8). The diaphragm depth should be at least half the depth of the
steel stringer. Construct diaphragms from the lightest materials available.
Although the most suitable diaphragms are constructed using channel
sections, any rolled shape (such as an I-beam) is satisfactory. Precut ends of
stringers are available for fabricating diaphragms. Structural Ts can be used
as diaphragms. Form these shapes by cutting the excess stringer material in
half, along the centerline of the web. When using structural Ts, place the
flange as close as possible to the stringer’s compression flange (which is the top
flange) and weld the connections. A bolted connection (with 3/4-inch or 7/8-inch
bolts at a minimum spacing along a single row) may also be used. See
Chapter 9 for more information.

FM 3-34.343
d
Bolted or welded connection 2
d
Diaphragm
Ss
LEGEND:
d = depth of stringer
Ss = center-to-center stringer spacing
Figure 6-8. Highway-Bridge Diaphragm
6-69. Cross frames are used when the depth of the stringer exceeds 32 inches.
Use equal leg angles configured into a cross frame as a more economical
alternative to using diaphragms (Figure 6-9). However, the increased cost of
cutting and fabrication outweighs any material savings. Minimum
requirements of the angles are that—
• The dimensions of the member should not be smaller than 3 x 3 x 3 1/8
inches.
• The thickness of the member should be greater than one-tenth the
length of the longer leg.
• The ratio of the span length to the radius of gyration of the section
used for bracing (12L/r, where L is in feet and r is in inches) must be
less than or equal to 200.
Figure 6-9. Cross-Frame Beam Bracing

FM 3-34.343
DEAD-LOAD CHECK
6-70. After designing the deck and selecting the stringer size, check the initial
dead-load assumption for any necessary corrections. The total dead load per
stringer consists of the combined dead loads of the deck system, the stringers,
the lateral bracing, and any accessories. Any changes in the total dead-load
value may result in an increase or decrease of the required section modulus.
Component Loads
6-71. Compute the dead load for the deck as follows:
bs U m ts
w d = ---------------
- (6-35)
12,000
where—
wd = dead load due to the deck, in kpf

bS = slab width in the transverse direction, in feet (usually bR + 4)
Um = unit weight of the material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 6-4,
page 6-10)
tS = slab thickness, in inches
6-72. Compute the dead load for the wearing surface as follows:
bR Uw tw
w w = -----------------
- (6-36)
12,000
where—
ww = dead load due to the wearing surface, in kpf

bR = curb-to-curb width, in feet
(Table 6-4)
6-73. Compute the dead load for the stringers as follows:
At Um Ns
w s = ------------------
- (6-37)
144,000
where—
wS = weight of the timber stringers, in kpf

At = cross-sectional area of one timber stringer, in square inches
Um = unit weight of the material, in pounds per cubic foot (Table 6-4)
NS = total number of stringers in the span
6-74. For steel stringers, the last number in the nomenclature of a steel
section corresponds to its weight (in pounds per foot). For example, as shown
in Appendix D, a W27x94 would indicate that this section weighs 94 pounds
per foot. Compute the weight due to the steel stringers as follows:
Ws Ns
w s = ------------
- (6-38)
1,000

FM 3-34.343
where—
wS = weight of steel stringers, in kpf

WS = weight of the steel section, in pounds per foot (Appendix D)
6-75. Compute the dead load due to accessories as follows:
wacc = 0.1 for timber-deck bridges (6-39)
or—
wacc = 0.4 for concrete-deck bridges (6-40)
where—
wacc = dead load due to the accessories, in kpf
6-76. Compute the length of the lateral bracing as follows:

t ws
L b = ( N s – 1 )  Ss – -----
- (6-41)
 12 
where—
Lb = length of the lateral braces, in feet
NS = number of stringers in the transverse direction of the bridge
tws = thickness of the web of the stringer, in inches
and—
( N b – 2 )L b U m
w b = ---------------------------------
- (6-42)
L
where—
wb = weight of the lateral braces, in kpf

Nb = total number of lateral braces in the span
Lb = length of the lateral braces, in feet (equation 6-41)
Um = unit weight of the lateral-bracing material, in kpf (the last number in the
nomenclature is the kpf for steel and 0.1 kpf for timber)
Actual Dead Loads

6-77. Compute the total actual dead load as follows:
W′ DL = w d + w w + w s + w acc + w b (6-43)
where—
W′DL = total actual dead load, in kpf

wd = dead load due to the deck, in kpf (equation 6-35)
ww = dead load due to the wearing surface, in kpf (equation 6-36)

FM 3-34.343
wS = weight of the stringer, in kpf (equation 6-37 for timber and

equation 6-38 for steel)
wacc = dead load due to the accessories, in kpf (equation 6-39 for timber-deck
bridges and equation 6-40 for concrete-deck bridges)
wb = weight of the lateral braces, in kpf (equation 6-42)
6-78. Compute the actual dead load carried per stringer as follows:
W′ DL
w′DL = -----------
- (6-44)
Ns
where—
w′DL = actual dead load carried per stringer, in kpf
W′DL = total actual dead load, in kpf (equation 6-43)
6-79. Compare the actual dead load to the estimated design dead load per
stringer as follows:
W DL
w′ DL ≤ ---------- (6-45)
Ns
where—
w′DL = actual dead load carried per stringer, in kpf (equation 6-44)
WDL = estimated design dead load, in kpf (equation 6-22)
6-80. If the results of equation 6-45 work, then the selected bridge
components are considered adequate based on the estimated dead load.
Complete the design and classify the bridge as described in Chapter 3. If the
results of equation 6-45 do not work, adjust the stringer size by redoing all the
necessary calculations as follows:
• Replace the estimated design dead load (equation 6-22) with the total
actual dead load (equation 6-43).
• Recompute all related equations to obtain a new section modulus, and
select a new stringer section.
• Check the dead-load requirements with the values and continue
recomputing until the results of equation 6-45 work.
SHEAR-FORCE CHECK
6-81. After selecting a stringer size, check the stringer’s shear capacity. In
most timber-stringer bridges with spans of less than 20 feet, shear controls
the design. In steel-stringer bridges with a high design classification and
short spans (20 feet or less), shear may be a critical factor.
Dead-Load Shear per Stringer

6-82. Assume that the design dead-load shear is equally distributed among all
the stringers. Compute the design dead-load shear per stringer as follows:
w′ DL L
v′ DL = --------------
- (6-46)
2N S

FM 3-34.343
where—
v′DL = design dead-load shear per stringer, in kips

w′DL = actual dead load carried per stringer, in kpf (equation 6-44)
NS = total number of stringers
Design Live-Load Shear

6-83. Determine the design live-load shear. Use Table B-3, pages B-10
through B-13.
6-84. Effective Live-Load Shear per Stringer. The effective live-load
shear must account for the loads at the abutments or intermediate supports
and for those further out on the span. Since steel-stringer bridges act very
similarly to glue-laminated timber bridges, the equations used to compute the
effective live-load shear per stringer are the same. The live-load shear per
stringer corresponds to the largest value from the following equations:
• Wheeled vehicle, one traffic lane.
S V′ LL – V A
v LL =  0.5 + -----s- V A +  ----------------------- (6-47)
 32  N 1, 2 
where—
vLL = effective live-load shear per stringer, in kips

VA = heaviest axle load, in kips (Table B-1, pages B-2 through B-5,
Column 4)
V′LL = design live-load shear for wheeled vehicles, in kips
(paragraph 6-83)
N1,2 = effective number of stringers (Table 3-3, page 3-14)
• Wheeled vehicle, two or more traffic lanes.
Ss – 2 V′ LL – V A
v LL =  ------------- V A +  ----------------------- (6-48)
 Ss   N 1, 2 
where—

VA = heaviest axle load, in kips (Table B-1, Column 4).
(paragraph 6-83)
N1,2 = effective number of stringers (Table 3-3)
• Tracked vehicle, one traffic lane.
V′ LL
v LL = ---------
- (6-49)
2
where—

FM 3-34.343
V′LL = design live-load shear for tracked vehicles, in kips

(paragraph 6-83)
• Tracked vehicle, two or more traffic lanes.
Ss – 2
v LL =  ------------- V′ LL (6-50)
 Ss 
where—

V′LL = design live-load shear for tracked vehicles, in kips
(paragraph 6-83)
6-85. Design Live-Load Shear per Stringer. Compute the design live-load
shear per stringer as follows:
L – 0.0833 ds
v′ LL =  ------------------------------- v LL ≥ 0.75v LL (6-51)
 L 
where—
v′LL = design live-load shear per stringer, in kips

dS = depth of the steel stringer, in inches (Appendix D)
vLL = effective live-load shear per stringer, in kips (the largest value of wheeled
or tracked classification from equations 6-47 through 6-50)
6-86. Design Shear per Stringer. Compute the design shear per stringer
and the actual shear stress acting on the stringer as follows:
v = v′ DL + 1.15v′ LL (6-52)
where—
v = design shear per stringer, in kips

v′DL = dead-load shear per stringer, in kips (equation 6-46)
v′LL = design live-load shear per stringer, in kips (equation 6-51)
and—
3v
f ′ v = -------- ≤ F v (6-53)
2A s
where—
f ′v = actual shear stress, in ksi

v = design shear per stringer, in kips (equation 6-52)
AS = area of a stringer, in square inches (Appendix C for timber and
Appendix D for steel)
Fv = allowable shear stress, in ksi (paragraph 6-53 for timber and

FM 3-34.343
6-87. If the actual shear stress (equation 6-53) is less than or equal to the
allowable shear stress, the stringer will not have to be adjusted. However, if
the actual shear stress is greater than the allowable shear stress, select a
larger stringer size that satisfies the shear strength and moment capacity
requirements.
END-BEARING DESIGN (TIMBER STRINGERS)

6-88. Although bearing failure in timber stringers is rare, the bearing stress
should still be checked. The minimum width of the cap (or sill) required for
timber stringers is 6 inches (Figure 6-10). Compute the actual bearing stress
as follows:
v
f ′ b = ---------- (6-54)
bsbc
where—
f ′b = actual bearing stress, in ksi

bS = width of the timber stringer, in inches
bc = cap or sill width, in inches (which should be ≥ 6 inches)
bc ≥ 6″
bs
LEGEND:
bc = width of cap
bs = width of stringer
Figure 6-10. End-Bearing Timber Stringer
6-89. The actual bearing stress should not exceed the allowable bearing
stress. The values for allowable bearing stress for timber are shown in
Table 6-8, page 6-30. These design values are given for the wet- and dry-
service conditions and were obtained as the average stress value from various
species combinations. If the actual bearing stress exceeds the allowable

FM 3-34.343
bearing stress, then increase either the width of the cap or the width of the
stringer to provide a sufficient bearing area.
Table 6-8. Allowable Bearing Stress for Timber
Service Conditions Allowable Bearing Stress (ksi)
Sawn lumber (wet condition) 1.15
Sawn lumber (dry condition):
5 x 5 inches or larger 1.32
2 x 4 inches thick 1.73
Glue-laminated (wet or dry) 2.04
END-BEARING DESIGN (STEEL STRINGERS)

6-9 0. Be aring p late s a re d es igned t o trans mit the load s from the
superstructure into the substructure. If the bearing-seat area is insufficient to
carry the load, failure will occur. Bearing failure causes the materials that
bear together to crush, which may lead to stringer-flange failure. Another type
of failure is web crippling (failure of the web portion of the stringer). Web
crippling occurs due to the stress concentrations at the junction of the flange
and the web where the beam is trying to transfer compression from a wide
flange to a narrow web. Figure 6-11 shows various types of end-bearing
failures. Bearing plates are designed to prevent flange failure and crushing of
the supports. Web crippling can be prevented by designing end-bearing
stiffeners.
Flange and
timber-cap failure Web crippling (due
to insufficient seat)
Seat
Figure 6-11. End-Bearing Failures

FM 3-34.343
Bearing Plates
6-91. End-bearing plates are typically required when steel stringers rest on
concrete or timber supports. Their design is based on the design shear
transmitted to the support (adjusted if the actual dead load [equation 6-45] is
greater than the estimated design dead load [equation 6-22]).
6-92. Bearing-Plate Area. The required bearing-plate area is determined by
the allowable bearing stress of the support and the design shear that is
carried to the support. Compute as follows:
v
A pl = ------ (6-55)
FB
where—
Apl = bearing-plate area, in square inches

FB = allowable bearing stress of the support material, in ksi (equal to 0.75Fy)
6-93. Plate Width and Length. The most economical plate design results
when the seat width (which is the length of the plate) is increased while the
plate width is minimized. The minimum width of the plate should be equal to
the stringer-flange width. The minimum seat length is 6 inches. Therefore,
the minimum plate area is six times the flange width.
6-94. Plate Thickness. Use these steps to determine the plate thickness.
Step 1. Compute the actual bearing stress as follows:
v
f ′ B = ------------ (6-56)
b pl b c
where—
f ′B = actual bearing stress, in ksi

bpl = plate width, in inches (paragraph 6-93)
bc = cap or sill width, in inches (should be greater than or equal to 6 inches)
Step 2. Compute the required thickness of the bearing plate as follows:
b pl  2
3f ′ B  ------ – tf
 2 
t pl = ---------------------------------- (6-57)
Fb
where—
tpl = required plate thickness, in inches

f ′B = actual bearing stress, in ksi (equation 6-56)
bpl = plate width, in inches (paragraph 6-93)
tf = flange thickness, in inches
Fb = allowable bending stress, in ksi (paragraph 6-53 for timber and

FM 3-34.343
Step 3. Select a bearing-plate thickness from the following available

standard thicknesses:
• 1/32-inch increments (up to 1/2 inch).
• 1/16-inch increments (from 1/2 up to 1 inch).
• 1/8-inch increments (from 1 up to 3 inches).
• 1/4-inch increments (for 3 inches or greater).
Step 4. Build the bearing plate to the required thickness by laminating the
plates. Fully weld the perimeters of the plate.
6-95. Web Crippling. Check for web crippling. If the actual bearing stress in
the web exceeds the allowable bearing stress, use end-bearing stiffeners or
increase the length of the bearing plate. Compute the actual bearing stress as
follows:
v
f ′ bw = ------------------------ ≤ F B (6-58)
tw( bc + tf )
where—
f ′bw = actual bearing stress in the web, in ksi

tw = web thickness, in inches
bc = cap or sill width, in inches (should be greater than or equal to 6 inches)
FB = allowable bearing stress, in ksi (equal to 0.9Fy)
End-Bearing Stiffeners
6-96. End-bearing stiffeners are normally not required for standard, rolled
shapes unless abutment or intermediate-support dimensions restrict the
length of the bearing plate. However, the web may have to be stiffened to
prevent it from buckling. If end-bearing stiffeners are needed, construct them
of angles or plates on each side of the stringer web. Position them over the
center of the bearing at the end of each stringer. Ensure that they fit tightly
against the flanges being loaded. Mill the top and bottom of the stiffener to
bear against the flanges of the stringer, and extend them out as far as possible
toward the edges of the flange (Figure 6-12). Compute the minimum required
thickness of the end-bearing stiffeners as follows:
Le F
t = ------ -----y- (6-59)
12 33
where—
t = required thickness of end-bearing stiffeners, in inches

Le = effective stiffener width, in inches (Figure 6-12)
Fy = yield strength of steel, in ksi (Table 6-7, page 6-18)
6-97. Provide sufficient welding (or bolting) to transfer the total end shear
through the web. Do not crimp the angles used as end stiffeners to fit over the
flange angles. Instead, use filler plates between the web and the stiffeners.

FM 3-34.343
t
d d
Seat Seat
Le LPL LPL
End View Side View
LEGEND:
d = stiffener depth (web depth)
Le = effective stiffener length
LPL = seat length
t = stiffener thickness
Figure 6-12. End-Bearing Stiffener

FM 3-34.343

Chapter 7
Substructure Design
To design a substructure properly, a designer must know or assume the
loads acting on the substructure. Assumed loads must be verified before
completing the final design. Since many loads can act on the substructure,
not all loads will act with full intensity at the same time. To apply the
appropriate loads to the substructure design, the designer must determine
the critical combination of loads for given conditions.
ABUTMENT DESIGN PROCEDURE

7-1. There are separate design procedures depending on the type of load
acting on the abutment. Determine the vertical or horizontal load as discussed
below.
VERTICAL LOADS
7-2. For abutments constructed of piles or posts and footings, determine the
total loads acting on the entire abutment. For continuous abutments (such as
mass or reinforced concrete) (Figure 7-1), determine the load per foot of
abutment length. The dead load acts vertically through the centerline of the
bearing plate (Figure 7-2, page 7-2).
1 foot
Figure 7-1. Typical Concrete Abutment
Substructure Design 7-1

FM 3-34.343
Dead and live loads
Bearing plate
Figure 7-2. Dead- and Live-Load Action on an Abutment
Superstructure Dead Load

7-3. Compute the superstructure dead load as follows:
• Piles or posts.
L
P DL = W′ DL --- (7-1)
2
where—
PDL = dead load on the piles or posts, in kips
W ′DL = total actual dead load, in kpf (equation 6-43)
• Concrete.
L
P DL = W′ DL --------- (7-2)
2L a
where—
PDL = dead load on concrete, in kpf

W ′DL = total actual dead load, in kpf (equation 6-43)
La = abutment length, in feet
7-2 Substructure Design

FM 3-34.343
Live Load
7-4. The live load acts vertically through the centerline of the bearing plate
(Figure 7-2). Impact loads are not included. Compute the live load as follows:
• Piles or posts.
P LL = V LL N (7-3)
where—
PLL = live load on piles or posts, in kips

VLL = maximum live-load shear per lane, in kips (larger value from
Figure B-3 or B-4, pages B-17 and B-18)
N = number of lanes
• Concrete.
V LL N
P LL = ------------
- (7-4)
La
where—
PLL = live load on concrete, in kpf

VLL = maximum live-load shear per lane, in kips (larger value from
Figure B-3 or B-4)
N = number of lanes
Abutment Weight
7-5. The weight of timber or steel abutments is negligible since it is small in
comparison to other vertical abutment loads. However, the weight of concrete
abutments should be included in the design loads. Divide the cross-sectional
shape of an abutment into sections of known size, shape, and cross-sectional
area (Figure 7-3, page 7-4). The weight of any section acts vertically through
the centroid of that section. Compute the weight of any section per foot of
abutment length as follows:
w = Au (7-5)
where—
w = weight of any abutment section (1-foot-wide strip), in kpf

A = area of the abutment section, in square feet
u = unit weight of abutment material (concrete weighs 0.15 kips per cubic
foot)
Soil Forces
7-6. Use equation 7-5 and compute the weight of soil acting on the rear face
and heel of the abutment (Appendix I). To account for vehicular traffic
approaching the abutment, assume placing a hypothetical layer of soil

FM 3-34.343
P7
Surcharge hsu
Bearing plate
P5
P3 P6
Hs ha
P2
P4
ha H
------ b
2
Height of passive P1
force hp
Hp
ba ha
hp ------
------ 3
3
LEGEND:
ba = abutment width, in feet hp = height of soil providing passive resistance
ha = abutment height Hs = horizontal force due to surcharge
Hb = horizontal force due to active earth pressure hsu = height of surcharge
Hp = horizontal force due to passive earth pressure P1-7 = vertical loads for Sections 1-7
Figure 7-3. Abutment Sectioning, Load Centers, and Soil Forces
(surcharge) over the backfill at the abutment. Figure 7-3 shows vertical soil
forces. Compute the height of the surcharge as follows:
MLC
h su = ------------- (7-6)
20
where—
hsu = surcharge height, in feet

MLC = military load classification
Hydrostatic Uplift
7-7. Properly locate the abutment, and provide drainage to avoid hydrostatic
uplift forces on the abutment. Eliminate hydrostatic uplift forces by locating
the abutment well above the flood stage, by providing granular material
behind and under the abutment, and by installing weep holes in the
abutment. Methods for draining water from behind and under abutments are
discussed in paragraphs 7-31 and 7-44.
HORIZONTAL LOADS
7-8. Horizontal loads acting on abutments are created by soil, water,
temperature, and vehicles. These loads are computed per foot of abutment
length.

FM 3-34.343
Soil Forces
7-9. Use the Rankine equations from Introductory Soil Mechanics and
Foundations: Geotechnic Engineering to compute the horizontal surcharge
and backfill forces as shown below. Figure 7-3 shows the actions of these
forces. In most cases, passive pressure is so negligible that it is not considered,
resulting in a somewhat conservative design.
• Coefficient of active earth pressure.
θ
K a = tan 45° –  ---
2
(7-7)
 2
where—
Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure

θ = angle of internal friction (Table H-1, page H-1)
• Coefficient of passive earth pressure.
θ
K p = tan 45° +  ---
2
(7-8)
 2
where—
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure

θ = angle of internal friction (Table H-1)
• Soil forces and point of application.
■ Horizontal surcharge force.

ha
H s = ( K a uh su )h a @ ----- (7-9)
2
where—
Hs = horizontal surcharge force, in kpf

Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure (equation 7-7)
u = unit weight of backfill, in kips per cubic foot (Table H-1)
hsu = surcharge height, in feet (equation 7-6)
ha = abutment height, in feet
■ Horizontal backfill force.

ha ha
H b = ( K a uh a )  ----- @ ----- (7-10)
 2 3
where—
Hb = horizontal backfill force, in kpf

Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure (equation 7-7)
u = unit weight of backfill, in kips per cubic foot (Table H-1)

FM 3-34.343
■ Horizontal force due to passive earth pressure.

hp
H p = K p uh p  ----- (7-11)
 2
where—
Hp = horizontal force due to passive earth pressure, in kpf

Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure (equation 7-8)
u = unit weight of backfill, in kips per cubic foot (Table H-1,
page H-1)
hp = height of passive force, in feet (Figure 7-3, page 7-4)
Water Forces
7-10. Water that collects behind an abutment will create a horizontal force
that can be eliminated by proper drainage. See paragraph 7-45 for methods of
draining water from behind and under abutments.
Temperature Forces
7-11. Temperature forces are negligible in simply supported stringer bridges
designed for military purposes. Bearing plates support each end of every steel
stringer. One end of the stringer is rigidly attached so that there is no
movement between the stringer and the support. The other end is attached so
that movement is allowed along the length of the stringer. As the stringer
expands or contracts due to temperature changes, temperature forces are
dissipated at the free end. The fixed bearing plate is normally placed on the
abutment end of the stringer.
Vehicular Longitudinal Forces

7-12. As vehicles accelerate or brake on a bridge span, a longitudinal force is
transmitted to the substructure through the fixed bearing plates. Compute
the vehicular force as follows:
0.05WN
H v = ------------------- (7-12)
La
where—
Hv = vehicle force per foot of abutment length, in kips

W = vehicle weight, in kips
N = number of vehicles per lane
7-13. The number of vehicles allowed per lane is based on the span length and
the vehicle spacing (at least 100 feet). Since vehicles traveling in opposite
directions have canceling effects on loads, the worst loading conditions occur
when vehicles move in only one direction. Therefore, the number of vehicles on
a span is for one lane only. At the expansion bearing plate, the vehicle force is
zero. The vehicle force acts horizontally on the fixed bearing plate
(Figure 7-4).

FM 3-34.343
Fixed bearing plate
Deck Stringers
Abutment
Figure 7-4. Vehicular Longitudinal Force
LATERAL LOADS
7-14. Lateral loads acting on abutments are negligible.
ABUTMENT SELECTION
7-15. Abutments may be timber, steel, concrete, or a combination of these
materials. The abutments may rest directly on the soil (as in the case of
concrete), or they may rest on footings or piles. Figure 7-5 and Figures 7-6
through 7-11, pages 7-8 through 7-10, show typical abutments. Table 7-1,
page 7-11, gives a general guide to the types of abutments used under various
conditions.
Tread
End dam
Deck
Stringer Footing
Sill
Figure 7-5. Timber-Sill Abutment

FM 3-34.343
Wing wall
Cap or sill Deadman
End dam
Cables
Footing
Bearing block
Bearing plates
Posts
Figure 7-6. Timber-Bent Abutment
Cap
Retaining wall
Wing pile
Bearing pile
Figure 7-7. Timber-Pile Abutment

FM 3-34.343
End dam
Piles
Cap
Figure 7-8. Steel-Pile Abutment
End dam
Bearing seat
Figure 7-9. Mass-Concrete Abutment

FM 3-34.343
End dam
Top of roadway
Bearing seat
Battered pile Pile
Figure 7-10. Concrete Abutment on Piles
End dam
Bearing seat
Stem Reinforcing bars
Toe
Heel
Footing
Figure 7-11. Reinforced Concrete Abutment

FM 3-34.343
Table 7-1. Abutment Types
Type Span Height Remarks
Highway bridges only. Designed

Timber sill ≤ 25 feet ≤ 3 feet for vertical loads only and steel
or timber stringers.
High bridges only. Designed for

vertical loads. Deadman used for
Timber bent ≤ 30 feet ≤ 6 feet
horizontal stability. Used with
steel or timber stringers.
Designed for vertical and

Timber or steel pile Any length ≤ 10 feet longitudinal loads and steel or
timber stringers.
Most permanent type. Designed

Mass or reinforced
Any length ≤ 20 feet for vertical and longitudinal loads
concrete
and steel or timber stringers.
7-16. The general principles of abutment design are applicable to any type of
abutment resting on the ground or on footings, with only a few modifications
for abutments resting on piles. These principles also apply directly to the
design of retaining walls. Abutments must be designed to avoid the following
types of failure:
• Overturning.
• Sliding.
• Soil bearing.
• Soil shear.
• Material.
7-17. Since abutments are subjected to various types of loadings during
construction and use, the load cases must be considered (Table 7-2).
Figure 7-12, page 7-12, shows a sample chart of abutment loads and moments.
Table 7-2. Load Cases
Case Description Vertical Loads Horizontal Loads
Abutment weight plus the soil Soil forces (including the

I Unloaded
weight (including the surcharge) surcharge)
Case I plus the superstructure’s

II Dead load Case I
dead load
Case II plus the vehicular

Case II plus the live load minus
III Live load longitudinal force minus the
the surcharge
surcharge

FM 3-34.343
Load Arm Mr Load Arm Mo

Case
(kips) (ft) (kip-ft) (kips) (ft) (kip-ft)
— P1 = 1.425 2.375 3.384 Hs = 0.902 4.000 3.608
— P2 = 0.438 1.500 0.657 Hb = 1.202 2.667 3.206
— P3 = 0.900 2.500 2.250 — — —
— P4 = 0.450 3.333 1.500 — — —
— P5 = 0.390 3.667 1.430 — — —
— P6 = 0.585 4.375 2.559 — — —
— P7 = 1.073 3.375 3.621 — — —
∑P = 5.261 ∑Mr = 15.401

I
PDL = 0.821 1.500 1.232 ∑H = 2.104 — ∑Mo = 6.814
∑P = 6.082 ∑Mr = 16.633 ∑H = 2.104 ∑Mo = 6.814
II
PLL = 6.171 1.500 9.527 Hv = 0.250 4.920 1.230
-P7 = 1.073 3.375 -3.621 -Hs = 0.902 4.000 -3.608
III ∑P = 11.180 — ∑Mr = 22.269 ∑H = 1.452 — ∑Mo = 4.436
LEGEND:
H = horizontal load Mr = minimum resisting moment per pile, in kip-feet
Hb = horizontal backfill force, in kpf P = total load, in kips
Hs = horizontal surcharge force, in kpf P1-7 = vertical loads for Sections 1-7
Hv = vehicle force per foot of abutment length, in kips PDL = dead load of the substructure, in kips
Mo = overturning moment, in kpf PLL = live load of the substructure, in kips
Figure 7-12. Sample Chart of Abutment Loads and Moments
ABUTMENT DESIGNS
TIMBER-FOOTING AND TIMBER-BENT ABUTMENTS

7-18. Determine the loads using the procedures in paragraphs 7-2 through
7-4. Consider only live and dead loads. Compute the total load for the
abutment as follows:
Ns
P = P DL + P LL  ----- (7-13)
 4
where—
P = total load, in kips

PDL = dead load of the substructure, in kips (equation 7-1 or 7-2)
PLL = live load of the substructure, in kips (equation 7-3 or 7-4)
Ns = number of stringers supported by the abutment (equation 6-1)

FM 3-34.343
Abutments
7-19. Choose the abutment length so that the following requirement is met:
b R < L a ≤ ( b R + 4 ft ) (7-14)
where—

Posts
7-20. Compute the allowable bearing capacity per post and the required
number of posts as follows:
• Allowable bearing capacity per post.
PB = Fc A (7-15)
where—
PB = allowable bearing capacity of the pile or post, in kips

Fc = allowable compression, parallel to the grain of the post
material, in ksi (Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6)
A = cross-sectional area of the post, in square inches (Table C-5,
page C-10)
• Required number of posts. The number of posts must be greater

than or equal to the number of stringers.
P
N p = ------ (7-16)
PB
where—
Np = number of posts in the abutment (the number of posts is greater

than or equal to the number of stringers
P = total load, in kips (equation 7-13)
PB = allowable bearing capacity of the post, in kips (equation 7-15)
Caps and Sills

7-21. The following equations apply to both caps and sills. The absolute
minimum size for a cap or sill is 6 x 8 inches. If a sill is used, it should be the
same size as the cap.
• Width. After determining the cap or sill width for stringers,

substitute the post size for the stringer size in the following equation
and use the larger of the two results as the cap or sill width:
P
b c = ----------------- (7-17)
N p bs F c

FM 3-34.343
where—
bc = cap or sill width, in inches

Np = number of posts in the abutment (equation 7-16 or
DA Form 1249)
bs = stringer or post width, in inches
Fc = allowable compression of the supports perpendicular to the
grain of the support material, in ksi (Table C-1, pages C-3
through C-6)
• Depth. Compute the depth as follows:

L a 12
d = ----------------------
- (7-18)
( N p – 1 )5
where—
d = cap depth, in inches

Np = number of posts (equation 7-16)
Footings
7-22. Each post or stringer (whichever is used) must rest on a footing.
Compute the allowable length, the area, the capacity, and the number of
footings as follows:
• Allowable length.
Lf = bc + K (7-19)
where—
Lf = footing length, in inches. (Round the footing length down if

desired.)
bc = cap or sill width, in inches (equation 7-17)
K = soil-bearing-capacity coefficient (Figure H-1, page H-3)
• Area.
Af = Lf bf (7-20)
where—
Af = footing area, in square inches

Lf = actual footing length, in inches (equation 7-19)
bf = actual footing width, in inches
• Capacity.
F f = A f F Bs (7-21)
where—
Ff = footing capacity, in kips

FM 3-34.343
Af = footing area, in square feet (equation 7-20)

FBs = soil bearing capacity, in kips per square foot (ksf) (Table H-1)
• Number of footings. The required number of footings will be greater

than or equal to the number of posts or stringers.
P
N f = ----- (7-22)
Ff
where—
Nf = number of footings
Ff = footing capacity, in kips (equation 7-21)
End Dam and Deadmen

7-23. Material used in an end dam should be at least 3 inches thick to prevent
failure from earth pressure. Install deadmen if using a timber bent (see
paragraph 7-58 for a deadman design).
TIMBER- AND STEEL-PILE ABUTMENT DESIGNS

7-24. Follow the procedures described for the design of pile foundations in
paragraph 7-100.
MASS-CONCRETE ABUTMENT DESIGN

7-25. Mass-concrete abutments are used when the abutment will or is
expected to be in contact with the stream or if the required height is greater
than ten feet. Design mass-concrete abutments by trial and error.
Dimensions
7-26. Base the estimate of the overall height of an abutment on local site
conditions. An abutment should extend far enough below the ground’s surface
so that it rests on firm soil. If the overall height exceeds 20 feet, a mass-
concrete structure becomes uneconomical and a pile foundation should be
considered. Once the abutment height is determined, use the following
guidelines to estimate other dimensions (Figure 7-13, page 7-16). Always
check the safety of any abutment designed by these guidelines. Assume the
following dimensions and loads:
• The abutment width is 40 to 60 percent of the abutment height, in
feet.
• The footing height is 1 to 2 feet.
• The toe and heel width are ¾ to 1 ½ feet and are less than or equal to
75 percent of the footing height.
• The seat width is greater than or equal to the cap or sill width, and the
cap or sill width is greater than or equal to ¾ foot.
• The superstructure height is measured from the bottom of the bearing

plate to the top of the deck, in feet.

FM 3-34.343
b1
b2
ha
Bearing seat
End dam
LEGEND:
bh ha = abutment height
bt
Stem hf = footing height (1 to 2 ft)
b1 = minimum of 12 in
hf L
Toe Heel b2 = bearing-seat width (minimum 0.75 ft)
ba bt = toe width (0.75 to 1.5 ft and 0.75 hf)
Point A Footing ba = footing width (0.4 to 0.6 ha)
(critical point bh = heel width (0.75 to 1.5 ft and 0.75 hf)
for overturning)
L = abutment length (bR + 4 ft)
Figure 7-13. Mass-Concrete-Abutment Design Dimensions
7-27. If any of the safety criteria fail, choose new dimensions. A heel and toe
are not mandatory for mass-concrete abutments, but they are recommended
because they provide additional stability and aid in drainage. Once the
preliminary dimensions are selected, determine all the loads that act on the
abutment, using the methods described in paragraphs 7-2 and 7-8.
Loading Case Values

7-28. For easy computations, set the values for the loads, lever arms, and
moments as shown in Figure 7-12, page 7-12. The moment arm is the
perpendicular distance from the abutment toe to the line of action of the given
load. Determine the moments about the toe, since this is the critical point for
overturning. Use the tabulated values to check the safety of the abutment
against sliding, overturning, and soil-bearing failure.
Sliding Check
7-29. Compute the safety factor of sliding for loading Cases I and III as
follows:
Σ P ( Kf )
SF = ------------------ ≥ 1.5 (7-23)
ΣH
where—
SF = safety factor (if the safety factor is less than 1.5 for any loading case, take
steps to prevent sliding [as discussed below])
∑P = total of the vertical loads, in kips (paragraph 7-2)

FM 3-34.343
Kf = friction coefficient, (Table H-2, page H-2)

∑H = total of the horizontal forces, in kips (paragraph 7-8)
Overturning Check
7-30. Compute the safety factor of overturning for loading Cases I and III as
follows:
Σ Mr
SF ----------- ≥ 2 (7-24)
Σ Mo
where—
SF = safety factor for overturning (if the safety factor is less than 2, take steps
to prevent overturning [as discussed below])
∑Mr = total of the resisting moments, in kip-feet (Figure 7-12)
∑Mo = total of the overturning moments, in kip-feet (Figure 7-12)
Sliding and Overturning Prevention

7-31. Do one or more of the actions discussed below to prevent sliding and
overturning.
7-32. Modify the Abutment or Heel. Increase the size of the abutment or
the length of the heel so that more weight acts vertically.
7-33. Modify the Superstructure Placement. If sliding or overturning is
critical for Case I (unloaded) only, place the superstructure onto the abutment
before backfilling the space behind the abutment.
7-34. Modify the Friction Coefficient. Increase the friction coefficient by
adding a layer of gravel under the abutment. Use a filter layer to prevent fine
material from washing out through the gravel.
7-35. Install a Deadmen. Install a deadmen behind the abutment.
Paragraph 7-58 describes a deadman design.
7-36. Construct a Key. Construct a key as shown in Figure 7-14, page 7-18.
This key will develop passive earth forces that will help resist sliding. Use half
the value of the horizontal force in safety computations, since the full value
will probably never be developed.
• Compute the horizontal force due to passive earth pressure.
Compute as follows:
2 2
Kp u ( h 1 – h 2 )
H f = -----------------------------------
- (7-25)
2
where—
Hf = horizontal force due to the passive earth pressure, per foot of

abutment, in kips
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure (equation 7-8)
u = unit weight of backfill, in kips per cubic foot (Table H-1,
page H-1)
h1 = passive force height, including the key, in feet (Figure 7-14)
h2 = original passive force height, in feet (Figure 7-14)

FM 3-34.343
Reinforcing bar
h2
h1
hk
LEGEND:
h1 = passive force
h2 = original passive-force height bk
hk = height of key
bk = width of key
Figure 7-14. Abutment Key
• Compute the dimensions. If necessary, choose and modify the

preliminary key dimensions as follows:
ha
h k ≈ ----- (7-26)
4
where—
hk = key height, in feet

and—
hk
b k ≈ ----- (7-27)
3
where—
bk = key width, in feet (greater than or equal to 1 foot)
hk = key height, in feet
• Reinforce the key to prevent failure due to concrete stresses.

Use No. 4 bars with 1-foot, center-to-center spacing. Extend the bars 1
foot into the body of the abutment. Use a concrete cover (minimum of
3 inches) over the reinforcing steel.
• Modify the design. If placing the abutment on piles, design the piles
to carry the full load (including the abutment weight).
Paragraph 7-100 describes pile foundations.

FM 3-34.343
Soil Bearing Capacity

7-37. Determine the allowable soil bearing capacity for the specific site, if
possible. Otherwise, use Appendix H to estimate the soil bearing capacity. The
criteria for proper soil bearing capacity are the—
• Eccentric distance is less than or equal to one-sixth the abutment

width for all three cases.
• Minimum pressure of eccentricity is less than or equal to the soil

bearing capacity for Case III.
7-38. Eccentric Distance. Since horizontal and vertical forces act on an
abutment, the pressure it exerts on the soil varies. The resultant force due to
soil pressure acts at an eccentric distance from the geometric center of the
abutment.
7-39. Compute the eccentric distance as follows:
b Σ M r – Σ Mo
e = ----a- – ---------------------------
- (7-28)
2 Σp
where—
e = eccentric distance, in feet

ba = abutment width, in feet
∑Mr = total of all resisting moments for the specific case, in kip-feet
(Figure 7-12, page 7-12)
∑Mo = total of all overturning moments for a specific case, in kip-feet
(Figure 7-12)
∑P = total of the vertical forces acting downward for a specific case, in kips
(Figure 7-12)
7-40. If the sign of the eccentric distance is positive, the resultant force is to
the left of the centerlin e and maximum pressure occurs at the toe
(Figure 7-15A, page 7-20). If the sign of the eccentric distance is negative, the
resultant force is to the right of the centerline and maximum pressure occurs
at the heel (Figure 7-15B).
7-41. Load Eccentricity. The resultant force must be within the middle
third of the abutment. If the eccentric distance is less than one-sixth of the
abutment width, the resultant force is within the middle third of the
abutment. If the eccentric distance is greater than one-sixth of the abutment
width, the resultant force is outside the middle third, indicating that the soil
is in tension (Figure 7-16, page 7-20). However, since soil cannot take tension,
the resultant load is spread over a smaller area, which increases the
maximum pressure and possibly leads to failure. Determine the eccentricity of
load for each loading case to ensure that the eccentric distance is less than or
equal to one-sixth of the abutment width. To correct excessive load
eccentricity, increase the toe or heel length so that the eccentric distance is
within the middle third of the abutment.
7-42. Maximum Soil Pressure. The maximum soil pressure must not
exceed the allowable soil bearing capacity. Determine the maximum pressure
for Case III only, since the worst loading condition occurs for this case.

FM 3-34.343
A Total vertical forces B Total vertical forces
L1 Total horizontal Total horizontal

forces L1 forces
Centerline
Centerline
L2
Toe Heel Toe Heel
e
e
Resistance
Resistance Middle third
Middle third LEGEND:
e = absolute value of the eccentric distance
L1 = moment arm for vertical forces
L2 = moment arm for horizontal forces
Figure 7-15. Eccentric Distance
Toe Heel
Avoid this situation.
Resistance LEGEND:
Middle third e = absolute value of the eccentric distance
Figure 7-16. Eccentricity Outside the Middle Third of the Abutment

FM 3-34.343
Compute the maximum pressure for eccentricity within the middle third of
the abutment as follows:
ΣP 6
P mx = -------  1 + -----e (7-29)
ba  b a
where—
Pmx = maximum pressure exerted on the soil, in ksf
e = absolute value of the eccentric distance, in feet (equation 7-28)
7-43. Minimum Soil Pressure. Compute the minimum soil pressure for
eccentricity within the middle third of the abutment as follows:
ΣP 6e
P mn = -------  1 – ----- (7-30)
ba ba
where—
Pmn = minimum pressure exerted on the soil, in ksf

e = absolute value of the eccentric distance, in feet (equation 7-28)
Soil Shear Failure

7-44. Soil shear failure is a landslide-type failure involving the abutment and
the mass of earth under and behind the abutment. Figure 7-17 shows typical
soil shear failure. The primary causes of soil shear failure are—
• The slope in front of the abutment is too steep.
• Scour occurs under the abutment.
• The backfill is saturated with water or eroded from the sides of the
abutment.
Before
After
Figure 7-17. Soil Shear Failure

FM 3-34.343
7-45. To prevent soil shear failure, ensure that the slope in front of the
abutment is no more than 45 degrees and preferably less than 35 degrees
(Figure 7-18A). Place riprap in front of the abutment to prevent scour. If
riprap is not available or the slope cannot be made less than 45 degrees, drive
sheet piles in front of the abutment. The sheet piles must extend below the
b o t to m o f t h e g a p a nd b e a nc ho r e d ne ar t he t o p w it h a d e ad ma n
(Figure 7-18B). The abutment can be placed on friction or bearing piles.
Backfill the abutment with sand and gravel and install weep holes for
drainage. Protect weep holes with a filter. Also, install granular material
under the abutment, especially if the soil contains clay. Install wing walls to
prevent erosion of the earth from the sides of the abutment (Figure 7-18C).
Concrete Failure
7-46. Figure 7-19, page 7-24, shows the critical sections in a mass-concrete
abutment. Section A-A is especially critical because Point C is subject to
vehicle impact loads if the backfill settles. To prevent failure, reinforce
Section A-A with steel bars (Figure 7-20, page 7-24). See Figure 7-21,
page 7-25, for concrete-stress checkpoints.
REINFORCED CONCRETE ABUTMENT

7-47. Use reinforced concrete abutments if economy of materials is desired.
Concrete abutments are subject to the same types of failure as other
abutments. Preventing failure (except for concrete failure) requires the same
procedures as for mass-concrete abutments. Figure 7-22, page 7-25, shows a
typical reinforced concrete abutment. Check Sections A-A, B-B, D-D, and E-E
for potential failure. Follow the procedures discussed below when designing
reinforced concrete abutments.
Dimensions
7-48. Local soil conditions govern the abutment height. Choose a height that
allows the footing to rest on firm soil. Choose the other dimensions using the
following limits (check all critical sections for safety after choosing the
dimensions):
• The curb-to-curb roadway width is less than the abutment length, and
the abutment length is less than the roadway width plus 4 feet.
• The abutment width is 50 to 70 percent of the abutment height.
• The stem width is 15 percent of the abutment height.

• The toe and heel heights are 10 percent of the abutment height.
• The seat width is greater than or equal to the cap or sill width, and the
cap or sill width is greater than or equal to ¾ foot.
• The superstructure depth is measured from the bottom of the bearing

plate to the top of the deck.
• The toe width is 10 percent of the abutment height.

FM 3-34.343
LEGEND:
A. Slope and Drainage Granular material
Sand (for filter)
Fill (dirt)
Weep holes
(4-in diameter, 10-in spacing)
Riprap
Slope
(36 to 45 degrees)
B. Sheet Pile
Abutment
Deadman and
pile anchor
Bottom of the gap

Sheet pile
End should extend below

bottom of the gap.
C. Wing Wall
Abutment
Wing Wing
wall wall
Toe
Figure 7-18. Preventing Soil Shear Failure

FM 3-34.343
Point C
A A
Critical sections
B B
Toe Heel
Figure 7-19. Critical Sections in a Mass-Concrete Abutment
No. 4 bars
(center-to-center spacing 1 ft)
Minimum cover 1½ in
Minimum depth 12 in Minimum cover 3 in
Toe Heel
Figure 7-20. Reinforcement of Section A-A

FM 3-34.343
Point C
A A
D E
B B
Toe Heel
D E
Figure 7-21. Concrete-Stress Checkpoints
A A
Reinforcing bars
D E
B B
Toe Heel
D E
Figure 7-22. Reinforced Concrete Abutment With Critical Cross Sections

FM 3-34.343
Loading Case Values

7-49. Using the preliminary dimensions outlined above, determine the
vertical and horizontal abutment loads using the methods described in
paragraphs 7-2 and 7-8. Determine the soil pressure at Points A and D
(Figure 7-23) using the methods in paragraphs 7-42 and 7-43. The maximum
pressure of eccentricity must be less than or equal to the soil bearing capacity,
and the minimum pressure of eccentricity must be greater than zero for all
loading cases.
Toe Heel
A B C D
G
E F H
J
K L
M
Figure 7-23. Soil-Pressure Points
Shear and Moment

7-50. Determine the shear force and moment as shown below. Each section is
computed separately.
7-51. Sections A-A and B-B. Determine the shear force and the moment for
Sections A-A and B-B (Figure 7-22, page 7-25) using the equation below. For
Sections A-A and B-B, consider only that portion of the surcharge force plus
the backfill force that acts at or above the respective section.
• Shear force.
V = H s + Hb (7-31)
where—
V = shear force of Section A-A or B-B, in kpf

Hs = horizontal surcharge force above either Section A-A or B-B, in
kpf (equation 7-9)

FM 3-34.343
Hb = horizontal backfill force above either Section A-A or B-B, in kpf

(equation 7-10)
• Moment.
M = Ve (7-32)
where—
M = total moment of Section A-A or B-B, in kip-feet per foot
(Figure 7-22)
V = total of the shear forces, in kpf (equation 7-31)
e = eccentric distance, in feet (equation 7-28)
7-52. Section D-D. The shear force at Section D-D (Figure 7-22) is the total of
the forces exerted at the centroid of the rectangle ABLK and the triangle KLM
in Figure 7-23. Compute for shear force and moment as follows:
• Shear force.
ba – bt bt
V 1 = P mn b t + ( P mx – P mn )  --------------- ( bt ) @ ---- (7-33)
ba 2
and—
bt bt 2b t
V 2 = ( P mx – P mn )  -----  ---- @ ------- (7-34)
 b a  2  3
where—
V1 = shear force exerted by the rectangle ABLK, in kpf

Pmn = minimum pressure on the soil, in ksf (equation 7-30)
bt = toe width, in feet
Pmx = maximum pressure on the soil, in ksf (equation 7-29)
V2 = shear force exerted by the triangle KLM, in kpf
• Moment.
bt 2b t
M = V 1  ---- + V 2  ------- (7-35)
 2  3
where—
M = total moment of Section D-D, in kip-feet per foot

V1 = shear force exerted by the rectangle ABLK, in kpf
(equation 7-33)
bt = toe width, in feet
V2 = shear force exerted by the triangle KLM, in kpf (equation 7-34)
7-53. Section E-E. The shear force at Section E-E (Figure 7-22), resulting in
tension at the bottom of the slab, is the weight of the soil plus the surcharge
above the heel and the weight of the heel minus the forces exerted at the

FM 3-34.343
centroid by the rectangle CDHG and the triangle GHJ. Compute for shear
force and moment as follows:
• Shear force.
V 1 = P mn b h (7-36)
and—
bh bh
V 2 = ( P mx – P mn )  -----  ----- (7-37)
 b a  2 
where—
V1 = shear force exerted by the rectangle CDHG, in kpf

Pmn = minimum pressure on the soil, in ksf (equation 7-30)
bh = heel width, in feet
V2 = shear force exerted by the triangle GHJ, in kpf
Pmx = maximum pressure on the soil, in ksf (equation 7-29)
• Moment.
bh bh
M = V 1  ----- + V 2  ----- (7-38)
 2  3
where—
M = total moment of Section E-E, in kip-feet per foot

V1 = shear force exerted by the rectangle CDHG, in kpf
(equation 7-36)
bh = heel width, in feet
V2 = shear force exerted by the triangle GHJ, in kpf (equation 7-37)
Critical Sections
7-54. The design procedure for critical sections corresponds to the procedure
used for flat slabs with reinforcement in one direction. Base the design on a
1-foot-wide section. At each critical section, check for moment, shear, and
bond (between steel and concrete). Assume that there are 10 stringers and
that the ultimate compressive stress is 3 ksi, the allowable concrete stress is
1.35 ksi, and the allowable steel stress is 24 ksi. Compute as follows:
• Required section depth.
d req = 2.16 M (7-39)
where—
dreq = required section depth, in inches (round to the next higher whole
inch)
M = design moment, in kip-feet per foot (equation 7-32, 7-35, or 7-38)
• Required steel area. The total depth of Section E-E (Figure 7-22,
page 7-25) is the required section depth plus 3 inches. This depth

FM 3-34.343
provides protection for the reinforcing steel. Once the steel area is
known, choose the bar sizes from Appendix D.
M
A = ------------- (7-40)
1.76d
where—
A = required steel area, in square inches
M = moment at any critical section of abutment (in 1-foot-wide
sections), in kip-feet (equation 7-32, 7-35, or 7-38)
d = actual abutment depth, in inches
• Actual shear stress. If the actual shear stress is critical, increase the
required section depth to decrease the shear stress. Ensure that the
actual shear stress does not exceed the allowable shear stress
(0.09 ksi).
V
f v = -------------------- (7-41)
10.5d req
where—
fv = actual shear stress, in ksi

V = total shear force at the critical section, in kpf (paragraph 7-51)
dreq = required section depth, in inches (equation 7-39)
• Bond stress. Check the bond stress of the reinforcing bars against
the allowable bond stress (0.03 ksi). Compute as follows:
V
f o = ----------------------------------- (7-42)
Σ O ( 0.875d req )
where—
fo = allowable bond stress, in ksi

V = total shear at the critical section, in kpf (paragraph 7-51)
∑o = sum of all the perimeters of the reinforcing bar, in inches
(Table D-5, page D-5)
dreq = required section depth, in inches (equation 7-39)
Sliding and Overturning

7-55. Use the methods described in paragraphs 7-29 and 7-30 to check for
sliding and overturning. If either sliding or overturning presents a problem,
increase the heel width to increase the total weight of soil over the heel. Also
use the measures described in paragraph 7-31 to prevent sliding and
overturning. If the safety factors for both sliding and overturning are much
larger than required and the soil bearing capacity is more than adequate,
decrease the size of the originally designed abutment to provide a more
economical design.

FM 3-34.343
Soil Shear Failure

7-56. Apply the measures described in paragraph 7-44 to reinforced concrete
abutments. This will prevent soil shear failure.
RETAINING WALLS
7-57. Design retaining walls the same as abutments, but do not apply
superstructure dead and live loads to the top of the retaining walls. Retaining
walls may be concrete (mass or reinforced), timber, or steel sheet piles.
DEADMAN DESIGN
7-58. Use a deadman as a means of preventing sliding and overturning. Place
the deadman outside the natural angle of repose of the soil. A setback equal to
150 percent of the abutment height is sufficient. Anchor the cables or steel tie
rods by casting them into the body of the concrete abutment as shown in
Figure 7-24. If the bridge is constructed of piles or posts, bolt the cables or tie
rods to the abutment as shown in Figure 7-25. Position the cables or tie rods
horizontally between the abutment and the deadman. The cover over the
cables should be three times the deadman’s depth dimension or the depth of
the covered stem plus 1 foot, whichever is greater.
≥ 3dd
Cables or
tie rods
LEGEND:
dd
dc dc = distance from abutment
Toe Heel
bottom to cable penetration
L dd = deadman depth
L = deadman setback (150
percent of abutment height)
Figure 7-24. Deadman Connection, Cover, and Setback
Sliding
7-59. Use equation 7-23 to check for sliding on a concrete abutment. If the
safety factor is less than 1.5, design a deadman as follows:
• Concrete or footing-type abutment.
■ Compute the horizontal force acting on the abutment as follows:

Σ PK f L a
Σ H M = ------------------
- (7-43)
1.5

FM 3-34.343
Stringer LEGEND:
dd = deadman depth
hfp = cable height above pile fixed point
Cover 3dd L = deadman setback (150 percent of
abutment height)
Cap Cables or tie rods
dd
Pile or post
hfp
Sill
Footing
Pile fixed point
Figure 7-25. Deadman Installation on a Pile or Post Abutment
where—
∑HM = maximum horizontal force acting on the abutment, in kips

∑P = total of the vertical loads, in kpf (paragraph 7-2)
Kf = friction coefficient (Table H-2, page H-2)
La = abutment length, in feet (Figure 7-13, page 7-16)
■ Compute the horizontal force that the deadman must resist as

follows:
H′ d = Σ H – Σ H M (7-44)
where—
H′d = horizontal force that the deadman must resist, in kips

∑H = total of the horizontal forces acting on the abutment, in kpf
(paragraph 7-8)
∑HM = maximum horizontal forces acting on the abutment, in kips
(equation 7-43)
■ Use a safety factor of 1.5 to determine the capacity of the deadman

to resist horizontal forces. Compute as follows:
H d = 1.5H′ d (7-45)
where—
Hd = horizontal-force capacity of the deadman, with safety

factor, in kips

FM 3-34.343
H′d = horizontal force that the deadman must resist, in kips
• Pile abutment.
■ Compute the allowable shear capacity per pile as follows:
h av = F v A v (7-46)
where—
hav = allowable horizontal shear capacity of the pile, in kips

Fv = allowable shear stress, in ksi (Table C-1, pages C-3
through C-6)
Av = effective shear area per pile, in square inches (Table C-4,
page C-9)
■ Compute the total horizontal force resisting shear as follows:
H av = Nh av (7-47)
where—
Hav = total horizontal force resisting shear, in kips

N = number of piles in the bent
hav = horizontal shear capacity of the pile, in kips (equation 7-46)
■ Compute the horizontal force that the deadman must resist, in

equations 7-44 and 7-45, substituting Hav for ∑HM.
Overturning
7-60. Use equation 7-24 to compute the safety factor for overturning. If it is
less than two, design the abutment as follows:
• Compute the concrete or footing-type abutment.
Σ Mr = 2 Σ Mo (7-48)
where—
∑Mr = minimum resisting moment of the abutment, in kips

∑Mo = total of the overturning moments of the abutment sections, in
kips (Figure 7-12, page 7-12)
• Compute the pile abutment.

Np Fb S
M r = ---------------
- (7-49)
12
where—
Mr = minimum resisting moment per pile, in kip-feet

Np = number of piles
Fb = allowable bending stress per pile, in ksi (Table C-1)
S = section modulus of the pile, in cubic inches (Table C-5,
page C-10)

FM 3-34.343
7-61. Design the deadman to resist the horizontal shear force, including a
safety factor of two. Design the deadman to resist the larger force required for
sliding and overturning. Compute as follows:
• Concrete.
La( ΣMr – ΣMo )
H d = 2 -------------------------------------- (7-50)
h
where—
Hd = concrete capacity of the deadman to resist horizontal shear, in

kips
Mr = minimum resisting moment of the abutment, in kip-feet
(equation 7-48)
Mo = total of section moments, in kip-feet per foot (Figure 7-12)
h = distance from the cable to the bottom of the abutment, in feet
(Figures 7-24 and 7-25, pages 7-30 and 7-31)
• Piles.
N ( Σ Mr – Σ M o )
H d = 2 ------------------------------------- (7-51)
h
where—
Hd = pile capacity of the deadman to resist horizontal shear, in kips

N = number of piles
Mr = minimum resisting moment per pile, in kip-feet (equation 7-49)
Mo = overturning moment, in kip-feet (Case III, paragraphs 7-2
through 7-17 and Figure 7-12)
h = distance from the cable to the bottom of the abutment, in feet
(Figures 7-24 and 7-25)
Deadman Specifications
7-62. Length and Depth. The deadman length normally equals the
abutment length. Compute the required structural depth of the deadman as
follows:
Hd
d d = ----------
- (7-52)
Ld Fs
where—
dd = required structural deadman depth, in feet
Hd = capacity of the deadman needed to resist horizontal forces, in kips
(larger of equations 7-45 and 7-50 or 7-51)
Ld = deadman length, in feet
Fs = allowable soil bearing capacity, in ksf (Table H-1, page H-1)

FM 3-34.343
7-63. Number of Cables. Compute the number of cables using the equation
below. If using steel rods instead of cables, use the same equation but
substitute the rod strength (rod area x 29 ksi) for the allowable rod strength.
H
N = -----d- (7-53)
T
where—
N = number of cables
Hd = capacity of the deadman needed to resist horizontal forces, in kips
(larger of equations 7-45 and 7-50 or 7-51)
T = allowable cable tensile strength, in kips (16 ksi x the square of the cable
diameter)
7-64. Cable or Rod Spacing. Compute the proper spacing and deadman
width as follows:
• Spacing.
b
S cr = -----R – 1 (7-54)
N
where—
Scr = cable or rod spacing, in feet

bR = curb-to-curb roadway width, in feet (equation 7-14)
N = number of cables or rods
• Width.
S cr
b w = ------
- (7-55)
5
where—
bw = deadman width, in feet

Scr = cable or rod spacing, in feet (equation 7-54)
7-65. Cable Protection. After installation, coat the cables or rods with tar to
protect them from rust. Treat the deadman for protection against decay.
INTERMEDIATE-SUPPORT DESIGN
VERTICAL PIER LOADS

7-66. Vertical pier loads include dead and live loads, pier weight, soil forces,
and buoyancy forces. The dead load acts vertically through the centerline of
the support.
Dead Load
7-67. Compute the dead load of the pier as follows:
W′ DL1 L 1 W′ DL2 L 2
P DL =  ---------------------  --------------------- (7-56)
 2  2 

FM 3-34.343
where—
PDL = dead load of the pier, in kips

W′DL1 = dead-load weight per foot of span 1, in kpf (equation 6-43)
L1 = length of span 1, in feet
W′DL2 = dead-load weight per foot of span 2, in kpf (equation 6-43)
Live Load
7-68. Compute the live load of the pier as follows:
P LL = V LL N (7-57)
where—
PLL = live load of pier, in kips

VLL = maximum live-load shear, in kips (Use the larger value from Figure B-3
or B-4, pages B-17 and B-18. Use the combined span length for
determining the shear value in the figures.)
N = number of lanes
7-69. Note that the two span lengths resting on the pier are added, and the
live-load shear is found for the combined span lengths. Impact is not included
in this load. The live load acts vertically through the centerline of the pier.
Pier Weight
7-70. The weight of timber- or steel-framed piers is negligible. However,
include the weight of a concrete pier in the substructure design. Determine
the concrete-pier weight from known or assumed dimensions. Figure 7-26,
page 7-36, shows a typical concrete pier (with dimensions). The forces of the
stem and footing weights act vertically through the pier centerline.
7-71. Stem Weight. Compute the stem weight as follows:
W s = L s b as h as u (7-58)
where—
Ws = stem weight, in kips

Ls = stem length, in feet
bas = stem width, in feet
has = stem height, in feet
u = unit weight of the stem material, in kips per cubic foot (concrete weighs
0.15 kips per cubic foot)
7-72. Footing Weight. Compute the footing weight using equation 7-58.
Substitute the footing dimensions for the stem dimensions.

FM 3-34.343
bas LEGEND:
Las Water surface Lf = length of footing
bf = width of footing
hf = height of footing
Stem has = stem height
bas = stem width
hw = water height
hw hH = height of soil over the footing
has Las = stem height
hH
hf Footing Lf
bf
Figure 7-26. Typical Concrete Pier
Soil Forces
7-73. If there is a layer of soil over the footing, include the weight of the soil in
the vertical pier load. Compute the soil weight over the pier (as shown in
Figure 7-26) as follows:
W k = ( A f – A )h H u (7-59)
where—
Wk = soil weight, in kips

Af = footing area, in square feet
A = stem area, in square feet
hH = height of the soil over the footing, in feet (Figure 7-26)
u = unit weight of the soil, in kips per cubic foot (Table H-1, page H-1)
7-74. If the stem is steel H-sections, the area of the steel is negligible. If the
stem is timber, compute the soil weight as follows:
W k = ( A f – A t )h H u (7-60)
where—
Wk = soil weight, in kips

At = planned area of the timber over the footing, in square feet
hH = height of the soil over the footing, in feet (Figure 7-26)
u = unit weight of the soil, in kips per cubic foot (Table H-1)

FM 3-34.343
Buoyancy Forces
7-75. If the pier is partially submerged (Figure 7-26), the water creates
buoyancy forces on the submerged parts of the pier. The buoyancy force on any
part is simply the volume of that part below water multiplied by the unit
weight of water. Buoyancy forces for steel or timber piers are negligible.
Compute for the buoyancy force acting on the pier stem as follows:
F os = [ A ( h w + h H ) ]u (7-61)
where—
Fos = buoyancy force acting on the stem, in kips

hw = water depth, in feet
hH = height of the soil in contact with the stem, in feet (Figure 7-26)
u = unit weight of water, in kips per cubic foot (salt water is 0.064 and
freshwater is 0.0624)
7-76. Similarly, the buoyancy forces acting on the footing and soil are
computed as follows:
F of = L f b f h f u (7-62)
where—
Fof = buoyancy force acting on the footing, in kips

Lf = footing length, in feet
bf = footing width, in feet
hf = submerged footing height, in feet
and—
F ok = ( A f – A )du (7-63)
where—
Fok = buoyancy force acting on the soil, in kips
d = submerged soil depth over footing, in feet (Figure 7-26)
Total Vertical Pier Load

7-77. The total vertical pier load is the sum of all vertical loads minus the
buoyancy forces. For the pier shown in Figure 7-26, the total vertical load is as
follows:
P = P DL + P LL + W s + W f + W k – ( F os + F of + F ok ) (7-64)

FM 3-34.343
where—
P = total vertical pier load, in kips

PDL = dead load of the pier, in kips (equation 7-56)
PLL = live load of the pier, in kips (equation 7-57)
Ws = stem weight, in kips (equation 7-58)
Wf = footing weight, in kips (paragraph 7-72)
Wk = soil weight, in kips (equation 7-59 or 7-60)
Fos = buoyancy force acting on the stem, in kips (equation 7-61)
Fof = buoyancy force acting on the footing, in kips (equation 7-62)
Fok = buoyancy force acting on the soil, in kips (equation 7-63)
LONGITUDINAL LOADS
7-78. The only longitudinal load considered in pier design is the vehicular
longitudinal force. Paragraph 7-12 describes how to determine the number of
vehicles per lane.
LATERAL LOADS
Wind Load
7-79. Determine the wind force as follows:
• On vehicles. At normal convoy spacing of 100 feet, the wind load on
vehicles is negligible.
• On the substructure. The effects of wind on the substructure are

take n into ac c ou nt wh en d eter min in g the win d load o n t he
superstructure.
• On the superstructure. Short bridges are designed with no

allowance for wind. For bridges with combined span lengths of
100 feet or more, compute the wind force acting at each pier using the
equation below. The safety factor (1.5) accounts for wind acting on the
substructure, curbs, and handrails and the fact that wind acts with
reduced force on stringers behind the windward stringer. Wind force
acts at the top of the windward stringer as shown in Figure 7-27.
L1 + L2
F w = 0.03 ( 1.5d ) ----------------- (7-65)
2
where—
Fw = wind force on pier, in kips

d = superstructure depth (from the tread to the bottom of the
stringer), in feet

FM 3-34.343
Tread
Wind force Deck
Stringers
LEGEND:
d = depth of superstructure
Figure 7-27. Wind Force on the Superstructure
Water Force on the Substructure

7-80. Water force acts on a pier at one-fourth the water height, measured
downward from the water surface (Figure 7-28, page 7-40). To determine the
water force acting on a pier, first compute the area of the pier or posts upon
which the water force acts.
• Compute the area of a concrete pier on which the water force acts as
follows:
As = bs d (7-66)
where—
As = stem area on which water force acts, in square feet

bs = stem width, in feet
d = water depth above the lowest point of scour, in feet (Figure 7-28)
• Compute the area of a pile or post on which the water force acts as
follows:
A = 2N r D p d (7-67)
where—
A = pile area on which water force acts, in square feet

Nr = number of rows of piles or posts
Dp = pile diameter, in feet
d = water depth above the lowest point of scour, in feet (Figure 7-28)
• Compute the water force acting on a pier as follows:

2
Kf vy A
Fw = ---------------- (7-68)
1,000

FM 3-34.343
where—
Fw = water force acting on the pier, in kips

Kf = friction coefficient of water on the pier (Table 7-3)
vy = water velocity, in fps
A = contact area (concrete or pile), in square feet (equation 7-67)
LEGEND:
hw hw = height of water
------ Water surface
4
hw
Water force Original streambed

Scoured streambed
Figure 7-28. Water Force on the Substructure
Table 7-3. Pier Friction Coefficients
Pier Friction
Pier Shape
Coefficients (Kf)
Square 1.4
Triangular 0.7
Round 0.7
Round piles 0.7
H-piles 1.4
Ice Forces
7-81. Consider the forces from ice as follows:
• Crushing. Ice crushing on concrete piers is negligible, since the

compressive strength of concrete is much greater than the crushing
force of ice. Timber piers, however, must be protected if the
temperature falls below 0 degrees Fahrenheit (F). To protect the piers,
attach steel angles to break up the ice (Figure 7-29A).
• Thrust. Ice thrust occurs at normal water level during winter

months. Estimate this force using the equation below. For piers with
dolphins (Figure 7-29B), reduce the ice thrust by 50 percent.

FM 3-34.343
F i = 0.4bt (7-69)
where—
Fi = ice thrust, in ksi
b = pier width, in inches
t = ice thickness, in inches
• Pileup. Ice pileup occurs during the spring thaw when river ice
breaks up and moves downstream in floes. These floes create large
impact loads on anything in their path. In streams where ice pileup
could occur, bridge piers should either be located out of the water or
protected by dolphins.
Timber pile LEGEND:

Dolphin b/2 to b b = pier width
b
Piles lashed together

Top view
2-ft minimum
Steel angles
Side view
A. Timber Pile With Steel Angles B. Dolphin
Figure 7-29. Pier Protection Devices
INTERMEDIATE-SUPPORT SELECTION
7-82. Intermediate supports may be constructed of timber, steel, concrete, or
a combination of materials. They may be supported by footings or piles.
Figures 7-30 through 7-36, pages 7-42 through 7-45, show various types of
intermediate supports required for different conditions. Table 7-4, page 7-45,
gives a general guide for selecting intermediate supports.
TIMBER-CRIB-PIER DESIGN
7-83. Timber-crib piers are assembled in log-cabin fashion (Figure 7-30). For
stability, the bottom of the crib is wider than the top. The base width is at
least one-third the pier height. Drift bolts hold the timbers together at the
corners. Fill the crib with rocks for ballast, if desired. For use in water,
partially construct the crib on the shore, float it to position, and then sink it by
filling it with rocks. Make the top of the pier level and solid to form a
substantial support. Bridge stringers may rest directly on top of the crib. If
more height is needed, construct a short timber-trestle bent or pier on top of
the crib.

FM 3-34.343
Figure 7-30. Timber-Crib Pier
Cap Scabbing
Traverse
bracing
Sill
Footing
Post
Figure 7-31. Timber-Trestle Bent

FM 3-34.343
Common cap
Corbels
Cap
Traverse bracing
Post
Sill Footings
Figure 7-32. Timber-Trestle Pier
Common cap Corbels
Cap
Pile
Traverse bracing
Longitudinal cross bracing
Figure 7-33. Pile Pier

FM 3-34.343
Cap
Traverse bracing
Pile
Figure 7-34. Pile Bent
Curb
Handrail
Tread
Deck
Stringer
Column
Cap beam
Transverse bracing Longitudinal strut
Transverse strut
Horizontal bracing Longitudinal bracing
Grillage
Figure 7-35. Steel-Framed Tower

FM 3-34.343
Figure 7-36. Concrete Pier
Table 7-4. Intermediate-Support Selection Guide
Combined
Type Grade Height Remarks
Span Length
Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical loads

Timber-crib pier To 50 feet To 12 feet
only. Steel or timber stingers.

Timber-trestle bent To 30 feet To 12 feet
only. Steel or timber stringers.

Timber-trestle pier To 60 feet To 18 feet
only. Steel or timber stringers.
Governed by Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical and

Timber-pile bent To 50 feet
unbraced length lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Governed by Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and

Timber-pile pier To 200 feet
Governed by Highway bridges only. Designed for vertical and

Steel-pile bent To 70 feet
Governed by Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and

Steel-pile pier Any length
Framed-timber Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and

Any length To 60 feet
tower lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Framed-steel Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and

Any length To 80 feet
tower lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.
Highway and RR bridges. Designed for vertical and

Concrete pier Any length To 25 feet
lateral loads. Steel or timber stringers.

FM 3-34.343
TIMBER-TRESTLE-BENT AND -PIER DESIGN

7-84. Timber-trestle bents and piers (Figures 7-31 and 7-32, pages 7-42 and
7-43) are not suitable for use in soft soil or swift or deep watercourses.
Construct them in dry, shallow gaps with firm soil. When longitudinal spacing
between bents exceeds 25 feet, bracing becomes cumbersome. To provide for
greater support and longitudinal stability for longer spans, use timber-trestle
piers. The design of timber-trestle piers is the same as the bent design except
for the cap and corbel system (paragraph 7-120). Use the procedures discussed
below to design a timber-trestle bent.
Loads
7-85. Use the procedures in paragraph 7-66 to determine dead and live loads.
Compute the total design load as follows:
P LL N s
P = P DL + --------------
- (7-70)
4
where—
P = total design load of the bent, in kips

PDL = dead load of the pier, in kips (equation 7-56)
PLL = live load of the pier, in kips (equation 7-57)
Ns = number of stringers in the superstructure
Size and Number of Members

7-86. Posts. The absolute minimum post size is 6 x 6 inches, and the
minimum number of posts per bent is four.
• Compute the allowable bearing capacity per post as follows:
PB = Fc A (7-71)
where—
PB = allowable bearing capacity of the post, in kips

Fc = allowable compression (parallel to the grain of the post
material), in ksi (Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6)
A = cross-sectional area of the post, in square inches (Table C-4,
page C-9)
• Limit the length of the post to ensure that it will not fail by buckling.
Check as follows:
L ≤ 30b (7-72)
where—
L = post length, in feet

b = post width (rectangular post) or 90 percent of the post diameter,
in feet
• Recompute the number of posts required as follows:

FM 3-34.343
P
N pr = ------ (7-73)
PB
and—
N pr
N p = -------
- (7-74)
Nr
where—
Npr = required number of posts in the bent
P = total design load on the bent, in kips (equation 7-70)
PB = allowable bearing capacity per post, in kips (equation 7-71)
Np = actual number of piles per row (minimum of four) (round up to
the nearest whole number)
Nr = number of rows
7-87. Caps and Sills. The absolute minimum size for caps and sills is 6 x 8
inches. The larger dimension is usually vertical. The cap and sill must also be
at least as wide as the posts (Figure 7-37, page 7-48). Determine the bearing
failure, the post spacing, and the depth as follows:
• Bearing failure. Check the cap and sill for bearing failure. If bearing
failure is a problem, increase the number of posts.
P
------------ < F B (7-75)
N pr A
where—
P = total cap or sill load, in kips
Npr = required number of posts in the bent (equation 7-73)
A = cross-sectional area of post or pile, in square inches (Table C-4)
FB = allowable bearing perpendicular to the grain of post or pile
material, in ksi (Table C-1)
• Post spacing. Compute post spacing the same as stringer spacing.

12b R
S p = --------------
- (7-76)
Np – 1
where—
Sp = post or pile spacing, in inches
Np = actual number of posts or piles in the bent (equation 7-74)
• Depth.
Sp
d c > ----- (7-77)
5
where—
dc = cap or sill depth, in inches
Sp = post or pile spacing, in inches (equation 7-76)

FM 3-34.343
LEGEND:
bc bc = cap or sill width
(6-in min)
Cap dc dc = cap or sill depth
(8-in min)
Post Post
Sill
Footing
Terminology Dimensions
Figure 7-37. Limiting Dimensions for a Timber-Trestle Bent
7-88. Footings. The number of footings must equal or exceed the number of
posts. A footing design for bents is identical to a footing design for abutments
(paragraph 7-22).
7-89. Bracing. Provide adequate longitudinal bracing between bents to
ensure longitudinal stability of the bridge. The minimum bracing size is 2 x 12
inches.
PILES
7-90. A pile is a slender structural member that is forced into the ground to
support vertical, horizontal, or inclined loads. Since one pile may not have the
capacity to carry a certain load, several piles may have to be grouped together
for the pile foundation. Use piles when placing a foundation on soft soil, in
deep water, or in swift watercourses that are likely to scour. The factors
discussed below will affect pile design.
Scour
7-91. Scour is the gradual removal of earth surrounding a pier or abutment by
water action (Figure 7-38). If a bridge has long spans, it needs intermediate
piers, which obstruct the water flow and increase stream and scouring action.
(When the stream velocity is great, or as much as 2 fps, the bottom may be
disturbed.) For example, when a pile is inserted into a flowing watercourse,
the turbulence and eddy currents created by the pier cause scour. If the axis of
a pier is not parallel to the direction of flow, excessive scour will result.
Minimize scour by ensuring proper alignment of piers in watercourses.
7-92. Local Scour. The scour depth varies with many factors. As a rule,
estimate local scour depth as follows:

FM 3-34.343
Water level
Flood level
Dp
∆hw
Pile
Normal level
dFS = ∆hw
dLS = 2Dp
Scour
Scour
A. Local Scour B. Flood Scour
LEGEND:
∆hw = change in water height dLS = depth of local scour
dFS = flood-scour depth Dp = diameter of the pile
Figure 7-38. Types of Scour
d LS = 2D p (7-78)
where—
dLS = local-scour depth, in feet
Dp = pile diameter, in feet
7-93. Flood Scour. Consider flood scour in the substructure design because
it is the cause of many bridge failures. If possible, determine the depth of flood
scour at the site (Figure 7-38B). If it cannot be determined, estimate the depth
of flood scour as follows:
d FS = ∆h w (7-79)
where—
dFS = flood-scour depth, in feet

∆hw = change in the water-surface elevation from normal to flood stages, in
feet (Figure 7-38B)
7-94. Total Scour. Total scour is the combination of local and flood scour.
When the water surface drops after a flood, sediment is redeposited in the
scoured area and the bottom returns to its original level. Compute the total
scour as follows:
d TS = d LS + d FS (7-80)
where—
dTS = total-scour depth, in feet

FM 3-34.343
dLS = local-scour depth, in inches (equation 7-78)

dFS = flood-scour depth, in inches (equation 7-79)
7-95. Scour Prevention. Protect foundations from scour by—
• Locating bents or piers parallel to the direction of water flow.
• Placing sandbags around bents, piers, or abutments on the upstream

sides.
• Placing riprap around bents, piers, or abutments.

• Driving a row of closely spaced pile fenders (dolphins) perpendicular
to the water flow on the upstream side of the bent, pier, or abutment.
Recognize that fenders may compound the problem of scour because
they further restrict water flow. Fenders are most effective when their
widths are small relative to the watercourses width.
Pile-Support Types
7-96. Pile-support types include end bearing, friction, and batter. Each is
discussed below.
7-97. End-Bearing Piles. End-bearing piles (Figure 7-39A) are firmly seated
on rock or hard strata. The entire support of the piles is provided by the hard
strata so that the load carried is limited by the strength and unbraced length
of the pile material.
Ground surface
Rock or hard strata
A. End Bearing B. Friction
Figure 7-39. Types of Pile Support
7-98. Friction Piles. Friction piles (Figure 7-39B) derive their entire support
from friction between the piles and the surrounding soil. The load a friction
pile will carry depends on the properties of the soil and the strength of the pile
material.
7-99. Batter Piles. Batter piles are driven into the ground at an angle
(Figure 7-40). The maximum slope at which a pile may be driven is 1:1
(horizontal to vertical), due to the limitations of the driving equipment. The
normal slope for batter piles is 1:12. If the slope is within 1:12, the vertical

FM 3-34.343
load-carrying capacity will not have to be reduced. Using batter piles

complicates the design of a pile foundation; therefore, design pile foundations
for vertical piles. Then install batter piles as the outside piles for additional
safety and stability.
Batter piles
Figure 7-40. Batter Piles
PILE FOUNDATIONS
7-100. Pile foundations may be constructed of timber, steel, or concrete. Since
concrete piles require special handling and equipment, they are not used in
military construction. Design principles for timber and steel piles are the
same except for the exceptions discussed below.
Allowable Load
7-101. For an end-bearing pile, the maximum allowable load is the smaller
value of the allowable load or the buckling load of the pile. For a friction pile,
the maximum allowable load is the smallest value of the allowable load, the
buckling load, the soil friction capacity, or the pile-driving capacity. Check the
bearing and buckling loads in both end-bearing and friction piles. Also, check
the soil and pile-driving capacities in friction piles.
7-102. Bearing Capacity. The first step in designing a pile foundation is to
determine the maximum allowable load that a single pile will carry. Compute
the allowable bearing capacity of a pile as follows:
PB = Fc A (7-81)
where—
PB = allowable bearing capacity per pile, in kips

Fc = allowable compression (parallel to the grain of the pile material), in ksi
(Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6)
A = cross-sectional area of the pile, in square inches (Table C-5, page C-10)

FM 3-34.343
7-103. Buckling Load. The allowable buckling load for a single pile depends
on the unbraced length of the pile, the size of pile, and the type of soil.
7-104. The fixed point (FP) is the point below which the pile is assumed to be
completely rigid, so that any bending or buckling in the pile will take place
above the FP (Figure 7-41). The FP distance varies with the soil type (5 feet
for sand and 10 feet for clay). Interpolate the FP for intermediate soils.
Measure the FP distance from the point of lowest scour to ensure that the
design accounts for the worst possible conditions.
Overlapping stringers Overlapping stringers
Pile cap
Dp
Lu = 0.7LuB Lowest
Pile brace
LuB
Lu = 0.5LuB
Local scour
Lowest scour level Flood scour LuB
Inflection point
FP
A. Single Row (Unbraced) B. Pile Bent (Braced)
LEGEND:
Lu = unbraced length
LuB = length from the lowest brace to the FP
Dp = diameter of the pile
Figure 7-41. Maximum Unbraced Length
7-105. For a single row of piles unbraced in the longitudinal direction, the
unbraced length is 70 percent of the distance from the FP to the top of the pile
(Figure 7-41A). For a single row of piles with adequate longitudinal bracing,
the unbraced length is one-half the distance from the FP to the lowest bracing.
For piles arranged in two or more rows with adequate bracing between, the
unbraced length is one-half the distance from the FP to the lowest bracing
(Figure 7-41B).
• Timber piles. If the unbraced length divided by the pile diameter is
less than or equal to 27, buckling is not a problem and no further

FM 3-34.343
checks are necessary. If the length divided by the pile diameter is

greater than 27, find the allowable buckling load as follows:
0.225E
P BU = A ----------------
- (7-82)
L u 2
 -----
 D
where—
PBU = buckling load, in kips
A = cross-sectional area of the pile, in square inches (Table C-5)
E = modulus of elasticity, in ksi (Table C-1)
Lu = unbraced length, in feet
D = pile diameter, in feet
• Steel piles (A36). Compute the allowable buckling load as follows:

KL u 2
P BU = A ( 24.7 – 0.00077 )  ---------- (7-83)
r
where—
PBU = allowable buckling load, in kips

A = cross-sectional area of the pile, in square inches (Table C-5)
Lu = unbraced length, in inches
r = the least radius of gyration, in inches (Table D-6, page D-6)
7-106. Soil Capacity. For friction piles, use load tests or static or dynamic
formulas to find the allowable capacity of the soil surrounding the piles. Load
tests are time-consuming and are justified only on large, permanent bridges.
If the soil type is known, the soil capacity can be estimated using a static
formula. To use this static formula, first find the area of the pile in contact
with the soil.
• Compute the area for timber as follows:
A = πDL g (7-84)
where—
A = area of the timber pile in contact with the soil, in square feet
D = pile diameter, in feet
Lg = length of pile in the soil, in feet
• Compute the area for steel as follows:
A = 2 ( b p + d p )L g (7-85)
where—
A = area of the steel pile in contact with the soil, in square feet
bp = pile width, in feet
dp = depth of pile section, in feet
Lg = length of pile in the soil, in feet

FM 3-34.343
• Compute the pile capacity (once the area of pile in contact with the soil
is known) as follows:
Pf = fs A (7-86)
where—
Pf = pile capacity (based on friction between pile and soil), in kips

fs = allowable friction, in ksf (Table H-3, page H-2)
A = area of the pile in contact with the soil, in square feet
(equation 7-84)
7-107. If the soil conditions are not known, estimate the allowable soil
capacity by driving a test pile and applying a dynamic formula to the results.
Also use the dynamic formulas to check capacities estimated by the static
formula. Dynamic formulas are only approximations; therefore, use them only
if load tests are unavailable.
7-108. The basic assumption behind dynamic formulas is that driving
resistance equals the static resistance of the pile to loads after driving is
completed. However, this assumption is not always correct, and the more
impervious the soil, the greater the discrepancy between the actual and
computed loads. As a pile is driven, it squeezes water from the soil. Until the
water drains from the surface of the pile, the full friction between the pile and
the surrounding soil cannot develop. To lessen the discrepancies, let the pile
rest for at least 24 hours. Redrive for at least 10 blows with a drop hammer or
30 blows with a pneumatic or diesel hammer. Use the penetration per blow
after the pile has rested to estimate the allowable pile capacity.
7-109. Driving Capacity. Compute the driving capacity as follows:
• Timber piles driven by a drop hammer.
2wh
P TP = --------------- (7-87)
Pp + 1
where—
PTP = driving capacity based on test pile, in kips

w = drop hammer or ram weight, in kips
h = average fall of the drop hammer, in feet
Pp = average pile penetration (last 6 blows of a drop hammer or last
20 blows of a powered drop hammer), in inches
• Steel piles driven by a drop hammer.
3wh
P TP = --------------- (7-88)
Pp + 1
where—


FM 3-34.343

• Timber piles driven by a single-acting steam, pneumatic, or

open-end diesel hammer.
2wh
P TP = ------------------- (7-89)
P p + 0.1
where—

• Steel piles driven by a single-acting steam, pneumatic, or

open-end diesel hammer.
3wh
P TP = ------------------- (7-90)
P p + 0.1
where—
• Timber piles driven by a double-acting steam, pneumatic, or

closed-end diesel hammer.
2EH
P TP = -------------------
- (7-91)
P P + 0.1
where—

EH = impact energy per blow of the hammer, in foot-pounds
(Table 7-5, page 7-56)
• Steel piles driven by a double-acting steam, pneumatic, or

closed-end diesel hammer.
3EH
P TP = -------------------
- (7-92)
P P + 0.1
where—

FM 3-34.343
EH = impact energy per blow of the drop hammer, in foot-pounds

(Table 7-5)
Table 7-5. Impact Energy of Drop Hammers
Strokes per Energy Foot-Pounds

Type
Minute per Blow (EH)
225 4,150
5,000-pound drop hammer 195 3,720
170 3,280
140 8,100
7,000-pound drop hammer 130 6,800
120 5,940
Overturning
7-110. Drive piles at least 8 feet into sand or 20 feet into clay to prevent
overturning due to lateral loads. For intermediate soils, interpolate the
distance.
Pile Groups
7-111. The spacing between rows of piles must equal or exceed three times
the pile diameter. The spacing between rows must equal or exceed the spacing
between piles. Each row must have at least four piles.
7-112. Number of Piles Required. Compute the number of piles as follows:
P
N pr = ------ (7-93)
PB
where—
Npr = required number of piles to support the vertical load

P = total design load on the bent, in kips (equation 7-13 or 7-70)
PB = allowable bearing capacity per post, in kips. For end-bearing piles, use
the smaller of the bearing and buckling loads. For friction piles, use the
smallest of the bearing load, the buckling load, the soil capacity, or the
driving capacity.
7-113. Group Action. When several friction piles are driven close together,
the interaction of pressure bulbs reduces the efficiency of each pile
(Figure 7-42). Use the Converse-Labarre method shown in Figure 7-43,
page 7-58, to compute the effective number of piles in the group and to—

FM 3-34.343
Pressure bulb
Full-capacity Full-capacity Reduced-capacity

single pile two piles two piles
Figure 7-42. Effect of Grouping on Pile Capacity
• Estimate the number of bents. If each adjacent span exceeds 25 feet, a

pile pier is needed. If the required number of piles is large, spacing
considerations may require a three-bent pier.
• Use the number of bents to determine the theoretical spacing-to-

diameter ratio (shown as Sp/Dp). Divide the number of piles required
by the number of bents; then determine the theoretical Sp/Dp for the
number of piles required per bent.
• Find the required number of piles along the effective-number-of-piles

axis.
• Project a horizontal line to the right, intersecting the Sp/Dp.
• Interpolate the value of this ratio, with a minimum allowable value of

three. Project a vertical line from the intersection of the effective
number of piles and Sp/Dp to the bottom of the chart. Round the value
for the number of piles up to the next higher whole number to get the
actual number of piles per bent.
• Recheck the actual Sp/Dp with the rounded number of piles to ensure
that it does not fall below three. Also, find the actual number of
effective piles by reading the chart in reverse. This value must be
greater than or equal to the required number of piles. The end-bearing
piles will carry the full allowable pile load without any reduction in
efficiency due to group action.

FM 3-34.343
Sp/Dp = 10 5 3 3
20 Sp/Dp = 10 5
28
19
Sp/Dp = 10 5 18
12 26
3
17
11 24
16
Effective number of piles

10 15 22
14
9 20
13
8 18
12
7 11 16
10
6 14
9
5 12
8
4 7 10
6
3 8
4 6 8 10 12 14 4 6 8 10 12 14 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of piles per bent Two-bent pier Three-bent pier
LEGEND:
Sp = center-to-center pile spacing
Dp = pile diameter
Figure 7-43. Converse-Labarre Method
7-114. Combined Loading. Wind, water, and ice are lateral forces that
create combined loading conditions. Check the pile supports to ensure that the
additional loads created by these forces will not cause failure. For example,
compute the maximum actual load on an outside pile in a group as follows
(Figure 7-44, Pile A):
P 6ΣM
P m = ------ + ---------------------------------- (7-94)
N p S p N p ( N pr + 1 )
where—
Pm = maximum actual load on the outside pile, in kips
P = total of the vertical loads on the pile, in kips (equation 7-70)
Np = total number of piles in the group
∑M = total moment of all lateral forces at the FP for both normal and flood
stages, in kip-feet (see lateral loads). Use the larger value of total lateral
forces for a normal or flood stage.

FM 3-34.343
Total vertical forces
Total horizontal forces
Fixed points
Pile A Pile B Pile C Pile D
Vertical-force loads
Lateral-force loads
=
Compound-force loads
LEGEND:
h = height of the horizontal forces
Figure 7-44. Combined Loading
Sp = pile spacing, in feet (paragraph 7-111)

Npr = required number of piles in the row or bent (equation 7-93)
7-115. The allowable load on any friction pile in the group is computed as
follows:
N pe
P a = -------- P B (7-95)
N pr
where—
Pa = allowable load on a friction pile, in kips

Npe = effective number of piles (Figure 7-43)
Npr = number of piles required to carry the vertical load (equation 7-93)
PB = allowable bearing capacity per pile, in kips (equation 7-15). For end-
bearing piles, use the smaller of the bearing and buckling loads. For
friction piles, use the smallest of the bearing load, buckling load, soil
capacity, and driving capacity.

FM 3-34.343
7-116. For end-bearing piles, the allowable load on the outside pile is equal to
the load per pile. For safety reasons, the actual load on the outside pile should
be less than the load on a vertical pile. Compute the maximum actual load on
an outside pile as follows:
P DL 6ΣM
P m = --------
- + ---------------------------------- (7-96)
N p S p N p ( N pr + 1 )
where—
Pm = maximum actual load on the outside pile, in kips
PDL = total dead load, in kips (equation 7-56)
Np = total number of piles in the group
∑M = total moment of all lateral forces at the FP for both normal and flood
stages, in kip-feet (see lateral loads). Use the larger value of total lateral
forces for a normal or flood stage.
Npr = total number of piles in the row or bent (equation 7-93)
7-117. If the actual load on a single pile is negative, compare it with the
allowable buoyancy force. Estimate this force as 40 percent of the soil bearing
capacity, where the soil capacity is the allowable soil load (equation 7-86). For
safety, the actual load is less than or equal to the allowable buoyancy force. If
the checks indicate that overload or buoyancy forces make the support unsafe,
increase the pile spacing or add more piles or rows of piles.
PILE-PIER DESIGN
7-118. Pile-pier design is similar to pile-bent design except that two or more
rows of piles are used. Also, pile piers require the design of a common-cap and
corbel system as discussed below.
PILE-BENT DESIGN
7-119. A pile bent consists of a single row of piles with a pile cap. Brace bents
to one another or to the adjacent abutment to reduce the unbraced length and
to provide stability. Use the procedures described in paragraphs 7-100
through 7-117 to design a pile bent, and use the procedures discussed below to
design a pile cap. The consolidated process is as follows:
Step 1. Determine the loads acting on the bent.
Step 2. Determine the design capacity of a single pile (maximum allowable
load).
Step 3. Determine the number of piles required.
Step 4. Determine the actual number of piles to be used based on group
action.
Step 5. Check the combined loading produced by lateral loads and adjust the
number of piles and spacing, if necessary.
Step 6. Design the cap by using the procedures outlined below.

FM 3-34.343
CAP, CORBEL, AND COMMON-CAP DESIGN FOR PILE PIERS

7-120. To transfer a load from the superstructure to the supports properly,
place a cap on each pile or post bent. If there are two or more bents in a single
pier, use a common-cap and corbel system. A corbel is simply a short stringer
connecting the bents (Figures 7-45 and 7-46).
Stringer
Common cap
Corbel
Bent cap
Post
or
pile
Figure 7-45. Two-Bent Pier With Common Cap
Stringers
Common cap
1.33LC
Bent cap Top corbel
LC LC
Corbel Corbel
LEGEND:
Lc = length of corbel Posts or piles
Figure 7-46. Three-Bent Pier With Common Cap

FM 3-34.343
Cap Design
7-121. The minimum size for bent caps is 6 x 8 inches. The cap must also be at
least as wide as the piles or posts supporting it. Check the bearing stress
between the cap and the posts to ensure that the bearing stress does not
exceed the maximum allowable stress for timber (Table C-1, pages C-3
through C-6). Compute as follows:
• Cap design load.

P LL N p
P = P DL + --------------
- (7-97)
4
where—
P = total design load of the cap, in kips

PDL = estimated substructure dead load of the pier, in kips
(equation 7-56)
PLL = estimated substructure live load of the pier, in kips
(equation 7-57)
Np = number of piles in the bent
• Actual bearing stress. The actual bearing stress must not exceed
the allowable bearing stress for the weakest member in the system. If
the allowable bearing stress is exceeded, correct the system by adding
more piles or posts or by adding timbers on the sides of the supports
(Figure 7-47).
P
F B = ---------- (7-98)
Np A
where—
FB = actual bearing stress of the cap, in ksi

P = total design load of the cap, in kips (equation 7-97)
Np = number of piles in the bent
A = cross-sectional area of the pile, in square inches (Table C-5,
page C-10)
Cap
Timbers
Post or pile
Side View End View
Figure 7-47. Timbers Added to Reduce Bearing Stress

FM 3-34.343
• Cap depth. The depth of the cap must equal or exceed one-fifth of the
spacing between the piles.
Sp
d c ≥ ----- (7-99)
5
where—
dc = cap depth, in feet
Corbel Design
7-122. The corbel design process is different depending on the pier. The corbel
design for two- and three-bent piers is discussed below.
7-123. Two-Bent Pier. The design length of each corbel equals the center-to-
center spacing between bents. The actual corbel length exceeds the design
length by a minimum of one cap width so that the corbel will have contact
with the full area of each bent cap. Compute the required effective shear area
and the required number of corbels as follows:
• Required effective shear area.
P
A vr = --------- (7-100)
2F v
where—
Avr = required effective shear area of the corbel system, in square

inches
P = total design load of the corbel, in kips (equation 7-97)
Fv = allowable shear stress of the corbel, in ksi (Table C-1, page C-9)
• Required number of corbels.

A vr
N cb = ------
- (7-101)
Av
where—
Ncb = required number of corbels

Avr = required effective shear area of the cap or corbel system, in
square inches (equation 7-100)
Av = effective shear area of the corbel, in square inches (Table C-4,
page C-9)
7-124. Shear normally governs corbel design. If the corbel length divided by
the corbel depth is less than or equal to 12, do not consider shear controls and
moment. Compute as follows:
• Total shear.
P
V = --- (7-102)
2

FM 3-34.343
where—
V = total shear of the corbels, in kips

P = total design load, in kips (equation 7-97)
• Shear capacity.
v = FvAv (7-103)
where—
v = shear capacity per corbel, in kips

Fv = allowable shear stress of the corbel, in ksi (Table C-1, pages C-3
through C-6)
Av = effective shear area of the corbel, in square inches (Table C-4,
page C-9)
• Number of corbels (shear).
V
N cb = --- (7-104)
v
where—
Ncb = number of corbels

V = total shear of the corbels, in kips (equation 7-102)
v = shear capacity per corbel, in kips (equation 7-103)
• Spacing.
bR
S cb = ----------------
- (7-105)
N cb – 1
where—
Scb = center-to-center spacing of the corbel, in feet

Ncb = number of corbels (equation 7-104)
• Moment. If moment governs the corbel design, compute as follows:

PL cb
m = ----------- (7-106)
4
where—
m = moment, in kip-feet
P = corbel design load, in kips (equation 7-97)
Lcb = corbel length, in feet (paragraph 7-123)
• Number of corbels (moment). First, compute for the required

section modulus:
m12
S req = ---------- (7-107)
Fb

FM 3-34.343
where–
Sreq = required section modulus

m = moment, in kip-feet (equation 7-106)
Fb = allowable bending stress of the corbel, in ksi (Table C-1)
then, compute for the number of corbels:
S req
N cb = --------
- (7-108)
S
where—
Ncb = number of corbels per bent

Sreq = required section modulus (equation 7-107)
S = section modulus of one corbel (Table C-4)
• Spacing.
b r 12
S cb = ----------------
- (7-109)
N cb – 1
where—
Scb = corbel spacing, in inches

br = roadway width, in feet
Ncb = number of corbels (equation 7-108)
7-125. Three-Bent Pier. A three-bent pier requires two corbel systems
(Figure 7-46, page 7-61), each designed separately. The design length equals
the center-to-center bent spacing. The length of the top corbel equals one and
one-third times the length of the bottom corbel. The bottom corbels are not
continuous; they are simply supported at the center bent. See equations 7-104
and 7-105 for top corbels. If the ratio of 4 times the design length to 3 times
the pile depth is less than or equal to 12, shear governs. If moment governs,
see equations 7-107 and 7-108.
Common-Cap Design
7-126. The minimum size for a common cap is 6 x 8 inches. Compute the
common-cap width and depth as follows:
• Common-cap width.
■ Top common cap. Compute the minimum width of the common

cap for a two-bent pier or the top common cap of a three-bent pier
as follows:
p
b c = ------------------------- (7-110)
2N cb b cb F c
where—

FM 3-34.343
Ncb = number of corbels in the top bent (equation 7-108)

bcb = corbel width of the top cover, in inches
Fc = allowable bearing of the supports perpendicular to the
grain of the support material (Table C-1, pages C-3
through C-6)
■ Bottom common cap. Compute the minimum width of the

bottom common cap of a three-bent pier as follows:
P
b c = ---------------------- (7-111)
N cb b cb F c
where—
bc = minimum width of common cap, in inches

P = corbel design load, in kips (equation 7-97)
Ncb = number of corbels in the lower level (equation 7-108)
bcb = corbel width in the lower level, in inches
Fc = allowable bearing of the cap or corbel, perpendicular to the
grain of the cap or corbel material, in kips (Table C-1)
• Common-cap depth. The depth of any common cap must equal or

exceed one-fifth the spacing of the corbels supporting it. Compute as
follows:
S cb
d c > ------- (7-112)
5
where—
dc = cap depth, in inches

Scb = corbel spacing, in inches (equation 7-109)
TIMBER- AND STEEL-FRAMED TOWERS

7-127. The AFCS contains design drawings for timber- and steel-framed
towers.
CONCRETE PIERS
7-128. Concrete piers may be constructed of either mass or reinforced
concrete. Mass-concrete piers can be built in about the same amount of time
as reinforced concrete piers but are not economical because they require such
large quantities of concrete. Since concrete piers are normally used in
permanent bridges, this FM does not go into detail on their design.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
7-129. When shallow bedrock prevents pile installation, use some other type
of specially designed shallow foundation. The paragraphs below describe a few
shallow piers (other than standard timber and steel piers) that have been
successful in the field.

FM 3-34.343
Rock Footings
7-130. In dry gaps or shallow streambeds, construct rock footings as shown in
Figure 7-48. Hold the rocks in place by driving steel pickets into the soil.
Dump the rocks into the steel enclosure and level them at the proper
elevation. To provide a smooth surface for timber or steel piers, place a layer
of concrete over the rocks. Settlement may be a problem since the rocks have
to be placed directly on mud. In this case, put a surcharge of heavy material
on the rock footing to induce settling before leveling and capping. After the
footing settles, remove the surcharge and level and cap the rock footing. The
total load acting on the footing (including the weight of the footing itself)
divided by the planned area of the footing must not exceed the bearing
capacity of the local soil.
Timber or steel pier Concrete cap
Rocks
Steel pickets (welded)
Figure 7-48. Rock Footing
Concrete Footings
7-131. In shallow watercourses with firm beds, use a concrete footing. Place
the forms and anchor them with weights so that they will not float away. Then
use a tremie to place concrete in the forms. Place the footing only when the
temperature of the water will not fall below 45°F during the curing process.
Steel or Timber Footings on Rock or Concrete

7-132. Embed steel or timber posts directly in the concrete or on top of the
rock or concrete footings.

FM 3-34.343
Steel-Culvert Pipe
7-133. Steel-culvert pipes can serve as expedient bridge piers. Fill the pipes
with rocks, cap them, and place them on edge. At least two rows of pipe are
needed, with both lateral and longitudinal bracing to provide stability. This
type of pier requires a cap and corbel system. Weld the steel pipe together as
rigidly as possible to provide one continuous pipe. Piers of this type should not
exceed 12 feet in height and can be placed on a rock or concrete footing. Do not
use concrete pipes since sections are short and tend to be unstable when
stacked.
FOOTINGS AND GRILLS

7-134. The AFCS contains descriptions on the use of footings and grills as
special foundations for steel or timber towers. See FM 5-277 for more
information on grills.
CULVERTS
7-135. Reinforced concrete and corrugated-metal culverts are often used in
shallow or intermittent watercourses in place of bridges. See FM 5-430-00-1
for information on culvert designs in connection with drainage.

Chapter 8
Suspension-Bridge Design
Suspension bridges can span distances from 2,000 to 7,000 feet, which is
far longer than any other kind of bridge. They also tend to be the most
expensive to build. True to their name, suspension bridges suspend the
roadway from huge main cables, which extend from one end of the bridge
to the other. These cables rest on top of high towers and are secured at
each end by anchorages. The towers enable the main cables to be draped
over long distances.
DESCRIPTIONS
8-1. Suspension bridges have two basic systems–main cables supported by
towers at each end over the obstacle and a roadway suspended from the main
cables (Figure 8-1, page 8-2). Suspender cables support the floor beams, which
support the stringers that support the roadway. Stiffening trusses further
spread the live load to the suspenders. Suspension-bridge design requires
analysis of the following items:
• Load to be carried.
• Panel length.
• Floor beams and stringers.
• Stiffening trusses.
• Dead load.
• Suspenders.
• Main cables.
• Towers.
• Tower bracing and backstays.
• Anchorages.
UNSTIFFENED BRIDGES
8-2. Unstiffened bridges consist of floors, without stiffening trusses or girders,
suspended from cables. These bridges are suitable only where live load or
wind load can never cause serious deformation of the cable. An example of this
type of bridge would be a footbridge, where the live load is very light. Other
examples are structures with a large dead load but insignificant live load.
STIFFENED BRIDGES
8-3. Stiffened bridges have flexible cables that are stiffened by suspended
girders or trusses. These bridges minimize local changes in roadway slope due
Suspension-Bridge Design 8-1

FM 3-34.343
Tower Tower
Main cable
Backstay Suspender Backstay
Cross braces
Deadman Floor beams Side rail Deadman
Stringer
Cradle (F)
Flare (K)
Figure 8-1. Suspension Bridge
to live loads. They are constructed by framing the floor beams of the floor
system into stiffening trusses and supporting these trusses with hangers
running to the cables.
SELF-ANCHORED BRIDGES
8-4. Self-anchored bridges are supported on vertical foundations, and no
anchor cable is required. The horizontal force on the main cable is exerted by
endwise thrusts in the stiffening girder.
MULTIPLE-SPAN BRIDGES
8-5. Multiple-span bridges are a combination of two or more adjoining
suspension bridges sharing a common anchorage. The towers of these bridges
are connected by a tie cable to restrain movement of the tower tops from
unbalanced live loads.
BRIDGE SITES
8-6. The selection of a bridge site is very critical. Factors to consider when
determining a bridge site are the tower spacing, the bridge clearance, and the
work area.
TOWER SPACING
8-7. Keep the distance between towers as short as possible (not more than
400 feet). Also, keep the towers at the same elevation if possible. Long spans
with a considerable difference in tower elevations require large wire ropes and
8-2 Suspension-Bridge Design

FM 3-34.343
increase material-acquisition problems. Longer spans also may increase cable

tension, requiring heavier towers and anchorages and increasing construction
effort. There should be minimal differences in the tower and the bank
elevations.
BRIDGE CLEARANCE AND WORK AREAS

8-8. Avoid high points between towers for adequate clearance due to cable
sag. When determining clearance, consider sag based on anticipated loads.
Select a fairly level space around each tower. For clearance purposes, select a
sharp slope just past the loading area.
DESIGN FACTORS
8-9. Factors to consider when designing a suspension bridge are the sag ratio,
the camber, the cradle and flare, and the backstay slope. Figure 8-2 shows the
suspension-bridge design factors.
Tower height
Sag
Elevation
Camber
Deadman
Backstay
Main cable Cradle
Flare
Figure 8-2. Suspension-Bridge Design Factors
SAG RATIO
8-10. Sag controls the length and stability of the bridge. The sag ratio varies
from 5 to 16.66 percent. The sag ratio is computed by dividing the sag by the
span length. If the main cables have a flat curve or low sag ratio, the bridge
has more vertical stability but the cable stress is high and strong anchorages
are required. If the sag ratio is high, the cable is under less stress and
anchorages may be placed closer to the towers.

FM 3-34.343
CAMBER
8-11. Camber is the vertical distance between the top of the floor beam at the
midspan and a straight line drawn between the tops of the tower sills. Camber
allows for deflection of a bridge when loaded. The camber should be equal to
0.67 percent of the span length.
CRADLE AND FLARE

8-12. Cradle is the lateral distance from the midpoint of one of the main
cables to a straight line drawn between its support points on the towers. Flare
is the lateral distance from the cable support on the tower to the anchorage.
The cradle should be equal to 1.25 percent of half the span length. The flare
should be between 2.5 and 3.5 percent of the horizontal backstay length. Both
cradle and flare help steady a bridge.
BACKSTAY SLOPE
8-13. Backstay slope is the ratio of the vertical difference between the
deadman and the tower support of the main cable to the difference in
elevation between the deadman and the tower. The angle of the backstay and
main cable may be the same. If so, the stress will be equal on both sides of the
tower. The backstay slope is usually a 1:2.5 ratio.
LIVE LOAD
8-14. Use either a uniform or concentrated load condition when designing
suspension bridges. If five or more concentrated loads are carried on the
bridge at one time, consider this load as a uniform load condition to simplify
the design process. Use the dead and live loads when designing floor and side-
rail systems. Use the dead, live, and impact loads when designing the cable
system. Assume the impact load to be 100 percent of the live load.
PANELS
8-15. Figure 8-3 shows a typical suspension-bridge panel. A truss helps
spread the load over several panels and stabilizes a bridge. When the truss is
omitted, suspend the roadway and posts from the main cables.
LENGTH
8-16. Assume a panel length between 10 and 15 feet to start the design
process. A 10-foot panel is usually a practical length. Number the panels
symmetrically from zero at the center suspender to the number of panels
needed to reach the towers (Figure 8-4). A design is simplified if there is an
even number of panel points, thus dividing the bridge exactly in half.
Otherwise, number the panel points by halves (0.5, 1.5, 2.5, and so forth),
beginning with the panel closest to the center span.
STRINGERS
8-17. Use Table 8-1, page 8-6, to select the nominal stringer size. This table
assumes uniform loading and uses an allowable bending stress of 1 ksi. If

FM 3-34.343
Main cables Clip-type cable band

Side rails
Cable
clips
Splice Floor planks

plates Suspender
Knee
brace
Sway bracing Side-rail post

Saw-tooth bracing
Stringer cleat
Toe board
Stringers
Floor beam
Figure 8-3. Typical Suspension-Bridge Panel
14
13
Panel points 12
11
10
9
8
7
5 6
0 1 2 3 4
Panel
Figure 8-4. Panel Points

FM 3-34.343
designing a bridge for a concentrated load, use half the load value selected
from this table. For bending stresses other than 1 ksi, multiply the load in
Table 8-1 by the new allowable bending stress. The allowable bending stress
for timber is shown in Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6.
Table 8-1. Properties of Wooden Beams
1 2 3 4 5
Nominal Actual Size Area of the Weight per Maximum Safe Uni-
Size (in) (in) Section (sq in) Linear Foot (w)1 form Load (fb)2
4x6 3 5/8 x 5 5/8 20.4 5.66 12,740
6x6 5 1/2 x 5 1/2 30.3 8.40 18,490
4x8 3 5/8 x 7 1/2 27.2 7.55 22,700
6x8 5 1/2 x 7 1/2 41.3 11.40 34,400
8x8 7 1/2 x 7 1/2 56.3 15.60 46,900
6 x 10 5 1/2 x 9 1/2 52.3 14.50 55,200
8 x 10 7 1/2 x 9 1/2 71.3 19.80 75,200
10 x 10 9 1/2 x 9 1/2 90.3 25.00 95,300
6 x 12 5 1/2 x 11 1/2 63.3 17.50 80,000
8 x 12 7 1/2 x 11 1/2 86.3 23.90 110,200
10 x 12 9 1/2 x 11 1/2 109.3 30.30 139,600
12 x 12 11 1/2 x 11 1/2 132.3 36.70 169,000
NOTES:
1. The weight per linear foot (w) equals 40 pounds per cubic foot.
2. Based on the bending of a 1-foot span, fb equals ksi.
FLOOR BEAMS
8-18. Table 8-2 lists floor-beam sizes for various loading conditions. Design
the floor beams so that the suspenders wrap around the floor beams. Extend
the beams beyond the width of the roadway so that knee braces can be added
to support the side-rail posts.
Table 8-2. Floor-Beam Sizes

Load Floor-Beam Cross Section (in)
Foot troops with full packs 4x6
1/4-ton truck, normal load 6x6
3/4-ton truck, normal load 8x8

FM 3-34.343
PLANKS
8-19. Use 2-inch planks for footbridges. Use 3-inch planks for light vehicle
bridges.
SIDE RAILS AND POSTS

8-20. Side rails are not necessary on very light or short footbridges. As the
span and the load increase, add side rails to stabilize the bridge. Use 2- x
4-inch posts and a single side rail for light footbridges. Use 3- x 6-inch posts
with double side rails and a toe board for vehicle bridges. Make the posts
about 42 inches long for safety and convenience.
BRACING
8-21. Saw-toothed bracing helps stiffen the truss and spread the load over
several panels. Use 2- x 6-inch lumber for saw-toothed bracing. Knee bracing
holds the posts and floor beams. Extend the floor beams to allow for the knee
braces. Use 2- x 4-inch material. Sway bracing helps stabilize the bridge
laterally. On light bridges, heavy-gauge wire with rack sticks (Figure 8-5) is
sufficient. Heavier bridges require timber sway bracing (Figure 8-6, page 8-8).
Floor planks Side-rail post Floor beam
Rack sticks
Wire sway bracing

Spacing between planks Stringers
10-foot panel 10-foot panel
Plan
Floor planks omitted to allow
tightening of sway bracing
Elevation
Figure 8-5. Wire Sway Bracing

FM 3-34.343
10-foot panel
Deck planks Floor beam
Curb
Sway brace
Stringer
Side-rail post
Figure 8-6. Timber Sway Bracing
DEAD LOAD
8-22. After selecting the truss and floor system, determine the dead load. To
find the dead load of a panel, add the weight of the components (suspenders,
floor beam, deck planks, stringers, toe boards, side-rail posts, knee braces,
side rails, curbs, and clips). The dead load is measured in kips per panel.
SUSPENDERS
8-23. Suspenders carry the live, dead, and impact loads. Assume that the live
load equals the gross weight of the traffic using the bridge. Determine the
dead load according to paragraph 8-22. For design purposes, the impact load
equals the live load. Use Table 8-1, page 8-6, and a safety factor of 5 to
determine the allowable load per suspender. Compute as follows:
P
P s = ---- (8-1)
N
where—
Ps = load per suspender, in kips
P = total load, in kips. The total load is the dead-load weight of all
components plus the live-load weight designed for plus impact. Impact is
the same as the live-load weight.
N = number of suspenders

FM 3-34.343
8-24. The effective suspender length is the distance between the main cable
and the floor beam. Add sufficient length to each suspender to accommodate
connections at each end. Compute the suspender length as follows:
n 2
d = L es +  ---- ( c + y s ) (8-2)
 n t
where—
d = distance between the main cable and the floor beam, in feet
Les = effective length of the center suspender, in feet
n = panel point of the suspender (paragraph 8-16)
c = cable camber, in feet (paragraph 8-11)
ys = cable sag (Figure 8-2, page 8-3)
nt = panel point of the tower (paragraph 8-16)
8-25. An additional 5 to 6 feet is adequate for connections with the main cable
and the floor beams. The loop must include a thimble to prevent the main
cable from shearing the suspender cable.
MAIN CABLES
8-26. Use equations 8-3 through 8-10 or Table 8-3, page 8-10, to design the
main cables. Assume a cable size to determine the dead load. Determine the
cable tension and adjust the cable to accommodate the tension. Redetermine
the cable tension (based on the new cable size) and check the cable’s strength.
Continue this process until a suitable cable size can be selected. Design a
main cable as discussed below.
NORMAL DESIGN
8-27. The normal-design process is as follows:
• Loads.
P
W c = --- (8-3)
L
where—
Wc = weight per foot of main cable, in kpf
P = total load, in kips (paragraph 8-23)
• Horizontal tension.
2
Wc ( L )
T = ----------------- (8-4)
8y s
where—
T = horizontal tension, in kips

Wc = weight per foot of main cable, in kips (equation 8-3)
ys = cable sag, in feet (paragraph 8-10)

FM 3-34.343
Table 8-3. Cable-Design Data

1 2 3 4
Sag Ratio Tension Factor1 Tension Factor2 Length Factor3
(ys / L) (xt) (xt) (xt)
5 2.55 2.55 1.007
7 2.14 2.14 1.010
8 1.64 1.64 1.013
9 1.48 1.49 1.017
10 1.35 1.36 1.026
11 1.24 1.26 1.031
12 1.16 1.18 1.037
13 1.08 1.11 1.043
14 1.02 1.05 1.050
15 0.97 1.01 1.057
20 0.80 0.88 1.098
NOTES:
1. When the weight per foot of span is known, T′ = Ws(xt).
2. When the weight per foot of cable is known, T′ = Ws(xt).
3. The suspender length is LS = L(xt).
LEGEND:
LS = suspender length, in feet
T′′ = cable tension, in kips
WS = stringer weight, in kpf
yS = cable sag
• Slope.
– 1 4y
θ = tan  -------s (8-5)
L
where—
θ = cable deflection angle

tan-1 = inverse tangent function
• Tension in all cables.
T
T′ = ------------ (8-6)
cos θ
where—
Τ′ = cable tension, in kips

T = horizontal tension, in kips (equation 8-4)
θ = cable deflection angle (equation 8-5)

FM 3-34.343
• Allowable tension in one cable.
T′
T c = ----- (8-7)
N
where—
Tc = allowable tension per cable, in kips

T′ = cable tension, in kips (equation 8-6)
N = number of cables
• Cable length.
8 ys 2
L ca = L 1 +  ---  ---- (8-8)
 3  L 
where—
Lca = total cable length, in feet

ys = cable sag (paragraph 8-10)
TABLE METHOD (EXPEDIENT)

8-28. Use Table 8-3 to determine the cable tension factor and the cable length
factor. Locate the appropriate sag ratio on the left-hand side and read to the
right to Column 2 or 3, whichever applies. Compute the cable tension, length,
and size and the number of cables required as follows:
• Cable tension.
T′ = W DL L ( x t ) (8-9)
where—
T′ = cable tension, in kips

WDL = dead-load weight of the span (Table 8-3, Column 2) or per foot
of cable (Table 8-3, Column 3), in kpf
xt = factor from Table 8-3, Column 2 or 3
• Cable length.
L ca = L ( x t ) (8-10)
where—
Lca = cable length, in feet

xt = factor from Table 8-3, Column 4
• Cable size. Find the tension that all the cables must hold
(equation 8-6) and the tension in each cable (equation 8-9). Next, find
the size of cable or wire rope and its corresponding breaking strength
(Table 8-4, page 8-12).

FM 3-34.343
• Number of cables required.

T
N = -----c (8-11)
Ts
where—
N = number of cables required

Tc = amount of tension in the main cable due to the bridge load, in
kips (equation 8-7)
Ts = breaking strength of the cable, in kips (Table 8-4)
Table 8-4. Cable Properties
Improved Plow-Steel (IPS) Rope
Diameter 6x7 6 x 19 6 x 27
(in)
Weight per Breaking Weight per Breaking Weight per Breaking
Foot (lb) Strength (tons) Foot (lb) Strength (tons) Foot (lb) Strength (tons)
1/4 0.094 2.64 0.10 2.74 0.10 2.59
3/8 0.210 5.86 0.23 6.30 0.22 5.77
1/2 0.380 10.30 0.40 10.80 0.39 10.20
5/8 0.590 15.90 0.63 16.60 0.61 15.80
3/4 0.840 22.70 0.90 23.70 0.87 22.60
7/8 1.150 30.70 1.23 32.20 1.19 30.60
1 1.500 39.70 1.60 42.20 1.55 39.80
1 1/8 1.900 49.80 2.03 53.00 1.96 50.10
1 1/4 2.340 61.00 2.50 65.00 2.42 61.50
EXPEDIENT FIELD DESIGN

8-29. The expedient field design may be necessary. To determine the tension
in a cable for a given span and load, use Table 8-3, page 8-10, as follows:
• Column 1. Find the sag ratio.
• Column 2. Use this data when designing suspension bridges to
determine the cable tension when a uniform load is suspended along a
horizontal span. Multiply the appropriate tension factor in Column 2
by the uniform load and by the span length.
• Column 3. Use this data to determine the cable tension in an
unloaded cableway. Multiply the weight per foot of cable by the
appropriate tension factor in Column 3 and by the length of the cable
to obtain the cable tension.

FM 3-34.343
• Column 4. Use this data to compute the cable length that is between
the supports. Multiply the span length by the length factor in
Column 4.
BACKSTAYS
8-30. Backstays are the portions of the main cables that are behind the
towers. Ensure that the maximum allowable tension of the cable is not
exceeded. Compute the tension in the backstays by multiplying the results of
equation 8-7 by the secant of the horizontal backstay angle. For equal tension
in the cables on both sides of the tower, the backstay angle should be as
follows:
ys 2
sec = 1 + 16  ---- (8-12)
 L
where—
sec = secant of the cable deflection angle
TOWERS
8-31. In most cases, construct towers at the site. After determining the type of
installation and the cable sag, determine the tower height from the field
profile. Keep towers as low as possible to simplify the design and construction.
The main consideration is the timber size required. Figure 8-7, page 8-14,
shows examples of improvised towers. Compute the tower height as follows:
h = L ( y s + c ) + L cs (8-13)
where—
h = tower height, in feet
c = camber, as a percentage (paragraph 8-11)
Lcs = length of center suspender, in feet
LOADS
8-32. The cable (on both sides of the tower) places horizontal and vertical
loads on the tower, depending on the angle of approach. The guy lines resist
the horizontal load, placing an additional vertical load on the tower. Table 8-5,
page 8-14, shows the vertical reactions on the tower for varying sizes of cable,
sags, and slopes.
POSTS
8-33. Vertical reactions of the main cables determine the post size of the
towers. For simplicity, a 12- x 12-inch post will carry loads of up to 2 1/2-ton
trucks. However, use Table 8-5 and Table 8-6, page 8-15, if determining a
minimum size. Determine the maximum vertical reaction for a particular sag
ratio, slope, tieback, and cable size from Table 8-5. Using this value,

FM 3-34.343
Saddles Saddles
Diagonal brace Cap

(each side)
Back brace
Side brace
Cross brace
Corbel
Sill
Figure 8-7. Improvised Suspension-Bridge Towers
Table 8-5. Vertical Reactions on Towers
Sag Slope Track-Cable Diameter (in)

(%) (%) 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4
1:2 Tieback Ratio
5.0 0 2,020 3,450 5,300 7,570 10,290 13,430 16,900 —
7.5 0 2,170 3,710 5,680 8,130 11,050 14,430 18,150 —
10.0 0 2,320 3,970 6,080 8,690 11,810 15,420 19,400 —
10.0 10 2,450 4,190 6,430 9,120 12,490 16,305 20,520 —
10.0 20 2,700 4,620 7,070 10,120 13,750 17,960 22,950 —
10.0 30 2,930 5,000 7,670 10,970 14,900 19,460 24,480 —
10.0 40 3,180 5,440 8,340 11,930 16,200 21,160 26,630 —
10.0 50 3,420 5,840 8,950 12,800 17,390 22,710 28,570 —
15.0 40 3,420 5,840 8,950 12,800 17,390 22,710 28,570 —
1:4 Tieback Ratio
5.0 0 1,240 2,120 3,240 4,640 6,298 9,130 — 10,350
7.5 0 1,400 2,380 3,650 5,220 7,090 9,260 — 11,650
10.0 0 1,550 2,650 4,055 5,810 7,890 10,300 — 12,960
10.0 10 1,800 3,080 4,720 6,750 9,171 11,980 — 15,070
10.0 20 2,060 3,510 5,380 7,700 10,460 13,670 — 17,190
10.0 30 2,340 4,000 6,130 8,770 11,915 15,560 — 19,580
10.0 40 2,590 4,430 6,790 9,710 13,190 17,230 — 21,680
10.0 50 2,660 4,550 6,970 9,980 13,550 17,690 — 22,260
15.0 40 2,660 4,550 6,970 9,980 13,550 17,690 — 22,260

FM 3-34.343
determine a post size from Table 8-6. The area, the modulus of elasticity, and
the allowable stress must be known to determine a post size. Divide the length
(in inches) by the minimum depth (in inches). Compute the post capacity by
multiplying the allowable stress by the area. Brace the tower and place
saddles (Figure 8-8) on top of the posts to protect them from the cables. Choose
a post with a capacity greater than the maximum vertical reaction.
Table 8-6. Working Stress for Timber Columns
Modulus of Length Divided by Depth

Elasticity (E) 15 or Less 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1,000,000 1,800 1,125 720 500 366 282 222 180
1,100,000 1,800 1,230 790 550 404 309 245 196
1,200,000 1,800 1,350 862 600 441 337 267 216
1,300,000 1,800 1,460 930 650 479 366 290 234
1,400,000 1,800 1,575 1,010 700 515 395 311 252
1,500,000 1,800 1,675 1,080 750 550 422 333 270
1,600,000 1,800 1,800 1,150 800 588 450 356 288
1,700,000 1,800 1,800 1,225 850 624 479 378 306
1,800,000 1,800 1,800 1,295 900 660 507 400 324
1,900,000 1,800 1,800 1,370 950 696 534 422 342
2,000,000 1,800 1,800 1,440 1,000 735 562 444 360
Plate
B
Screws Wooden block
Welds Plate
Figure 8-8. Saddles

FM 3-34.343
SADDLES
8-34. Saddles may be required to protect timber cross members when using
heavy cables or long spans. Make the saddles from sheet steel or pipe. The
strap shown in Figure 8-8A, page 8-15, can easily be made from scrap steel.
Indent the strap to position and steady the cables. Figure 8-8B shows a
heavier plate and saddle-block combination. Hold the cable in place by
partially driving the nails on either side of the cable. The saddle block and
plate can be used on flat timbers to allow for curvature of the cable.
Figure 8-8C shows a pipe saddle. Use it where several cables or a heavier
cable is required. Saddles made from 1/2-inch steel plates are sufficient for
cables up to 1 1/2 inches in diameter.
GUY LINES
8-35. Guy lines take up the horizontal forces on the tower. Four 3/8-inch-
diameter wire ropes are usually enough to hold a tower in place, provided
their slope is 2 feet of run to every foot of rise. This distance provides a margin
of safety and allows considerable latitude in placing guy lines at an angle to
the direction of the cable.
ANCHORAGES
8-36. For speed and economy, use natural anchors in cableway and tramway
installations wherever possible. Other temporary anchors include pickets,
rock anchors, holdfasts, and deadmen. Fabricate permanent anchors of steel
and set them in concrete or fasten them to permanent structures. Always
fasten the guy lines to the anchors as near to the ground as possible so that
they leave the anchor as parallel to the ground as possible (except in the case
of rock anchors). The wedging action of a rock anchor is strongest under a
direct pull and should be set with this effect in mind.
8-37. Trees, stumps, or rocks can serve as natural anchors for expedient work
in the field. Avoid using a rotten tree or stump or a dead tree as an anchor. It
is always advisable to lash the first tree or stump to a second one to provide
added support. A transom (Figure 8-9) provides a stronger anchor than a
single tree. When using rocks as natural anchors, examine the rocks carefully
to be sure that they are large enough and firmly embedded in the ground. An
outcropping of rock or a heavy boulder lying on the ground will serve as a
satisfactory anchor. See FM 5-125 for more detail on anchors.
PICKET HOLDFAST
8-38. One factor in the strength of a picket holdfast is the holding power of
the ground. Strengthen the holdfast by increasing the surface area of the
pickets against the ground. Drive two or more pickets into the ground and
lash them together to form a stronger holdfast than a single picket. Make a
multiple-picket holdfast as follows:
• Drive round pickets (at least 3 inches in diameter and 5 feet long)
about 3 feet into the ground, spaced 3 to 6 feet apart in line with the
guy line (Figure 8-10A).

FM 3-34.343
Figure 8-9. Transom
Figure 8-10. Picket Holdfasts
• Slope the pickets about 15 degrees from the vertical, opposite the
direction of the pull.
• Tie a fiber rope to the first picket with a clove hitch, and take four to
six turns around the two pickets from the bottom of the second picket
to the top of the first. Fasten the rope to the second picket with a clove
hitch just above the turns. Pass a stake between the rope turns.
• Tighten the rope by twisting the stake and then drive the stake into
the ground.
• Place a similar lashing between the second and third pickets. If using
wire rope for lashing, make only two complete turns around each pair
of pickets. If neither fiber nor wire rope is available for lashing, nail
boards between the pickets, from the top of the front picket to the
bottom of the second picket.

FM 3-34.343
8-39. The main strength of a multiple-picket holdfast is in the strength of the

first, or front, picket. To increase the surface area of the first picket against
the ground, drive three or four pickets into the ground close together. Lash
this picket group to a second picket group, and lash the second group to a
third picket group (Figure 8-10B, page 8-17). Ash pickets (installed as outlined
above) should withstand the following pulls in undisturbed, loamy soils:
• Single picket–700 pounds.
• 1-1 picket holdfast combination–1,400 pounds.
• 1-1-1 picket holdfast combination–1,800 pounds.
• 2-1 picket holdfast combination–2,000 pounds.
• 3-2-1 picket holdfast combination–4,000 pounds.
COMBINATION HOLDFAST
8-40. For heavy loading of an anchor, spread the load over the largest possible
area by increasing the number of pickets. A combination holdfast has four or
five multiple-picket holdfasts (parallel to each other) with a heavy log resting
against the front pickets to form a combination log-picket holdfast
(Figure 8-11). Fasten the guy line or anchor sling to the log that bears against
the pickets. The log should bear evenly against all pickets to obtain maximum
strength. The strength of the log will affect the strength of the combination as
much as the strength of the individual picket holdfasts. Carefully select the
timber to stand the maximum pull on the line without appreciable bending. A
steel cross member will serve the same function, forming a combination steel-
picket holdfast (Figure 8-12).
Figure 8-11. Combination Log-Picket Holdfast
ROCK ANCHOR
8-41. A rock anchor (Figure 8-13) has an eye on one end. The other end is
threaded and has a nut, an expanding wedge, and a stop nut on it. Insert the
threaded end of the rock anchor in the hole, with the nut clear of the wedge.
After placing the anchor, insert a crowbar through the eye of the rock anchor

FM 3-34.343
and twist the crowbar. Doing this causes the threads of the rock anchor to
draw the nut up against the wedge, forcing the wedge out against the sides of
the hole in the rock.
Figure 8-12. Combination Steel-Picket Holdfast
Figure 8-13. Rock Anchor
8-42. Since the wedging action is strongest under a direct pull, always set
rock anchors so that the pull is in direct line with the shaft of the anchor. Drill
holes for rock anchors 5 inches deep. In hard rock, use a 1-inch-diameter drill.
In soft rock, use a 3/4-inch-diameter drill. Drill the hole as neatly as possible
so that the rock anchor will develop maximum strength. In extremely soft

FM 3-34.343
rock, use a different type of anchor as the wedging action may not give
sufficient holding power.
DEADMAN
8-43. A deadman consists of a log buried in the ground with the guy line or
anchor sling connected to it at its center (Figure 8-14). A deadman provides
greater strength than a holdfast under most conditions. It is more suitable for
permanent installation, and it is the best form of anchor for heavy loads
because of the large surface area presented against the undisturbed soil. In
some installations, it may be necessary to slacken or tighten the guy lines by
putting in a turnbuckle near the ground or installing a take-up tackle.
Figure 8-14. Log Deadman
8-44. Bury the deadman as deep as necessary for good bearing on solid
ground. Follow these steps:
Step 1. Undercut the bank in the direction toward the guy line at an angle of
about 15 degrees from the vertical. This will use as much of the surface of the
undisturbed earth as possible.
Step 2. Drive stakes into the bank at several points over the deadman to
increase the bearing surface.
Step 3. Cut a narrow, inclined trench for the guy line or anchor sling through
the bank, leading to the center of the deadman. Place a short beam or log on
the surface of the ground under the guy line or anchor sling at the outlet of the
inclined trench, if possible.
Step 4. Fasten the guy line or anchor sling securely to the center of the
deadman so that the standing part of the line (on which the pull occurs) will
lead from the bottom of the deadman. This reduces the tendency of the
deadman to rotate upward out of the hole.
Step 5. Clip the running end of the guy line securely to the standing part. The
strength of the deadman depends partly on the strength of the buried log, but

FM 3-34.343
the main strength is the holding power of the earth. Table 8-7 lists the
deadman holding power in ordinary earth.
Table 8-7. Deadman Holding Power in Ordinary Earth
Mean Safe Resistance (lb/sq ft) of Deadman Area by

Anchor Inclination of Pull (Vertical to Horizontal)
Depth (ft) Vertical 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:4
3 600 950 1,300 1,450 1,500
4 1,050 1,750 2,200 2,600 2,700
5 1,700 2,800 3,600 4,000 4,100
6 2,400 3,800 5,100 5,800 6,000
7 3,200 5,100 7,000 8,000 8,400
8-45. Design and place bearing plates where the cable is in contact with, or
bears on, the log or squared timber deadman. The bearing plate prevents the
cable from cutting through the timber. Table 8-8, page 8-22, shows the
required size of the bearing plate based on cable and deadman sizes. See
TC 5-210, FM 5-125, or FM 5-34 for more information about a deadman.

FM 3-34.343
Table 8-8. Bearing-Plate Dimensions
Deadman Cable Size (in)

Dimension
Face (in) 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4
x 7/16 7/8 1 1/4 — — — — —
8 y 4 8 11 — — — — —
z 6 6 6 — — — — –—
x 7/16 11/16 1 1 3/8 — — — —
10 y 4 6 9 12 — — — —
z 8 8 8 8 — — — —
x 7/16 9/16 13/16 1 1/8 1 7/16 — — —
12 y 4 5 7 10 13 — — —
z 10 10 10 10 10 — — —
x 7/16 7/16 11/16 7/8 1 1/4 1 9/16 2 —
14 y 4 4 6 8 11 14 18 —
z 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 —
x 7/16 7/16 9/16 13/16 1 1/8 1 3/8 1 11/16 2 1/8
16 y 4 4 5 7 10 12 15 19
z 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
x 7/16 7/16 7/16 11/16 7/8 1 1/4 1 9/16 1 13/16
18 y 4 4 4 6 8 11 14 16
z 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
x 7/16 7/16 7/16 11/16 7/8 1 1/8 1 3/8 1 11/16
20 y 4 4 4 6 8 11 14 16
z 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
x 7/16 7/16 7/16 9/16 11/16 7/8 1 1/8 1 3/8
24 y 4 4 4 5 6 8 10 12
z 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
NOTE: The values in this table are based on the use of IPS cable.

Chapter 9
Connections
Connections are one of the most critical sections of any bridge (existing or
under construction). All the detailed planning, layout, and construction of
a new bridge can go to waste if connections of key joints are made with
inadequate materials that fail under the varying stresses in the bridge.
The analytical classification and design procedures assume good
connections of appropriate connectors. This chapter focuses on the most
common types and selection criteria of connections.
TIMBER CONNECTIONS
9-1. Many timbers are connected by nails or spikes. Nails or spikes are
normally used in handrails and knee braces to fasten timber decking to the
bridge stringers. For critical connections where a high-strength fastener is
required, substitute bolts for nails. Connections that require bolts also include
stringer splicing and connection of the substructure members.
NAILS OR SPIKES
9-2. To create an adequate connection using nails or spikes, drive the nail or
spike into the timber member to a depth no less than one-half (preferably two-
thirds) the length of the fastener (Figure 9-1). The engineer in charge of the
project must use judgment and experience to determine the quantity of the
fasteners required to make the connection. Drive enough nails or spikes (in
suitable patterns) to provide a rigid and durable connection. Table 9-1,
page 9-2, gives data for the various sizes of standard nails and spikes used in
bridge construction.
d d
1/2d
2/3d
Minimum
LEGEND: Preferred
d = distance
Figure 9-1. Fastener Penetration in Timber Connections
Connections 9-1
FM 3-34.343
Table 9-1. Data for Nails and Spikes
Type Size Length (in) Gauge Diameter (in)
10d 3 9 0.1483
12d 3 1/4 9 0.1483
16d 3 1/2 8 0.1620
20d 4 6 0.1920
Nails
30d 4 1/2 5 0.2070
40d 5 4 0.2253
50d 5 1/2 3 0.2440
60d 6 2 0.2625
— 7 5/16 5/16
— 8 3/8 3/8
Spikes — 9 3/8 3/8
— 10 3/8 3/8
— 12 3/8 3/8
LAG SCREWS
9-3. Use lag screws instead of nails when the possibility of tension failure
exists in timber members. Compute the allowable load on a lag screw by using
the Hankinson formula as follows:
( P )PY
P a = ----------------------------------------------
- (9-1)
P sin θ + PY cos θ
2 2
where—
Pa = allowable load at an angle to the grain

P = allowable load parallel to the grain (Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6)
PY = allowable load perpendicular to the grain (Table C-1)
θ = angle between the load and the grain
9-4. Allowable loads can vary greatly because of the variance in timber grade
and type. For this reason, do not consider the strength of lag screws when
designing connections. Consider only the spacing and edge distance. Always
use washers under the lag-screw head.
9-5. Space lag screws apart at a minimum of four times the diameter of the
screw, measured in the direction of the tensile or compressive load. For
compression members, the end distance should be at least four diameters. For
tension members, spacing should be at least seven diameters. For loading
perpendicular to the grain, the loaded edge distance should be at least four
times the diameter of the screw. When the load is parallel to the grain, one
9-2 Connections
FM 3-34.343
and one-half diameters is a sufficient edge distance. Measure all distances

from the center of the lag screws (Figure 9-2).
1½D
7D
Load Load
4D 1½D
A. Tension Loading Parallel to the Grain B. Compression Loading Parallel to the Grain
4D
Load 4D minimum
C. Loading Perpendicular to the Grain D. Minimum Spacing Requirements
LEGEND:
D = diameter
Figure 9-2. Edge Distance and Spacing Requirements
BOLTS
9-6. Critical timber connections require bolts. Bolts provide a strong, efficient,
and economical method of fastening wood members together. Bolts are
available in a variety of sizes and can be used with all sizes of timber. Use
bolted timber connections to splice stringers, connect substructure members,
and attach deck and curb material. Also use them for fastening wood to wood
and for fastening steel plates to wood members. Always use washers under
the bolt head and bolt nut.
Maximum Allowable Loads

9-7. Table 9-2, page 9-4, shows the maximum allowable loads (normal loads)
for commonly used bolts. These tabulated loads are for bolted joints in lumber
which is seasoned to a moisture content nearly equal to that it will attain in
service. The loads are for bolted joints used under continuously dry conditions,
as in most covered structures. For joints that will be exposed to weather or
will always be wet, reduce the tabulated loads to 75 and 67 percent,
respectively. Place a washer or metal plate between the wood and the bolt
head and between the wood and the nut. Use the loads given in Table 9-2
when each of the side members of wood is half the thickness of the main
(enclosed) member (Figure 9-3A, page 9-5).
Connections 9-3
FM 3-34.343
Table 9-2. Allowable Bolt Loads (kips per bolt)
Bolt Portion (Length) of Bolt in Member (in)

Diameter (in) 1 5/8 2 4 6 8 10 12
1.01 1.18 1.29
1/2 — — — —
0.48 0.59 1.04
1.29 1.56 2.01 2.01 2.01
5/8 — —
0.54 0.67 1.33 1.42 1.26
1.55 1.91 2.89 2.89 2.89
3/4 — —
0.60 0.74 1.49 1.97 1.84
1.81 2.23 3.83 3.94 3.94 3.94
7/8 —
0.67 0.82 1.64 2.41 2.47 2.29
2.07 2.55 4.72 5.14 5.14 5.14 5.14
1
0.73 0.89 1.79 2.68 3.15 3.00 2.79
2.59 3.18 6.22 7.85 8.04 8.04 8.04
1 1/4
0.84 1.03 2.06 3.10 4.17 4.61 4.45
3.10 3.82 7.56 10.60 11.60 11.60 11.60
1 1/2
0.99 1.21 2.42 3.63 4.78 5.44 5.44
3.62 4.45 8.91 12.87 15.28 15.90 15.90
1 3/4
1.10 1.36 2.72 4.09 5.44 6.63 7.21
4.14 5.10 10.20 15.12 18.80 20.40 20.50
2
1.23 1.51 3.03 4.54 6.05 7.56 8.77
NOTE: The top number is the load parallel to the grain. The bottom number is the load
perpendicular to the grain.
9-8. If the side members are more than half the thickness of the main
member, do not increase the tabulated load (Figure 9-3B). When the side
members are less than half the thickness of the main member, the tabulated
load for a main member is twice the thickness of the thinnest side member.
For example, with 3-inch side members and an 8-inch main (center) member,
the tabulated loads for an 8-inch main member apply (Figure 9-3C).
9-9. When the joint consists of two members of equal thickness (the bolt is in
single shear), use one-half the tabulated load for a piece twice the thickness of
one of the members (Figure 9-4A). When members of a two-member joint are
of unequal thickness, use one-half the tabulated load for a piece twice the
thickness of the thinner member (Figure 9-4B). When using steel plates for
side members, increase the tabulated loads for a parallel-to-grain loading by
25 percent. Do not increase the tabulated loads for perpendicular-to-grain
loads (Figure 9-5, page 9-6).
9-4 Connections
FM 3-34.343
A ½b
C
½b 3″
8″
B 3″
LEGEND:
b = member width
Figure 9-3. Bolted Double-Shear Connections
A B
2″ 2″
2″ 3″
Use half the load for Use half the load for
a 4-inch timber. a 4-inch timber.
Figure 9-4. Bolted Single-Shear Connections
Connections 9-5
FM 3-34.343
Steel plates
0.5 x load
Load
0.5 x load
Figure 9-5. Steel-to-Timber Bolted Connections
Allowable Pressure
9-10. The direction of bolt pressure on the grain of the wood must be
considered when determining the allowable pressure. Table 9-2, page 9-4,
gives the allowable pressure for bolts placed parallel and perpendicular to the
grain. Figure 9-6 shows that the bolt pressure is parallel to the grain of the
inclined member. In the horizontal member, however, the load is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to the grain. Use equation 9-1 to find the allowable
bolt load on the horizontal member.
Direction of load
Direction of grain
Figure 9-6. Timber Connections with the Load Applied

at an Angle to the Grain
Design Criteria
9-11. In bolted connections, the allowable load that the joint supports must
not exceed the allowable bolt load of one bolt multiplied by the number of bolts
used. Criteria include the following:
• The net cross-sectional area of the member (measured at a right angle
to the direction of the load) is the gross cross-sectional area of the
member minus the area of the bolt holes in the section.
9-6 Connections
FM 3-34.343
• The allowable tensile joint load for any bolted joint load must not
exceed the net cross-sectional area multiplied by the allowable tensile
unit stress of the lumber.
• The net area for softwoods at the critical section for parallel-to-grain
loading must be at least 80 percent of the total area in bearing under
all bolts in the member. For hardwoods, the net area must be at least
100 percent of the total area.
9-12. Data on the species and sizes of the members to be joined is required for
designing a bolted joint. Assume a bolt size and then find the allowable load
for one bolt. To compute the required number of bolts, divide the total load by
the allowable load per bolt. The values given in Table 9-2, page 9-4, are based
on the maximum allowable stresses for average structural timbers and are
1,800 psi parallel to the grain and 500 psi perpendicular to the grain. If the
timber to be used has different allowable stresses, increase or decrease the
tabulated value of the load, as needed. Do this by multiplying the tabular
stress by the ratio of allowable stress for the chosen timber to 1.8 ksi (parallel
to the grain) or 0.5 ksi (perpendicular to the grain).
Spacing
9-13. Bolt spacing is critical. Base the bolt spacing and the minimum required
edge distance on the criteria described in Figures 9-2, page 9-3, and
Figure 9-3, page 9-5.
Washers
9-14. Add washers to both sides of the bolted timber connections to prevent
bearing failure in the timber. Use wrought-iron or steel-plate round washers.
Table 9-3 shows the washer requirements for bolted connections.
Table 9-3. Washer Requirements for Bolted Connections
Bolt Diameter Hole Size Washer Washers per

(in) (in)* Diameter (in) Pound (approx)
1/2 9/16 1 3/8 27.0
5/8 11/16 1 3/4 13.0
3/4 13/16 2 10.0
7/8 15/16 2 1/4 8.6
1 1 1/16 2 1/2 6.2
1 1/4 1 3/8 3 4.0
1 1/2 1 5/8 3 1/2 2.5
1 3/4 1 7/8 4 2.2
2 2 1/8 4 1/2 1.7
*The washer-hole size is 1/16 inch larger than the diameter of the bolt for all
bolts up to and including 1 inch. For larger bolts, use a washer-hole size
that is 1/8 inch larger than the diameter of the bolt.
Connections 9-7
FM 3-34.343
FLOOR CLIPS
9-15. Use floor clips to connect a laminated wooden deck to steel stringers.
Position the floor clips with the anchor end under the flange and then nail
them to the lamination at 16- to 18-inch intervals. Install floor clips in pairs,
one on each side of the stringer (Figure 9-7). If floor clips are not available or a
laminated deck is not used, use one of the expedient methods shown in
Figure 9-8. Fasten the deck to the stringers before placing the stringers. The
objective is to prevent lateral movement of the decking.
Floor clips
40d nails
16-18″
1. Place pairs of clips on

opposite sides of the
deck material.
2. Space floor clips at
16- to 18-inch centers
along stringers.
3. Space 40d nails at
16- to 18-inch centers
along deck material.
Figure 9-7. Deck Connections for Laminated Decking
Figure 9-8. Expedient Deck Connections
OTHER CONNECTORS
9-16. Shear plates, spike grids, clamping plates, and split and toothed-ring
connectors are specially designed devices for making timber-to-timber
9-8 Connections
FM 3-34.343
connections. However, these connectors are intended for light-frame

construction, which limits the application of these connectors in military-
bridge construction.
STEEL CONNECTIONS
9-17. In the AFCS, preengineered structures come complete with bolts and
prepunched, matched holes. Such structures make construction easier and
quicker.
BOLTS
9-18. Conditions may arise that call for the design and fabrication of bolted
steel connections (including high-strength bolts). The design process for bolted
steel connections involves determining spacing and evaluating connection
strengths and possible failures.
Bolt Spacing
9-19. The minimum center-to-center bolt spacing is three times the diameter
of the bolt. Figure 9-9 shows the typical bolt spacing for steel angles. The
minimum distance from the edge of a member to the center of the nearest bolt
is the edge distance. Table 9-4, page 9-10, lists edge distances for some of the
more common bolt sizes.
g1 Single row 3Db min
3Db min
g2
Cut edge
Rolled edge Pitch

LEGEND:
Db = bolt diameter
g = gauge
Figure 9-9. Bolt Spacing
Connections 9-9
FM 3-34.343
Table 9-4. Edge Distances
Leg Length (in)

Gauge
8 7 6 5 4 3 1/2 3 2 1/2 2 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 1/4 1
g 4 1/2 4 3 1/2 3 2 1/2 2 1 3/4 1 3/8 1 1/8 1 7/8 3/4 5/8
g1 3 2 1/2 2 1/4 2 * * * * * * * * *
g2 3 3 2 1/2 1 3/4 * * * * * * * * *
*Single row only.
Failure Modes
9-20. The strength of a bolted connection is governed by the smallest of the
following:
• Shear strength of the bolts.
• Bearing strength of the bolted members.
• Tensile strength of the bolted members at the weakest section.
To determine the strength of a connection, first evaluate the failure modes
(shear, bearing, tension, or a combination of all three).
9-21. Shear. The most common type of bolt failure is shear. Shear occurs
when the applied forces exceed the bolts’ allowable shear capacity. In dealing
with shear, first determine whether the connection is a single- or double-shear
connection. The allowable shear capacity for a double-shear connection is
twice that of a single-shear connection. Figure 9-10 illustrates the typical
shear failure for both connections. Double shear is preferred where the
eccentricity of the applied loads might induce serious damage. Determine the
shear capacity of a bolt by using Table 9-5 or the following equation:
v = AF v (9-2)
where—
v = shear capacity of one bolt, in kips

A = area of one bolt (single shear), in square inches (double the area for
double shear)
Fv = allowable shear stress of the steel, in ksi (0.49Fy)
9-22. Bearing. Bearing failure is the tendency of a bolt to enlarge its hole.
Determine the bearing capacity of a bolt by using Table 9-5 or the following
equation:
P B = DF B t (9-3)
where—
PB = bearing capacity per bolt, in kips
D = bolt diameter, in inches
FB = allowable bearing stress of the steel, in ksi (Table 3-6)
t = thickness of the thinner piece of steel, in inches
9-10 Connections
FM 3-34.343
Load
Load
Single-failure plane
A. Single-Shear Failure
0.5 x load
Load
0.5 x load
Double-failure plane
B. Double-Shear Failure
Figure 9-10. Shear Failure in Bolted Connections
Table 9-5. Bolt Shear and Bearing Capacities

Bearing Capacity per Bolt (kips)
Material Bolt Diameter (in)
Thickness (in) 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4
1/8 3.52 4.22 4.92 5.63 6.33 7.03
3/16 5.27 6.33 7.38 8.44 9.49 10.55
1/4 7.03 8.44 9.84 11.25 12.66 14.06
5/16 8.79 10.55 12.30 14.06 15.82 17.58
3/8 10.59 12.66 14.77 16.88 18.98 21.09
7/16 12.30 14.77 17.23 19.69 22.15 24.61
1/2 14.06 16.88 19.69 22.50 25.31 28.13
9/16 15.82 18.98 22.15 25.31 28.48 31.64
5/8 17.58 21.09 24.61 28.13 31.64 35.16
11/16 19.34 23.20 27.07 30.94 34.80 38.67
3/4 21.09 25.31 29.53 33.75 37.97 42.19
13/16 22.85 27.42 31.99 36.56 41.13 45.70
7/8 24.61 29.53 34.45 39.38 44.30 49.22
15/16 26.37 31.64 36.91 42.19 47.46 52.73
1 28.13 33.75 39.38 45.00 50.63 56.25
Shear per Bolt (kips)
Bolt Diameter (in)
Type
5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4
Single 3.68 5.30 7.22 9.42 11.93 14.73
Double 7.36 10.60 14.44 18.84 23.86 29.46
Connections 9-11
FM 3-34.343
9-23. Tensile. Compute the tensile strength as follows:
T = AF t (9-4)
where—
T = tensile strength of the member, in kips

A = net area of the member, in square inches. (The net area of the member is
its gross cross-sectional area minus the total of the area removed for bolt
holes at a given section. When determining the net area, use a diameter
for the bolt hole equal to 1/8 inch greater than the bolt diameter. If the
computed net area is greater than or equal to 85 percent of the gross area
[Ag], use 0.85Ag instead of the computed net area.)
Ft = allowable tension of the member, in ksi (29 ksi for steel)
9-24. Combination. After determining the shear and bearing capacities for a
single bolt, determine the strength of the connection by examining the various
modes of failure. A connection may fail by simultaneous shear, bearing, or
tensile failures in any combination among the various rows of bolts.
WELDS
9-25. When equipment and trained personnel are available, use welded
instead of bolted connections. Minor connections for which stress is not
computed (such as nailing clips) may be welded without a formal design.
However, weld major load-carrying connections only after careful design.
These connections require trained and supervised welders. If in doubt about
the quality of welding equipment or the welders’ level of training, use bolted
connections.
9-26. Fabricating welded connections is critical. A weld design is wasted if not
followed correctly. Welded connections require designs suited to bridge
construction. Do not weld connections that are specifically designed to be
bolted. Work is easier if the component parts are clamped together or secured
by several fitting-up bolts before welding. Experienced, well-trained welders
are essential, since satisfactory welded connections depend entirely on the
skills of the welders. Special training and skill are also required to inspect
welded connections properly, since welds may look sound but be inferior.
Welds are economical and, when properly placed, are as dependable as bolted
connections.
Welding Process
9-27. The two principal welding processes for structural work are electric-arc
and oxyacetylene welding. In electric-arc welding, the electrical arc formed
between a suitable electrode and the base metal develops the welding heat.
The electrode is generally steel (use only shielded-arc electrodes). The electric-
arc process is commonly used for structural welding. In oxyacetylene welding,
welding heat is obtained by burning an oxygen-acetylene gas mixture
discharged under pressure from a torch designed specifically for the purpose.
Oxyacetylene welding is preferred for butt welds when joining two heavy
pieces of metal. Figure 9-11 shows some basic welding terminology.
9-12 Connections
FM 3-34.343
Toe
Throat
Weld reinforcement
Fillet leg Theoretical throat
size of weld
Weld face
Toe
Original surface of work

Depth of Root
penetration
Fusion Weld reinforcement
zone
Weld face
Fusion
zone Weld
Beveled edge of work
Throat Fusion zone
Original edge of work
Root opening Root
Figure 9-11. Basic Welding Terminology
9-28. When choosing a welding design, consider such factors as metal type,
expansion and contraction, and post-weld inspection. Welding creates
considerable heat. As a result, dangerous contractions occur during cooling
that create internal residual stresses, possible deformities, and loss of
strength. Design symmetrical welds to counter some of these stresses but do
not overdesign. Peening and annealing remove much of the residual stress.
Annealing in the field is impractical. Therefore, always peen field welds to
remove residual stresses, regardless of their sizes. After welding, the base
metal is more brittle than before, depending on the rate of cooling. The more
carbon a metal contains the more difficult it is to weld. Preheating members
provides a satisfactory treatment. In small welds on thick members, unequal
heating creates unequal contractions. Larger members heat up far less,
preventing some contraction and producing residual stresses. Figure 9-12,
page 9-14, shows examples of various faulty and acceptable weld profiles.
Weld Types
9-29. The two basic weld types are the butt and fillet. Figure 9-13, page 9-14,
shows several variations of these weld types.
9-30. Butt Weld. A butt weld does not require additional splice material. The
weld metal alone provides the connection strength. The maximum stress
Connections 9-13
FM 3-34.343
Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
Size Size Size Size Size
Correct sizes Oversized Undersized Insufficient leg
Minimum: 1/8 in
Size Size Size Size
Lack of fusion Undercutting Acceptable Undersized Undercut
Figure 9-12. Faulty and Acceptable Weld Profiles
Butt Weld
60° minimum Unlimited
5/16″ maximum
t t
1/2″ minimum
1/16″ minimum
Fillet Weld
Weld size
Throat
LEGEND:
t = thickness
Figure 9-13. Typical Butt and Fillet Welds
permitted for butt welds is the same as that of the base metal of the parts
joined. For square-ended parts where no special machining is required, the
maximum thickness of the parts is 5/16 inch (Figure 9-13). The throat of the
butt weld is the thickness of the thinner section. When parts are specially
machined, the thickness of the welded part is unlimited.
9-14 Connections
FM 3-34.343
9-31. Fillet Weld. The fillet weld is the most commonly used weld because
the base metal does not require special machining. The design is simple
because the shear on the throat of the weld metal is the only weld stress
considered. The faces of fillet welds are normally oriented 45 degrees to the
plate surfaces. Where possible, avoid weld sizes larger than 5/16 inch. These
sizes require more than one pass, with a subsequent increase in preparation,
welding, and finishing time.
Weld Strength
9-32. Butt Weld. Determine the allowable butt-weld strength in the same
manner as for the base metal of the parts joined.
9-33. Fillet Weld. Measure the fillet-weld strength by determining the shear
value per linear inch of weld. The allowable shearing stress of field welds
depends on the type of electrodes used. Some types of electrodes are as follows:
• E60 (produces 12.6 ksi).
9-34. For a 5/16-inch fillet weld, the throat thickness is the minimum
dimension of the weld (0.707 x 5/16 = 0.221 inch). An E60 electrode would
develop 2.787 kips per linear inch (0.221 x 12.6). Compute the required weld
length as follows:
P
L = ------- (9-5)
Uw
where—
L = weld length, in inches

P = load the weld must transfer, in kips
Uw = weld strength, in kips per inch
9-35. The following rules apply when considering the weld size:
• Make the weld size 1/16 inch less than the thickness of the plate if the
edge of the plate is flame-cut or sheared.
• Use three-fourths of the nominal edge thickness as the weld size if the
edge of the plate is rounded or rolled (such as the toes of the angles
and the channel flanges).
• Make the weld size the same as the thickness of the metal to be joined.
Since this is not possible in all cases, ensure that the size does not
exceed one and one-half times the thickness of the metal.
• Do not allow individual weld sizes to exceed one-half the plate
thickness, when welds are on both sides of a plate. Small welds are
difficult to lay. Larger welds (more than one pass) require cooling
delays to allow slag removal before the next pass.
Connections 9-15
FM 3-34.343
• Avoid welds that are larger than 5/16 inch. Table 9-6 lists the
maximum thickness of material that may be connected by the various
sizes of fillet weld.
Table 9-6. Maximum Thickness for Fillet Welds
Minimum Plate
Weld Size (in) Weld Strength (lb per in)
Thickness (in)
3/16 1/2 2,470
1/4 3/4 3,290
5/16* 1 1/4 4,110
3/8 2 4,930
1/2 6 6,580
5/8 >6 8,220
*Minimum size for a single pass.
9-36. Balanced Weld. An important consideration in the design of fillet

welds is the balanced-weld concept. Always use a balanced weld to reduce the
effect of moment in an asymmetric section or in an eccentrically loaded
section. For a simple case, consider an angle member (asymmetric section)
that is to be loaded axially (Figure 9-14A). Figure 9-14B shows a balanced end
weld.
9-37. Place more weld material at the top of the angle section than at the
bottom of the section. In this way, no moment is introduced into the
connection. This concept proportions the weld material in both locations, so
that the moment effect is held to a minimum. Compute the total length of the
required weld by using equation 9-5. Then compute the proportionate weld
lengths as follows:
Ld
L b = ------ (9-6)
LL
where—
Lb = weld length at the bottom of the angle section, in inches

L = total weld length required, in inches (equation 9-5)
d = distance from the neutral axis of the angle section to the outer edge of the
nonwelded leg, in inches (Figure 9-14A)
LL = length of the loaded angle leg, in inches
9-38. The weld length required on the opposite leg becomes the total weld
length required minus the weld length at the bottom of the angle section.
When welding the end of the leg of the angle section to the connecting
member, the corresponding weld lengths are computed as follows:
9-16 Connections
FM 3-34.343
A. Side Weld
L - Lb
Neutral axis d
Load
LL
Lb
B. Side and End Weld
L - LL - Lb
d
Neutral axis Load
LL
Lb
LEGEND:
d = distance from the neutral axis of the angle
section to the outer edge of the nonwelded leg
Lb = weld length at the bottom of the angle section
L = total weld length required
LL = length of the loaded angle leg
Figure 9-14. Balanced Weld Concept
d L
L b = ----- – -----L (9-7)
LL 2
where—
Lb = weld length at the bottom of the angle section, in inches

L = total weld length required, in inches (equation 9-5)
d = distance from the neutral axis of the angle section to the outer edge of the
nonwelded leg, in inches (Figure 9-14A)
LL = length of the loaded angle leg, in inches
Connections 9-17
FM 3-34.343
9-18 Connections
Chapter 10
Construction
Tentative bridge sites are selected through reconnaissance, and the more
promising sites are reconnoitered in detail. The selection of a bridge site is
governed by both tactical and technical considerations. Tactical
requirements govern the general area for the bridge site. Technical
considerations govern the site for permanent construction. A preliminary
reconnaissance is made at the best site to establish horizontal and vertical
control and to obtain information for the bridge design and construction
planning. For bridge construction to proceed, it is necessary to locate a site,
obtain information for design, and determine lines and grades for
construction. The accuracy of measurements and the number and type of
survey markers will vary depending on the degree of precision demanded
and the type of construction to be performed.
PLANNING PROCESS
10-1. A systematic approach is needed to construct a bridge efficiently. Use
the process described below when planning bridge construction.
BRIDGE-SITE INVESTIGATION
10-2. The characteristics of the gap will determine many of a bridge’s
requirements (such as length, materials, and construction time and effort).
Reconnaissance and preliminary investigation requirements are discussed in
Chapter 2. Construction in extremely cold environments is discussed in
TM 5-852-1.
BRIDGE CONFIGURATION
10-3. Steel construction is preferred but requires special equipment, which
may not be available. Timber may be readily available but is not capable of
supporting the long spans that steel can accommodate. Chapters 6 and 7
discuss specific information for determining a bridge configuration. The two
major elements to consider are the—
• Superstructure. Choose a superstructure that will minimize the
construction effort and provide the needed capacity. Rely on simply
supported stringer bridges as much as possible to take advantage of
their design and construction ease. Keep economy in mind when
designing the superstructure.
• Substructure. Choose a substructure that will also minimize the
construction effort. To design the substructure properly, assume the
loads on the substructure and then verify these loads before
completing the final design. The characteristics of the gap (wet or dry)
will affect the type of substructure necessary.
Construction 10-1
FM 3-34.343
WORKING DRAWINGS
10-4. After determining the bridge’s configuration, prepare the necessary
drawings. Preparation of complete drawings is necessary when AFCS
standard designs are not suited to the conditions at the construction site. Try
to adapt standard designs to construction requirements. Do not initiate
detailed drawings until the subsurface conditions have been thoroughly
explored. Final design decisions are affected by the limitations of the site, the
available materials, the equipment, the labor, and the available time. Ensure
that all drawings are accurately scaled. Scale detailed and cross-sectional
views to show the required information. See FM 5-233 for more information
about bridge drawings. The drawings discussed below are required.
Elevation
10-5. A complete profile of the bridge will be needed. This view shows the
elevations of the entire structure and bridge site in skeleton form. The
drawing also serves as a record of the substructure analysis (Figure 10-1).
One handrail post every 5′0″
EL 542.5
2″ x 10″
2″ x 10″
EL 530.7
EL 526.5
Span A Span B Span C Span D

16′0″ 19′0″ 16′0″ 16′0″
67′0″
Figure 10-1. Elevation Drawing
Plan
10-6. A complete overhead view of the bridge will also be needed. This view
shows the horizontal plan of the entire structure (Figure 10-2). The plan
includes all overhead view details (span lengths, pier and abutment locations,
stringer placement, centerline, component identifications, and so forth). The
plan also notes piece marks of all structural members that require a more
detailed drawing and indicates their location. Plans for steel bridges identify
the fixed and expansion ends of the structure.
10-2 Construction
FM 3-34.343
6″ x 12″ x 20′ extended decking

10″ x 18″ x 18′
(spaced 42″ C-C) 12 WF 48 x 21′ 13″ x 413/8″ diaphragms 6″ x 12″ x 18′ decking
(spaced 42″ C-C) (equally spaced)
Plan
Scale: 3/16″ = 1′
3″ x 12″ tread
LEGEND:
C-C = center to center
NOTE: Use 6″″ x 9″″ x 7/8″ plates under the ends of the steel stringers.
Figure 10-2. Plan Drawing
Foundation
10-7. The foundation plan shows the outline and location of all pier and
abutment footings. The survey shows the station number of each footing at
the centerline or reference line. Contour lines indicate the lay of the land and
outline the banks and other terrain features (Figure 10-3).
Face of bulkhead Face of back wall

Station 1 + 19.88 Station 5 + 20.12
Station 1 + 20.38
Station 1 + 45.00 Station 2 + 20.00 Station 3 + 70.00 Station 4 + 45.00
Cap
Station 1 + 70.00 Station 2 + 45.00 Station 3 + 95.00 Station 4 + 70.00
13′3″ 19′7″ 21′7″ 15′3″
Tower 1 Tower 2 Tower 3 Tower 4

175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175
West abutment East abutment
Figure 10-3. Foundation Drawing
Construction 10-3
FM 3-34.343
Detailed and Cross-Sectional Views

10-8. Detailed drawings and cross-sectional views show how to fabricate or
place the parts. Detailed drawings show all the dimensions to the nearest
1/16 inch, the location and size of the connection holes, the details of the
connecting parts, and the piece mark. Detailed drawings may also include the
construction methods and notes on detail when these are not covered by
separate specifications. The cross-sectional views give the overall width of the
roadway and any other important dimensions that are constant (Figure 10-4).
Cross-sectional views are required when variations in dimensions occur along
the length of the bridge.
20′
2′2″ 10″ 10″ 2′2″
14′
8′ 2″ x 4″ x 10′ 2″ x 4″ x 10′
4″ x 4″ x 3′4″ knee brace
6″ x 6″ x 10′
4″ x 6″ nailing strip
6″ x 12″ x 2′6″ 8″ x 10″ x 16′
2″ x 10″ x 16′
Scale: 3/16″ = 1 ft
8″ x 8″ x 8′ posts
(42″ centers)
8″ x 10″ x 16′
B B
7 footings (3″ x 12″ x 2′)

(28″ centers)
Figure 10-4. Cross-Sectional Drawing
Assembled Views
10-9. Assembled views (commonly called erection p lans) show the
relationship of the various parts. These drawings include details about how
the parts fit together, the process of assembling, and the piece marks of the
parts involved (Figure 10-5).
10-4 Construction
FM 3-34.343
Nailing Schedule Nailing strip 4″ x 6″
Wide-flange beam
Cap
Scale: 1/16″ = 1 ft
End dam 3″ x 12″ x 2′
6″ x 10″ x 16′ 7 footings (3″ x 12″ x 2′)

(28″ centers)
Scale: 1/16″ = 1 ft
Not to scale
Figure 10-5. Assembled-View Drawing
Specifications
10-10. Separate written specifications may accompany the working drawings.
The specifications list the quality and size of materials required. The list does
not identify how the quality is determined, only the quality required
(Figure 10-6, page 10-6).
BILL OF MATERIALS
10-11. The AFCS (discussed in Chapter 1) provides the bill of materials for all
standard designs. Nonstandard designs require takeoffs from the drawings to
develop the bill of materials. The AFCS lists each main member by piece
number, piece description, line number, drawing reference, quantity, mark,
size, required length, unit weight, and total weight.
LABOR REQUIREMENTS
10-12. The AFCS also lists labor requirements for constructing standard
designs, which is an effective template for determining labor requirements of
nonstandard designs. Labor requirements are determined only after the
working drawings are complete. Sources of labor for bridge construction are
combat troops, civilians, and prisoners of war. Civilian labor is preferred to
combat troops or prisoners of war. Using prisoners of war as a labor source
requires special considerations as outlined in FM 19-40.
Construction 10-5
FM 3-34.343
Material
Type Use
Size
20d nail General handrail and bracing
60d nail 6″ Tread to deck
60d nail Nailing strip to WF beam
60d nail Toenail stringers
60d nail End dam
60d nail Toenail curb and curb riser
8″ spike 8″ Deck to stringer
Weld C 6 x 13 to Diaphragms to steel stringers
W12x45
5/8 φ x 24″ Stringers to cap
driftpins
1/2 φ x 16″ Curb and curb riser to stringer

driftpins
Class-50 Single-Lane
1/2 φ x 16″ Cap and sill to posts Nonstandard
driftpins Highway Bridge
Timber-Bent Support
Drawn Approved
Figure 10-6. Sample Specification List
EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS AND AVAILABILITY

10-13. A construction plan should identify all the equipment that is necessary
for construction. A responsible engineer must ensure that all required
equipment and associated, skilled operators are available. If the required
equipment is not available, the engineer must determine the appropriate
expedient capacity or adjust the design to accommodate the available
construction equipment.
SCHEDULING
10-14. Scheduling involves preparing manpower and construction timelines.
These schedules coordinate construction effort and resource allocation.
Accurate schedules are detailed timeline plans for constructing a bridge. The
schedules’ accuracy depends on the estimates made during the planning
process. These schedules take many forms (tabular, bar graph, coordinate
graph, labor block, and so forth). Scheduling is discussed in detail in
FM 5-412. Two important schedules are manpower and construction.
10-6 Construction
FM 3-34.343
Manpower
10-15. A manpower schedule lists the total work-hour requirements for each
activity that are necessary to complete the bridge. Table 10-1 contains partial
data concerning work hours normally required to perform specific operations.
This information would be needed to develop a manpower schedule. Task
analysis provides the basis for determining the required manpower to
complete the project.
Table 10-1. Required Work Hours for Specific Operations

Work Hours Personnel in
Operation Unit
per Unit Crew
Steel
Bolting Bolt 0.060 2
Drilling Linear feet 3.200 2
Span erecting Ton 2.500 9
Pattern making N/A N/A 2
Timber
Bolting Bolt 0.133 2
Boring Linear feet 0.100 2
Driving nails Nail 0.003 1
Other
Excavating (hand) Cubic yard 1.000 7
Handling piles Pile 1.000 7
Construction
10-16. A construction schedule serves as an operational guide for supervisory
personnel. It is a means of efficiently coordinating all construction efforts.
FM 5-412 provides detailed guidance for setting up a schedule.
10-17. Construction schedules are useful during all phases of construction.
• Before construction. This schedule shows the sequence in which
personnel, material, and equipment are required. Information on the
schedule allows the construction force to integrate their activities to
accomplish maximum efficiency.
• During construction. This schedule serves as a logical basis for
issuing instructions and maintaining control. Information on the
schedule also allows construction supervisors to distribute and ensure
that equipment and labor are at the right place at the right time. The
information also allows the engineer to analyze the overall status of
the bridge and to use this information as a basis for reporting to
higher headquarters (HQ).
• After construction. Evaluating the schedule allows engineers to
recognize errors in estimating, scheduling, and resource use. The
evaluation process provides engineers with information for improving
the planning process.
Construction 10-7
FM 3-34.343
SURVEY REQUIREMENTS
10-18. Precision surveying in bridge construction prevents time-consuming
mistakes. See FM 5-233 for detailed surveying procedures. Accurately locate
all components before beginning construction. Check the component locations
continuously during construction. Place reference stakes from which centers
can be reestablished outside of the immediate construction area, if possible.
Otherwise, use guard stakes and flags to mark reference-stake locations. If
any location stakes or lines are disturbed during construction, accurately
relocate them. Establish pile cutoffs using instrument procedures, not by
reckoning or rough measurements.
Equipment
10-19. Good equipment is essential for both timber and steel bridges. The
equipment used in construction surveying is a transit, a level, a steel tape,
stakes, and steel tacks. Compare the tapes used for surveying with the tapes
used for fabricating and framing parts to ensure that discrepancies do not
exist between the tapes. After driving location stakes, add steel tacks to the
stakes to mark exact reference points.
Horizontal and Vertical Control

10-20. Establish benchmarks near each end of the bridge and at other
convenient locations near the construction area. Use a transit and tape and,
when necessary, triangulation to control horizontal measurements. Use
differential leveling to control vertical measurements and to locate accurately
all bearing supports. Use the bridge centerline as a reference point for all
centering measurements.
Centerlines
10-21. The construction plan establishes the bridge centerline. The bridge
centerline usually coincides with the site-survey centerline. Mark the
centerline with stakes set at each end of the bridge.
Foundation Placement
10-22. A starting point at one abutment (fixed by the construction plan)
establishes the centerline locations of the other abutment and of each
foundation. After finishing the foundations, accurately mark the centers of the
bearing supports on the foundations.
Anchor Bolts
10-23. Use particular care in locating anchor bolts. Check the bolt locations
after completing the forms and immediately before placing the concrete. A
wood template is helpful when positioning anchor bolts.
Working Platforms
10-24. Where performing direct measurements on the ground is impossible,
build temporary platforms at the centers of each bent. Use these platforms for
measuring and working.
10-8 Construction
FM 3-34.343
Piles (In Water)

10-25. Pile placement in riverbeds or streambeds presents a measurement
problem. See FM 5-134 for techniques on accurately placing piles in riverbeds
or streambeds.
Grillages
10-26. Construct steel grillages in the fabrication yard. Because of their
weight, grillages require a crane for placement. Set grillages in concrete
bedding to obtain a full, uniform bearing capacity.
MATERIAL PREPARATION, TIMBER FRAMING

10-27. Framing is the process of cutting, shaping, and boring timber.
Consider the information below when preparing timber.
WOOD PROPERTIES
10-28. Unlike other structural materials, wood does not have the same
physical properties in all directions. In compression, tension, and bending, a
wood’s strongest dimension is in the direction of the grain. In shear, a wood’s
strongest dimension is across the grain. Wood splits easily along the grain but
not across it. Wood shrinks more across the grain than with the grain.
Timbers used together should be of the same type and equally seasoned.
WORKMANSHIP
10-29. Construction workers should be experienced with woodworking tools.
Framing, cuts, and dimensions must be accurate to ensure proper fit and
adequate capacity. Carpentry tools and framing methods are discussed in
FM 5-426.
LAYOUT
10-30. Use the platform or the nonplatform method to lay out bents and
towers:
• Platform method. Draw the outline of the bent or tower to be
constructed onto the platform. Lay timbers on the outline and mark
them for cutting. Mark the timber as to its location in the structure
before remo ving the timber from the platform. Fi gure 10-7,
page 10-10, shows the procedure for aligning the timber piles to be
used for bents and towers.
• Nonplatform method. Carefully measure and mark each post for
cutting. To eliminate variations in measurement, use a 1- by 2-inch
measuring stick, premarked with the controlling dimensions. Use the
measuring stick in place of a tape or rule.
MATERIAL PREPARATION, STEEL FABRICATION

10-31. Lay out a fabrication yard to suit the fabrication procedure and the
size of the bridge (Figure 2-1, page 2-4). The yard must be on firm, level
ground and should provide ample space and easy access to the bridge site.
Divide the yard into the following areas:
Construction 10-9
FM 3-34.343
Piles Cut Off
Sawing guides
Piles Aligned leveled both ways
Position before pulling
Straightening frame
Ratchet hoist Saw
Proper location for Pile 1
Working platform
Sawing guide
Block Bracket
Excavate area adjacent

Piles driven and to pile before jacking.
ready for
straightening
Drift bolt Working platform

(to be removed)
Cap
Bracket Completed Bent
Bracing in Place
Transverse bracing Cap
Complete pile bent
Transverse bracing
Figure 10-7. Procedure for Aligning Timber Piles into Bents
• Raw-material storage. Provide an area for stock-length steel. As

material arrives, check its condition and store it with other materials
of the same size. Storage should allow easy access, and those
materials that will be needed first should be near the front of the
storage area.
• Layout area. Provide an area for laying, cutting, and drilling parts.
• Assembly area. Provide an area for processing (drilling, reaming,
bolting, riveting, welding, and so forth). This area should also have
waist-high blocking to permit work on the underside of the assembly.
• Component storage. Provide an area to store fabricated assemblies.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

10-32. Tool and equipment selection depends on the fabrication method. Use
only steel squares, rulers, and tapes for measurement. A crane should be
available for loading, unloading, turning assemblies in process, and moving
finished assemblies. Personal protective equipment (goggles, safety belts, and
so forth) should also be available.
10-10 Construction
FM 3-34.343
WORK SCHEDULE
10-33. Start fabricating steel components early enough to allow their
availability when needed during the erection process. Organize work on an
assembly-line basis, and assign a crew responsibility for each class of
members or components.
SAFETY
10-34. Commanders are responsible for safety. Safety controls should outline
proper conduct of personnel during construction activities.
PERSONNEL
10-35. Personnel should—
• Stand clear of suspended loads.
• Stand away from and out of the line of the ropes that are under heavy
strain.
• Check the equipment and rigging before swinging heavy loads.
• Move heavy loads slowly.
• Keep heavy loads under control at all times.
• Consider the load’s inertia when determining how adequate a rig is.
• Guide the loads to prevent them from swinging.
• Never lift the loads in heavy winds.
• Never swing the loads over working personnel.
• Never ride the loads being lifted or placed.
• Stand clear of moving loads and their path of movement.
• Never stand under a block and tackle.
• Never locate matching holes with fingers or hands.
• Never stand or work under areas where falling tools or parts are a
hazard.
• Use all the required personal protective devices and other safety
equipment.
• Never sit or stand on deck rails, shafts, winch heads, or other places
where danger of falling exists.
• Never operate or ride equipment unless authorized.
• Take time to construct adequate working platforms properly.
• Lift heavy objects with their legs, not their back.
• Never leave intermediate construction unattended without adequate
temporary bracing.
• Never walk near the edge of a deck until it has been securely fastened
to the stringers.
SCAFFOLDS
10-36. Personnel should observe the following guidelines:
• Scaffolds should be strong enough to support the intended loads and
secure against sliding and overturning.
Construction 10-11
FM 3-34.343
• Scaffolds over 6 feet high should have a guardrail on the back side.
• Loose boards should not extend beyond their supports.
• Nails used in scaffolds should be driven fully and not used in tension.
• Scaffold horses should be supported evenly and nailed to the platform
on which they are used.
• Ladders should be blocked at the foot or tied at the top to prevent
sliding.
TACKLE
• Inspect the tackle frequently.
• Check the wire rope for fraying. Remove the wire rope when 4 percent
or more of the total number of wires in the rope are broken.
• Use wire rope slings instead of chain slings whenever possible.
• Place wood blocks between slings and steel loads to prevent slings
from being cut by the load.
• Use shackles instead of hooks for attaching blocks (mouse the blocks if
using hooks).
• Always use blocking or cribbing to secure the necessary height under
the jacks. Never set the jacks on a post or strut where the jacks might
kick sideways under strain.
• Never permit loose lines to hang from the structure or from
equipment.
HEAVY EQUIPMENT
• Always inspect all equipment thoroughly for proper operation before
use.
• Never operate defective equipment.
• Never mount or dismount equipment when it is moving or in
operation.
• Never ride (as a passenger) equipment not intended to transport
passengers.
ERECTION-EQUIPMENT CAPACITY
10-39. Examine each principal member and subassembly to determine if it is
possible to erect it safely with available equipment. If not, modify the erection
procedure or obtain the necessary equipment to do the work. Test each piece
of equipment at the site before attempting to lift subassemblies, especially if
the subassemblies will stress the equipment near its maximum capacity.
10-12 Construction
FM 3-34.343
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
10-40. Table 10-2 shows a list of special equipment that is required for
erecting a bridge. These tools are needed in addition to the small hand tools
normally organic to a construction unit.
Table 10-2. Special Equipment
Number
Description
Required
Crane shovel (track-mounted, 20-ton, 3/4-cubic-yard) 1
Crane shovel (crawler-mounted, 12 1/2-ton, 3/4-cubic-yard) 2
Lead (pile-driving, steel-hanging) 1
Hammer 1
Jetting set (portable) 1
Compressor (air, trailer-mounted, 600-cubic-foot-per-minute) 2
Mixer (concrete, gas-driven, trailer-mounted, 16-cubic-foot) 1
Wheelbarrow (3-cubic-foot) (with a steel tray and handles) 12
Pump (55-gallon-per-minute [GPM], centrifugal, gas-driven, base-
1
mounted, 2-inch discharge)
Drill (steel, pneumatic, portable, nonreversible) 8
Tool kit (rigging, wire-rope) 1
Tool kit (blacksmith, general) 1
Tool kit (pipe-fitting) 1
Survey set (general-purpose) 1
HAND TOOLS
10-41. A construction unit also requires hand tools. Some special tools are
required for erecting steel bridges. Examples are sledgehammers, crescent
and ratchet wrenches, driftpins, long-handled structural-offset wrenches, and
2-foot connecting bars.
RIGGING
10-42. Refer to FM 5-125 for additional information on rigging. Rigging tools
and their uses are discussed in detail.
TRUCK- AND CRAWLER-MOUNTED CRANES

10-43. Truck- and crawler-mounted cranes are preferred for erecting bridges.
They can enhance the construction process by moving out over successively
completed spans. If conditions permit, operate these cranes from the ground.
When working over water, place these cranes on rafts or barges. Truck-
mounted cranes are suitable for erecting structures of moderate span. On
larger bridges, use cranes to supplement the main erection units. Truck-
mounted cranes are highly mobile but require a firm, level operating surface.
Construction 10-13
FM 3-34.343
10-44. Crawler-mounted cranes are better suited for general erection use, but
they are less mobile than truck-mounted cranes. Crawler-mounted cranes are
capable of operating over rough ground and ground that is too soft for truck-
mounted cranes. Crawler-mounted cranes can be used in water that is no
deeper than the top of the crawlers (if the bottom is firm).
DERRICKS
10-45. Generally, guy or stiff-leg derricks will be used. Neither is economical
unless continued operations are within reach of their booms. Guy derricks
consist of a mast, a boom pivoted from the foot of the mast, guys, and tackle. If
the guy lines to the top of the mast are clear of the end of the boom, the boom
may swing completely around the mast. Loads are lifted and moved by
manpower or by an engine-driven hoist.
10-46. Stiff-leg derricks consist of a mast held vertically by two inclined struts
connected to the top of the mast. The struts are spread between 60 and 90
degrees and are attached to sills extended from the bottom of the mast to
provide stability. The mast and boom of the stiff-leg derrick is capable of
swinging in a 270-degree arc. Refer to FM 5-125 for more information on
derrick fabrication.
CABLEWAYS
10-47. The medium cableway developed for military operations is capable of
effectively erecting timber and steel towers and launching light stringers. The
maximum span is 1,200 feet. The tower height is 63 feet. The rated capacity is
3,000 pounds, but a load of 4,000 pounds is possible if using caution during
lifting operations. Installation requires about 6 hours (by an experienced
unit). The total weight of the cableway is 20,000 pounds, which permits it to
be transported on four trucks. Install the cableway with the base of the
cableway towers about at grade and on the centerline of the bridge being
constructed. Refer to FM 5-125 for more information on cableway installation.
HOISTS
10-48. Drum hoists consist of one or more winding drums, a train of reducing
gears, and a power source. They may carry one or more winches or capstan
heads for handling secondary lines. These hoists are attached to construction
equipment such as derricks or cranes. A winch configured for attachment to a
boom or mast is called a crab hoist. Winches are used with gin poles, shears,
and derricks. Chain hoists are used for raising and holding loads and are
particularly useful when accurate load placement or adjustment is necessary.
JACKS
10-49. Jacks are used to raise or lower heavy loads short distances. They are
available in capacities from 5 to 100 tons. Small-capacity jacks usually employ
a rack bar or screw as the lifting mechanism. Large-capacity jacks are
normally operated hydraulically. The following common jack types are used in
bridge construction:
10-14 Construction
FM 3-34.343
• Pushing and pulling. These are screw jacks of 10-ton capacity. They
have end fittings, which permit the pulling together or the pushing
apart of components. Their principal function is to spread or brace
parts or to tighten lines or lashings.
• Ratchet leveling. These are rack-bar jacks equipped with foot lifts.
The foot lifts allow low-clearance loads that are close to the base of the
jack to be lifted.
• Hydraulic. These jacks operate on the piston-cylinder principle. Oil
pumped through a line into a liquid-tight cylinder forces the piston to
move against the load. Ordinarily, a slow oil leak prevents the jacks
from holding the load in an exact position over long periods.
FALSEWORK
10-50. Falsework denotes any construction intended to assist erection
operations only. Falsework includes temporary towers, bents or trestles, fixed
and floating platforms, staging, runways, ladders, and scaffolding, that are
later removed or abandoned. Falsework is constructed from local materials
whenever practical.
BENTS
10-51. Falsework bents are used to support long spans that are erected before
splicing is completed or before a permanent tower or a bent supporting the
outer end has been completed. Falsework bents must be well-built and
securely braced.
TRESTLES
10-52. Falsework trestles allow erection equipment to operate over shallow
water or soft ground. A trestle is built alongside a permanent bridge, allowing
equipment to work on foundations, towers, and bents of long-span bridges.
The trestles should be as light as possible and just wide enough to support the
equipment that will use it.
PLATFORMS AND SCAFFOLDING

10-53. Drilling, bolting, and nailing are ordinarily done from scaffolds. These
scaffolds are carried up from story to story as erection advances. Operations
such as fitting-up, riveting, and welding require hanging scaffolds called
floating platforms. Two workers can easily move these platforms from
connection to connection. Two of these platforms are usually needed at each
connection.
ERECTION-EQUIPMENT TECHNIQUES
10-54. A step-by-step erection procedure and the necessary, or preferred,
equipment are determined in the planning stage. Bridge size, site conditions,
skill of construction personnel, and available equipment determine which
construction technique to use. Detailed erection plans should include
equipment requirements, locations, and capabilities and the tabulated
Construction 10-15
FM 3-34.343
weights of all the bridge members to be erected. Various equipment

configurations and their employment are detailed in the paragraphs below.
GROUND-BASED CRANES
10-55. Where site conditions permit, erect long-span bridges of moderate
height from ground level or from rafts. A medium-size, crawler-mounted crane
is more maneuverable than a truck-mounted crane. A crawler-mounted crane
is also capable of operating over rougher and softer ground. Follow the
sequence below for this method of construction:
Step 1. Raise the tower supports (if any).
Step 2. Raise the outside stringers. Use two cranes or a combination of a
c ra n e a n d g i n p o l e s t o ra i s e a n d p l a c e b o t h e n d s o f t h e s t r i n g e r
simultaneously.
Step 3. Raise the interior stringers using the same technique as used for the
outside stingers.
Step 4. Install the diaphragms and the bracing.
Step 5. Complete all connections.
Step 6. Install the deck.
Step 7. Move to the next span and repeat the process.
DECK-BASED CRANES (WITHOUT FALSEWORK)

10-56. This method is best when the economy of material, labor, and time are
important and the bridge consists of relatively short spans. A medium-size,
truck-mounted crane is appropriate for this work. The technique used will
depend on the substructure.
Pile Bents and Piers

10-57. After delivery of any prefabricated parts to the construction site,
proceed as follows:
Step 1. Construct the first pile bent or pier with the crane at the abutment.
Step 2. Set the stringers for the first span between the abutment and pile
bent or pier.
Step 3. Lay a temporary deck capable of supporting the crane.
Step 4. Move the crane onto the temporary deck. Park the crane at the first
pile bent or pier. Repeat the above steps for each subsequent span.
Framed Timber Towers

10-58. After the foundations have been completed, proceed as follows:
Step 1. Set the foundation sills and anchor to the piles with scabs or drift
bolts or to the foundations with anchor bolts.
Step 2. Place the preassembled tower bent on the sill. Construct multistory
towers one story at a time.
Step 3. Brace the sill and tighten the anchor bolts or other connections.
Step 4. Complete the tower using the steps above.
Step 5. Set the stringers and install the deck.
10-16 Construction
FM 3-34.343
Step 6. Install the longitudinal tower bracing.

Step 7. Move the crane onto the deck and remove the temporary bracing.
Repeat the above steps for each subsequent span.
DECK-BASED CRANES (WITH FALSEWORK)

10-59. Falsework is advantageous when building moderately high bridges
over water or bridges over ground that is too soft to support the erection
equipment. This method of construction is not justified for bridges over 40 feet
high. Falsework bents may be pile bents or well-braced timber bents. Allow for
1 to 2 feet of blocking between caps and the bottoms of stringers when this
falsework is in position. Follow these steps when constructing a 90-foot span
using falsework:
Step 1. Construct a falsework bent about 20 feet from the abutment.
Step 2. Set the first sections of the completed stringer between the abutment
and the first falsework bent. Block the stringer sections to prevent them from
overturning.
Step 3. Install temporary decking and move the crane onto the deck.
Step 4. Construct the second falsework bent about 20 feet from the first
falsework bent.
Step 5. Set the second sections of the completed stringer between the
falsework bents, splicing the stringer sections with temporary splices. Do not
install the final connections at this time.
Step 6. Install temporary decking and move the crane onto the new deck.
Step 7. Continue this process until the full 90-foot span rests on the
permanent intermediate support and the abutment.
Step 8. Align all the stringer sections and complete the permanent
connections.
Step 9. Install the diaphragms and bracing.
Step 10. Remove the falsework.
STEEL GIN POLES

10-60. Gin poles are necessary for erecting high steel towers. Each tower
column requires a separate gin pole. Use single-drum pneumatic hoists for
hoisting lines, when possible. Use hand winches for holdback lines. Gin poles
(along with shears) can also be used to place stringers (Figures 10-8 and 10-9,
pages 10-18 and 10-19). The following procedure shows how to erect a
multistory tower:
Step 1. Set the gin poles on the blocking that is adjacent to the column
foundations.
Step 2. Set the columns on their foundations and install and tighten the
anchor bolts.
Step 3. Install the transverse bracing of the first story, bottom strut,
diagonals, and top strut. The top strut is the bottom strut of the next story.
Use drift pins or other temporary devices for all bracing connections until the
whole tower is plumbed and squared.
Step 4. Install longitudinal bracing on the first story using the same process
as transverse bracing.
Construction 10-17
FM 3-34.343
Step 5. Raise the gin poles (using tackle) to the top of the first story in
preparation for erecting the next story. Support the gin poles laterally by
using the brackets that are installed on the columns. Use temporary straps to
guide the gin poles as they are raised.
Step 6. Set the columns for the next story and temporarily splice them to the
last story’s columns. Erect the column caps by using temporary connections.
Lean the gin poles away from the columns during cap erection.
Step 7. Install the transverse diagonal bracing.
Step 8. Install the longitudinal bracing.
Step 9. Repeat the above process for each subsequent story of the tower.
Step 10. Install the stringers.
Step 11. Plumb and square the tower.
Step 12. Install the permanent connections in the tower components.
Mast gin pole A Mast gin pole B

Guy line A
Guy line B
Pull line A
Bridge deck
Snub line
Timber towers
Ground anchorage Ground anchorage
Figure 10-8. Launching Stringers by Gin Poles
DERRICKS
10-61. A derrick is the timber counterpart of a gin pole and is used to erect
tall timber towers. Only one derrick is needed per tower. A derrick is
fabricated from timber that is equal in size to the tower materials and the
Class IV or organic equipment. Hand winches provide control through hoist
and boom lines. Derricks are anchored on the cap or sill. Erect a multistory
tower as follows:
Step 1. Set and anchor the sill to the foundation.
Step 2. Assemble the derrick as shown in Figure 10-10, page 10-20. Anchor
the mast guy lines to the extreme corners of the tower.
Step 3. Set the first of the prefabricated tower bents (end bents) on its sill.
Each prefabricated bent consists of the posts, cap, and transverse bracing for
10-18 Construction
FM 3-34.343
Back guy line
Shears
Front guy line
Tie
Figure 10-9. Launching Stringers by Shears
each story. Spread the bracing slightly so that it does not obstruct installation
over the sill. Reposition the guy lines before setting the next (interior) bent.
Never remove more than one guy line at a time during an operation.
Step 4. Finish setting the remaining bents (end bent, then interior bent) in a
similar manner, using temporary bracing to hold the sections upright.
Step 5. Install the longitudinal bracing on the first story.
Step 6. Move the derrick onto the cap of the first story. Repeat the above
steps for each subsequent story.
DERRICK ELEVATION
10-62. Refer to Figure 10-11, page 10-21, and the following procedure to raise
the guy derrick:
Step 1. Attach the tackle guys to the boom point. Raise the boom as closely to
the mast as possible, and secure the guys to the boom point.
Step 2. Release the boom tackle from the point of the boom, and lash the
tackle near its base (Figure 10-11A).
Step 3. Lower and seat the boom, using the mast as a gin pole
(Figure 10-11B).
Construction 10-19
FM 3-34.343
Boom or topping lines
Fall lines or hoisting lines

Mast
Guy lines Hoisting line
Boom
Hand winch
Hook-to-tower column Swing lines
Figure 10-10. Guy Derrick in Working Position
Step 4. Release the boom tackle from the boom, and connect the hoisting
tackle to the mast with lashing far enough down to lift the derrick at least
13 feet (Figure 10-11C).
Step 5. Slacken the guy lines, and raise the mast and sill (using the boom as
a gin pole) to the next higher level and seat it on the timber (Figure 10-11D
and E).
Step 6. Release the hoisting tackle from the mast, and lash the boom tackle
to the boom near its base (Figure 10-11F).
Step 7. Raise the boom, using the mast as a gin pole, and connect the boom
at the next higher level. Use the guy lines to guide the boom as it is raised
(Figure 10-11G).
Step 8. Connect the tackle as shown in Figure 10-10, and release the guy
lines to the boom point.
10-20 Construction
FM 3-34.343
Fall lines or
A hoisting lines B
Guy lines Fall lines or
hoisting lines
Mast
Boom
Mast Guy lines
Boom or Guy lines
topping lines Boom or
topping lines
Boom raised to mast before shifting boom line. Boom lowered and standing on timber platform.
Temporary boom from mast step.
C Guy lines D
Guy lines
Fall lines or Boom or
hoisting lines topping lines Boom
Boom Second story
Boom or Mast
topping lines
Guy lines Tag line
Mast Guy lines
Boom guyed as gin pole to raise mast. Mast and sill raised by boom to higher level.
Boom or
E Boom or F topping lines
topping lines Guy lines
Mast Fall lines or
Second story hoisting lines
Mast
Guy lines
Second story
Boom Boom
Mast and sill scaled and guyed at higher level. Sill Mast acting as gin pole to raise boom.
must be securely anchored to prevent its sliding. G
Fall lines or Guy lines

hoisting lines
Boom
Boom or
topping lines Guy lines
Mast
Tag line Second story
Guyed mast boom line used to raise boom to mast step.
Figure 10-11. Raising the Guy Derrick
Construction 10-21
FM 3-34.343
SPECIAL LAUNCHING METHODS (STEEL ERECTION)
CRANES
10-63. Whenever a suitable heavy crane is available and can be maneuvered
effectively, use it to place the beams directly. The operator must be well
trained to ensure safe operation.
LAUNCHING NOSE
10-64. This method uses a nose (extension to a beam) consisting of a lighter
beam than the one being placed. This method is practical where there is only
one span of two beams under construction. Use Figure 10-12 to determine the
required length of the launching nose. Figure 10-13 shows this procedure.
(a = 2)
X 80 80
l
(a = 3)
J
(a = 4)
X n 70 (a = 5) 70
Launching nose length
(a = 6)
(a = 7)
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Length of gap
LEGEND:
a = weight of beam:weight of nose ratio
l = bridge length
X = safety setback
J = bridge
n = nose
Figure 10-12. Required Length of the Launching Nose
10-22 Construction
FM 3-34.343
104 ft 65 ft 104 ft
Snub Power cable
Winch 48 ft @ 413 lb
Winch
24-ft wide flange @ 87 lb
(1) Girder on moveable rollers with launching

nose attached and fixed rollers installed Use guide roller on this
on cribbing. pier to ensure alignment.
(2) Launching the girder.
(3) Launching nose supported by far rollers.

First movable roller has been removed.
(4) Operation near completion.

Second movable roller has been removed.
(5) Launching completed. Launching nose

removed. Girder ready for jacking down.
Figure 10-13. Launching Heavy Girders with a Light Launching Nose
COUNTERWEIGHT BEAM
10-65. Use this method if there is more than one span to a bridge, especially
when the spans are of equal length or if there are four or more beams in each
span. Site and material considerations may dictate a combination of the
Construction 10-23
FM 3-34.343
launching-nose method and the counterweight method. When constructing

several spans, launch the spans one at a time (Figures 10-14 and 10-15).
Counterweight Main girder
(1) Girder on movable rollers with counterweight

attached. Note position of middle moveable
roller.
(2) Launching the girder. First movable roller

has been removed.
(3) Launching completed. Note that second roller

was placed so that it need not be removed.
(4) Fixed rollers removed, and jacks in place

to assist in removing splice between
counterweight and main girder.
(5) Counterweight detached.

Girder ready for lowering.
Figure 10-14. Launching Heavy Girders With an Equivalent-Weight Beam
10-24 Construction
FM 3-34.343
(1) Girder on movable rollers with launching nose

attached and fixed rollers installed on cribbing.
(3) Operation nearer completion.
(4) Operation completed. Girder ready for

lowering and removal of splices.
Figure 10-15. Launching Four Girders Simultaneously Over Four Equal Spans
LAUNCHING ROLLERS
10-66. Launching rollers may be used to erect a bridge. Figure 10-16 shows a
dolly made from two, 50-ton launching rollers.
Figure 10-16. Dolly Made From Two, 50-Ton Launching Rollers
Construction 10-25
FM 3-34.343
CABLEWAYS
10-67. Cableways (Figure 10-17) may be necessary if one or more of the
methods described above will not work. End towers are usually constructed
from standard steel trestles. The tension developed in the main cables should
be considered. Evaluate the anchors carefully, since the cable tension
developed by applying heavy loads can be very great. If the sag allowed is too
great, it may be difficult to lift and seat a beam at the far pier. If the sag is
small, the cable tension may be too high. Exact calculations for determining
the amount of sag are not practical because of cable stretch from previous use
and because cable stresses may be near the elastic limit of the steel.
(1) Beam being attached to cableway.
(2) Ready for launching. One end of beam supported by

cableway. Trailing end of beam on movable roller.
(4) Operation near completion.
Figure 10-17. Launching Heavy Beams by Cableway
10-26 Construction
FM 3-34.343
10-68. Because cables elongate under a load, ensure that there is a way to
loosen the cables after launching the beams. Doing so allows easier release of
the beam from the hangers. Special take-up devices in the main cables may be
needed.
CRIBBING METHOD AND RAILWAY-ENGINE OR ERECTION-CAR METHOD

10-69. Figure 10-18 shows the cribbing method. Figure 10-19, page 10-28,
shows the railway-engine or erection-car method.
Rails or light beams
Temporary crib Temporary crib Temporary crib
After a beam has been rolled across a span, jack up.

Remove rollers, runway, and cribbing. Lower the beam
to the bearing plates.
Figure 10-18. Launching Beams by Cribbing
JACKING METHOD
10-70. If two beams are launched together or if one beam or girder is
exceptionally heavy, the beam or group of beams can be lowered using a jack.
Figure 10-19 shows this method. With careful management, the beam can
successfully be lowered from jack to jack without lowering it onto the cribbing
and having to rejack the beam. Keep blocking under the beam at all times,
and exercise extreme care when handling to prevent tilting and shifting of the
beam. Use hydraulic jacks capable of lifting two to three times the expected
load.
PRECAUTIONS
10-71. From observation and field experience, apply the following when
erecting bridges using heavy equipment:
• Inspect all the erection tools for serviceability. Ensure that they are of
the proper size and that sufficient quantities are on hand before
starting construction.
• Inspect all the materials to ensure proper strength and fit. For
example, ensure that the sheared ends of the web plates have no burrs
Construction 10-27
FM 3-34.343
Railway Engine A-frame
Erection Car
Wir
eo
pe r ro
r ro pe
eo
Wir
Girder
Plate girder
Figure 10-19. Launching Spans With Railway Engine and Erection Car
or obstructions to splicing or that splice-plate bolt holes are completely

drilled and free of protective coating material.
• Consider launching long, continuous spans. This is more economical
than other methods. Final positions of splices should be at places
other than the center of individual spans, if practical.
• Give movable bearing ends careful attention. Parts of beams and
bearing plates that are in contact should be smooth, clean, and well
lubricated. Position the bearing plates carefully to ensure proper
alignment for the temperature ranges expected.
• Exercise care to ensure that the beams are aligned properly and that
driftpins pass completely through all parts during splicing operations.
This reduces the possibility of having to ream the bolt holes. Insert the
bolts through the bottom-flange splice plate with the bolt head down
to avoid any interference with the launching rollers. Countersink the
bolt and rivet heads into the top flange of the beam. Ensure that the
10-28 Construction
FM 3-34.343
top and bottom of the beam are oriented properly when launched
because countersinks are required on the top flange and not on the
bottom flange.
• Install as many of the diaphragms and lateral braces as possible
before launching the beams. Do not install diaphragms or lateral
braces that may interfere with erection operations; wait until after the
beam is launched. This will eliminate some of the work that must be
conducted over open spans.
• Place preventer tacks and guy lines (in sufficient quantities to prevent
mishaps) before launching.
• Ensure that the electrodes for overhead welding are the all-position
type and of the correct polarity.
SUSPENSION-BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
10-72. The site for a bridge must have sufficient area available for assembling
the towers and hangers. Normally, stadia distances provide sufficient
accuracy. If using 10-foot panels, the distance between the towers must be
divisible by 20. Check the tower sites to ensure that the towers will be
perpendicular to the centerline of the bridge. Mark and measure the distances
to the deadmen.
ERECT CABLEWAY
10-73. To facilitate suspension-bridge construction, erect a cableway within
100 feet of the bridge site. The cableway will allow equipment and personnel
to be moved over the gap so that construction is possible from both banks
simultaneously. Once the materials and personnel are across and the main
cables are in place, dismantle the cableway and the wire rope that were used
as guy lines, if necessary. Refer to FM 5-125 for more information on
installing cableways.
LEVEL SILL AREAS

10-74. After marking the sites for the towers, level the sills. If footings are
needed, make the sill area large enough to accommodate the forms. As the
sills are being prepared, assemble the towers and fabricate the deadmen.
Erect the towers and install the side and back braces.
PLACE MAIN CABLES

10-75. Attach a lead line to the main cable and carry the lead line to the other
side of the gap. If the main cables are on reels, place the reels behind the
tower and pull the cables over the tower, across the gap, and over the far
tower. Temporarily clip the cable ends around the deadmen. Use a ratchet
chain hoist to set the cable to the proper sag configuration. When the cable is
properly seated, set and tighten the clips.
CONSTRUCT AND INSTALL HANGERS

10-76. Assemble the floor beams, posts, knee braces, and suspenders to form
the hangers. After assembling the posts, braces, and beams, wrap the
Construction 10-29
FM 3-34.343
suspenders around the floor beams and clip them. Notch the floor beam so
that the suspender does not have to bend sharply. Measure the effective
length of the suspenders, install a thimble, and clip the suspenders onto the
main cables. Do not tighten the clips until the stringers are placed. Recheck
the effective length after completing the bridge. Use a scaffold when placing
the hangers. Place the hangers simultaneously from each end of the bridge.
INSTALL STRINGERS
10-77. When the first hanger is positioned, place and connect the stringers to
the sill and the floor beams. Ensure that the suspenders are vertical and then
tighten the clips. Repeat the process with the next hanger. Nail cleats to the
undersides of the stringers to keep them in place on the floor beams.
INSTALL SWAY BRACING AND FLOOR PLANKS

10-78. If using timber sway bracing, nail it in place before installing the floor
planks. Place the bracing diagonally and nail it in place, and then install the
floor planks. If using wire bracing, place the frame first, leaving out the
planks so that the wires can be installed. Tighten the wires with rack sticks,
and install the remaining floor planks to hold the rack sticks in place.
INSTALL SIDE RAILS AND CURBS

10-79. After completing the floor, install the side rails and the toeboards or
curbs. Make splices 2 to 3 feet from the side-rail posts. Use splice plates on all
splices. Install saw-tooth bracing after installing the side rails and curbs.
RECHECK CABLE CONNECTIONS

10-80. Ensure that all suspenders are vertical and that all cable connections
are secure. Test the bridge with light loads before allowing the heavier loads
(up to the rated capacity) to cross the bridge.
10-30 Construction
Chapter 11
Inspection and Maintenance

The extent of a bridge inspection depends on the combat situation and its
influence on future plans for the bridge. If military use of the bridge will
extend beyond the immediate tactical need or if the bridge is located on a
main supply route (MSR), the inspection should be detailed enough to
ensure the bridge’s continued use. Experienced personnel must provide
timely bridge maintenance to prevent the need for extensive repairs,
prolong the life of the bridge, and preclude the closing of vital LOC. Such
maintenance includes minor, routine repairs. It does not include replacing
or reinforcing major superstructure or substructure members. Chapter 4
describes methods of reinforcing and repairing existing bridges.
INSPECTION
11-1. Bridges to be abandoned or demolished in the immediate future require
only a hasty inspection. An inspector must recognize the anticipated loadings,
the combat exposure, and other pertinent factors. Bridges are inspected at
least monthly and sometimes daily. The frequency of bridge inspections
depends on many factors, such as the following:
• Mission.
• Bridge type.
• Traffic discipline.
• Traffic density.
• Bridge condition.
• Stream characteristics.
• Bridge importance.
MISSION
11-2. An inspection team may combine road and bridge inspections. Their
mission is to—
• Determine the bridge’s classification (if not posted) or to verify a
posted classification.
• Determine the rate of deterioration and record the findings.
• Determine the maintenance and repairs required.
• Determine the means of reinforcement if the load-carrying capacity is
inadequate.
• Check traffic control and discipline.
• Locate and check possible bypasses.
• Determine sources and availability of local materials.
Inspection and Maintenance 11-1

FM 3-34.343
PERSONNEL
11-3. Engineer reconnaissance officers (with practical knowledge of civilian
bridges) should conduct the bridge inspections. The size of the inspection team
ranges from one to five persons, depending on the scope of the inspection. A
soil-testing expert may be part of the team. Include a civilian bridge expert (if
available) for special problems on important bridges. Corps or higher HQ is
the approving authority.
EQUIPMENT
11-4. An inspection party should have the equipment listed below. Other
useful items that may be included (if qualified operators are available) are a
surveyor’s level and a soil-testing set.
• Map and compass.
• Camera and film.
• Shovel and pick.
• Tape measure.
• Sketching set.
• Stakes.
• Twine, cord, or rope.
• Knife or saw.
• Sounding rod.
• Pneumatic reconnaissance boat.
• Sign-painting kit.
• Report forms.
REPORTS
11-5. During the early tactical phase, there is seldom time to prepare a
written report. Any oral reports should be followed with a written report as
soon as possible. Only the most important bridges require an initial written
report be prepared. Use DA Form 1249 to record information (see FM 5-170).
Include the information discussed in the remainder of this section and
sketches, maps, and pictures (essential for clarity) in the report.
11-6. An inspection team should develop a checklist to use when conducting
bridge inspections. The checklist should include all the items that are
necessary to accomplish the objective of the inspection. If a bridge is
determined to be unsafe during an inspection, the team should either lower
the posted classification or close the bridge for repairs. The team must report
such actions to the responsible engineer staff officer or commander. The
inspection team forwards its report through the chain of command for
distribution to the responsible unit. The team should also maintain a file copy
of the report.
INSPECTION ITEMS
11-7. The items discussed below should be included in the checklist. The list
is not in any particular order, but the team should check each item.
11-2 Inspection and Maintenance

FM 3-34.343
Attached or Hidden Demolition Charges

11-8. Check captured bridges for mines, demolition charges, or other evidence
of booby traps or sabotage. Abutments, piers, truss chords, suspension cables,
and arch crowns are likely locations for hidden explosives. Many foreign
bridges have concealed chambers in structural members that may contain
demolition charges.
Evident Damage
11-9. Check and record any evident damage. Even minor damage in critical
areas can render a bridge unsafe.
Structural Alignment
11-10. Examine all structural parts of a bridge, especially bents, piers,
abutments, and trusses. Check for misalignment and excessive settling.
Check the expansion joints because they will show signs of a bridge shifting or
misaligning. These conditions are likely to occur after hard rains and flooding.
Check the vertical alignment of the approach roadway. The approach should
match the level of the bridge’s deck surface. Ensure that each stringer is
carrying its share of the dead load. Check anchors for tautness and
p erf o rmance . Check ra ilro ad brid g e s and t res tl es fo r rail and tie
misalignment, loose spikes and connections, and tie and ballast shift.
Debris and Debris Jams

11-11. Clear the deck of debris. Ice, mud, and other debris greatly increase
impact stresses on all parts of the bridge. Ensure that the deck drains are
clear of debris and in operable condition. Remove jammed debris from around
the piers or other structural members. Debris around the piers can
accumulate rapidly and has the potential to exert sufficient force to topple the
bridge (especially in swift currents).
Material
11-12. The material condition should be checked as follows:
• Timber. Examine all timber members for rot, splits, decay, insect
damage, warp, crushes, breaks, or other damage. The deck should be
smooth; rough surfaces increase impact stresses on all parts of the
bridge. Replace timber treads when 10 to 15 percent of the original
surface has worn.
• Steel. Examine steel for excessive corrosion, twist, lateral buckling,
metal fatigue, or other damage.
• Masonry and concrete. Examine masonry and concrete for
excessive cracks, crack progression, bulge, crumble, or erosion.
Progressive condition changes are important for estimating the
deterioration rate. Some tension cracking in concrete is acceptable,
but exposed reinforcing bars indicate poor concrete condition. Worn
concrete or masonry surfaces can best be protected by asphaltic
concrete.

FM 3-34.343
Deflection
11-13. Check the bridge for span and pier deflection. The elevation of a
painted target on the point in question can be calibrated to a special
benchmark with a good quality surveyor’s level rod. Immediately investigate
any change in the bridge’s elevation. Deflection of the bridge under capacity
loads should be no greater than 1/200 of the span length.
Connections
11-14. Examine all connections (nails, bolts, rivets, clamps, scabs, bracing,
and so forth) for signs of looseness, wear, or other defects. Check the bolts and
rivets carefully for early signs of shear. Check the lashings and riggings for
improper tension and excessive wear. Consider the following:
• Bracing. Turnbuckles permit adjustment of diagonal tension rods.
Tighten the adjustments so that the tension is uniform in all rods.
• Joints. Replace riveted or welded joints that are overstressed in
shear. Tighten any loose, structural, ribbed bolts.
Fire Protection
11-15. Ensure that adequate fire-fighting equipment and supplies (fire
extinguishers, water pumps, sand, and so forth) are available to the bridge
guards. Ensure that the guards have been trained in the proper use of the
equipment. Ensure that all dry grass and other combustible debris have been
removed or neutralized. Investigate any incidents of floating fuels or
conditions that may indicate fuel spills near the bridge.
Night Markers
11-16. Check the reflecting buttons or markers on the bridge. The markers
should be adequate in number, firmly attached, clean, and properly located.
Classification
11-17. Ensure that bridges are classified according to Part Two of this FM. If
signs of structural damage or additional damage not previously identified and
considered for classification purposes are present, reclassify the bridge. If the
accuracy of the posted classification is questionable, reclassify the bridge.
Bridge Signs and Approaches

11-18. Ensure that bridge and classification signs are present, accurate,
clean, and visible. Check the bridge approaches for adequate turnouts.
Erosion
11-19. Check around all the abutments, piers, and anchors for signs of
erosion. Examine the soil around these structures for signs of progressing
erosion that may later damage or endanger the bridge structure. Floating
objects such as ice, logs, and other debris can seriously damage or erode piers
and other parts of the structure that are at water level.

FM 3-34.343
Waterway Bottom
11-20. Check the waterway bottom for shifts of sandbars and channel.
Monitor the hydraulic effects that wrecks, sunken boats, or other structures
have on the bridge.
Detours and Bypasses

11-21. Compile or update information on alternate routes. This information is
necessary during emergency conditions.
Snowdrifts
11-22. Indicate where snowdrifts could occur. Develop countermeasures for
dealing with them.
Material Sources
11-23. Compile a list or update a previously made list with the location, type,
and quantity of locally available materials. This list should include materials
that are necessary for repairs.
CORRECTIVE MEASURES
11-24. An inspection-team chief should make recommendations for correcting
all of the deficiencies noted during an inspection. The extent of the
recommendations will depend on the materials, time, and personnel available
and the methods adopted by the engineer staff or commander responsible for
the bridge.
MAINTENANCE
11-25. An engineer construction company or battalion will normally be
responsible for bridge maintenance, depending on the length of the route or
the amount of work to be done. Road and bridge maintenance are usually one
mission.
11-26. A maintenance unit is usually a patrol or a gang. A patrol may be an
individual or a small group that proceeds along a route to perform a single
task (such as nailing down loose flooring). A gang may vary in size from one
squad to a company or larger. Gangs are more practical than patrols because
they spend more time in a single location, performing several tasks at the
same time.
11-27. Organic and special engineer equipment may be augmented from
depot stocks, supply points, or other units. Captured equipment, parts, and
material should also be considered as possible resources. When speed is
essential, stock items are best for efficient maintenance. The responsible
commander should determine the best resources and methods for obtaining
material.
DECKS
11-28. Decks should be free of stones, mud, ice, and debris to decrease wear
on the surface. Keep flat decks clear with a patrol grader, which throws mud,

FM 3-34.343
ice, and debris to the curb where it can be removed by hand shoveling. A
scarifier may help remove ice. If patrol grading is impractical, shoveling and
hand removal of large debris is necessary.
11-29. A thin tar or asphalt coating densely covered with sand, pea gravel, or
stone chips will reduce the danger of fire on wooden decks. Loose sand,
chemical fire extinguishers, water pumps for river water, or barrels of water
are effective resources for fighting bridge fires.
11-30. Misalignment (caused by simple shifting or structural failure) can be
repaired by pulling the deck back into place with wire cable and tractors.
Mechanical or hydraulic jacks may be effective. Misalignment of major
superstructure members is usually caused by movement of the footings. Since
this type of misalignment is difficult to repair, the bridge may have to be
reconstructed.
11-31. The principles of fire fighting, shifting, and stringer replacement in
highway bridges also apply to railroad bridge decks. Replace burned or
damaged ties promptly. Check the rail alignment and guardrails for shifting
and correct any problems. The maintenance patrol or gang should also tighten
all loose rail spikes, end joints, hook bolts, and tie-spacer connections.
Fastenings
11-32. Wooden decks tend to shift under load. Correct this problem by adding
adequate fastenings to the curb rail, tread, or stringers. If the stringers shift,
draw them back into position and secure them with drift bolts (for timber
stringers) or steel bolts (for steel stringers). Redrive any loose nails or add new
nails to loose planks. Driftpins or lag screws might be needed in troublesome
spots. Ensure that the clamps for the curbs and handrails are secure.
Timber Treads
11-33. All types of timber-deck bridges should have timber treads. Bolt timber
treads onto steel grid floors if the grids show signs of excessive wear. Replace
the treads when 10 to 15 percent of the original surface has worn. A tar or an
asphalt coating covered with sand, fine gravel, or stone chips will prevent
excessive splintering and rapid wear.
Wearing Surfaces
11-34. Asphaltic concrete best protects wearing surfaces of concrete or
masonry.
Stringers
11-35. Replace bent, crooked, or rotten stringers by removing and replacing
the flooring planks. Correct stringer bearing is essential for the bearing cap
and the flooring. Placing metal shims between the stringer and cap is the best
way to correct the bearing. Securely fasten shims in place to prevent them
from dislodging. Do not use small shims between the flooring and stringers.

FM 3-34.343
Curbs and Handrails

11-36. Replace curbs and handrails only when they have been damaged by
accidents.
FOUNDATIONS
11-37. Foundation settlement is usually caused by scour or structural failure.
Correct minor settlement by jacking up the structure and inserting steel
shims between the stringers and the cap or between the bearing plates and
the pedestal. Use hardwood shims under wooden members. Correction of
settlement is discussed below. Scour prevention and methods for protecting
the foundation and bridge supports from ice and floating debris are discussed
in Chapter 7.
ABUTMENTS
11-38. Treat scour and settlement of abutments the same as foundation
settlement. However, since an abutment also acts as a retaining wall, it is
subject to horizontal earth pressures. If the abutment is unstable, shore it or
hold it in place with guy lines from anchors on shore (discussed in Chapter 8).
TIMBER
11-39. Decay, excessive loads, structural defects, fire, or explosives may cause
timber members to fail. Untreated timbers that are alternately wet and dry or
are only partly saturated decay quickly. Timber that is under water or
otherwise continually wet does not decay, but may be attacked by marine
borers. Replace all timber showing decay or structural damage (preferably
with masonry or steel) especially if the timber is in contact with the ground.
One method of repairing piling is to splice new members to solid members
with butt joints and scabs.
11-40. To allow timber to breathe, leave at least a 1/8-inch clearance between
the timbers (where possible). Keep all bridge timber clear of debris. Remove
the bark from native logs if this was not done during construction. Green or
wet timber shrinks considerably when seasoned. Repeated wetting and drying
also cause dimension changes as great as 5 to 10 percent, parallel to the grain.
Unseasoned timber may require frequent renailing and tightening of bolts.
STEEL
11-41. Intense heat that raises steel temperatures above 1,000°F is
particularly serious when the members are under stress. Members under
tension that are heated to this extent will permanently elongate and if under
compression will buckle. Intense heat will also destroy the temper and extra
strength in certain types of steel (especially cold-rolled sections and high-
strength wire). Replace damaged steel or reinforce it by welding new members
onto the damaged sections.
11-42. Bending (due to accidents or explosions) is not as serious in members
that are under tension as it is in those that are under compression. Straighten
the bent compression members to their original shape. If not possible, weld or
bolt steel plates or shapes onto the bent member to increase its stiffness.

FM 3-34.343
When essential members are severed, other members assume added stresses.
Relieve overstressing of members by adding bolted or welded plates or
structural sections across the gap.
11-43. Military loads and design stresses are high, with impact adding to the
severity of steel stresses. Fatigue failure is caused by repeated stressing and
may result in sudden collapse. Fatigue failure is usually preceded by small
hairline cracks around the rivet holes, welds, and other surface irregularities.
Since these cracks usually do not get large before ultimate failure, reinforce
the affected components immediately with steel plates.
11-44. Rusting on bridges seldom requires special attention unless these
structures are subject to salt spray or are located in humid climates. Keep all
steel clear of debris, and limit timber-steel contact to a minimum to prevent
rusting due to moisture retention. Loose rust is not serious, but deep pitting
should be investigated. Paint areas that are subject to severe rusting and coat
them with tar, asphalt, or thick grease. Remove all rust with a wire brush or
by sandblasting before painting.
CONCRETE
11-45. Correct surface spalling on concrete with plaster or with a low-water-
content mortar applied with a pneumatic sprayer. Extensive frost damage is
usually not repairable. Rust flakes on reinforcing steel can exert considerable
pressure when confined and will spall concrete along bars that are too close to
the surface. Although seldom serious, repair this condition by chipping away
the concrete, cleaning most of the rust from the bar, and grouting the area.
Fires of 1,200°F and above that last for an hour or more cause spalling and
cracks and reduce the strength. Replace the concrete if the damage is serious.
Patch all holes and gaps that are caused by accidents or explosions.
Tension
11-46. Concrete tensile strength is negligible since resistance to tension is
furnished by the reinforcing steel. Tension cracks crossed at right angles by
reinforcing steel are not serious unless they are more than 1/8 to 1/4 inch
wide, depending on the structural details. The repair of this condition is
discussed in Chapter 4.
Compression
11-47. Compression creates a crushing failure that crumbles concrete,
especially in columns. The repair of this condition is discussed in Chapter 4.
Shear
11-48. Repair concrete shear failure in rectangular members with tight steel
bands. Do this only under the supervision of a structural engineer.
APPROACHES
11-49. Correct any settlement of approaches immediately. The grade line of
unpaved approaches should be 1 inch above the grade of the deck. The grade
line of paved approaches should be the same grade as the deck. Patch any

FM 3-34.343
potholes immediately. When settlement occurs on railroad bridges, add

ballast to the track (shorewards of the abutment) to keep the track from
dipping.
11-50. Some waterways with flat grades and floodplains have a tendency to
shift channel locations. Such shifts may deposit eroded material against the
piers or erode the pier foundations or approaches. These problems can be
controlled by earth or rock dikes or by piles strung with brush mats woven
into wire cables.

FM 3-34.343

Chapter 12
Bridging in Arctic and Subarctic Environments

Subsurface exploration and structural design are very important when
building structures on permafrost. Successful military construction on
permafrost depends on how the permafrost is used as part of the
construction. Surface transportation is totally undependable during spring
breakup and fall freeze. The change of seasons in arctic and subarctic
environments creates problems that are not common in more temperate
climates. Extreme cold primarily affects bridge foundations and
substructures.
PERMAFROST
12-1. Permafrost describes permanently frozen ground at variable depths
below the surface. It underlies about one-fifth of the land area of the world
(Figure 12-1). Permafrost may exist as a continuous material or as an island
or lens within unfrozen material. The deepest layers of permafrost are in the
polar regions and may extend as deeply as 1,300 feet. In arctic and subarctic
regions, it is the most troublesome condition encountered when constructing
foundations.
Permafrost regions
Scale
500 0 500 1000 miles
Figure 12-1. Permafrost Regions (Northern Hemisphere)
Bridging in Arctic and Subarctic Environments 12-1

FM 3-34.343
12-2. Permafrost can be used effectively as a foundation for construction.

However, improper construction methods may allow undue amounts of heat to
transfer into the permafrost, thereby thawing and weakening its supporting
properties. Nonfrost active gravel and sand are effective for controlling ground
swell and ice formations in fills and bases. Use of these materials allows
potentially dangerous groundwater to break through the surface and freeze,
where its cyclical freezing and thawing will do no harm.
TRANSPORTATION
12-3. In areas of extreme cold, transportation is best completed during the
extreme cold season. Some considerations are discussed below.
SUMMER CONDITIONS (EARLY JULY TO EARLY AUGUST)

12-4. Difficulties during the summer months are due to the lack of soil
bearing capacity from inadequate underground drainage. Permafrost prevents
the groundwater from percolating to levels that allow surface soil to dry
readily. Transportation is limited to tracked vehicles operating on established
roads and railroad beds. The surface soil does not dry until late summer, and
even then, drying may be only superficial. Much of the drainage pattern of
arctic terrain resemble s sw amps, shallow lakes, an d slo w-flowing
watercourses.
FALL-FREEZE CONDITIONS (LATE AUGUST TO EARLY SEPTEMBER)

12-5. The ability of roads to carry traffic during a freeze-up depends on the
condition of the roads’ surfaces before they freeze. Hard-surface roads are
generally only affected by icing on the surface. Where no hard surface exists
(as is characteristic of roads in these regions), the most important factor is
whether the road surface has been regularly maintained. Heavy snowfall
immediately following a fall freeze may fill the ruts and level the roads’
surfaces. If the early winter has little snowfall, deep, frozen ruts will be more
prominent.
WINTER CONDITIONS (LATE SEPTEMBER TO EARLY APRIL)

12-6. Surface transportation conditions during the winter are better than at
any other time of the year in arctic and subarctic regions. Continuous,
extremely low temperatures freeze the surfaces of seas, lakes, rivers, streams,
swamps, and tundra, which allows vehicles to breach these obstacles without
bridging assets. However, the same low temperatures make equipment
operation and maintenance difficult.
SPRING-BREAKUP CONDITIONS (LATE APRIL TO LATE JUNE)

12-7. As winter snows melt, the active soil layer becomes completely
saturated. Temperatures are warm enough to begin thawing and breaking up
the snow and ice on which skis or sleigh runners have been operating. Surface
soil does not dry in the spring.
12-2 Bridging in Arctic and Subarctic Environments

FM 3-34.343
THAW EFFECTS
12-8. Warm winds, as well as heat from the sun, have a deteriorating effect on
a snow mass. Within a few days, the warmed surface loses much of its bearing
capacity. Tracks and sled runners cut deeply into the ground surface and
make ruts in which water accumulates and further destroys the ground’s
bearing capacity.
SUBGRADE
12-9. The penetration of meltwater through the snowpack into the surface
eventually carries heat into the subgrade. This deterioration may be further
aggravated by rainfall. During the initial period, night frosts will temporarily
improve the surface. To avert complete destruction of roads, traffic is usually
restricted to night travel with light loads.
GROUNDWATER
12-10. Groundwater in the surrounding areas cannot percolate below the
permafrost. The groundwater either remains in place to form surface mud and
water or runs off the slopes and across roadways, filling the ditches. This
action greatly reduces the repose of the terrain and results in landslides.
Melting snow often results in snowslides. The rapid runoff may result in
devastating flash floods. These situations may delay or suspend bridging
operations.
EXPLOSIVES
12-11. Engineers use a great quantity of explosives in areas of extreme cold,
because many jobs that would normally be done by machinery in warmer
climates are accomplished with explosives. The cold affects the operation of
explosive components differently.
MILITARY EXPLOSIVES
12-12. Military explosives are generally unaffected by intense cold. However,
they become less sensitive to shock, are somewhat difficult to detonate, and
are not as powerful when exposed to extremely cold environments.
COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES
12-13. Commercial explosives become less sensitive until they freeze, after
which time they become extremely dangerous. Commercial dynamite is
currently manufactured with freezing depressants to lower the temperature
range at which its sensitivity and reliability are affected. Black powder has no
moisture and, therefore, cannot freeze, but it is extremely dangerous to use.
See FM 5-250 and TM 5-852-1 for additional information on explosives.
EXPLOSIVE ACCESSORIES
12-14. Explosive accessories (such as blasting caps and machines) are hardly
affected by the cold except for being slightly sluggish. However, standard
silver-chloride, dry-cell galvanometers are impractical. Tactical firing devices
are adversely affected.

FM 3-34.343
STEEL
12-15. Extreme cold makes steel brittle. The most important consideration is
impact loading. The properties of chromium-nickel types of stainless steel are
actually improved by extreme cold.
WOOD
12-16. The strength of wood is relatively unaffected by extreme cold.
However, the impact strength of wood is reduced considerably because the
wood’s moisture content is reduced by the environment. Wood normally
contains between 10 and 20 percent moisture. This moisture content may drop
to nearly 1 percent in extreme cold because of the relationship between
relative and absolute humidity. Reduced moisture content causes shrinkage,
and the nail-holding property of wood is greatly reduced. Nails also tend to
split the wood more easily.
CONCRETE
12-17. Concrete is not adversely affected by extreme cold, provided it does not
freeze before the curing process is complete. The problems of protecting fresh
and uncured concrete from freezing are exactly the same as in cold portions of
the US except for the amount of heat that must be provided. See TM 5-852-1
and FM 5-428 for information on cold-weather concrete placement. It is not
practical to place concrete during weather colder than 0°F.
ENGINEER EQUIPMENT
12-18. Most construction equipment can be adapted for use in arctic and
subarctic conditions. The equipment will not be as effective, and the operator
must be aware of the limitations of the equipment when used in extremely
cold environments. The efficiency of the equipment depends on the knowledge
and skills of the operator and the maintenance technician.
CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULES
12-19. Schedules may be hampered by weather. Using proper precautions will
allow a construction crew to still achieve a relatively high progress rate.
BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURES

12-20. The best locations for bridges in extremely cold environments are
areas where the water is deep, the channel is narrow, and the banks are high.
Some of the more pertinent effects and remedial measures for building
foundations and substructures are discussed below.
ARCTIC PRECIPITATION
12-21. Precipitation over most of the arctic is about 8 to 10 inches per year,
but it varies widely depending on geographic location. Snow and ice fogs are
the prevalent form of precipitation. Although usually very light, precipitation
reduces lowland prairies to swamps except where the soil is rocky. Generally,

FM 3-34.343
rocky areas have a slow evaporation rate and little or no underground

drainage.
SUBARCTIC PRECIPITATION
12-22. Precipitation in the subarctic is much heavier than in the arctic. Some
coastal areas receive as much as 150 inches of precipitation per year. Most of
this moisture occurs as rain during the period from March through November.
This rainfall supports a lush growth of trees and other plants. Interior regions
receive an amount of precipitation comparable to that of the Midwestern US,
with most of that falling in late summer.
STREAMS AND RIVERS

12-23. The flow rates of streams and rivers in extremely cold environments
vary widely. The daily water crests are more pronounced in the warmer
regions than those in the colder regions. The crests in the warmer regions may
vary as much as 7 to 10 feet daily. Seasonal variations in arctic and subarctic
regions are numerous. Flash floods are common during spring breakup, and
the waterways carry great quantities of ice. The water level is generally low
during the fall, and streams fed by snowmelt may cease to flow entirely
(Figure 12-2). During the winter, some streams quit flowing and freeze to the
bottom. Wide floodplains with indeterminate and meandering channels are
common.
Figure 12-2. Dried Streambed

FM 3-34.343
ICE FREEZE-UP
12-24. Ice and slush form during a fall freeze and act abrasively on bridge
substructures. Ice also forms and clings to substructures, building sufficient
weight to obstruct the water flow. When the water recedes, a bridge may
collapse. Ice also adheres to other ice on the water surface. This condition
(called valley icing) is most common in water with permafrost under their
channels.
ICE BREAKUP
12-25. During the spring, large sheets and blocks of ice float downstream,
exerting tremendous pressures against bridge substructures. Final bridge
failures from ice accumulation usually occur during ice breakup.
NATIVE MATERIALS
12-26. Local bridge construction materials are abundant in some regions and
nonexistent in others. The temperature, the precipitation, the amount of
sunlight, and the geologic history all affect the availability of natural
materials in a local area. Accumulated snowfall is the biggest deterrent to
finding sufficient local resources.
TIMBER
12-27. In some subarctic regions, timber is so bountiful that it hampers
military operations and construction. Timber is usually available within a
range of 50 to 100 miles. In other areas (particularly the arctic), timber is
nonexistent. Deciduous trees are present near the timber line and coniferous
trees are common in northern parts of the subarctic region. Timber is a viable
construction material for arctic construction if allowances are made in the
structural design for seasonal changes.
ROCK
12-28. A wide variety of rock outcrops exists in the arctic. Rock composition
ranges from hard, Precambrian to Canadian shield to soft, sedimentary rock.
Rock outcroppings in the arctic and subarctic regions represent all hardnesses
and textures created by geological processes. In flat-frosted and tundra
regions, rock outcrops are scarce. The frequency of outcrops increases in hilly
and mountainous regions. Above the 75th parallel in the Canadian
Archipelago, rock outcrops are common and are often badly fractured.
SAND AND GRAVEL

12-29. Subsurface deposits of sand and gravel are present in arctic and
subarctic regions. Glacial action has produced many deposits of these
materials, especially in riverbeds and deltas. Sand and gravel may also be
obtained from the seacoasts and lake shores, backwaters, and meandering
river channels. The quality of inland and shoreline deposits is not as high as
those of glacial deposits, because glacial deposits are often a matrix of silt and
vegetable matter, thus having better construction characteristics.

FM 3-34.343
SNOW AND ICE

12-30. Snow and ice are useful construction materials. Additional information
on using ice as a construction material is discussed later in this chapter.
FOUNDATION SURVEY
12-31. The existence and arrangement of permafrost under river channels
depend on many factors. Always conduct a permafrost survey at a bridge site
before beginning construction. The extent of the survey depends on the size,
importance, and expected durability of the proposed bridge. Base the design of
the bridge on criteria applicable to the active layer (the area where cyclical
thawing and freezing occur) in its thawed condition. Core sampling
(boreholes) provides an engineer with a profile of the river and the bridge
approaches. Extend a cross section, 15 to 20 feet below the proposed
foundation base unless bedrock is encountered at a shallower depth.
Determine the characteristics of any bedrock by using a test-hole penetration
of at least 5 feet (Figure 12-3). All surveys should show—
• A profile of the riverbed.
• The permafrost table.
• The active-layer depth and its relationship to the permafrost table.
• The subchannel drainage.
• The geological structure of the site.
• The site’s soil composition and texture.
Sand and gravel Clay Sandy clay Bedrock
Active layer
Active layer
Permafrost Permafrost Permafrost
Figure 12-3. Borehole Exploration of a Bridge Site

FM 3-34.343
INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS
TRESTLE BENTS
12-32. Trestle bents are unsatisfactory as intermediate supports for any but
temporary bridges because their footings rest on the very unstable active
layer. They are impractical because they have too many supports that are
susceptible to attack by ice and too many obstructions that block water flow
and ice passage. When placed across shallow, still water, trestles are
susceptible to variable upward thrusts that may wreck a bridge.
PILE BENTS
12-33. Pile bents are the most suitable bridge foundations in extremely cold
environments because they can be driven down to stable soil. Treated timber;
precast, reinforced concrete; steel piling; and steel pipe are satisfactory pile
materials. Precast, concrete piling is excellent because there is less ground
thawing after placement than with other pile materials. Generally, reinforced
concrete and steel piles should be uniform in cross section along their entire
length. The heat conductivity of steel helps to thaw ice accumulation on the
member. The considerations discussed below may affect the use of pile bents.
Bearing and Upthrust

12-34. Since the bearing capacity of frozen ground is high, piles placed in
permafrost will support tremendous loads. Figure 12-4 shows the adverse
action of settlement and upthrust on piles or other foundations based on
permafrost. Figure 12-5 shows the action of a pile that is properly extended
into permafrost. Generally, extend piles into permafrost to a depth at least
twice the thickness of the active layer. To minimize upthrust, place timber
piles butt down.
Pile Driving
12-35. Permafrost prohibits the use of normal pile-driving techniques. The
piles have to be placed in drilled or thawed holes. Drill the holes with
directional explosive charges. Accomplish thawing with a water or steam pipe,
advanced downward as the ground thaws. Drive the pile in the normal
manner.
Pile Spacing
12-36. Because of severe structure wear on any component exposed to floating
ice and the danger of collapse from ice accumulation, place as few piles in the
actual waterway as possible. This will require longer spans and extensive
protection for intermediate supports. Greater spacing requirements favor
steel as a pile material.
Protection
12-37. Pile fenders, sheathing, and modified construction help to protect
against ice damage. Drive fenders in a diamond pattern, upstream from the
piles they protect. Sheathe the piles to provide a smooth surface and to
prevent ice from snagging and damming up in front of the piles. Omitting the
diagonal bracing below the waterline or ice line will allow ice to pass the piles
more freely.

FM 3-34.343
A Load B Foundation settles

Ground
surface
Frost Frost Frost Frost

zone zone zone zone
Moving
groundwater
Permafrost
Surface water
C D
Frost Frost Lift

zone zone Frost force
Foundation zone
lifted by ice (frozen) Foundation
lifted
Permafrost
Figure 12-4. Effects of Settlement and Upthrust
Load Load Load

Thawed Frost zone Frost zone
ground (thawed) Pile (thawed)
Frost
zone b b
a a
a a
PA PA
A. Immediately after construction, B. During the summer season, C. During the winter season, to
allowable load = PA. allowable load = a + PA. prevent uplift load, a must be
greater than b.
LEGEND:
a = adfreezing strength of permafrost to pile b = adfreezing strength of frost zone to pile
A = area of pile P = compressive strength of permafrost
Figure 12-5. Pile Installation in Permafrost

FM 3-34.343
PIERS
12-38. Construct piers on top of pile foundations. Cap the piles with concrete,
timber, or steel superstructures. Bailey-type panels are also satisfactory for
pier construction. Solid concrete piers usually require no protection.
ROCK CRIBS
12-39. Avoid using rock-filled cribs as piers for midstream supports unless
they are supported by rock foundations near the water surface. Rock cribs are
subject to heaving and induce icing. Use rock cribs as intermediate supports
only for temporary bridges.
REPLACEMENT SUPPORTS
12-40. Foundation instability and normal wear and tear of intermediate
supports in extremely cold environments may require planned replacement of
p i e r s a f t e r e a c h s p ri n g b r e a k u p . M a k e e v e ry a t t e m p t t o s a l v a g e
superstructures before breakup occurs. Periodically replacing damaged piers
and supports makes total bridge failure less likely.
ABUTMENTS
SOIL
12-41. The soil condition, the active-layer depth, the permafrost table, and
the bridge type will determine the type of abutment required. If the soil’s
condition shows that heaving and settling are unlikely, follow normal
abutment construction techniques. Special abutments are necessary when a
bridge site has poor soil conditions, permafrost, or an active-layer depth of
6 feet or more.
FOUNDATIONS
12-42. Piles provide satisfactory abutment foundations because they can be
rapidly placed and they eliminate the need for excavation. If the permafrost
table is depressed sufficiently so that the piles will not reach the permafrost,
use temperate-zone practices for abutment foundations.
CONCRETE
12-43. The use of concrete abutments is limited by the construction season
and their effect on the thermal regime. Figure 12-6 shows how threat
engineers have modified abutments to compensate for arctic construction. If
the permafrost is so deep that placing a foundation is not feasible or if the
permafrost is expected to thaw, use construction practices applicable to the
site in its unfrozen state.
Excavated Foundation
12-44. Apply the insulation principle to foundations when the abutment is to
be frozen into the permafrost. Use the following procedure:

FM 3-34.343
Step 1. Excavate the area for the foundation to a depth of at least 3 feet
below the permafrost table in coarse-grained sands and gravels and at
least 5 feet below the permafrost table in fine-grained sand, silt, and clay
soils.
Step 2. Level the bottom of the excavation with a 4- to 10-inch layer of
moist sand. Place a wooden or precast-concrete slab over the sand. This
platform reduces permafrost thawing due to the heat generated from
concrete setting and prevents the concrete from mixing with ground
materials.
Step 3. Place the abutment. If the abutment foundation is wider at the
bottom than at the top, make the taper from bottom to top smooth with no
steps in the active layer. After the concrete sets, fill the space between the
abutment and the excavation sides to the top of the permafrost table with
wet sand. This layer of wet sand will freeze and anchor the abutment in
the permafrost layer.
Step 4. Make sure that the abutment has a smooth surface to prevent the
backfill from freezing to the foundation. Backfill the abutment portion in
the active layer with coarse gravel.
Step 5. Plant shrubs or other protective vegetation around the portion of
the abutment exposed to the sunlight to reduce solar-heat absorption.
Fill Concrete
Covered with moss
and local plants
Gravel
Fill
Active layer
Active layer
Wet sand
Timber mat 3′ to 5′
Permafrost
Moist sand (4″ to 10″ deep)
Figure 12-6. Abutment Installation in Permafrost
Nonexcavated Foundation
12-45. If it is impractical to excavate the permafrost, use the procedure shown
in Figure 12-7, page 12-12. This method requires excavating to the permafrost
table. Drive the piles into the permafrost as described earlier in this chapter,
leaving at least 18 inches of each pile exposed above the permafrost table.
Place a layer of wet sand around the piles to a depth equal to one-third of the
exposed height of the exposed piles. Doing this prevents the heat that is

FM 3-34.343
generated by concrete setting from thawing the permafrost. Pour the

abutment, covering the remaining portion of the piles with concrete.
Fill Fill
Gravel
Gravel
Concrete
Active layer Active layer
Permafrost
Wet sand
Figure 12-7. Abutment Installation on Permafrost
RETAINING WALLS
12-46. When constructing retaining walls, backfill them with coarse material
to ensure good drainage. This reduces the normal groundwater level and the
possibility of icing around the wall. Finish all retaining walls as smoothly as
possible to prevent ice accumulation.
ICE REMOVAL
12-47. Ice will accumulate against bridge supports and cause serious damage
if left unchecked. It may be necessary to remove ice accumulation from bridges
and drainage structures at regular intervals. See previous discussion in this
chapter on using explosives.
CHOPPING
12-48. Chopping is an expedient method of removing ice buildup from a
bridge. Chopping is inconvenient as it needs to be periodically repeated. Do
not depend on this method as a permanent solution to icing problems.

FM 3-34.343
THAWING (CHEMICALS)
12-49. Spreading sodium chloride (common salt) or calcium chloride on the
accumulated ice will break down the ice. The ice should then drop off the
bridge and continue downstream.
THAWING (HEATING WATER)

12-50. Channeling and heating the water flowing under a bridge will thaw
the ice that is threatening to block the water flow. Heat the water above the
bridge opening with steam pipes laid above or through the bridge opening. An
expedient method of heating water is to use steel drums filled with fire. Cut
one end off the drums, weight them with rocks, and place them upstream from
the bridge. Burn oil, wood, or another suitable fuel in the drums to provide the
heat. Intermittent fires should provide enough heat to keep the bridge
opening clear of excessive ice accumulation.
THAWING (MODIFYING A WATER CHANNEL)

12-51. Deepening and straightening a channel will allow free flow of deep
water under a bridge. The deeper the water, the less chance there is for
serious bridge icing to occur.
DRAINING EXCESS WATER

12-52. Use drainage ditches and low barriers to drain any excess surface
water away from a bridge site. Drainage ditches require continual
maintenance to ensure their effectiveness. Low barriers are effective as a
temporary control and require repeated installation. Both methods are only
effective for small volumes of water.
INSULATING BRIDGE COMPONENTS

12-53. Insulating potential icing areas to prevent ice accumulation is often
effective at bridge sites. The insulation retards ice formation and allows the
water to flow freely throughout the winter.
Artificial Canopies
12-54. Light timber canopies covered with moss or boughs (built across the
stream channel and against each side of the bridge) can retard ice formation
on a bridge’s substructure. Build these canopies before the first frost sets in.
Ensure that they extend 20 to 100 yards upstream and 20 to 50 yards
downstream. Winter snow cover on the canopies serves as an insulating layer,
keeping the water flowing under the bridge and preventing ice from forming
on the canopies. Remove canopies before the spring breakup to prevent
damming and potential bridge damage.
Ice Canopies
12-55. Another method of insulating is to allow a canopy of ice to form above
the normal water level. Dam the stream below the bridge site and allow the
water to raise and form a 6-inch ice sheet. After the desired thickness of ice
accumulates, remove the dam and allow the water to return to its normal

FM 3-34.343
level. There will now be an air gap between the underside of the ice and the
water level, acting as an insulator to keep the water from freezing. Allow snow
to accumulate on top of the ice canopy to enhance its insulating abilities. Snow
fences may be needed so that the snow will drift onto the ice canopy or so that
the snow will not blow away. Mark the ice canopies to prevent them from
being damaged by attempted crossings.
SUPERSTRUCTURE PRINCIPLES
12-56. Extremely cold conditions generally dictate long, clear spans. Locate
superstructures high enough above the high-water mark to prevent them from
being damaged or forming obstructions to high water or ice accumulations
that may build above the normal high-water mark. Do not design bracing that
extends below the waterline or is in the path of water or ice.
PANEL-TRUSS BRIDGES
12-57. Panel-type truss bridges (such as the Bailey bridge) are the best
bridges for arctic applications. The main advantage is the availability of
standard military truss sections. Use steel trusses whenever possible.
TIMBER-TRUSS BRIDGES
12-58. Timber-truss bridges are the most satisfactory timber bridges for
arctic use. Erecting them does not require much more time than that required
for trestle- or pile-bent bridges. Use available timber if it is suitable for
constructing trusses.
STEEL-TRUSS BRIDGES
12-59. Simple steel trusses made of standard, rolled shapes are very practical
if the steel is available. Rolled sections are especially valuable for short-span
bridge construction. Use plate girders for longer spans. Girders require
substantial piers and abutments. Arch, suspension, and cantilever bridges
meet arctic bridge requirements (long spans and clear waterways). However,
their use is generally limited to permanent, peacetime construction. Simple
pony trusses or A-frame structures are adequate for small bridges.
FORDS
12-60. Fording operations in arctic and subarctic environments are generally
more difficult than in temperate areas. The techniques are similar, but there
are seasonal considerations. Extremely low temperatures and ice obstacles,
especially during spring breakup and fall freeze-up, limit fording operations.
Stream velocity and depth change with the seasons and the time of day.
SUMMER
12-61. During summer, a stream’s depth and velocity may rise due to glacier
or ice-cap melt. Fording of streams and rivers fed by glaciers and ice caps is
feasible only when the volume and velocity of water are at their minimum.

FM 3-34.343
Permafrost on stream banks and riverbanks may make approaches difficult to

develop and use. For example, ramps may be necessary because approaches
may not be able to be cut to the proper grade (Figure 12-8). Make provisions to
limit the use of the ford during unfavorable times and to provide assistance
(vehicle recovery, drying facilities, and so forth) when difficulties arise during
actual crossings of equipment and personnel.
Typical cross section of a shallow, slow-moving stream in permafrost.

Moss Moss
Permafrost Permafrost
Cross section of an expedient log-ramp construction. Butts of the stringers are

placed on the bank, and the small ends are alternated on the center-bearing timber.
Timber bents
Figure 12-8. Expedient Ramps
WINTER
12-62. Fording during the winter is impractical because ambient air
temperatures are damagin g to the equipment. Some watercourses
(particularly those flowing in broad floodplains) have open channels that
continually shift. As the stream direction shifts under the ice, many portions
of the ice are left unsupported, creating valley ice. Valley ice makes fording
very treacherous. Equipment that breaks through valley ice is difficult to
recover. If fording operations are necessary during winter, mark the route,
remove all valley ice, and ensure that the fording is through the active stream
channels. Maintain continual reconnaissance upstream to determine probable
shifts in the water channels. Channels may have to be dammed or diverted to
complete a proper fording operation.
12-63. Keep the entire ford area clear of ice to a point below the actual ford
area. Vehicles should be operated by experienced drivers only. Drivers should
use the lowest gear necessary, maintain a constant speed, and avoid using the
brakes (they will freeze closed). After each fording operation, warm and dry
the wheels, rollers, engine, brakes, and clutch in a heated shelter, if possible.
The alternative is to keep the vehicle moving quickly.

FM 3-34.343
ICE CROSSINGS
12-64. Rivers with low velocities, lakes, and deep swamps will freeze
sufficiently to allow ice crossings in winter and well into spring. Develop
approaches and reinforce and maintain crossings as discussed below.
DEVELOPING APPROACHES
12-65. Ice along the shoreline is usually thin and weak. Provide a smooth
approach from the shoreline to the thicker ice that is capable of supporting
traffic. A timber ramp, with the shore end resting in a prepared cut or on a fill
and the ice end supported on a timber mat, makes a very satisfactory
approach (Figure 12-9). When the banks are high and the obstacle is not
excessively wide, a well-compacted and well-frozen fill of snow and brush will
provide an effective approach.
Snow and ice

Timber mat road surface Frozen fill
Ice
Water
Figure 12-9. Expedient Approach
REINFORCING CROSSINGS
Low Temperature
12-66. During periods of low temperature, increase the thickness of ice by
removing the snow cover and allowing the ice to thicken by natural methods.
Clear a 150-foot strip along the entire path of the intended crossing. Allow
sufficient time for the ice to thicken. A weak ice sheet will increase in
thickness by ¼ inch during a 12-hour period at 5°F. In general, the
temperature must be less than 15°F for this method to be effective.

FM 3-34.343
Snow Dikes
12-67. This method involves building snow dikes along each side of the
desired route about 2½ times the desired road width. Flood the space between
the dikes to a depth of about 1 inch and let it freeze. The freezing process
takes about 2 hours for a 1-inch thick layer at 5°F. Build the ice in 1-inch
increments to permit rapid freezing. The only disadvantage to this
reinforcement method is that the capacity of the induced ice is only one-half
that of ice resulting from the natural process.
Snow Layering
12-68. The simplest method of reinforcing ice is to lay level layers of snow on
top of the desired road and add water to freeze them in place. Allow each layer
to freeze before adding subsequent layers. Further reinforcement is possible
by adding materials such as brush, straw, or chicken wire between every 2 to
4 inches of frozen snow. Table 12-1 lists data for reinforcing ice.
Table 12-1. Data for Reinforcing Ice
Thickness of Reinforcing Requirement for Increased Bearing

Material
Layer 13-Foot-Wide Track Capacity*
Ice and snow (3 layers) 1½ inches (packed layers) N/A 20%
Straw 2 to 4 inches 6 pounds per foot of run 20%
Straw (3 layers) 2 to 4 inches (each layer) 20 pounds 25%
Brush 2 to 4 inches 2 cubic feet per foot of run 25%
Ice block Dependent on block size N/A N/A
Planks (2-inch) N/A Two 3-foot-wide runways 50%
*Assumes a minimum ice thickness of 6 inches.
Other Materials
12-69. Many materials are effective for reinforcing ice bridges (logs; wood-
plank, corduroy mats; deck components of military floating and fixed bridges;
or pierced, steel planks [PSPs]). The ice surface must be leveled before using
these materials. Next, firmly anchor the reinforcing material to the ice and
cover it with snow. Finally, flood or spray the snow cover with water and allow
it to freeze to the original ice surface. Ensure that any metal is painted white
and is fully covered to inhibit solar absorption. Also, cover the completed
bridge with enough snow to provide a wearing surface. Planks or small logs
can also be frozen into place to form runways or tracks for vehicles and sleds.
Make each track about 3 feet wide and cover them the same as the other
materials mentioned above.
MAINTAINING CROSSINGS
12-70. Frequently check the ice thickness and the water level beneath the ice.
Note any cracks, the need for further reinforcement, the snow clearance, the

FM 3-34.343
approach condition, and the adequacy of the wearing surface. Ice capacity is
reduced by continual use. A heavily used crossing may have to be relocated.
EXPEDIENT ICE-BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

12-71. During periods of continual low temperatures (5°F or colder), it is
possible to use open areas or ice in standing or slowly flowing water to bridge
gaps. Engineers create ice bridges by floating large sections of ice (cut from
the rear of the ice pack) into a transverse position across the water gap. Ice
bridges are only an expedient temporary measure. Water movement under a
floating section of ice can erode the bottom surface and weaken the section.
Engineers will need to monitor the ice section continually and determine its
bearing capacity. The best location for obtaining a section of ice is where the
ice extends for an appreciable distance from the bank and does not vary in
thickness or quality. There should be no underwater obstacles near the site.
Survey the depth and the bottom conditions to ensure that they are adequate.
12-72. Underwater topography is very important when constructing ice
bridges, planning for repairs and rescue, and estimating bridge longevity. If
there is insufficient ice along the bank and the temperature is below freezing,
an alternate crossing of limited capacity can be built. Tie brush or small trees
to a rope or cable, stretch the cable across the waterway, and allow the water
to freeze onto the cable to form a crossing. Use the procedures described below
for building an ice bridge.
LAYOUT
12-73. Spend the time necessary to determine the required bridge dimensions
properly and to complete the layout. Table 12-2 gives data on typical ice-
bridge sizes and the resources necessary for construction. The float must fit
the notches created in the layout to be effective. The float should be one-half to
one-third as wide as it is long. The minimum width for a single column of
soldiers is 15 feet. The notch in which the float fits on the far bank should be
20 to 26 feet deep. The depth of this notch depends on the thickness of the
bank ice, the length of the bridge, and the water currents. The notch should be
deep enough to prevent splintering and breaking as the float is guided into
position.
Table 12-2. Typical Ice-Bridge Construction Data
Workers Construction
Bridge Type Length (feet) Width or Thickness
Required Time (hours)
Straight 330 150 feet wide 32 4
Straw 330 Minimum ice thickness: 16 inches 32 1½
Straw (3 layers) 600 Minimum ice thickness: 16 inches 32 4
CUTTING
12-74. After completing the layout, remove the excess ice (Figure 12-10A) by
sawing it free and then floating it downstream. Make double cuts (6 to 8

FM 3-34.343
inches apart) on the ends of these sections to facilitate their removal. After
removing the excess ice, install mooring lines on the float and cut it free.
A B C
Mooring
lines
Holdfasts
Open Frozen
Frozen Open Open
channel channel channel
Frozen
20-26 feet
Figure 12-10. Ice-Bridge Layout
FINISHING
12-75. Using the mooring lines, carefully guide the float into its final position
(Figure 12-10B and C). Bridge the banks and gaps at the end of the float with
available timber or prefabricated balk and decking. Mark the traffic lanes and
post the bridge capacity.
EXPEDIENT ICE-BRIDGE REINFORECEMENT AND REPAIR

12-76. Use the same methods of reinforcement for ice bridges as previously
described for ice crossings. The float will eventually freeze into the notches on
both sides and ends, and the float will gradually increase in size as new ice
freezes onto its sides. If no bottom-surface erosion is present, the bridge’s
stability will increase through natural processes. An additional reinforcement
method is to add ice blocks to increase the ice bridge’s thickness. Cut these
blocks from ice at least 200 yards downstream. Place the blocks on top of the
existing ice bridge, pack snow around them, spray water on the entire
reinforcement, and allow the blocks to freeze together. Reinforcement is also
possible by adding M4 balk, Bailey panels, or other standard bridging
resources. However, these components will be impossible to salvage.

FM 3-34.343
12-77. The most probable condition requiring repair is broken floats. These
breaks can be repaired by stitching or racking the broken pieces together
(Figure 12-11). Follow these steps to repair a break:
Step 1. Bore holes completely through the ice along each side of the crack.
Step 2. Place a doubled-over, two- or four-strand rope through each pair of
adjoining holes.
Step 3. Install small boards between the rope and the ice under each hole.
Step 4. Remove the slack from the rope and tie the rope ends.
Step 5. Place a rack stick between the strands of rope and tighten the stitch.
Step 6. Repeat the process for each pair of holes along the crack.
Figure 12-11. Ice Stitching

Appendix A
Conversion Charts
This appendix complies with current army directives, which state that the
metric system will be incorporated into all new publications. Table A-1
shows a metric conversion chart, and Table A-2 shows conversion factors
for temperature and angles.
Table A-1. Metric Conversion Chart

Multiplied Equals Multiplied Equals
US Units By Metric Units Metric Units By US Units
Length
Inches 2.5400 Centimeters Centimeters 0.39370 Inches
Inches 25.4001 Millimeters Millimeters 0.03937 Inches
Feet 0.3048 Meters Meters 3.28080 Feet
Feet per
Feet per second 0.3050 Meter per second Meter per second 3.28100
second
Miles 1.6093 Kilometers Kilometers 0.62140 Miles
Area
Pounds per Kilogram per Kilogram per Pounds per
0.0700 14.22300
square inch square centimeter square centimeter square inch
Square inches 6.4516 Square centimeter Square centimeter 0.15500 Square inches
Square feet 0.0929 Square meter Square meter 10.76400 Square feet
Cubic feet 0.0283 Cubic meter Cubic meter 35.31440 Cubic feet
Cubic inches 16.3900 Cubic centimeters Cubic centimeters 0.06102 Cubic inches
Volume
Gallons 3.7854 Liters Liters 0.26420 Gallons
Mass (Weight)
Pounds 0.4536 Kilograms Kilograms 2.20460 Pounds
Table A-2. Temperature and Angle Conversion Chart
Units Multiplied By Equals Units Multiplied By Equals

Temperature
Degrees (F) - 32 0.5556 Degrees (C) Degrees (C) + 17.8 1.8000 Degrees (F)
Angle
Degrees Degrees
17.7778 Mils Mils 0.0562
(angular) (angular)
Conversion Charts A-1

FM 3-34.343
A-2 Conversion Charts

Appendix B
Vehicle Classification
Vehicles are assigned MLC numbers, which represent the loading effects
they have on a bridge. The MLC does not represent the actual weight of a
vehicle. It represents a combination of factors that include gross weight,
axle spacing, weight distribution to the axles, and speed. All standard
Army vehicles and special equipment that are active in the TO and that
use bridges of military importance have an MLC. Trailers that are rated
with a payload of 1 1/2 tons or less are exceptions. They have a combined
classification with their towing vehicle. Classifying vehicles, trailers, or
vehicle combinations with a gross weight of 3 tons or less is optional.
FM 5-170 lists classification numbers for most standard US military
vehicles. To get the classification numbers for unlisted and nonstandard
vehicles, submit load and dimensional information to the US Army
Research and Development Center according to the instructions in
FM 5-170. Expedient classification procedures for emergency situations
are explained in this appendix.
HYPOTHETICAL VEHICLES
B-1. Table B-1, pages B-2 through B-5, shows 16 standard classes of
hypothetical vehicles ranging from 4 to 150. The weight of the tracked vehicle
in short tons was chosen as the classification number. A single-wheeled
vehicle has a weight greater than its classification number. Each classification
number has a specified maximum single-axle load. Also specified are the
maximum tire load, the minimum tire size, and the maximum tire pressure.
The classification numbers were originally developed from studies of the
hypothetical vehicles having characteristics about the same as those actual
military vehicles of NATO nations.
B-2. The moment and shear forces produced by the hypothetical vehicles or
single-axle loads are provided in Tables B-2 and B-3, pages B-6 through B-13.
These figures are based on the assumption that the nearest ground contact
points of two different vehicles (wheeled or tracked) are 100 feet apart.
Table B-1 gives critical tire loads and tire sizes.
Vehicle Classification B-1

FM 3-34.343
Table B-1. Standard Classes of Hypothetical Vehicles

Hypothetical Vehicles for Classification of Actual Vehicles and Bridges
1 2 3 4
Wheeled Vehicles
Class Tracked Vehicles Maximum Single-Axle Load
Axle Loads and Spacing
(in Short Tons)
4-5 tons
4 4 tons 8′ 4′
12″ 2-5
6′ 72″ 1 1-75 1-75
9 tons
8 8 tons 10′ 4′
12″ 5-5
6′6″ 3 3 3
78″
15 tons
12 12 tons 10′ 4′ 12′

12″ 8
9′ 3 6 6 2
80″
18-5 tons
16 16 tons 10′ 4′ 12′

12″ 10
9′ 3 6-5 6-5 2-5
84″
24 tons
20 20 tons 10′ 4′ 12′

11
18″ 4 8-5 8-5 3
9′ 96″
28 tons
24 24 tons 10′ 4′ 12′

12
18″ 5 10 10 3
9′ 100″
34 tons
30 tons 10′ 4′ 12′

30 13-5
18″ 6 11 11 6
11′ 100″
47 tons
40 40 tons 12′ 4′ 16′

17
22″ 7 13 13 14
12′ 112″
NOTES:
1. The single-axle tire sizes shown in Columns 5, 6, and 7 refer to the maximum single-axle loads given in Column 4.
2. The bogie-axle tire sizes shown in Columns 5, 6, and 7 refer to the maximum bogie-axle loads shown on the diagrams in Column 3.
3. The maximum tire pressure for all tires shown in Column 8 should be taken as 75 psi. The first dimension of tire size refers to the
overall width of the tire and the second dimension is the rim diameter of the tire.
B-2 Vehicle Classification

FM 3-34.343
Table B-1. Standard Classes of Hypothetical Vehicles (continued)

1 5 6 7 8
Class Wheeled Vehicles
Maximum Tire Load and
Minimum Wheel Spacing and Tire Sizes of Critical Axles
Minimum Tire Size
Single axle: 7 - 50 x 20 Single axle: 6 - 00 x 20
14″
4
72″ 72″
2,500 lb on 7 - 50 x 20
Bogie axle: 7 - 50 x 20 Bogie axle: 6 - 00 x 16

19″
8 18″
82″ 82″ 5,500 lb on 12 - 00 x 20

23″
12 18″
84″ 84″
8,000 lb on 14 - 00 x 20
Single axle: 16 - 00 x 24 Single axle: 12 - 00 x 20 Single axle: 21 - 00 x 20

26″
16 21″
90″ 90″
90″ 10,000 lb on 16 - 00 x 24
Bogie axle: 14 - 00 x 20 Bogie axle: 9 - 00 x 20 Bogie axle: 9 - 00 x 20
20 26″
96″ 96″
96″ 11,000 lb on 18 - 00 x 24

32″
24 26″
96″ 96″ 96″
12,000 lb on 18 - 00 x 24
26″
30
96″ 96″
96″ 13,500 lb on 18 - 00 x 24
32″
40
100″ 100″ 100″
17,000 lb on 21 - 00 x 24
NOTES:

FM 3-34.343

1 2 3 4
Wheeled Vehicles
Class Tracked Vehicles Maximum Single-Axle Load
Axle Loads and Spacing
(in Short Tons)
58 tons
50 50 tons 12′ 4′ 16′

26″ 20
13′ 128″ 8 15 15 20
70 tons
60 60 tons 12′ 5′ 15′ 4′

28″ 23
14′ 132″ 8 18 18 13 13
80-5 tons
70 70 tons 12′ 5′ 15′ 4′

31″ 25-5
15′ 10-5 21 21 14 14
138″
92 tons
80 80 tons 12′ 5′ 18′ 5′

33″ 28
16′ 12 24 24 16 16
144″
103-5 tons
90 90 tons 12′ 5′ 18′ 5′

30
35″ 13-5 27 27 18 18
17′ 150″
115 tons
100 100 tons 12′ 6′ 20′ 5′

32
37″ 15 30 30 20 20
18′ 156″
138 tons
120 120 tons 12′ 6′ 20′ 5′

40″ 36
20′ 18 36 36 24 24
168″
170 tons
150 150 tons 12′ 7′ 22′ 6′

50″ 42 42 42
24′ 22 32 32
184″
NOTES:

FM 3-34.343
1 5 6 7 8
Wheeled Vehicles
Class
Maximum Tire Load and
Minimum Wheel Spacing and Tire Sizes of Critical Axles
Minimum Tire Size

37″
50 32″
112″ 112″ 112″
20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29

41″
60 37″
128″ 128″
20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29

41″
70 37″
132″ 132″
20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29

49″
80 41″
138″ 138″
20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29

49″
90 41″
138″ 138″
20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29

49″
100 49″
144″ 144″ 20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29
Bogie axle: 24 - 00 x 29
120
154″
20,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29
Bogie axle: 24 - 00 x 29
150
160″
21,000 lb on 24 - 00 x 29
NOTES:

FM 3-34.343
Table B-2. Wheeled- and Tracked-Vehicle Moment (in kip-feet)
Wheeled/ Span Length (feet)

Class
Tracked 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30
W 4.96 7.44 9.92 12.40 14.88 17.92 21.40 25.60 30.00 41.00 52.20
4
T 2.64 6.00 9.92 14.00 18.00 22.10 25.90 29.90 34.00 44.00 54.00
W 10.96 16.44 21.90 27.40 32.90 38.30 43.60 49.30 54.80 71.00 93.60
8
T 4.88 11.04 19.04 27.00 35.00 43.10 50.90 59.00 66.80 87.00 106.80
W 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 64.00 72.00 80.80 112.50 145.20
12
T 5.44 12.00 21.30 33.00 44.90 57.10 69.10 81.00 92.80 123.00 153.00
W 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 92.50 105.20 144.00 184.20
16
T 7.12 15.96 28.50 44.00 60.00 75.90 91.80 108.00 124.00 164.00 204.00
W 22.00 33.00 44.00 55.00 70.80 87.40 104.00 121.00 137.60 188.50 241.00
20
T 8.88 20.00 35.50 55.00 74.90 94.90 114.90 135.00 154.80 205.00 255.00
W 24.00 36.00 48.00 64.00 83.30 102.80 122.60 142.20 162.00 223.00 285.00
24
T 10.64 24.00 42.70 66.00 90.00 114.00 137.90 162.00 186.00 246.00 306.00
W 26.70 40.40 53.90 70.40 91.70 113.10 134.70 156.60 178.00 246.00 316.00
30
T 10.88 24.50 43.70 68.20 97.40 127.40 157.40 187.60 218.00 293.00 367.00
W 34.00 51.00 68.00 85.00 108.30 133.80 159.40 185.00 210.00 277.00 359.00
40
T 13.36 30.00 53.30 83.40 120.00 158.90 200.00 240.00 280.00 380.00 480.00
W 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 125.00 154.30 183.70 213.00 243.00 320.00 415.00
50
T 15.36 34.60 61.60 96.20 138.50 187.60 237.00 288.00 338.00 463.00 587.00
W 46.00 69.00 92.00 115.00 138.00 170.00 205.00 240.00 276.00 365.00 474.00
60
T 17.12 38.50 68.60 107.20 154.30 210.00 270.00 330.00 390.00 540.00 690.00
W 51.00 76.40 101.90 127.40 157.90 198.20 239.00 280.00 322.00 426.00 557.00
70
T 18.64 42.00 74.70 116.60 168.00 229.00 298.00 368.00 438.00 613.00 787.00
W 56.00 84.00 112.00 140.00 180.50 227.00 273.00 320.00 368.00 486.00 636.00
80
T 20.00 45.00 80.00 125.00 180.00 245.00 320.00 400.00 480.00 680.00 880.00
W 60.00 90.00 120.00 151.80 203.00 225.00 308.00 360.00 414.00 547.00 716.00
90
T 21.20 47.60 84.60 132.40 190.60 259.00 339.00 427.00 518.00 743.00 967.00
W 64.00 96.00 128.00 160.00 203.00 259.00 317.00 375.00 434.00 581.00 765.00
100
T 22.20 50.00 89.00 138.80 199.90 272.00 356.00 450.00 550.00 800.00 1,050.00
W 72.00 108.00 144.00 180.00 243.00 311.00 380.00 450.00 520.00 697.00 918.00
120
T 24.00 54.00 96.00 150.00 216.00 294.00 384.00 486.00 600.00 900.00 1,200.00
W 84.00 126.00 168.00 210.00 253.00 331.00 410.00 491.00 572.00 777.00 1,032.00
150
T 25.00 56.30 100.00 156.20 225.00 306.00 400.00 506.00 625.00 975.00 1,350.00

FM 3-34.343
Table B-2. Wheeled- and Tracked-Vehicle Moment (in kip-feet) (continued)

Class
Tracked 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100
W 63.70 75.20 86.40 97.00 108.90 120.00 142.80 164.80 187.20 210.00
4
T 63.70 73.80 83.70 94.00 103.40 114.00 134.40 153.60 174.60 194.00
W 116.20 138.40 161.10 183.00 206.00 228.00 273.00 318.00 364.00 408.00
8
T 126.70 147.20 167.40 187.00 207.00 227.00 267.00 307.00 347.00 386.00
W 180.60 218.00 256.00 293.00 331.00 368.00 444.00 518.00 592.00 668.00
12
T 182.70 213.00 243.00 273.00 303.00 332.00 393.00 453.00 513.00 572.00
W 229.00 275.00 321.00 367.00 414.00 460.00 552.00 645.00 736.00 830.00
16
T 244.00 284.00 324.00 364.00 404.00 444.00 524.00 603.00 684.00 764.00
W 299.00 359.00 419.00 479.00 539.00 599.00 718.00 838.00 958.00 1,078.00
20
T 305.00 355.00 405.00 455.00 505.00 554.00 655.00 755.00 855.00 954.00
W 353.00 422.00 492.00 562.00 633.00 702.00 843.00 982.00 1,121.00 1,262.00
24
T 366.00 426.00 486.00 546.00 606.00 666.00 785.00 906.00 1,026.00 1,146.00
W 398.00 482.00 567.00 652.00 737.00 822.00 991.00 1,162.00 1,130.00 1,500.00
30
T 442.00 518.00 592.00 667.00 743.00 817.00 967.00 1,117.00 1,267.00 1,418.00
W 442.00 553.00 671.00 788.00 905.00 1,022.00 1,257.00 1,493.00 1,728.00 1,962.00
40
T 580.00 680.00 780.00 880.00 980.00 1,080.00 1,280.00 1,480.00 1,679.00 1,880.00
W 511.00 656.00 800.00 945.00 1,090.00 1,235.00 1,525.00 1,814.00 2,100.00 2,390.00
50
T 713.00 838.00 962.00 1,087.00 1,212.00 1,338.00 1,588.00 1,837.00 2,090.00 2,340.00
W 584.00 740.00 914.00 1,089.00 1,263.00 1,438.00 1,786.00 2,140.00 2,490.00 2,840.00
60
T 840.00 990.00 1,140.00 1,290.00 1,440.00 1,590.00 1,890.00 2,190.00 2,490.00 2,790.00
W 688.00 856.00 1,057.00 1,257.00 1,458.00 1,658.00 2,060.00 2,460.00 2,870.00 3,270.00
70
T 963.00 1,138.00 1,312.00 1,478.00 1,662.00 1,837.00 2,190.00 2,540.00 2,890.00 3,240.00
W 786.00 936.00 1,103.00 1,332.00 1,561.00 1,790.00 2,250.00 2,710.00 3,170.00 3,630.00
80
T 1,080.00 1,280.00 1,480.00 1,680.00 1,880.00 2,080.00 2,480.00 2,880.00 3,280.00 3,680.00
W 884.00 1,053.00 1,242.00 1,499.00 1,757.00 2,010.00 2,530.00 3,050.00 3,560.00 4,080.00
90
T 1,193.00 1,418.00 1,643.00 1,867.00 2,090.00 2,320.00 2,770.00 3,220.00 3,670.00 4,120.00
W 953.00 1,140.00 1,328.00 1,543.00 1,828.00 2,110.00 2,690.00 3,260.00 3,830.00 4,410.00
100
T 1,300.00 1,550.00 1,800.00 2,050.00 2,300.00 2,550.00 3,050.00 3,550.00 4,050.00 4,550.00
W 1,143.00 1,368.00 1,593.00 1,851.00 2,195.00 2,540.00 3,230.00 3,910.00 4,600.00 5,290.00
120
T 1,500.00 1,800.00 2,100.00 2,400.00 2,700.00 3,000.00 3,600.00 4,200.00 4,800.00 5,400.00
W 1,297.00 1,562.00 1,827.00 2,092.00 2,405.00 2,830.00 3,670.00 4,520.00 5,560.00 6,210.00
150
T 1,725.00 2,100.00 2,478.00 2,850.00 3,230.00 3,600.00 4,350.00 5,100.00 5,850.00 6,600.00

FM 3-34.343

Class
Tracked 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
W 233 254 278 270 321 346 367 389 414 448
4
T 213 233 255 274 294 314 333 353 391 428
W 453 499 543 588 633 678 724 767 813 880
8
T 427 468 507 546 588 627 666 706 775 852
W 744 818 892 969 1,044 1,117 1,193 1,267 1,341 1,416
12
T 634 694 754 812 873 934 993 1,051 1,136 1,248
W 922 1,015 1,108 1,198 1,293 1,386 1,476 1,570 1,661 1,752
16
T 845 924 1,004 1,084 1,164 1,245 1,323 1,404 1,516 1,664
W 1,199 1,318 1,438 1,557 1,677 1,798 1,918 2,040 2,160 2,280
20
T 1,054 1,154 1,256 1,355 1,455 1,555 1,656 1,753 1,896 2,080
W 1,401 1,543 1,682 1,823 1,962 2,100 2,240 2,380 2,520 2,660
24
T 1,265 1,385 1,505 1,627 1,746 1,866 1,986 2,110 2,280 2,500
W 1,670 1,841 2,010 2,180 2,350 2,520 2,690 2,860 3,030 3,200
30
T 1,566 1,718 1,867 2,020 2,170 2,310 2,470 2,620 2,790 3,070
W 2,200 2,430 2,670 2,900 3,140 3,370 3,610 3,840 4,080 4,310
40
T 2,080 2,280 2,480 2,680 2,880 3,080 3,280 3,480 3,680 4,050
W 2,680 2,970 3,260 3,550 3,840 4,130 4,420 4,710 5,000 5,290
50
T 2,590 2,840 3,090 3,340 3,590 3,840 4,090 4,340 4,590 5,020
W 3,190 3,540 3,880 4,230 4,580 4,930 5,280 5,630 5,990 6,330
60
T 3,090 3,390 3,690 4,000 4,290 4,590 4,890 5,190 5,490 5,970
W 3,670 4,070 4,470 4,880 5,280 5,680 6,080 6,490 6,890 7,290
70
T 3,590 3,940 4,290 4,640 4,990 5,340 5,690 6,040 6,390 6,900
W 4,090 4,550 5,010 5,460 5,930 6,380 6,840 7,300 7,760 8,820
80
T 4,080 4,480 4,880 5,280 5,680 6,080 6,480 6,880 7,280 7,810
W 4,600 5,110 5,630 6,150 6,670 7,180 7,700 8,220 8,730 9,250
90
T 4,570 5,020 5,470 5,920 6,370 6,820 7,270 7,720 8,170 8,700
W 4,980 5,560 6,130 6,710 7,280 7,860 8,430 9,000 9,580 10,160
100
T 5,050 5,550 6,050 6,550 7,050 7,550 8,050 8,550 9,050 9,570
W 5,980 6,670 7,360 8,050 8,740 9,430 10,120 10,810 11,500 12,180
120
T 6,000 6,600 7,200 7,800 8,400 9,000 9,600 10,200 10,800 11,400
W 7,060 7,910 8,760 9,600 10,450 11,300 12,150 13,000 13,850 14,700
150
T 7,350 8,100 8,850 9,600 10,350 11,100 11,850 12,600 13,350 14,100

FM 3-34.343

Class
Tracked 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
W 491 532 579 619 665 733 799 868 934 1,002
4
T 466 502 538 586 645 707 767 823 887 948
W 966 1,052 1,136 1,224 1,310 1,414 1,550 1,686 1,821 1,956
8
T 924 1,003 1,076 1,162 1,285 1,404 1,523 1,641 1,763 1,884
W 1,491 1,593 1,734 1,877 2,020 2,160 2,310 2,450 2,660 2,890
12
T 1,361 1,474 1,587 1,704 1,855 2,040 2,220 2,400 2,580 2,750
W 1,848 1,958 2,130 2,390 2,490 2,660 2,840 3,020 3,290 3,570
16
T 1,814 1,967 2,120 2,270 2,480 2,710 2,950 3,200 3,430 3,680
W 2,400 2,540 2,770 3,000 3,230 3,460 3,690 3,920 4,270 4,630
20
T 2,270 2,460 2,650 2,840 3,100 3,400 3,690 3,990 4,290 4,600
W 2,800 2,970 3,240 3,500 3,700 4,040 4,310 4,580 4,990 5,410
24
T 2,720 2,950 3,170 3,400 3,720 4,070 4,430 4,790 5,160 5,510
W 3,370 3,590 3,910 4,240 4,570 4,890 5,220 5,550 6,020 6,530
30
T 3,350 3,630 3,910 4,200 4,510 4,960 5,410 5,860 6,310 6,760
W 4,550 4,780 5,140 5,590 6,040 6,490 6,940 7,400 7,850 8,310
40
T 4,430 4,800 5,180 5,560 5,940 6,520 7,120 7,720 8,320 8,920
W 5,580 5,870 6,370 6,930 7,480 8,030 8,590 9,150 9,710 10,270
50
T 5,490 5,950 6,430 6,900 7,380 8,040 8,790 9,540 10,290 11,040
W 6,680 7,030 7,410 8,070 8,740 9,410 10,050 10,760 11,430 12,110
60
T 6,530 7,090 7,650 8,220 8,800 9,510 10,410 11,310 12,210 13,110
W 7,690 8,100 8,500 9,260 10,030 10,800 11,570 12,350 13,130 13,910
70
T 7,550 8,200 8,860 9,530 10,200 10,940 11,990 13,040 14,090 15,140
W 8,680 9,140 9,600 10,180 11,060 11,940 12,830 13,720 14,610 15,500
80
T 8,550 9,300 10,060 10,810 11,580 12,340 13,520 14,720 15,920 17,120
W 9,770 10,290 10,810 11,450 12,450 13,440 14,430 15,440 16,440 17,440
90
T 9,530 10,380 11,220 12,080 12,940 13,800 15,010 16,360 17,710 19,060
W 10,730 11,300 11,880 12,450 13,480 14,580 15,690 16,800 17,910 19,030
100
T 10,500 11,440 12,380 13,330 14,280 15,230 16,450 17,950 19,450 21,000
W 12,870 13,570 14,260 14,940 16,170 17,490 18,820 20,200 21,500 22,800
120
T 12,380 13,500 14,630 15,760 16,910 18,050 19,200 21,000 22,800 24,600
W 15,550 16,400 17,250 18,100 19,300 20,900 22,500 24,200 25,800 27,500
150
T 14,910 16,320 17,720 19,140 20,600 22,000 23,400 24,700 27,200 29,400

FM 3-34.343
Table B-3. Wheeled- and Tracked-Vehicle Shear (in tons)

Class
Tracked 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25
W 2.50 2.50 2.63 2.80 2.92 3.14 3.31 3.44 3.55 3.74
4
T 1.33 2.00 2.50 2.80 3.00 3.14 3.25 3.33 3.40 3.52
W 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.63 6.00 6.30 6.84
8
T 2.46 3.69 4.75 5.40 5.83 6.14 6.38 6.56 6.70 6.96
W 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.33 8.57 9.13 9.56 9.90 10.52
12
T 2.67 4.00 5.33 6.60 7.50 8.14 8.62 9.00 9.30 9.84
W 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.40 10.83 11.14 11.75 12.22 12.60 13.28
16
T 3.56 5.33 7.11 8.80 10.00 10.86 11.50 12.00 12.40 13.12
W 11.00 11.33 12.75 13.60 14.17 14.57 15.38 16.00 16.50 17.40
20
T 4.44 6.67 8.89 11.00 12.50 13.57 14.38 15.00 15.50 16.40
W 12.00 13.33 15.00 16.00 16.67 17.14 18.13 18.89 19.50 20.60
24
T 5.53 8.00 10.67 13.20 15.00 16.28 17.25 18.00 18.60 19.68
W 13.50 14.67 16.50 17.60 18.33 18.86 20.00 20.89 21.60 22.88
30
T 5.46 8.18 10.91 13.64 16.25 18.22 19.69 20.83 21.75 23.40
W 17.00 17.33 19.50 20.80 21.67 22.29 22.75 23.89 24.80 26.72
40
T 6.67 10.00 13.33 16.67 20.00 22.86 25.00 26.67 28.00 30.40
W 20.00 20.00 22.50 24.00 25.00 25.71 26.25 27.56 28.60 31.60
50
T 7.69 11.54 15.38 19.23 23.08 26.78 29.69 31.94 33.75 37.00
W 23.00 23.00 24.75 27.00 28.50 29.57 30.38 31.44 32.70 35.52
60
T 8.57 12.86 17.14 21.43 25.72 30.00 33.75 36.67 39.00 43.20
W 25.50 25.50 28.88 31.50 33.25 34.50 35.44 36.75 38.33 41.16
70
T 9.33 14.00 18.67 23.33 28.00 32.67 37.19 40.83 43.75 49.00
W 28.00 28.00 33.00 36.00 38.00 39.43 40.50 42.00 43.80 47.04
80
T 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 44.44 48.00 54.40
W 30.00 31.50 37.13 40.50 42.75 44.36 45.56 47.25 49.28 52.92
90
T 10.59 15.88 21.18 26.47 31.76 37.06 42.35 47.50 51.75 59.40
W 32.00 32.00 37.50 42.00 45.00 47.14 48.75 50.00 52.50 57.00
100
T 11.11 16.67 22.22 27.78 33.33 38.89 44.44 50.00 55.00 64.00
W 36.00 36.00 45.00 50.40 54.00 56.57 38.50 60.00 63.00 68.40
120
T 12.00 18.00 24.00 30.00 36.00 42.00 48.00 54.00 60.00 72.00
W 42.00 42.00 47.25 54.60 59.50 63.00 65.63 67.67 70.40 77.52
150
T 12.50 18.75 25.00 31.25 37.50 43.75 50.00 56.25 62.50 78.00

FM 3-34.343
Table B-3. Wheeled- and Tracked-Vehicle Shear (in tons) (continued)

Class
Tracked 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100
W 3.87 3.96 4.03 4.08 4.12 4.15 4.18 4.23 4.26 4.29 4.31
4
T 3.60 3.66 3.70 3.73 3.76 3.78 3.80 3.83 3.85 3.87 3.88
W 7.20 7.46 7.65 7.80 7.92 8.02 8.10 8.23 8.33 8.40 8.46
8
T 7.13 7.26 7.35 7.42 7.48 7.53 7.57 7.63 7.68 7.71 7.74
W 10.93 11.23 11.45 11.62 11.76 11.87 12.13 12.54 12.85 13.09 13.28
12
T 10.20 10.46 10.65 10.80 10.92 11.02 11.10 11.23 11.32 11.40 11.46
W 13.73 14.06 14.30 14.49 14.64 14.76 14.87 15.34 15.74 16.04 16.29
16
T 13.60 13.94 14.20 14.40 14.56 14.69 14.80 14.97 15.10 15.20 15.28
W 18.00 18.43 18.75 19.00 19.20 19.36 19.50 19.97 20.48 20.87 21.18
20
T 17.00 17.43 17.75 18.00 18.20 18.36 18.50 18.72 18.88 19.00 19.10
W 21.33 21.86 22.25 22.56 22.80 23.00 23.17 23.46 24.03 24.47 24.82
24
T 20.40 20.92 21.30 21.60 21.84 22.04 22.20 22.46 22.65 22.80 22.92
W 23.73 24.34 24.80 25.16 25.60 26.36 27.00 28.00 28.75 29.33 29.80
30
T 24.50 25.28 25.88 26.33 26.70 27.00 27.25 27.64 27.94 28.17 28.35
W 28.93 30.51 31.70 32.62 33.36 34.42 35.47 37.11 38.35 39.31 40.08
40
T 32.00 33.14 34.00 34.67 35.20 35.64 36.00 36.57 37.00 37.33 37.60
W 34.67 36.86 38.50 40.31 42.08 43.53 44.73 46.63 48.05 49.16 50.04
50
T 39.17 40.72 41.88 42.78 43.50 44.09 44.58 45.36 45.94 46.39 46.75
W 39.93 42.09 45.45 47.29 48.76 49.96 51.43 54.09 56.08 57.62 58.86
60
T 46.00 48.00 49.50 50.67 51.60 52.36 53.00 54.00 54.75 55.33 55.60
W 45.97 49.40 51.98 53.98 55.58 56.89 58.22 61.40 63.79 65.64 67.13
70
T 52.50 55.00 56.88 58.33 59.50 60.46 61.25 62.50 63.44 64.17 64.75
W 49.20 53.26 56.60 59.20 61.28 62.98 64.40 66.63 69.70 72.18 74.16
80
T 58.67 61.72 64.00 65.78 67.20 68.36 69.33 70.86 72.00 72.89 73.60
W 55.35 59.91 63.68 66.60 68.94 70.85 72.45 74.96 78.41 81.20 83.43
90
T 64.50 68.14 70.88 73.00 74.70 76.09 77.25 79.07 80.44 81.50 82.35
W 60.02 64.57 69.00 72.44 75.20 77.45 79.33 82.29 84.69 88.06 90.75
100
T 70.00 74.28 77.50 80.00 82.00 83.64 85.00 87.14 88.75 90.00 91.00
W 72.02 77.49 82.80 86.93 90.24 92.94 95.20 98.74 101.60 105.70 108.90
120
T 80.00 85.71 90.00 93.33 96.00 98.18 100.00 102.90 105.00 106.70 108.00
W 82.98 85.66 89.45 95.76 101.20 105.40 109.00 114.70 121.60 127.00 131.30
150
T 90.00 98.57 105.00 110.00 114.00 117.30 120.00 124.30 127.50 130.00 132.00

FM 3-34.343

Span Length (feet)
Wheeled/
Class
Tracked 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
W 4.33 4.52 4.83 5.13 5.39 5.61 5.81 5.99 6.15 6.29
4
T 3.94 4.27 4.56 4.80 5.01 5.20 5.36 5.51 5.64 5.76
W 8.51 8.75 9.28 9.90 10.44 10.91 11.33 11.70 12.03 12.33
8
T 7.83 8.47 9.05 9.54 9.97 10.35 10.68 10.98 11.24 11.48
W 13.44 13.57 13.77 14.21 15.13 16.04 16.86 17.59 18.24 18.83
12
T 11.52 12.20 13.10 13.89 14.56 15.15 15.67 16.13 16.55 16.92
W 16.50 16.65 16.89 17.41 18.55 19.67 20.69 21.59 22.41 23.14
16
T 15.35 16.27 17.48 18.51 19.41 20.20 20.89 21.51 22.06 22.56
W 21.44 21.65 21.95 22.63 24.12 25.58 26.89 28.07 29.12 30.06
20
T 19.19 20.33 21.85 23.14 24.27 25.25 26.12 26.89 27.58 28.20
W 25.11 25.35 25.71 26.51 28.28 29.98 31.51 32.87 33.67 35.18
24
T 23.03 24.40 26.22 27.77 29.12 30.30 31.34 32.27 33.09 33.84
W 30.18 30.50 30.95 31.91 33.92 35.98 37.36 39.53 41.03 42.38
30
T 28.50 29.55 31.85 33.86 35.60 37.13 38.47 39.67 40.74 41.70
W 40.71 41.23 41.68 42.86 44.24 46.75 49.36 51.84 54.06 56.06
40
T 37.82 38.89 41.85 44.57 46.93 49.00 50.82 52.44 53.89 55.20
W 50.76 51.37 51.88 53.46 55.29 58.40 61.60 64.62 67.33 69.76
50
T 47.04 48.08 51.54 55.00 58.00 60.63 62.94 65.00 66.84 68.50
W 59.87 60.71 61.43 62.41 63.57 67.18 70.99 74.74 78.17 81.26
60
T 56.18 57.14 60.92 65.14 68.80 72.00 74.82 77.33 79.58 81.60
W 68.35 69.36 70.22 71.35 73.88 76.65 80.99 85.31 89.31 92.89
70
T 65.23 66.11 70.00 75.00 79.33 83.13 86.47 89.44 92.10 94.50
W 75.78 77.13 78.28 79.26 81.71 84.35 87.95 92.62 97.43 101.80
80
T 74.18 75.00 78.85 84.57 89.60 93.89 97.77 101.20 104.30 107.10
W 85.25 86.77 88.06 89.16 91.92 94.89 98.85 104.20 109.60 114.50
90
T 83.04 83.82 87.56 93.86 99.60 104.60 109.10 113.00 116.50 119.70
W 92.95 94.79 96.35 97.68 100.00 103.50 106.90 112.20 117.90 123.50
100
T 91.82 92.59 96.15 102.90 109.30 115.00 120.00 124.40 128.40 132.00
W 111.50 113.80 115.60 117.20 120.00 124.20 128.20 134.60 141.50 148.20
120
T 109.10 110.00 113.10 120.00 128.00 135.00 141.20 146.70 151.60 156.00
W 134.80 137.70 140.20 142.30 144.80 149.80 154.80 160.30 168.20 176.30
150
T 133.60 135.00 137.00 142.90 152.00 161.30 169.40 176.70 183.20 189.00

FM 3-34.343

Class
Tracked 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
W 6.42 6.54 6.70 6.96 7.22 7.47 7.69 7.90 8.09 8.27
4
T 5.87 6.05 6.31 6.55 6.77 6.97 7.16 7.33 7.49 7.64
W 12.60 12.84 13.10 13.53 14.04 14.54 15.00 15.43 15.83 16.20
8
T 11.70 12.03 12.55 13.02 13.46 13.87 14.24 14.59 14.92 15.22
W 19.36 19.85 20.29 20.69 21.06 21.50 22.15 22.91 23.67 24.38
12
T 17.26 17.58 18.23 18.97 19.66 20.28 20.87 21.41 21.91 22.38
W 23.80 24.40 24.94 25.45 25.91 26.43 27.22 28.16 29.10 29.98
16
T 23.01 23.43 24.31 25.30 26.21 27.05 27.82 28.54 29.21 29.84
W 30.91 31.69 32.40 33.05 33.65 34.32 35.36 36.58 37.80 38.94
20
T 28.76 29.29 30.39 31.62 32.76 33.81 34.78 35.68 36.52 37.30
W 36.17 37.07 37.90 38.65 39.34 40.14 41.36 42.79 44.21 45.54
24
T 34.51 35.15 36.47 37.95 39.31 40.57 41.73 42.81 43.82 44.76
W 43.60 44.71 45.72 46.65 47.50 48.48 49.91 51.60 53.34 54.96
30
T 42.57 43.36 44.47 46.31 48.06 49.67 51.17 52.55 53.84 55.05
W 57.87 59.51 61.01 62.38 63.65 64.82 66.21 67.70 69.81 72.04
40
T 56.38 57.45 58.70 61.00 63.36 65.54 67.56 69.43 71.17 72.80
W 71.96 73.96 75.79 77.47 79.01 80.43 82.19 84.11 86.73 89.48
50
T 70.00 71.36 72.74 75.31 78.30 81.06 83.61 85.98 88.19 90.25
W 84.06 86.60 88.92 91.05 93.01 94.82 96.49 98.60 100.92 103.87
60
T 83.43 85.09 86.65 89.29 92.88 96.23 99.33 102.20 104.90 107.40
W 96.13 99.08 101.80 104.20 106.50 108.60 110.60 113.00 115.60 118.90
70
T 96.67 98.64 100.40 103.10 107.10 111.10 114.70 118.10 121.30 124.30
W 105.70 109.20 112.50 115.50 118.20 120.70 123.10 125.30 128.10 131.00
80
T 109.60 112.00 114.10 116.70 121.00 125.50 129.80 133.70 137.40 140.80
W 118.90 122.90 126.60 129.90 133.00 135.80 138.50 140.90 144.10 147.40
90
T 122.60 125.20 127.60 130.10 134.50 139.70 144.50 149.00 153.20 157.10
W 128.60 133.20 137.40 141.30 144.80 148.10 151.10 153.90 156.80 160.60
100
T 135.20 138.20 140.90 143.50 147.70 153.50 158.90 163.90 168.60 173.00
W 154.30 159.80 164.90 169.50 173.80 177.70 181.40 184.70 188.20 192.70
120
T 160.00 163.60 167.00 170.00 174.00 180.00 186.70 192.90 198.60 204.00
W 184.10 191.20 197.77 203.60 209.10 214.40 218.80 223.10 227.10 231.50
150
T 194.30 199.10 203.50 207.50 211.30 216.30 223.40 231.40 239.00 246.00

FM 3-34.343
STANDARD CLASSIFICATION CURVES

B-3. Standard classification curves were developed for classifying vehicles, for
designing nonstandard bridges, and for estimating the capacity of existing
bridges. Each standard class has a moment and a shear curve (Figure B-1 and
Figures B-2 through B-4, pages B-16 through B-18). The maximum moment
and shear forces were induced against the simple-span lengths by the
hypothetical vehicles for each standard class. These forces were plotted to
determine the curves. The actual values for the curves are found in Tables B-2
and B-3, pages B-6 through B-13. Note that in the curves, shear is represented
in units of kips; however, in Table B-3, shear is represented in units of tons.
No allowance is made for impact, and the assumption is made that all vehicles
will maintain the normal convoy spacing of 100 feet between ground contact
points.
ANALYTICAL CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

B-4. Use the analytical method for classifying nonstandard or enemy vehicles
in the TO. Standard vehicles are normally classified using FM 5-170, but if
necessary, use the analytical method to classify standard vehicles.
B-5. To classify a vehicle using the analytical method, the following
dimensional and weight-distribution data are needed:
• Weight (empty and loaded).
• Load on each axle (empty and loaded).
• Load on the fifth wheel, pintle, and so forth (empty and loaded).
• Tire size and pressure per axle.
• Number of tires per axle.
• Distance between the axles.
• Distance from the pintle or fifth wheel to the nearest wheel.
• Width (outside-to-outside) of the tires or tracks and width (inside-to-
inside) of the tires or tracks.
• Length of the track that is in contact with the ground.

FM 3-34.343
Bending moment (kip-feet)
Span length (feet)
Figure B-1. Wheeled Bending Moment

FM 3-34.343
Bending moment (kip-feet)
Span length (feet)
Figure B-2. Tracked Bending Moment

FM 3-34.343
Live-load shear per lane (kips)
Span length (feet)
Figure B-3. Wheeled Shear

FM 3-34.343
Live-load shear per lane (kips)
Span length (feet)
Figure B-4. Tracked Shear

FM 3-34.343
B-6. As a wheeled vehicle moves over a span, the wheel loads are fixed in
position relative to each other (they travel over the span as a group). For this
type of loading, determine which position produces the largest moment. For
maximum moment, the vehicle’s center of gravity and the wheel nearest the
center of gravity must be equal distances from the center of the span. Follow
these steps to classify a given vehicle:
Step 1. Compute the maximum moment (in kip-feet) produced by the vehicle
on each of five or six simple spans of different lengths between 10 and 300
feet.
Step 2. Use Figure B-1, page B-15, to plot the moment and span length of a
wheeled vehicle, and use Figure B-2, page B-16, to plot the moment and span
length of a tracked vehicle. Assign a class number by interpolating between
the curves at the point where the class number is the largest.
Step 3. Compute and plot the shear points on the curves in Figure B-3,
page B-17, or Figure B-4. Assign a new class number if the class is higher
because of the shear.
Step 4. Use Table B-1, pages B-2 through B-5, to compute the hypothetical
width by linear interpolation between standard hypothetical vehicles.
Step 5. Compare the actual and the hypothetical widths. Then increase or
decrease the class number by the percentage given in Figure B-5.
+25
+20
+15 Narrower vehicle

Correction factor (percent of class)
+10
Rotate 180°
+05
-05
-10
Wider vehicle
-15
-20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Width deviation (inches)
Figure B-5. Width Correction Factor

FM 3-34.343
B-7. Increase the classification if the vehicle’s outside-to-outside track or tire

width is narrower than the corresponding hypothetical vehicle. Decrease the
classification if the vehicle’s outside-to-outside width is wider than the
corresponding hypothetical vehicle. The maximum axle or tire load of the
vehicle may exceed that given in the hypothetical vehicle chart (Table B-1,
pages B-2 through B-5). If it does, increase the class to that of the hypothetical
vehicle of the same maximum axle or tire load, interpolating between the
values in the chart if necessary. Round the final classification up to the
nearest whole number.
EXPEDIENT CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

B-8. Use expedient methods to classify vehicles in an emergency. To obtain a
permanent classification, however, reclassify by using the analytical method
as soon as possible. FM 5-170 provides guidance for this purpose.
VEHICLE-CLASSIFICATION SIGNS
B-9. Vehicles are divided into two categories for classification purposes–single
and combination.
SINGLE VEHICLES
B-10. A single vehicle has only one frame or chassis (Figure B-6). Examples
are trucks, tanks, trailers, and gun carriages. Single vehicles are assigned a
class number that is rounded up to the nearest whole number. All vehicles
except trailers have front signs to show their classifications when loaded to
the rated capacity. For unloaded or overloaded vehicles, adjust the front sign
to show the actual load classification.
9″ diameter 9″ diameter
Wheeled vehicles Tracked vehicles
6″ diameter
Trailers
Figure B-6. Classification Markings for Single Vehicles

FM 3-34.343
COMBINATION VEHICLES
B-11. A combination vehicle is two or more single vehicles operating as one
unit (such as prime movers pulling semitrailers). One vehicle towing another
less than 100 feet behind is also a combination vehicle (nonstandard). The
sign on the front of the combination vehicle (towing vehicle or prime mover)
has the letter “C” above the classification number of the combination
(Figure B-7).
Figure B-7. Classification Markings of Nonstandard Combination Vehicles
SHAPE, COLOR, AND SIZE

B-12. The front and the side signs are circular and are marked in contrasting
colors consistent with camouflage requirements. Black figures on a yellow
background are normally used. The front signs are 9 inches in diameter, and
the side signs are 6 inches in diameter. The figures should be as large as the
sign allows.
LOCATION
B-13. Place or paint the front sign on or above the bumper, below the driver’s
line of vision. When possible, place it on the right front (passenger side) of the
vehicle. Place or paint the side signs on the right side of the vehicle facing
outward (Figure B-7).

FM 3-34.343

Appendix C
Timber Properties
Timber properties include the timber’s strength and grade. Timber
remains an important material because it is readily available in much of
the world. Also, it is relatively easy to work with when using common
tools. As an organic material, the strength properties of timber are
influenced by factors such as the species of the tree, the direction of a load,
and the size and grade of the lumber. These factors are considered in
Tables C-1 through C-7, pages C-3 through C-11. Other factors that could
influence the strength of timber are not covered in this manual.
CIVILIAN-DESIGN STRESS
C-1. Table C-1 lists recommended civilian-design stresses based on the
species, the size, and the grade of the timber members. Use this table for all
semipermanent and permanent designs. Use it anytime a significant safety
factor is wanted or when conditions allow the accomplishment of the mission
using these conservative stress values.
MILITARY-DESIGN STRESS
C-2. Table C-2 lists allowable loads for expedient and temporary bridges
based on timber sizes. Field experience has validated these higher stress
values for temporary bridges that are not expected to have a heavy traffic
load. Bridges designed or classified using these values should be watched
closely for any signs of reduced carrying capacity. These bridges will have
much higher maintenance requirements than those designed or classified
with more conservative stress values. The data in Table C-2 is based on the
assumption that the beam and stringer members are of select structural
grade. Do not use this table if there are any doubts about the grade of timber.
C-3. Any bridge that meets the criteria in Table C-2 (but is of an unknown
species of timber) can be classified based on the allowable stresses
recommended in paragraph 3-47.
C-4. The allowable stresses depend on the direction of loading of the timber
member. Figure C-1, page C-11, shows the radial, tangential, and longitudinal
directions for the cross section of a log. The radial direction proceeds from
what was the center of the tree out to the edge. The tangential direction is
parallel (or tangent) to the growth rings of the tree at any particular point.
Timber Properties C-1

FM 3-34.343
The longitudinal direction represents the direction of growth for the tree. For
example, the longitudinal direction of a tree trunk is up and down. The
longitudinal direction is said to be parallel to the grain. The radial and the
tangential directions are perpendicular to the grain.
C-5. Another factor that influences the allowable stress is the grade of
lumber. Grading of a particular species is done according to the rules of the
agency responsible for inspecting commercial timber for that species. Select a
structural grade timber that generally has no knots and very few other
imperfections, which can reduce strength. Grade No. 1 has no knots, but has
slightly more imperfections than select structural grades. Higher grade
numbers allow a greater number of knots and imperfections. The higher the
grade number the lower the timber quality.
C-6. The grades listed in Table C-1, pages C-3 through C-6, are commercial
grades common in the US. Timber members obtained through the AFCS
should match one of these specifications. If using native timber, try to locate
similar civilian specifications or use the values in Chapter 3 for timbers of an
unknown species. Another alternative is to compare a foreign species to a
similar species listed in Table C-1. Such a comparison requires extensive
experience to ensure that any crucial differences are not overlooked.
C-2 Timber Properties

FM 3-34.343
Table C-1. Properties of Structural Lumber (Visually Graded)

Allowable Unit Stresses (psi)1
Modulus
Extreme Fiber in
Tension Compression Compression of
Commercial Bending (Fb) Grading
Size Parallel to Horizontal (Fc ⊥) (Fc||)
|| Elasticity
Grade Agency
Single- Repetitive- the Grain Shear (Fv) Perpendicular (E)
Parallel to
Member Member (Ft) to the Grain the Grain (x 1,000)
Use Use
Douglas Fir/Larch (Surfaced Dry or Green) (Maximum moisture content is 19 percent.)
Dense select
2,450 — 1,400 95 455 1,850 1,900
structural
Select structural 2 to 4 2,100 — 1,200 95 385 1,600 1,800
inches
Dense No. 1 2,050 — 1,200 95 455 1,450 1,900
thick and
No. 1 2 to 4 1,750 — 1,050 95 385 1,250 1,800 West
inches Coast
Dense No. 2 1,700 — 1,000 95 455 1,150 1,700 Lumber
wide
No. 2 1,450 — 850 95 385 1,000 1,700 Inspection
Bureau
No. 3 800 — 475 95 385 600 1,500 and
Dense select Western
2,100 — 1,400 95 455 1,650 1,900 Wood
structural
Products
Select structural 1,800 — 1,200 95 385 1,400 1,800 Association
2 to 4
Dense No. 1 inches 1,800 — 1,200 95 455 1,450 1,900 (notes 2
thick and through 9)
No. 1 1,500 — 1,000 95 385 1,250 1,800
5 inches
Dense No. 2 or wider 1,450 — 775 95 455 1,250 1,700
No. 2 1,250 — 650 95 385 2,050 1,700
No. 3 725 — 375 95 385 675 1,500
Dense select
1,900 — 1,100 85 455 1,300 1,700
structural
Beams
Select structural and 1,600 — 950 85 385 1,100 1,600
Dense No. 1 stringers 1,550 — 775 85 455 1,100 1,700
West
No. 1 1,200 — 825 85 385 1,000 1,600 Coast
Dense select Lumber
1,750 — 1,150 85 455 1,350 1,700 Inspection
structural
Bureau
Select structural Posts and 1,500 — 1,000 85 385 1,150 1,600 (notes 2
timbers
Dense No. 1 1,400 — 950 85 455 1,200 1,700 through 9)
No. 1 1,200 — 825 85 385 1,000 1,600

Select dex 1,750 2,000 — — 385 — 1,800
Decking
Commercial dex 1,450 1,650 — — 385 — 1,700
Dense select
1,900 — 1,250 85 455 1,300 1,700
structural
Beams
Select structural and 1,600 — 1,050 85 385 1,100 1,600
Dense No. 1 stringers 1,550 — 1,050 85 455 1,100 1,700
No. 1 1,350 — 900 85 385 925 1,600
Western
Dense select Wood
1,750 — 1,150 85 455 1,350 1,700
structural Products
Posts and
Association
Select structural timbers 1,500 — 1,000 85 385 1,150 1,600
(notes 2
Dense No. 1 1,400 — 950 85 455 1,200 1,700 through 9)
Select dex — 2,000 — — — — 1,800
Commercial dex — 1,650 — — — — 1,700
Decking
Select dex — 2,150 — Stresses apply at 15% moisture content 1,800
Commercial dex — 1,800 — — — — 1,700

FM 3-34.343
Table C-1. Properties of Structural Lumber (Visually Graded) (continued)

Modulus
Extreme Fiber in
|| Elasticity
Grade Agency
Parallel to
Use Use
Hem-Fir (Surfaced Dry or Green) (Maximum moisture content is 19 percent.)
Select structural 2 to 4 1,650 — 975 75 245 1,300 1,500
inches
No. 1 1,400 — 825 75 245 1,050 1,500 West Coast
thick and
Lumber
No. 2 2 to 4 1,150 — 675 75 245 825 1,400
Inspection
inches
No. 3 650 — 375 75 245 500 1,200 Bureau and
wide
Western
Select structural 2 to 4 1,400 950 75 145 1,150 1,500 Wood
inches Products
No. 1 1,200 — 800 75 245 1,060 1.500
thick Association
No. 2 and 1,000 — 525 75 245 875 1,400
(notes 2
5 inches through 9)
No. 3 or 575 — 300 75 245 550 1,200
wider
Select structural Beams 1,300 — 750 70 245 925 1,300
and
No. 1 1,050 — 525 70 245 750 1,300 West Coast
stringers
Lumber
Select structural Posts and 1,200 — 800 70 245 975 1,300 Inspection
timbers Bureau
No. 1 975 — 650 70 245 850 1,300
(notes 2
Select dex 1,400 1,600 — — 245 — 1,500 through 9)
Decking
Commercial dex 1,150 1,350 — — 245 — 1,400
Select structural Beams 1,250 — 850 70 245 925 1,300
and
No. 1 stringers 1,050 — 725 70 245 775 1,300
Western
Select structural Posts and 1,200 — 800 70 245 975 1,300
Wood
No. 1 timbers 950 — 650 70 245 850 1,300 Products
Association
Select dex — 1,600 — — — — 1,500
(notes 2
Commercial dex — 1,350 — — — — 1,400 through 9)
Decking
Select dex — 1,700 — Stresses apply at 15% moisture content. 1,600
Commercial dex — 1,450 — — — — 1,400

FM 3-34.343

Modulus
Extreme Fiber in
|| Elasticity
Grade Agency
Parallel to
Use Use
Hem-Fir (Surfaced Dry or Green) (Maximum moisture content is 19 percent.) (continued)
Select structural 2,000 — 1,150 100 405 1,550 1,700
Dense select
2,350 — 1,350 100 475 1,800 1,800
structural 2 to 4
No. 1 inches 1,700 — 1,000 100 405 1,250 1,700
thick
Dense No. 1 and 2,000 — 1,150 100 475 1,450 1,800
No. 2 2 to 4 1,400 — 825 90 405 975 1,600
inches
Dense No. 2 wide 1,650 — 975 90 475 1,150 1,600
No. 3 775 — 450 90 405 575 1,400
Dense No. 3 925 — 525 90 475 675 1,500
Select structural 1,750 — 1,150 90 405 1,350 1,700
Dense select
2,050 — 1,300 90 475 1,600 1,800
structural
2 to 4
No. 1 inches 1,450 — 975 90 405 1,250 1,700
thick Southern
Dense No. 1 1,700 — 1,150 90 475 1,450 1,800
and Pine
No. 2 5 inches 1,200 — 625 90 405 1,000 1,600 Inspection
or wider Bureau
Dense No. 2 1,400 — 725 90 475 1,200 1,600
(notes 2
No. 3 700 — 350 90 405 625 1,400 through 9)
Dense No. 3 825 — 425 90 475 725 1,500
No. 1 1,350 — 875 110 270 775 1,500
Dense No. 1 5 inches 1,550 — 1,050 110 315 925 1,600
or
No. 2 thicker 1,100 — 725 95 270 625 1,400
Dense No. 2 1,250 — 850 95 315 725 1,400
Dense standard Decking
— 1,800 — — — — 1,600
dex (2½ to 4
inches
Select dex thick) — 1,300 — — — — 1,400
Dense select dex Decking — 1,500 — — — — 1,400

(2 inches
Commercial dex or wider) — 1,300 — — — — 1,400
Dense
Decking — 1,500 — — — — 1,400
commercial dex
NOTES:
1. The allowable unit stresses shown are for selected species and commercial grades. For stresses of other species and commercial
grades not shown, the designer is referred to the grading rules of the appropriate grading agency or the National Design Specification
for Wood Construction (NDS).
2. The recommended design values given are applicable to lumber that will be used under dry conditions such as in most covered
structures. For 2- to 4-inch-thick lumber, the surfaced-dry size should be used. In calculating design values, the natural gain in
strength and stiffness that occurs as lumber dries has been taken into consideration as well as the reduction in size that occurs when
unseasoned lumber shrinks. The gain in load-carrying capacity due to increased strength and stiffness resulting from drying more
than offsets the design effect of size reduction due to shrinkage. For 5-inch and thicker lumber, the surfaced sizes also may be used
because design values have been adjusted to compensate for any loss in size by shrinkage, which may occur.
3. Tabulated tension-parallel-to-the-grain values are for all species cut to a width of 5 inches or wider. The 2- to 4-inch-thick size clas-
sification applies to 5- and 6-inch widths only for grades of select structural No. 1 through 3 (including dense grades). For lumber
wider than 6 inches in these grades, the tabulated Ft values should be multiplied by the following factors:
Multiply Ft by Appropriate Factor Below

Grade
5 and 6 Inches Wide 8 Inches Wide 10 Inches and Wider
2 to 4 inches thick and 5 inches or
1.00 0.90 0.80
wider (including dense grades)
Select structural No. 1, 2, and 3 1.00 0.80 0.60

FM 3-34.343
4. The values in the table are based on edgewise use. For thicknesses of 2 to 4 inches, when used flatwise, the recommended design
values for fiber stress in bending may be multiplied by the following factors:
Thickness
Width
2 Inches 3 Inches 4 Inches
2 to 4 inches 1.10 1.04 1.00
5 inches or wider 1.22 1.16 1.11
5. When 2- to 4-inch-thick lumber is manufactured at a maximum moisture content of 15 percent and used in a condition where the
moisture content does not exceed 15 percent, the design values given in the table may be multiplied by the following factors (for
southern pine, use tabulated design values without adjustment):
Extreme Fiber in Tension Horizontal Compression Modulus of

Compression Perpendicular
Bending Parallel to the Shear Parallel to the Grain Elasticity
to the Grain (Fc ⊥)
(Fb) Grain (Ft) (Fv) (Fc ||)
|| (E)
1.08 1.08 1.05 1.00 1.17 1.05
6. When 2- to 4-inch-thick lumber is designed for use where the moisture content will exceed 19 percent for an extended period, mul-
tiply the design values by the factors given in the following table:
Extreme Fiber Tension Horizontal Compression Compression Modulus of

Species in Bending Parallel to the Shear Perpendicular to Parallel to the Elasticity
(Fb) Grain (Ft) (Fv) the Grain (Fc ⊥) Grain (Fc ||)
|| (E)
Douglas fir, larch, and
0.86 0.84 0.97 0.67 0.70 0.97
hem-fir
Southern pine (2 to 4
inches thick, 5 inches or 0.80 0.80 0.95 0.67 0.66 0.83
wider)
7. When lumber 5 inches and thicker is designed for use where the moisture content will exceed 19 percent for an extended period,
multiply the values in the table (except those for southern pine) by the following factors:
Extreme Fiber in Tension Parallel to Horizontal Compression Perpendicular Compression Parallel Modulus of
Bending (Fb) the Grain (Ft) Shear (Fv) to the Grain (Fc ⊥) to the Grain (Fc ||)
|| Elasticity (E)
1.00 1.00 1.00 0.67 0.91 1.00
8. When lumber 4 inches and thinner is manufactured unseasoned, multiply the tabulated values by a factor of 0.92 (except southern
pine).
9. Stress-rated boards of nominal thickness (1, 1 1/4, and 1 1/2 inch) and wider dimensions of most species are permitted the recom-
mended design values given for select structural No. 1 through 3 grades as shown for 2- to 4-inch-thick categories when graded
according to the stress-board provisions applicable grading rules. Information on stress-rated board grades applicable to the vari-
ous species is available from the respective grading standards.

FM 3-34.343
Table C-2. Properties of Timber Stringers

Nominal Moment Shear Maximum Nominal Moment Shear Maximum
Size Capacity Capacity Span Length Size Capacity Capacity Span Length
(in) (m) (kip-feet)1 (v) (kips)2 (L) (ft)3 (in) (m) (kip-feet)1 (v) (kips)2 (L) (ft)3
4x8 8.53 3.20 9.50 12x20 160.00 24.00 23.80
4x10* 13.33 4.00 11.90 12x22 193.60 26.40 26.20
4x12* 19.20 4.80 14.30 12x24 230.00 28.80 28.60
6x8 12.80 4.80 79.50 14x14 91.50 19.60 16.70
6x10 20.00 6.00 11.90 14x16 119.50 22.40 19.10
6x12 28.80 7.20 14.30 14x18 151.20 25.20 21.50
6x14* 39.20 8.40 16.70 14x20 186.70 28.00 23.80
6x16* 51.20 9.60 19.10 14x22 226.00 30.80 26.20
6x18* 64.80 10.80 21.50 14x24 269.00 33.60 28.60
8x8 17.07 6.40 79.50 16x16 136.50 25.60 19.10
8x10 26.70 8.00 11.90 16x18 172.80 28.80 21.50
8x12 38.40 9.60 14.30 16x20 213.00 32.00 23.80
8x14 52.30 11.20 16.70 16x22 258.00 35.20 26.20
8x16 68.30 12.80 19.10 16x24 307.00 38.40 28.60
8x18* 86.40 14.40 21.50 18x18 194.40 32.40 21.50
8x20* 106.70 16.40 23.80 18x20 240.00 36.00 23.80
8x22* 129.10 17.60 26.20 18x22 290.00 39.60 26.20
8x24* 153.60 19.20 28.60 18x24 346.00 43.20 28.60
10x10 33.30 10.00 11.90 8θ 10.05 5.70 9.50
10x12 48.00 12.00 14.30 9θ 14.31 7.20 10.70
10x14 65.30 14.00 16.70 10θ 19.63 8.80 11.90
10x16 85.30 16.00 19.10 11θ 26.10 10.60 13.10
10x18 108.00 18.00 21.50 12θ 33.90 12.70 14.30
10x20 133.30 20.00 23.80 13θ 43.10 15.00 15.50
10x22* 161.30 22.00 26.20 14θ 53.90 17.40 16.70
10x24* 192.00 24.00 28.60 16θ 80.40 22.60 19.10
12x12 57.60 14.40 14.30 18θ 114.50 28.60 21.50
12x14 78.40 16.80 16.70 20θ 157.10 35.40 23.80
12x16 102.40 19.20 19.10 22θ 209.00 42.70 26.20
12x18 129.60 21.60 21.50 24θ 271.00 50.80 28.60
NOTES:
1. To determine the moment capacity for a stringer not listed, compute as follows:
2
bd
Rectangular: m = ------
30
-
3
Round: m = 0.02D
2. To determine the shear capacity for a stringer not listed, compute as follows:
bd
Rectangular: v = -------
10
2
Round: v = 0.09D
3. To determine the maximum length for a stringer not listed, compute as follows:
L = 1.19d
where—
b = stringer width, in inches L = maximum span length
d = stringer depth, in inches m = moment capacity
D = diameter v = shear capacity
* Lateral bracing required at midspan and span ends.

FM 3-34.343
Table C-3. Post and Pile Data
Post Size Post Capacity Maximum Pile Size Pile Capacity Maximum
(in) (kips)1 Height (ft) (in) (kips)2 Height (ft)
6x6 18 15 8 25 18
6x8 24 15 9 32 20
8x8 32 20 10 47 25
8x10 40 20 11 47 25
10x10 50 25 12 56 27
10x12 60 25 13 66 29
12x12 72 30 14 76 31
NOTES:
1. For posts not listed, compute as follows:

cap 2
( A p = bd, in inches )
-------------- = 0.5A p
post
maximum height = 30b (b in feet)
where—
Ap = plate area, in inches

b = beam width
d = stringer depth
2. For piles not listed, compute as follows:

cap 2
----------- = 0.39D ( D in inches )
pile
maximum height = 27D (D in feet)
where—
D = pile diameter

FM 3-34.343
Table C-4. Properties of Rectangular Beams
Width Depth (in)

(in) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
24 43 67 96 131 171 216 267 323 384

4
16 21 27 32 37 43 48 53 59 64
36 64 100 144 196 256 324 400 484 576

6
24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
48 85 133 192 261 341 432 533 645 768

8
32 43 53 64 75 85 96 107 117 128
60 107 167 240 327 427 540 667 807 960

10
40 53 67 80 93 107 120 133 147 160
72 128 200 288 392 512 648 800 968 1,152

12
48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192
84 149 233 336 457 597 756 933 1,129 1,344

14
56 75 93 112 131 149 168 187 205 224
96 171 267 384 523 683 864 1,067 1,291 1,536

16
64 85 107 128 149 171 192 213 235 256
108 192 300 432 588 768 972 1,200 1,452 1,728
18
72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288
NOTES:
1. The top number is the section modulus.

2
bd
S = ---------- in cubic inches
6
2. The bottom number is the effective shear area.
2
A v = --- bd in square inches
3
where—
S = section modulus of the member
b = beam width
d = beam depth
Av = effective shear area of the stringer

FM 3-34.343
Table C-5. Properties of Round Beams

Diameter (D) (in)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 20 22 24
Section modulus
3
πD 21.00 34.00 50.00 72.00 98.00 131.00 170.00 216.00 270.00 402.00 572.00 785.00 1,045.00 1,358.00
(S): S = ----------
32
Effective shear
area (Av):
2 21.00 29.00 38.00 48.00 59.00 71.00 85.00 100.00 116.00 151.00 191.00 236.00 285.00 359.00
3πD
A v = --------------
16
Area (A) (in2):

2 28.30 38.50 50.30 63.60 78.50 95.00 113.00 132.70 153.90 201.10 254.50 314.20 380.10 452.40
πD
A = ----------
4
Area (ft2):
2 0.20 0.27 0.35 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.79 0.92 1.07 1.40 1.77 2.18 2.65 3.14
πD
A = ----------
4
Table C-6. Timber Weights and Specific Gravities

Species Weight (lb per ft3) Specific Gravity
Ash (white and red) 40 0.62 to 0.65
Cedar (white and red) 22 0.32 to 0.38
Chestnut 41 0.66
Cypress 30 0.48
Elm (white) 45 0.72
Fir (Douglas spruce) 32 0.51
Fir (eastern) 25 0.40
Hemlock 29 0.42 to 0.52
Hickory 49 0.74 to 0.84
Locust 46 0.73
Maple (hard) 43 0.68
Maple (white) 33 0.53
Oak (chestnut) 54 0.86
Oak (live) 59 0.95
Oak (red and black) 41 0.65
Oak (white) 46 0.74
Pine (Oregon) 32 0.51
Pine (red) 30 0.48
Pine (white) 26 0.41
Pine (yellow, long-leaf) 44 0.70
Pine (yellow, short-leaf) 38 0.61
Poplar 30 0.48
Redwood (California) 26 0.42
Spruce (white and black) 27 0.40 to 0.46
Walnut (black) 38 0.61
Walnut (white) 26 0.41

FM 3-34.343
Table C-7. Effective Length Factors for Columns

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Column shape
(buckled shape shown
by dashed line)
Effective length factor (K)

0.50 0.70 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00
(theoretical value)
Design value of K* 0.65 0.80 1.20 1.00 2.10 2.00
Rotation fixed, translation fixed
Rotation free, translation fixed

End-condition code
Rotation fixed, translation free
Rotation free, translation free
*When ideal conditions are approximate. For riveted and bolted truss members (partially
restrained), K = 0.75. For pinned connections in truss members, K = 0.875 (pin friction).
Excerpted from the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, by The American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC., Copyright 1996. Note that some of this
material may have been superseded by more recent material. Used by permission.
T
LEGEND:
R
L = longitudinal direction
R = radial direction
T = tangential direction
Figure C-1. Log Cross Section

FM 3-34.343

Appendix D
Steel Properties
Steel is a high-strength material made of a combination of iron (with a
small percentage [usually less than 1 percent] of carbon) and trace
percentages of some other elements. Steel has been made for thousands of
years, but an economical process for mass production was not developed
until the 1800s. Steel’s high strength and relatively low weight makes it
extremely desirable as a construction material.
ALL-PURPOSE STEEL
D-1. Different grades of steel are available for constructing bridges and
buildings. Each has advantages and disadvantages when compared to the
type of construction desired. A36 steel is an all-purpose carbon-grade steel. It
is widely used in building and bridge construction.
HIGH-STRENGTH, LOW-ALLOY STEEL

D-2. High-strength steels may be used where lighter, stronger members are
required. High-strength steels are necessary as a member becomes smaller
because of instability, local buckling, deflection, and other similar failures.
High-strength steel is frequently used in tension members, in beams of
continuous and composite construction where deflection is minimized, and in
columns having low slenderness ratios. The following steels are in this
category:
• ASTM A529 structural carbon steel. These steels have a yield
strength of 42 ksi. Their other properties are similar to A36 steel.
• ASTM A441 and A572 structural steels. These steels provide yield
strengths from 40 to 65 ksi. Some types may be more brittle than A36
steel.
• ASTM A242 and A588 atmospheric-corrosion-resistant steels.
These steels are suitable for use in a bare (unpainted) condition.
Exposure to normal atmospheric conditions cause a tightly adherent
oxide (rust) to form on the surface that protects the steel from further,
more destructive oxidation. The reduction of maintenance expense for
these steels may offset their higher initial cost during peacetime
construction.
QUENCH- AND TEMPERED-ALLOY STEEL

D-3. ASTM A514 steel is an example of this type of steel. It provides yield
strengths in excess of 90 ksi. As with all high-strength steels, cost is a crucial
factor in deciding whether to use them.
Steel Properties D-1

FM 3-34.343
STEEL STRENGTHS
D-4. If the type of steel is unknown, use A36 specifications with a minimum
yield strength of 36 ksi. If in doubt about the strength of the steel, always use
the weakest-strength steel for classification and design purposes.
STRUCTURAL SHAPES
D-5. Table D-1 lists the standard steel-plate thicknesses, and Tables D-2
through D-10, pages D-3 through D-11, list the section properties for the most
common structural shapes available in the US. I-beams come in two different
shapes—wide-flange (W-shaped) and American-standard (S-shaped).
W-shaped beams have essentially parallel flange surfaces and are the most
common shape used in bridge construction. W-shaped beams are most
economical when moment controls the design of a span. S-shaped beams have
flanges that are sloped toward the edges and have a larger web area than
W-shaped beams. S-shaped beams are more economical when shear controls
the design of a span. Steel channels (C-shaped beams) have the same
characteristics as the S-shaped beams and are usually used for lateral bracing
and as truss-chord components. Equal-leg and unequal-leg angles (L-shaped
beams) are also used as lightweight bracing materials. Bearing piles
(HP-shaped beams) are used in substructures to provide support for the
bridge.
Table D-1. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Plate

Thicknesses
Standard Steel-Plate Thicknesses

1/32-inch increments up to 1/2 inch
1/16-inch increments over 1/2 to 1 inch
1/8-inch increments over 1 to 3 inches
1/4-inch increments over 3 inches
D-2 Steel Properties

FM 3-34.343
Table D-2. Section Properties of Rolled Beams

Actual Flange Web Section Unbraced Effective
Nominal
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Modulus3 Length Shear
Size
(d) (b) (tf) (tw) 3
(S ) (L m ) Area2
Wide-Flange I-Beams (in)
W36x300 36.72 16.655 1.680 0.945 1,105.1 25.2 31.50
W36x280 36.50 16.595 1.570 0.889 1,031.0 23.6 29.60
W36x260 36.24 16.555 1.440 0.845 951.1 21.7 28.20
W36x245 36.06 16.912 1.350 0.802 892.5 20.4 27.00
W36x230 35.88 16.475 1.260 0.765 835.5 19.1 25.80
W36x194 36.48 12.117 1.260 0.770 663.6 13.8 26.10
W36x182 36.32 12.072 1.180 0.725 621.2 12.9 24.60
W36x170 36.16 12.027 1.100 0.680 579.1 12.1 23.10
W36x160 36.00 12.000 1.020 0.653 541.0 11.2 22.20
W36x150 35.84 11.972 0.940 0.625 502.9 10.3 21.20
W33x200 33.00 15.750 1.150 0.715 669.6 18.1 21.90
W33x141 33.31 11.535 0.960 0.605 446.8 11.0 19.00
W33x130 33.10 11.510 0.855 0.580 404.8 9.8 18.20
W30x124 30.16 10.521 0.930 0.585 354.6 10.7 16.55
W30x116 30.00 10.500 0.850 0.564 327.9 9.8 15.95
W30x108 29.82 10.484 0.760 0.548 299.2 8.8 15.50
W27x102 27.07 10.018 0.827 0.518 266.3 10.1 13.17
W27x94 26.91 9.990 0.747 0.490 242.8 9.1 12.46
W24x100 24.00 12.000 0.775 0.468 248.9 12.8 10.51
W24x94 24.29 9.061 0.872 0.516 220.9 10.7 11.64
W24x84 24.09 9.015 0.772 0.470 196.3 9.5 10.60
W24x76 23.91 8.985 0.682 0.440 175.4 8.4 9.93
W21x73 21.24 8.295 0.740 0.455 150.7 9.5 9.00
W21x68 21.13 8.270 0.685 0.430 139.9 8.8 8.50
W21x62 20.99 8.240 0.615 0.400 126.4 7.9 7.90
W18x60 18.25 7.558 0.695 0.416 107.8 9.4 7.00
W18x55 18.12 7.532 0.630 0.390 98.2 8.6 6.57
W18x50 18.00 7.500 0.570 0.358 89.0 7.8 6.03
W16x50 16.25 7.073 0.628 0.380 80.7 9.0 5.70
W16x45 16.12 7.039 0.563 0.346 72.4 8.1 5.18
W16x40 16.00 7.000 0.503 0.307 64.4 7.3 4.60
W16x36 15.85 6.992 0.428 0.299 56.3 6.2 4.48
W14x34 14.00 6.750 0.453 0.287 48.5 7.2 3.76
W14x30 13.86 6.733 0.383 0.270 41.8 6.1 3.54
W12x27 11.95 6.500 0.400 0.240 34.1 7.1 2.68
W10x25 10.08 5.762 0.430 0.252 26.4 8.1 2.32
W10x21 9.90 5.750 0.340 0.240 21.5 6.9 2.21
W8x20 8.14 5.268 0.378 0.248 17.0 8.1 1.83
W8x17 8.00 5.250 0.308 0.230 14.1 6.6 1.69

FM 3-34.343
Table D-2. Section Properties of Rolled Beams (continued)

Actual Flange Web Section Unbraced Effective
Nominal
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Modulus3 Length Shear
Size
(d) (b) (tf) (tw) 3
(S ) (L m ) Area2
Standard-Shaped I-Beams (in)
S24x120.0 24.00 8.048 1.102 0.798 250.9 12.2 17.39
S24x105.9 24.00 7.875 1.102 0.625 234.3 11.9 13.62
S24x100.0 24.00 7.247 0.871 0.747 197.6 8.6 16.63
S24x90.0 24.00 7.124 0.871 0.624 185.8 8.5 13.89
S24x79.9 24.00 7.000 0.871 0.500 173.9 8.3 11.13
S20x75.0 20.00 6.391 0.789 0.641 126.3 8.3 11.81
S20x65.4 20.00 6.250 0.789 0.500 116.9 8.1 9.21
S18x54.7 18.00 6.000 0.691 0.460 88.4 7.6 7.64
S15x50.0 15.00 5.640 0.622 0.550 64.2 7.7 7.57
S15x42.9 15.00 5.500 0.622 0.410 58.9 7.5 5.64
S12x40.8 12.00 5.250 0.659 0.460 44.8 9.5 4.91
S12x35.0 12.00 5.078 0.544 0.428 37.8 7.6 4.67
S12x31.8 12.00 5.000 0.544 0.350 36.0 7.4 3.82
S10x35.0 10.00 4.944 0.491 0.594 29.2 7.6 5.36
S8x23.0 8.00 4.171 0.425 0.441 16.0 7.3 3.15
S8x18.4 8.00 4.000 0.425 0.270 14.2 7.0 1.93
S7x20.0 7.00 3.860 0.392 0.450 12.0 7.1 2.80
S7x15.3 7.00 3.660 0.392 0.250 10.4 6.7 1.55
S6x17.25 6.00 3.565 0.359 0.465 8.7 7.0 2.46
S6x12.5 6.00 3.330 0.359 0.230 7.3 6.5 1.21
Table D-3. Section Properties of End-Bearing H-Piles (in inches)

Flange Web Axis x-x Axis y-y
Nominal Section Section
Width Thick- Thickness
Size Area2 Depth (d)
(tw) Mi4 S3 r Mi4 S3 r
(bf) ness (tf)
HP14x117 34.44 14.23 14.885 0.805 0.805 1,228.5 172.6 5.97 443.1 59.5 3.59
HP14x102 30.01 14.03 14.784 0.704 0.704 1,055.1 150.4 5.93 379.6 51.3 3.56
HP14x89 26.19 13.86 14.696 0.616 0.616 909.1 131.2 5.89 326.2 44.4 3.53
HP14x73 21.46 13.64 14.586 0.506 0.506 733.1 107.5 5.85 261.9 35.9 3.49
HP12x74 21.76 12.12 12.217 0.607 0.607 566.5 93.5 5.10 184.7 30.2 2.91
HP12x53 15.58 11.78 12.046 0.436 0.436 394.8 67.0 5.03 127.3 21.2 2.86
HP10x57 16.76 10.01 10.224 0.564 0.564 294.7 58.9 4.19 100.6 19.7 2.45
HP10x42 12.35 9.72 10.078 0.418 0.418 210.8 43.4 4.13 71.4 14.2 2.40
HP8x36 10.60 8.03 8.158 0.446 0.446 119.8 29.9 3.36 40.4 9.9 1.95
LEGEND:
Mi = moment of inertia
S = section modulus
r = radius of gyration

FM 3-34.343
Table D-4. Section Properties of Rolled Channels

Nominal Weight Actual Flange (in) Web Section
Size per Foot Depth Width Thickness Thickness Modulus3
(in) (lb) (d) (in) (b) (tf) (tw) (in) (S3) (in)
58.00 18 4.200 0.625 0.700 74.5
18
42.70 18 3.950 0.625 0.450 61.0
50.00 15 3.716 0.650 0.716 53.6
15
33.90 15 3.400 0.650 0.400 41.7
30.00 12 3.170 0.501 0.510 26.9
12
20.70 12 2.940 0.501 0.280 21.4
30.00 10 3.033 0.436 0.673 20.6
10
20.00 10 2.739 0.436 0.379 15.7
20.00 9 2.648 0.413 0.448 13.5
9
13.40 9 2.430 0.413 0.230 10.5
18.75 8 2.527 0.390 0.487 10.9
8
11.50 8 2.260 0.390 0.220 8.1
14.75 7 2.299 0.366 0.419 7.7
7
9.80 7 2.090 0.366 0.210 6.0
13.00 6 2.157 0.343 0.437 5.8
6
8.20 6 1.920 0.343 0.200 4.3
5 6.70 5 1.750 0.320 0.190 3.0
4 5.40 4 1.580 0.296 0.180 1.9
3 4.10 3 1.410 0.273 0.170 1.1
Table D-5. Properties of Reinforcing Bars
Bar Number Nominal Dimensions (in)

Weight per Foot (lb)
(see note 1) D As2 Perimeter
2 (see note 2) 0.167 0.250 0.05 0.786
3 0.376 0.375 0.11 1.178
4 0.668 0.500 0.20 1.571
5 1.043 0.625 0.31 1.963
6 1.502 0.750 0.44 2.356
7 2.044 0.875 0.60 2.749
8 2.670 1.000 0.79 3.142
9 (see note 3) 3.400 1.128 1.00 3.544
10 (see note 3) 4.303 1.270 1.27 3.990
11 (see note 3) 5.313 1.410 1.56 4.430
NOTES:
1. Bar numbers are based on the number of eighths of an inch included in the nominal diameter
of the bars. The nominal diameter of a deformed bar is equivalent to the diameter of a plain bar
having the same weight per foot as the deformed bar.
2. Plain, round 1/4-inch No. 2 bars only.
3. These figures correspond to the former 1-, 1 1/8-, and 1 1/4-inch-square sizes and are
equivalent to those former standard bar sizes in weight and nominal cross-sectional area.
LEGEND:
D = diameter
As = cross-sectional area of bar, in square inches

FM 3-34.343
Table D-6. Section Properties of Rolled Angles

Axes x-x and y-y (in) Axis z-z (in)
Nominal Size Weight per Area2
(in) Foot (lb) (in) I4 S3 r x or y r
L8x8x1 51.00 15.00 89.00 15.80 2.44 2.37 1.56
L8x8x3/4 38.90 11.44 69.70 12.20 2.47 2.28 1.57
L8x8x 1/ 26.40 7.75 48.60 8.40 2.50 2.19 1.59
2
L6x6x1 37.40 11.00 35.50 8.60 1.80 1.86 1.17

3
L6x6x /4 28.70 8.44 28.20 6.70 1.83 1.78 1.17
L6x6x1/2 19.60 5.75 19.90 4.60 1.86 1.68 1.18
L6x6x3/8 14.90 4.36 15.40 3.50 1.88 1.64 1.19
3
L5x5x /4 23.60 6.94 15.70 4.50 1.51 1.52 0.97
L5x5x1/2 16.20 4.75 11.30 3.20 1.54 1.43 0.98
L5x5x3/8 12.30 3.61 8.70 2.40 1.56 1.39 0.99
L4x4x 3/ 18.50 5.44 7.70 2.80 1.19 1.27 0.78
4
L4x4x1/2 12.80 3.75 5.60 2.00 1.22 1.18 0.78

L4x4x3/8 9.80 2.86 4.40 1.50 1.23 1.14 0.79
L4x4x1/4 6.60 1.94 3.00 1.10 1.25 1.09 0.80
1/
L3 2x3 2x 1/ 1/ 11.10 3.25 3.60 1.50 1.06 1.06 0.68
2
L31/2x31/2x3/8 8.50 2.48 2.90 1.20 1.07 1.01 0.69

1 1 1
L3 /2x3 /2x /4 5.80 1.69 2.00 0.79 1.09 0.97 0.69
1/
L3x3x 2 9.40 2.75 2.20 1.10 0.90 0.93 0.58
L3x3x3/8 7.20 2.11 1.80 0.83 0.91 0.89 0.58
L3x3x1/4 4.90 1.44 1.20 0.58 0.93 0.84 0.59
1/
L2 2x2 2x 1/ 1/ 7.70 2.25 1.20 0.72 0.74 0.81 0.49
2
L21/2x21/2x3/8 5.90 1.73 0.98 0.57 0.75 0.76 0.49

1 1 1
L2 /2x2 /2x /4 4.10 1.19 0.70 0.39 0.77 0.72 0.49
3/
L2x2x 8 4.70 1.36 0.48 0.35 0.59 0.64 0.39
L2x2x1/4 3.19 0.94 0.35 0.25 0.61 0.59 0.39
LEGEND:
I = moment of inertia about the x-axis, in inches4

S = section modulus

FM 3-34.343
Table D-7. Section Properties of Unequal-Leg Angles

Nominal Weight Axis x-x (in) Axis y-y (in) Axis z-z
Size per Foot Area2
(in) 4 3 r y 4 3 r x r (in) tan
(in) (lb) I S I S
L9x4x1 40.8 12.00 97.0 17.60 2.84 3.50 12.0 4.00 1.00 1.00 0.83 0.203
L9x4x3/4 31.3 9.19 76.1 13.60 2.88 3.41 9.6 3.10 1.02 0.91 0.84 0.212
L9x4x 1/
2 21.3 6.25 53.2 9.30 2.92 3.31 6.9 2.20 1.05 0.81 0.85 0.220
L8x6x1 44.2 13.00 80.8 15.10 2.49 2.65 38.8 8.90 1.73 1.65 1.28 0.543
L8x6x3/4 33.8 9.94 63.4 11.70 2.53 2.56 30.7 6.90 1.76 1.56 1.29 0.551
L8x6x1/2 23.0 6.75 44.3 8.00 2.56 2.47 21.7 4.80 1.79 1.47 1.30 0.558
L8x4x1 37.4 11.00 69.6 14.10 2.52 3.05 11.6 3.90 1.03 1.05 0.85 0.247
L8x4x3/4 28.7 8.44 54.9 10.90 2.55 2.95 9.4 3.10 1.05 0.95 0.85 0.258
1
L8x4x /2 19.6 5.75 38.5 7.50 2.59 2.86 6.7 2.20 1.08 0.86 0.86 0.267
L7x4x3/4 26.2 7.69 37.8 8.40 2.22 2.51 9.1 3.00 1.09 1.01 0.86 0.324
L7x4x 1/
2 17.9 5.25 26.7 5.80 2.25 2.42 6.5 2.10 1.11 0.92 0.87 0.335
L7x4x3/8 13.6 3.98 20.6 4.40 2.27 2.37 5.1 1.60 1.13 0.87 0.88 0.339
L6x4x3/4 23.6 6.94 24.5 6.30 1.88 2.08 8.7 3.00 1.12 1.08 0.86 0.428
L6x4x1/2 16.2 4.75 17.4 4.30 1.91 1.99 6.3 2.10 1.15 0.99 0.87 0.440
L6x4x3/8 12.3 3.61 13.5 3.30 1.93 1.94 4.9 1.60 1.17 0.94 0.88 0.446
L6x31/2x1/2 15.3 4.50 16.6 4.20 1.92 2.08 4.3 1.60 0.97 0.83 0.76 0.344
L6x31/2x3/8 11.7 3.42 12.9 3.20 1.94 2.04 3.3 1.20 0.99 0.79 0.77 0.350
L6x31/2x1/4 7.9 2.31 8.9 2.20 1.96 1.99 2.3 0.85 1.01 0.74 0.78 0.355
L5x31/2x3/4 19.8 5.81 13.9 4.30 1.55 1.75 5.6 2.20 0.98 1.00 0.75 0.464
L5x31/2x1/2 13.6 4.00 10.0 3.00 1.58 1.66 4.1 1.60 1.01 0.91 0.75 0.479
1 3
L5x3 /2x /8 10.4 3.05 7.8 2.30 1.60 1.61 3.2 1.20 1.02 0.86 0.76 0.486
L5x31/2x1/4 7.0 2.06 5.4 1.60 1.61 1.56 2.2 0.83 1.04 0.81 0.76 0.492
L5x3x 1/
2 12.8 3.75 9.5 2.90 1.59 1.75 2.6 1.10 0.83 0.75 0.65 0.357
L5x3x3/8 9.8 2.86 7.4 2.20 1.61 1.70 2.0 0.89 0.84 0.70 0.65 0.364
L5x3x 1/ 6.6 1.94 5.1 1.50 1.62 1.66 1.4 0.61 0.86 0.66 0.66 0.371
4
L4x31/2x1/2 11.9 3.50 5.3 1.90 1.23 1.25 3.8 1.50 1.04 1.00 0.72 0.750
L4x31/2x3/8 9.1 2.67 4.2 1.50 1.25 1.21 3.0 1.20 1.06 0.96 0.73 0.755
L4x31/2x1/4 6.2 1.81 2.9 1.00 1.27 1.16 2.1 0.81 1.07 0.91 0.73 0.759
L4x3x1/2 11.1 3.25 5.1 1.90 1.25 1.33 2.4 1.10 0.86 0.83 0.64 0.543
L4x3x3/8 8.5 2.48 4.0 1.50 1.26 1.28 1.9 0.87 0.88 0.78 0.64 0.551
L4x3x1/4 5.8 1.69 2.8 1.00 1.28 1.24 1.4 0.60 0.90 0.74 0.65 0.558
L31/2x3x1/2 10.2 3.00 3.5 1.50 1.07 1.13 2.3 1.10 0.88 0.88 0.62 0.714
L31/2x3x3/8 7.9 2.30 2.7 1.10 1.09 1.08 1.9 0.85 0.90 0.83 0.62 0.721
L31/2x3x1/4 5.4 1.56 1.9 0.78 1.11 1.04 1.3 0.59 0.91 0.79 0.63 0.727
LEGEND:
I = moment of inertia about the x-axis, in inches4

S = section modulus

FM 3-34.343
Table D-8. Section Moduli for Composite Steel Stringers
Nominal d b S3 S3 S3 S3 S3
Size (in) (in) (in) (td = 3 in) (td = 4 in) (td = 5 in) (td = 6 in) (td = 8 in)
W36x300 36.750 16.625 1,105 1,264 1,323 1,380 1,489
W36x230 35.875 16.500 835 972 1,018 1,061 1,145
W36x194 36.500 12.125 663 805 847 887 961
W36x182 36.375 12.125 621 757 796 833 902
W36x170 36.125 12.000 579 709 745 779 844
W36x160 36.000 12.000 541 667 701 733 794
W36x150 35.875 12.000 502 624 656 686 744
W33x220 33.875 15.750 740 868 910 951 1,031
W33x200 33.625 15.750 669 789 828 865 938
W33x141 33.250 11.500 446 555 585 612 666
W33x130 33.125 11.500 404 509 536 561 612
W30x172 30.500 15.000 528 630 663 694 757
W30x124 30.125 10.500 354 449 474 497 546
W30x116 30.000 10.500 327 419 442 464 511
W30x108 29.875 10.500 299 387 409 429 473
W27x161 27.625 14.000 455 537 566 595 655
W27x102 27.125 10.000 267 342 362 381 423
W27x94 26.875 10.000 243 315 333 350 390
W27x84 26.750 10.000 213 279 295 311 347
W24x94 24.250 9.125 222 288 306 323 364
W24x84 24.125 9.000 196 258 274 290 326
W24x76 23.875 9.000 176 233 247 262 295
W21x73 21.250 8.250 151 203 216 231 263
W21x68 21.125 8.250 140 189 202 216 246
W21x62 21.000 8.250 127 172 184 197 224
W18x60 18.250 7.500 108 149 160 173 201
W18x55 18.125 7.500 98 137 147 159 184
W18x50 18.000 7.500 89 124 134 145 168
LEGEND:
b = width
d = depth
S = section modulus
td = deck thickness

FM 3-34.343
Table D-9. Effective Length Factors
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Column shape (buckled

shape is shown by a
dashed line)

0.50 0.70 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00
(theoretical value)
Design value of K* 0.65 0.80 1.20 1.00 2.10 2.00
Rotation fixed, translation fixed
Rotation free, translation fixed

End-condition code
Rotation fixed, translation free
Rotation free, translation free
*When ideal conditions are approximate. For riveted and bolted truss members (partially restrained), K= 0.75. For
pinned connections in truss members, K = 0.875 (pin friction).
Excerpted from the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, by The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, Copyright 1996. Note that some of this material may have been superseded by
more recent material. Used by permission.
Table D-10. Properties of Steel Stringers (Fy is 36 ksi and fb is 29 ksi)
Nominal d b tf tw m v Lm Sb
Size (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (kip-feet) (kips) (ft) (ft)
W39x211* 39.250 11.750 1.438 0.75 1,901 335 93 19.9
W37x206* 37.250 11.750 1.438 0.75 1,779 335 89 21.0
W36x300 36.750 16.625 1.688 0.94 2,670 410 87 35.3
W36x194 36.500 12.125 1.250 0.81 1,602 340 87 19.2
W36x182 36.375 12.125 1.187 0.75 1,500 320 87 18.3
W36x170 36.125 12.000 1.125 1.06 1,398 300 86 17.3
W36x160 36.000 12.000 1.000 1.06 1,307 288 86 15.4
W36x230 35.875 16.500 1.250 0.75 2,018 332 85 26.6
W36x150 35.875 12.000 0.937 0.62 1,215 276 85 14.5
W36x201* 35.375 11.750 1.438 0.75 1,659 317 84 22.1

FM 3-34.343
Table D-10. Properties of Steel Stringers (Fy is 36 ksi and fb is 29 ksi) (continued)
W33x196* 33.375 11.750 1.438 0.75 1,539 297 79 23.4
W33x220* 33.250 15.750 1.250 0.81 1,784 309 79 27.4
W33x141 33.250 11.500 0.937 0.62 1,079 247 79 15.0
W33x200 33.000 15.750 1.125 0.56 978 236 79 14.1
W31x180 31.500 11.750 1.312 0.75 1,618 285 79 24.9
W30x124 30.125 10.500 0.937 0.68 1,425 258 75 22.7
W30x116 30.000 10.500 0.875 0.62 856 215 72 15.1
W30x108 29.875 10.500 0.750 0.56 793 207 71 14.2
W30x175* 29.500 11.750 1.312 0.56 723 201 71 12.2
W27x171* 27.500 11.750 1.312 0.68 1,242 240 70 24.2
W27x102 27.125 10.000 0.812 0.68 1,137 222 65 26.0
W27x94 26.875 10.000 0.750 0.50 643 171 65 13.9
W26x157* 25.500 11.750 1.250 0.50 586 162 64 12.9
W24x94 24.250 9.000 0.875 0.62 983 187 61 26.7
W24x84 24.125 9.000 0.750 0.50 534 150 58 15.0
W24x100 24.000 12.000 0.750 0.50 475 137 57 12.4
S24x120 24.000 8.000 1.125 0.50 601 136 57 17.4
S24x106 24.000 7.875 1.125 1.18 606 225 57 17.4
S24x80 24.000 7.000 0.875 0.62 566 176 57 17.1
W24x76 23.875 9.000 0.687 0.50 420 144 57 11.8
W24x153* 23.625 11.750 0.250 0.43 423 128 57 12.0
S24x134* 23.625 8.500 1.250 0.62 889 171 26 28.8
S22x75* 22.000 7.000 0.812 0.81 681 223 26 20.8
W21x139* 21.625 11.750 1.187 0.50 331 132 52 12.0
S21x112* 21.625 7.875 1.187 0.62 751 156 52 30.0
W21x73 21.250 8.250 0.750 0.75 532 188 52 20.0
W21x68 21.125 8.250 0.687 0.50 363 117 51 13.5
W21x62 21.000 8.250 0.625 0.43 338 110 50 12.4
S20x85 20.000 7.125 0.937 0.37 305 102 50 11.4
S21x65* 20.000 6.500 0.812 0.68 362 154 48 15.5
W20x134* 19.625 11.750 1.187 0.43 263 104 48 12.2
W18x60 18.250 7.500 0.687 0.62 667 139 47 32.9
S18x86* 18.250 7.000 1.000 0.43 261 91 43 13.1
S18x55 18.125 7.500 0.625 0.37 236 85 43 12.0
S18x80* 18.000 8.000 0.937 0.50 314 104 43 19.3
W18x50 18.000 7.500 0.562 0.37 215 78 43 10.9
S18x55 18.000 6.000 0.687 0.50 214 99 43 10.6
S18x122* 17.750 11.750 1.062 0.56 696 114 42 32.6
S18x62* 17.750 6.875 0.750 0.37 256 79 42 3.4
S18x77* 17.750 6.625 0.937 0.62 302 128 42 16.2
W16x112* 16.750 11.750 1.000 0.56 483 107 40 32.5
S16x70* 16.750 6.500 0.937 0.62 256 115 40 16.8
W16x50 16.250 7.125 0.625 0.37 194 74 39 12.7
W16x45 16.125 7.000 0.562 0.37 175 67 38 1.3

FM 3-34.343
Table D-10. Properties of Steel Stringers (Fy is 36 ksi and fb is 29 ksi) (continued)
W16x64 16.000 8.500 0.687 0.43 251 84 38 16.9
W16x40 16.000 7.000 0.500 0.31 156 59 38 10.1
S16x50* 16.000 6.000 0.687 0.43 166 83 38 11.9
W16x36 15.875 7.000 0.437 0.31 136 58 38 8.9
W16x110* 15.750 11.750 1.000 0.56 371 100 37 34.5
S16x62* 15.750 6.125 0.875 0.56 215 101 37 15.8
S16x45* 15.750 5.375 0.625 0.43 161 82 37 9.9
W15x103* 15.000 11.750 0.937 0.56 396 95 36 34.0
S15x56 15.000 5.875 0.812 0.50 186 87 36 14.7
S15x43 15.000 5.500 0.625 0.43 142 73 36 0.6
W14x101* 14.250 11.750 0.937 0.56 369 90 34 35.8
S14x40* 14.250 5.375 0.375 0.37 128 65 34 6.5
S14x51* 14.125 5.625 0.750 0.50 161 82 34 13.8
S14x70* 14.000 8.000 0.937 0.43 219 69 33 24.8
S14x57* 14.000 6.000 0.875 0.50 164 80 33 17.4
W14x34 14.000 6.750 0.437 0.31 117 48 33 9.8
W14x30 13.875 6.750 0.375 0.25 101 46 33 8.4
W14x92* 13.375 11.750 0.875 0.50 319 76 32 35.6
S14x46* 13.375 5.375 0.687 0.50 135 78 32 12.8
S13x35* 13.000 5.000 0.625 0.37 91 57 31 11.1
S13x41* 12.625 5.125 0.687 0.56 116 82 30 12.9
W12x36 12.250 6.625 0.562 0.31 111 44 29 14.1
S12x65* 12.000 8.000 0.937 0.43 195 58 29 28.9
W12x57 12.000 6.500 0.375 1.25 82 35 29 9.4
S12x50 12.000 5.500 0.687 0.68 121 96 29 14.6
S12x32 12.000 5.000 0.562 0.37 87 49 29 10.9
S12x34* 11.250 4.750 0.625 0.43 87 57 27 13.5
W11x76* 11.000 11.000 0.812 0.50 217 61 26 37.6
S10x29* 10.625 4.750 0.562 0.31 72 38 25 10.4
W10x25 10.125 5.750 0.437 0.25 63 30 24 10.5
S10x40 10.000 6.000 0.687 0.37 99 42 24 19.1
S10x35 10.000 5.000 0.500 0.62 70 69 24 11.6
*Available in Europe; not a standard US shape.
LEGEND:
b = width
d = depth
Lm = maximum span length
m = moment capacity
Sb = brace spacing
tf = flange thickness
tw = web thickness
v = shear capacity

FM 3-34.343
UNLISTED-BEAMS SECTION PROPERTIES

D-6. Tables D-2, D-3, D-4, D-6, and D-7, pages D-3 through D-7, do not list the
section properties for all beam types. These properties can be determined by
using the external dimensions of the unlisted beams and calculating each of
the section properties. Important properties to consider include the—
• Effective shear area.
• Neutral axis.
• Moment of inertia.
• Section modulus.
• Radius of gyration.
EFFECTIVE SHEAR AREA

D-7. Compute the effective shear area as follows:
A v = t w di (D-1)
where—
Av = effective shear area, in square inches

tw = web thickness, in inches
di = internal flange depth, in inches. Measure this distance from the inside of
the top flange to the inside of the bottom flange.
NEUTRAL AXIS
D-8. The neutral axis is the plane that splits the area of a shape in half. The
beam is unaffected by compression or tension along this axis. There is no
stress in the beam along this axis. Determine the location of the neutral axis
as follows:
• Simple shapes (squares, rectangles, triangles, and circles).
Divide the depth of the shape by two or three, as appropriate
(Figure D-1).
• Symmetrical, complex shapes. Divide the depth of the member by
two (Figure D-2).
• Unsymmetrical, complex shapes. Use the following procedure:
■ Divide the complex shape into simple shapes and determine the
location of the neutral axes in these sections (Figure D-3,
page D-14).
■ Find the distance from an arbitrary baseline (normally the bottom
of the complex shape) to the neutral axis of each of the simple
shapes (Figure D-4, page D-14).
■ Determine the area of each of the simple shapes (Figure D-5,
page D-14).
■ Determine the distance from the baseline to the neutral axis of the
complex shape by using Figure D-6, page D-15, and the following
equation:

FM 3-34.343
Σ Ay
y = ---------- (D-2)
ΣA
where—
y = distance from the baseline to the neutral axis of the complex shape,
in inches
A = area of the simple shape, in square inches
y = distance from the baseline to the neutral axis of the simple shape,
in inches
d d
d d
na na
d na
---
2
d d
--- ---
2 2 1 1
------- -------
3d 3d
LEGEND:
d = depth of the stringer
Figure D-1. Neutral Axis in Simple Shapes
d
na
d
---
2
LEGEND:
d = depth of the stringer
Figure D-2. Neutral Axis in Symmetrical, Complex Shapes

FM 3-34.343
Shape 1 Shape 1
Shape 2
Shape 3
or
Shape 4 Shape 2
Figure D-3. Sectioning Complex Shapes
na
na
y1
y2
na
y3
LEGEND: y4
na
y = distance from the
baseline to the neutral axis
Figure D-4. Determining Baseline-to-Neutral-Axis Distances
A1
A2
A3
A4
LEGEND:
A = area
Figure D-5. Areas of the Simple Shapes

FM 3-34.343
LEGEND:
y = distance from the baseline to
the neutral axis of the complex
shape
y = distance from the baseline to
the neutral axis of the simple
shape
na
y
na
y
Figure D-6. Example Tabulation of Neutral Axis
MOMENT OF INERTIA
D-9. Compute the moment of inertia of a shape (with respect to the axis)
using Figure D-6 and the following equation:
∫0 y
d 2
Mi = dA (D-3)
where—
Mi = moment of inertia, in inches4

d = distance over which integration occurs, in inches
y = distance from the baseline to the element of area, in inches
dA = element of area, in square inches
D-10. The moment of inertia of a given shape changes with the differing
locations and orientations of the axis chosen. The axis normally chosen is the
neutral axis of the cross section of the beam that is perpendicular to the load
being applied (Figure D-7, page D-16). Compute as follows:
• Simple shapes (Figure D-8, page D-16).
• Complex shapes. Use the parallel-axis theorem, which dictates the
use of Figure D-9, page D-16, and the following equation:
2
M iC = ΣM iS + ΣAy (D-4)
where—
MiC = moment of inertia of the complex shape about its neutral axis, in
inches4
MiS = moment of inertia for each simple shape about its neutral axis,
in inches4
A = area for each simple shape, in square inches
y = distance of the neutral axis of each simple shape to the neutral
axis of the complex shape, in inches

FM 3-34.343
P na
LEGEND: na
P = force
Figure D-7. Axis Orientations Based on Loading
b b
d d
d na d
na
I = 1/12bd3 I = 1/36bd3 I = 1/12bd3
Baseline axis b b Baseline axis
4
LEGEND: 3.14 r
I = -----------------
b = width 4
d = depth r na
I = inertia
r = radius
Figure D-8. Moments of Inertia for Simple Shapes
Section A y Ay2 Io
A1 y1 A1y12 Io1
A2 y2 A2y22 Io2
A3 y3 A3y32 Io3
A4 y4 A4y42 Io4
ΣAy = A1y1 + A2y22 + A3y32 + A4y42 ΣIo = Io1 + Io2 + Io3 + Io4
2 2
LEGEND:
A = area for each simple shape
y = distance of the neutral axis of each simple shape to the neutral axis of the complex shape
Io = moment of inertia
Figure D-9. Sample Tabulation of Moments of Inertia

FM 3-34.343
SECTION MODULUS
D-11. Compute the stress induced in the extreme fiber of a given shape as
follows. The value of Mi/ye is defined as the section modulus of the shape. It is
a measure of the ability of the shape to resist bending moments about a given
axis.
Mi M
F b = M ------ = ----- (D-5)
ye S
where—
Fb = induced stress in the extreme fiber of the shape, in ksi
M = moment force applied to the shape, in kip-inches
Mi = moment of inertia of the shape, in inches4
ye = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of the shape, in inches
S = section modulus of the shape, in cubic inches
Symmetrical, Welded Beams and Girders

D-12. Use Figure D-10 and the following equation (based on the parallel-axis
theorem) to approximate the section modulus for symmetrical, built-up beams
and girders that have been welded within 5 percent of the true section
modulus:
A
S = d i  A f + -----w- (D-6)
 6
where—
S = section modulus, in cubic inches

di = interior depth of the beam, in inches
Af = area of one flange, in square inches
Aw = area of the web, in square inches
tPL
tw di tw
di
Rolled beam with b Welded built-up beam with

tf b bpl cover plates tf variable flange thickness
LEGEND:
tPL = thickness of the plate tf = flange thickness
di = interior depth of the beam b = width
tw = web thickness bpl = width of the cover plate
Figure D-10. Built-up Beams

FM 3-34.343
Symmetrical, Riveted Beams and Girders

D-13. Use the following equation and Figure D-11 to approximate the section
modulus of these beams and girders (deduct the area of the rivet holes from
the used areas):
A
S = d w  A f + -----w- + d i A fa (D-7)
 6
where—

dw = web depth measured from angle to angle, in inches
Af = area of one flange, in square inches
di = interior depth of the beam, in inches
Afa = net area of one set of flange angles, in square inches
Af(1)
Afa
di dw
tw
LEGEND:
Afa = net area of one set of
flange angles
Af(1) = area of one flange
di = interior depth of the beam
dw = web depth measured
from angle to angle
tw = web thickness
Figure D-11. Riveted Beam or Girder
All Shapes (Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical)

D-14. Compute the section modulus of all types of shapes as follows:
• Determine the location of the neutral axis as described earlier.
• Determine the moment of inertia of the shape about the neutral axis
as described earlier.
• Determine the distance from the neutral axis to the point on the
section that is the farthest away from the neutral axis.
• Divide the moment of inertia by the neutral axis.

FM 3-34.343
RADIUS OF GYRATION
D-15. The radius of gyration for a shape is the distance from a given axis
(usually the neutral axis) where the concentrated mass of the shape would
have the same moment of inertia as the actual shape. This value is a measure
of how the shape reacts to rotational forces. The purpose of computing the
radius of gyration is to determine the capacity of the shape to resist buckling
that is induced from compressive and bending forces. Compute the radius of
gyration as follows:
M
r = ------i (D-8)
A
where—
r = radius of gyration, in inches

Mi = moment of inertia, in inches4
A = area of the shape, in square inches

FM 3-34.343

Appendix E
Structural Mechanics
Engineers working with design analysis encounter mathematical problems
on a daily basis. This appendix supports calculations used in this manual
and consolidates some of the most often used mathematical concepts that
are needed by engineers. Any force that causes an object to rotate is said to
contribute a moment to the object. This and other concepts about loads,
forces, reactions, and how to keep a body in equilibrium are discussed.
DEAD, LIVE, AND IMPACT LOADS

E-1. The dead load acting on a bridge is the weight of the permanent bridge
components such as stringers, decking, accessories, and hardware. Base dead-
load calculations on the dimensions of component members using the
following densities:
• Timber, 0.04 kips per cubic foot.
• Concrete, 0.15 kips per cubic foot.
• Steel, 0.49 kips per cubic foot.
The dead load of the accessories can be closely estimated as follows:
• Timber-deck bridges, 0.1 kips per linear foot.
• Concrete-deck bridges, 0.4 kips per linear foot.
E-2. Live loads consist of any nonpermanent loads (such as vehicles,
pedestrians, snow, ice, or wind) that are applied temporarily to a bridge.
Consider the wheeled and tracked effect of these loads on the bridge and
design the bridge for the worst case.
E-3. Impact loads are the forces exerted on a bridge as a result of the sudden
application or removal of live loads. When steel stringers are used, increase
the live load by 15 percent to account for the impact loading. Timber stringers
tend to absorb shock, so no adjustment is needed for impact loading.
STRESSES
E-4. Stress is an internal force, or reaction, that results within a member
when an external load acts on it. The loading condition (the position and
movement of the load) may create in a member one or more of the stresses
discussed below. Based on the material of the member, a limiting value can be
placed on the magnitude of these internal stresses. For design and analysis,
use the values in Appendixes C and D.
Structural Mechanics E-1

FM 3-34.343
TENSILE STRESS
E-5. The tension member in Figure E-1 could be a suspension bridge cable or
a truss component. As the member is being pulled, internal tensile stresses
are formed as a reaction to the external loads. Compute the tensile stress as
follows:
T
f T = --- (E-1)
A
where—
fT = tensile stress in the member, in ksi

T = total tension, in kips
A = cross-sectional area of the member, in square inches
T T
T
f T = ----
A
T
T
Cross-sectional area
T T
LEGEND:
A = cross-sectional area of the member
fT = tensile stress in the member
T = tension
Figure E-1. Tension Member
COMPRESSIVE STRESS
E-6. If a bridge member is loaded compressively (as in the top chord of a truss
bridge), internal compressive stresses are formed as a reaction to the external
loads (Figure E-2). Compute the compressive stress as follows:
C
f a = ---- (E-2)
A
where—
fa = axial compressive stress in the member, in ksi

C = load weight, in kips
A = cross-sectional area of the member, in square inches
E-2 Structural Mechanics

FM 3-34.343
C lbs C
f a = ---- = --------
A 2
in
C
C Cross-
LEGEND: sectional
C area
A = cross-sectional area
of the member
C = compression C
fa = axial compressive C
stress in the member
Figure E-2. Compression Member
BEARING STRESS
E-7. When stringers rest on a cap or sill, bearing stresses are introduced into
both members at the point of contact (Figure E-3). Because of the large
difference in allowable stresses between steel and timber, use bearing plates
to increase the contact area and lower the bearing stress in timber. Compute
the bearing stress as follows:
F
f B = --- (E-3)
A
where—
fB = bearing stress in the member, in ksi

F = total bearing load, in kips
A = cross-sectional area of the member resisting shear, in square inches
F lbs
f B = ---- = --------
A 2
in Contact area
LEGEND:
A = cross-sectional area of the
member resisting shear
F = total bearing load F
fB = bearing stress in the member
Figure E-3. Bearing Members

FM 3-34.343
SHEAR STRESS
E-8. Shear forces act very much like a pair of scissors cutting a piece of paper.
When forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction act on a member,
internal shear forces are generated as a reaction to the external loads
(Figure E-4). Shear failures in stringers usually occur close to the supports in
members that are less than 20 feet long. Compute shear stress as follows:
V
f v = --- (E-4)
A
where—
fv = shear stress in the member, in ksi

V = total shear forces, in kips
A = area of contact, in square inches
V kips
f v = ---- = -----------
A 2
in
where—
fv = shear stress in the member

V = total shear forces. By
convention, this is the sum
of all vertical forces to the
left of the section of interest.
F
A = area of contact
F
LEGEND:
F = force
Figure E-4. Shear Stress
MOMENT STRESS
E-9. Moment is the tendency of a body to rotate about an axis as a result of a
force acting over a lever arm. Using a wrench to turn a bolt is a good example
of moment. The longer the wrench, the less effort that is required to turn the
bolt. Internal moment stresses are generated when members bend (such as
when a stringer bends under the load of a vehicle). As shown in Figure E-5,
compressive and tensile forces are generated inside the stringer as a result of
an applied moment.
E-10. Section modulous is the property that measures the beam’s ability to
resist bending. Although expressed in units of volume, section modulus
functions as an index of the member’s size, shape, and orientation with

FM 3-34.343
Moment arm
C
T
LEGEND:
F = force
C = compression
T = tension
Figure E-5. Moment (Bending Stress)
respect to the load. For example, of the two timber orientations shown in
Figure E-6, page E-6, the one to the left results in less deflection. This
orientation is stronger and distributes the stress better because the
compressive and tensile stresses generated by the moment in the beam are
farther away from each other. Consequently, the section modulus of the
stringer to the left is greater than the section modulus of the stringerto the
right.
• Compute the bending stress as follows:
M
f b = ----- (E-5)
S
where—
fb = bending stress in the member, in ksi

M = total moment in the member, in kip-feet
S = section modulus of the member, in cubic inches
• Compute the section modulus for rectangular beams as follows:
2
bd
S = -------- (E-6)
6
where—
S = section modulus of the member, in cubic inches

b = member width, in inches
d = member depth, in inches

FM 3-34.343
F
F
b
R
b
R d d
LEGEND:
F = force R
R
b = width
d = depth Strong orientation Weak orientation
R = reaction
Figure E-6. Stringer Orientations for Section Modulus
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
E-11. If a body is at rest under the action of forces, it is said to be in
equilibrium. To keep a body in equilibrium, the following three conditions
must be met:
• The algebraic sum of all forces in a horizontal direction must equal
zero (Σ FH = 0). The forces acting to the right are considered positive
and the forces acting to the left are considered negative.
• The algebraic sum of all forces in a vertical direction must equal zero
(ΣFv= 0). The forces acting upward are considered positive and the
forces acting downward are considered negative.
• The algebraic sum of all moments about any point must equal zero
(Σ M = 0). The moments acting clockwise are considered positive the
moments acting counterclockwise are considered negative.
E-12. These three conditions of static equilibrium are useful in analyzing the
loading of structural members in a fixed bridge. For example, Figure E-7
shows a simply supported stringer in equilibrium with a 10-kip load acting
vertically at midspan. To design the supports, use the three conditions for
equilibrium to determine the reactions at Points A and B. For this example,
ignore the dead-load effects of the stringer.
E-13. There are no horizontal forces, so the value for ∑FH is zero. Since the
stringer is in equilibrium, the value for ∑Fv is also zero. The values for the
reactions at Points A and B are unknown. However, even with two unknowns,
the following equation must be true:
Σ 10Fv = R A – P + R B = 0 (E-7)
= R A – 10 + R B = 0

FM 3-34.343
where—
∑Fv = total vertical forces on the stringer, in kips

RA = reaction at Point A, in kips
P = applied load, in kips
RB = reaction at Point B, in kips
10′ P = 10 kips
Point A Point B
RA RB
LEGEND:
P = force (applied load)
RA = reaction at Point A
RB = reaction at Point B
Figure E-7. Static Equilibrium
E-14. The moments about any point must also equal zero. The first step in
summing the moments is to choose the point around which to sum the
moments (the assumed point of rotation). The point of rotation can be
anywhere on or off the beam, but it should eliminate one of the unknowns
from the summation of moments equation.
E-15. Start at the left support (Point A) and sum all the moments caused by
all the forces acting on the beam. The moment caused by a force equals the
load multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the force’s line of action to
the point of rotation. Since all the forces acting on the beam are vertical, find
the horizontal distance from the point at which the load acts to Point A. Sum
all of the forces about Point A as follows:
Σ M A = R A ( 0 ) + Px + R B L = R A ( 0 ) + 10 ( 10 ) + [ -R B ( 20 ) ] (E-8)
where—
∑MA = total moment about the point of rotation, in kip-feet

RA = vertical reaction at Point A, in kips
x = distance from Point A to the load, in feet
RB = vertical reaction at Point B, in kips

FM 3-34.343
E-16. Every force that acts on the beam must be included in the summation.
The value for RA(0) equals zero, so the unknown RA drops out of the equation
and only one unknown is left. With only one unknown, compute the reaction
at Point B as follows:
10 ( 10 ) – R B 20 = 0 (E-9)
10 ( 10 )
R B = ----------------- = 5
20
where—

E-17. With a value for the reaction at Point B, find the value for the reaction
at Point A as follows:
R A – 10 + 5 = 0 (E-10)
R A = 10 – 5 = 5
where—

E-18. If a force is applied at the midspan, the reactions at the ends should
equal one-half the force and be opposite in direction. Providing values for the
shear equation will prove this.
Σ F v = R A – P + RB = 5 – 10 + 5 = 0 (E-11)
where—
∑Fv = total vertical forces on the stringer, in kips

E-19. By knowing the values of RA and RB, all of the external forces acting on
the beam are known. The internal reactions caused by the inside of the beam
due to the external forces is determined next.
INTERNAL REACTIONS
E-20. To span a gap, a beam must remain rigid to keep from bending and
falling into the gap (unlike a cable which bends and falls). The force that
prevents a beam from bending is called the internal moment force. The beam
must also have internal shear forces or it will not be able to resist cutting
forces acting on it. As the beam must be rigid enough to span a gap, it must be
in static equilibrium both internally and externally. The equilibrium
equations apply both to the beam as a whole or to any portion of the beam.
E-21. Internal shear and moment act as a couple—two equal forces acting in
opposite directions—as illustrated in the free-body diagrams in Figure E-8. In
shear and moment calculations, always assume a positive couple. Then, if the

FM 3-34.343
assumptions are correct, the calculations will show positive shear or moment.
If the assumptions are incorrect, the calculations will show negative shear or
moment. If each shear-and-moment couple used the same negative and
positive designation as those for the forces in static equilibrium, each couple
would show both positive and negative forces. For this reason, use the sign
conventions shown in the legend for Figure E-8. To determine the internal
shear and moment values, analyze either of the free-body diagrams
(Figure E-8) as if each were a separate beam with two unknown forces acting
on the ends.
10 K
X 10 K
Vi Vi
5K 5K
RA RB
LEGEND:
X = perpendicular distance
K = kips
Vi = internal shear
Figure E-8. Internal Shear and Moment Reactions
INTERNAL SHEAR FORCE

E-22. To determine the internal shear force, set the sum of the total vertical
forces equal to zero. In Figure E-8 then, the only forces acting on the beam are
the 5-kip reaction at Point A and the internal shear force. To work out the
units correctly, always analyze the free-body diagram to the left of the point of
interest. Begin at the far left of the diagram and work to the shear at the point
of interest (Figure E-9, page E-10) using the following equation:
Σ FV = RA – Vi = 5 – Vi = 0 (E-12)

FM 3-34.343
where—
∑ FV = total shear, in kips

Vi = internal shear of the member, in kips
Σ F V = 5 kips – V i = 0 → V i = 5 kips
Vi
LEGEND:
FV = total shear
5 kips Vi = internal shear
Figure E-9. Internal Shear Force
INTERNAL MOMENT
E-23. To find the internal moment, sum the moments of all the forces to the
left of the point of interest (Figure E-9). The best assumed point of rotation is
at the center of the point of interest. Begin at the far left of the diagram and
work to the moment at the point of interest (Figure E-10) using the following
equation:
Σ M = R A x + V i ( 0 ) – ( – Mi ) = 5x + 50 – M i = 0 (E-13)
Mi = 5x
where—
∑M = total moment in the member, in kip-feet

x = distance from the rotation point (Point A) to the point of interest, in feet
Vi = internal shear at the point of interest, in kips
Mi = internal moment in the member, in kip-feet
E-24. Although the internal moment equals the reaction at Point A times the
distance from the point of rotation to the point of interest, the value of the
internal moment is not multiplied by a distance. This is because it is a
moment force, not a vertical force. Instead, it is just given the proper sign and
added to the equation.
SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

E-25. A convenient way to portray the internal shear and moment due to
external forces at any section of a beam is to construct diagrams. The best way
to illustrate shear and moment diagrams is by the two examples discussed
below.

FM 3-34.343
5K
X
Mi
LEGEND:
K = kips 5K
Mi = internal moment in
the member
X = distance
Figure E-10. Internal Moment
EXAMPLE ONE
E-26. For shear and moment diagrams, start with a diagram of the beam. For
this example, Figure E-11 shows a beam with two concentrated loads acting
on it.
10 K 20 K
Point A Point B Point C Point D
10′ 10′ 20′
RA = 17.5 K RB = 12.5 K
LEGEND:
K = kips
Figure E-11. Internal Moment for Example One
Shear Diagram
E-27. A shear diagram always begins and ends with the shear value equal to
zero. The first step in drawing shear diagrams is to determine the support
reactions due to the applied loads (use the conditions of static equilibrium).
Next, draw a baseline directly below the beam diagram and to the same
horizontal scale (Figure E-12, page E-12). This line represents the horizontal
axis where the value of shear equals zero. Draw light vertical lines at the ends
of the baseline to mark the beginning and end of the diagram. The key
locations are to the immediate right and left of any load or reaction. Find the
internal shear of the key locations (listed in equation E-14) in the beam from
the reaction at Point A (RA).

FM 3-34.343
V A = R A = 17.5 kips (E-14)
V B1 = R A = 17.5 kips
V B2 = R A – 10 kips = 7.5 kips
V C1 = R A – 10 kips = 7.5 kips
V C2 = R A – 10 kips – 20 kips = – 12.5 kips
V D = R A – 10 kips – 20 kips + R B = 0
where—
VA = internal shear at Point A

VB1 = internal shear just to the left of Point B
VB2 = internal shear just to the right of Point B
VC1 = internal shear just to the left of Point C
VC2 = internal shear just to the right of Point C
VD = internal shear at Point D
10 K 20 K
10′ 10′ 20′
RA = 17.5 K RB = 12.5 K
Beam
17.5 K
7.5 K
V=0 0K
LEGEND: -12.5 K -12.5 K

K = kips
V = internal shear
Figure E-12. Shear Diagram for Example One
E-28. Plot the shear values on the diagram as shown in Figure E-12. All
values above the line are positive and those values below the line are negative.
As the diagram shows, the internal shear remains constant between applied
loads. Internal shear only changes at points where the load is applied. The
shear value for the beam equals the reactions in the supports at the ends of
the beam.

FM 3-34.343
Moment Diagram
E-29. Begin the moment diagram by drawing a baseline directly below the
shear diagram and to the same horizontal scale (Figure E-13). The baseline is
the reference line where the moment equals zero.
10 K 20 K
10′ 10′ 20′
RA = 17.5 K RB = 12.5 K
Beam
17.5 K
7.5 K
V=0 0K
-12.5 K -12.5 K
Shear diagram
250 K
C
175 K
B
M=0 0 kip-feet
A D
LEGEND:
A = Point A
B = Point B
C = Point C
D = Point D
K = kips
M = moment
V = internal shear
Figure E-13. Moment Diagram for Example One

FM 3-34.343
E-30. The key points for moment are at the points of the applied loads (Points
A, B, C, and D in the diagram). To find the values for internal moment at the
key points, start at Point A and work to the right, summing all of the
moments (listed in equation E-15) to the left of the point of interest. A moment
is a force times the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the
force and the point at which moments are summed.
M A = 17.5 ( 0 ) = 0 (E-15)
M B = 17.5 ( 10 ) – 10 ( 0 ) = 175 kip-feet
M C = 17.5 ( 20 ) – 10 ( 10 ) – 20 ( 0 ) = 250 kip-feet
M D = 17.5 ( 40 ) – 10 ( 30 ) – 20 ( 20 ) + 12.5 ( 0 ) = 0
where—
MA = moment at Point A
MB = moment at Point B
MC = moment at Point C
MD = moment at Point D
E-31. Plot the values for internal moment as shown in Figure E-13,
page E-13. As the diagram shows, maximum shear is at the ends of the beam
and maximum moment is at the center of the beam. The shear and moment
anywhere along the beam can be determined from this diagram.
EXAMPLE TWO
E-32. Figure E-14 shows a diagram for a uniformly loaded beam. A uniform
load includes the weights of the beam, bridge deck, and snow or ice loads that
are applied evenly along the length of a beam. Tracked vehicles also distribute
loads along the length of the span. Uniformly distributed loads are expressed
in an amount of loading per foot of span (in kips).
W = 2 kip-feet
20′
RA RB
LEGEND:
W = uniform load on the span
Figure E-14. Uniform Load

FM 3-34.343
External Forces
E-33. The first step in drawing shear and moment diagrams is finding the
external reactions at the supports. The total vertical forces and the total
moments will both equal zero. The vertical forces acting in an upward
direction are the unknown reactions at the supports. The vertical forces acting
in a downward direction are the uniformly distributed load. To determine the
total load acting downward on the span, multiply the uniformly distributed
load by the span length. Compute as follows:
Σ F V = R A + wL + RB = R A + [ – 2 ( 20 ) ] + R B = 0 (E-16)
where—
∑FV = algebraic sum of all the vertical forces

w = uniform load on the span, in kpf
E-34. Since the equation has two unknowns, use the condition for moment in
equilibrium. To determine the moment caused by the uniform load, convert
the load to an equivalent concentrated load. The equivalent concentrated load
is equal to the uniform load multiplied by the span length. It is positioned at
the midspan (Figure E-15).
2 x 20 = 40 kip-feet
W = 2 kip-feet
20′ 10′ 10′
LEGEND:
W= uniform load on the span
Figure E-15. Uniform to Concentrated Load for Example Two
E-35. To get rid of one of the unknowns in equation E-8, sum the moments
about one of the supports (Point A or B). Compute as follows:
• For this example, start at the far left of the diagram for the
concentrated load and sum the moments about Point A.
Σ M A = R A ( 0 ) + Px + R B L = R A ( 0 ) + 40 ( 10 ) + [ – R B ( 20 ) ] = 0 (E-17)
where—
∑MA = total moment about Point A, in kips

FM 3-34.343

P = concentrated load, in kips
x = distance from the point of rotation to the point of interest, in feet
• To solve for the value of the reaction at Point B, use equation E-9.
400 – R B 20 = 0 (E-18)
400
R B = --------- = 20 kips
20
where—

• With a value for the reaction at Point B, find the value for the reaction
at Point A.
R A – 40 + 20 = 0 (E-19)
R A = 40 – 20 = 20 kips
where—
Shear Diagram
E-36. Figure E-16 shows a uniformly loaded beam. Calculate for shear as
follows:
• To compute the internal shear of the beam, start at the far left and
sum all of the vertical forces to the point of interest (Figure E-17) as
follows:
ΣF V = R A – Wx – V i = 20 – 2x – V i = 0 (E-20)
where—
∑FV = total shear about Point A, in kips

W = applied load, in kpf
x = some distance, in feet
Vi = internal shear, in kips
• To find the value for internal shear, substitute varying values for
distance in the following equation:
V i = R A – Wx (E-21)
= 20 – 2 ( 5 ) = 10 kips

FM 3-34.343
= 20 – 2 ( 10 ) = 0 kips
= 20 – 2 ( 15 ) = – 10 kips
= 20 – 2 ( 20 ) = – 20 kips
where—
Vi = internal shear, in kips

W = applied load, in kpf
x = some distance, in feet
2 kip-feet
20 kips 20 kips
Figure E-16. Beam Diagram for Example Two
20 kip-feet 2 kip-feet
MX
20 K X VX X 20 K
2 kip-feet
MX
LEGEND:
MX = moment 20 K X VX
VX = shear
X = perpendicular distance
K = kips
Figure E-17. Sum Forces to Left of the Cut

FM 3-34.343
E-37. Analyzing the equation algebraically will show that internal shear is a
linear function of the distance from the support. Plotting the results of the
equation gives a straight line that starts at 20, for a length value equal to 0,
and ends at -20, for a length value equal to 20 (Figure E-18).
W = 2 kip-feet
20′
RA RB
Beam
+20
+10
0
V=0 V = 0 kips
-10
LEGEND: -20
V = shear Shear Diagram
W = uniform load
Figure E-18. Shear Diagram for Example Two
Moment Diagram
E-38. Begin the moment diagram by deriving a general equation for internal
moment at any point. To do this, pretend to cut the beam at an unknown
distance from the left support. Sum all of the moments about the cut point.
Then, convert the portion of the uniformly distributed load acting on the span
to the left of the cut into an equivalent concentrated load (Figure E-19).
• Compute the internal moment by summing the moments about
Point D for all the forces acting to the left:
Σ M d = R A x + –2 x  --- + V i ( 0 ) + ( –M i ) = 20x – x – M i = 0
x 2
(E-22)
2
where—
∑Md = total moment at the point of interest, in kip-feet

x = distance from the point of rotation to the point of interest, in
feet
Vi = internal shear at the point of interest, in kips
Mi = internal moment at the point of interest, in kip-feet

FM 3-34.343
• Compute the moment at the point of interest as follows:

2
Mi = RA x – x (E-23)
where—
Mi = internal moment at the point of interest, in kip-feet

x = distance from the point of rotation to the point of interest, in feet
• Find the value for internal moment by substituting varying values for
distance into equation E-22 and plotting the results on a moment
diagram as shown in Figure E-20, page E-20.
2 kip-feet 2(X) kips
MX
X VX X/2 X/2 VX
LEGEND:
MX = moment
VX = shear
X = distance
Figure E-19. Uniform to Concentrated Load
SHEAR- AND MOMENT-DIAGRAM CHARACTERISTICS

E-39. Figure E-21, pages E-21 through E-26, shows shear and moment
diagrams and their related equations for specific loading conditions.

FM 3-34.343
W = 2 kip-feet
20′
RA RB
Beam
+20
+10
0
V=0 V = 0 kips
Shear Diagram -10

-20
100
75 75
M=0 M = 0 kip-feet
Moment Diagram
LEGEND:
M = moment
V = shear
W = uniform load on the span
Figure E-20. Moment Diagram for Example Two

FM 3-34.343
1. Simple beam—uniformly distributed load.
wl
R = V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ------
2
x wl
Vx. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = w  --- – x
1
R R 2
1/2 2
1/2 wl
M max (at center) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = --------
8
V
wx
Shear V Mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ------- ( l – x )
2
4
∆ max (at center). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5wl
= --------------
384E
M max
∆ x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wx 3 2 3
= ---------- ( l – 2lx + x )
24E
Moment
LEGEND:
E = modulus of elasticity V = shear
l = span length w = uniform load on the span
M = moment x = distance
R = reaction
2. Simple beam—load increasing uniformly to one end.

W
R1 = V1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -----
3
l 2W
x W R2 = V2 max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---------
3
R1 R2 2
W Wx
Vx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ----- – ------------
2
0.5774l 3 l
l 2Wl
V1 M max (at x = ------- = 0.5774l) . . . . . . . . . . . = ----------- = 0.1283 Wl
Shear V2 3 9 3
Wx 2 2
Mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = --------2- ( l – x )
3l
M max 3
8 Wl
x = l 1 – ------ = 0.5193l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.01304 ----------
Moment 15 E
∆ x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ----------------------2 - ( 3x – 10l x + 7l 4 )
Wx 4 2 2
180E ( l )
LEGEND:
l = span length V1 = shear at Point 1
M = moment V2 = shear at Point 2
R1 = reaction at Point 1 W = applied load
R2 = reaction at Point 2 x = distance
Figure E-21. Shear and Moment Diagrams

FM 3-34.343
3. Simple beam—load increasing uniformly to center.

W
R = V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -----
2
l l W 2 2
x Vx (when x < --- ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------2 ( l – 4x )
W 2 2l
R R
Wl
M max (at center) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------
1/2 1/2
6
2
l
Mx (when x < --- ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = Wx  --- – --------2-
1 2x
V
2 2 3l
Shear V
3
∆ max (at center). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = Wl
----------
60E
M max
∆ x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wx
= ----------------------
2
2 2 2
- ( 5l – 4x )
Moment 480E ( l )
LEGEND:
R1 = reaction at Point 1 W = applied load
4. Simple beam—uniform load partially distributed.
l
x wb
wb R1 = V1 (max when a < c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------- ( 2c + b )
2l
R1 R2
wb
R2 = V2 (max when a > c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------- ( 2a + b )
b c
2l
a
Vx (when x > a and < [a + b]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 – w ( x – a )
V1 Shear
R R
M max (at x = a + ------1- ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1  a + -------1-
V2
R1 w 2w
a + -------
w Mx (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 x
M max w 2
Mx (when x > a and < [a + b]) . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 x – ---- ( x – a )
2
Moment
Mx (when x > [a + b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 2 ( l – x )
LEGEND:
a = distance R2 = reaction at Point 2
b = distance V1 = shear at Point 1
c = distance V2 = shear at Point 2
l = span length w = uniform load on the span
R1 = reaction at Point 1
Figure E-21. Shear and Moment Diagrams (continued)

FM 3-34.343
5. Simple beam—uniform load partially distributed at one end.

wa
R1 = V1 max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------- ( 2l – a )
l 2l
x 2
wa
R2 = V2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ----------
R1 R2 2l
wa V (when x > a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 – wx
a 2
R R1
M max (at x = ------1- ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---------
V1 w 2w
V2 2
R Shear wx
1 Mx (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 x – -----------
-------
W 2
Mx (when x > a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 2 ( l – x )
M max wx 2 2 2 3
∆ x (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . = ------------- [ a ( 2l – a ) – 2ax ( 2l – a ) + lx ]
24El
2
Moment wa ( l – x ) 2 2
∆ x (when x > a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------------------------- ( 4xl – 2x – a )
24El
LEGEND:
a = distance R1 = reaction at Point 1 V2 = shear at Point 2
E = modulus of elasticity R2 = reaction at Point 2 w = uniform load on the span
l = span length V1 = shear at Point 1 x = distance
M = moment
6. Simple beam—uniform load partially distributed at each end.

2
l w 1 a ( 2l – a ) + w 2 c
R1 = V 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------------------------------------------------
-
x 2l
2
R1 R2 w 2 c ( 2l – c ) + w 1 a
w1 a w2 c R2 = V2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------------------------------------------------
-
2l
a b c Vx (when x < a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 – w 1 x
V1 Vx (when x > a and < [a + b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 – R 2

R V2 Vx (when x > [a + b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 2 – w 2 ( l – x )
1 Shear
--------
w1 2
R R1
M max (at x = ------1- when R1 < w1a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ----------
w1 2w 1
M max
2
R R2
Moment M max (at x = l – ------2- when R2 < w2c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ----------
w2 2w 2
2
w1 x
Mx (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 x – -------------
2
w1a
Mx (when x > a and < [a + b]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 x – ---------- ( 2x – a )
2
2
w2 ( l – x )
Mx (when x > [a + b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 2 ( l – x ) – -------------------------
2
LEGEND:
a = distance R1 = reaction at Point 1 V2 = shear at Point 2
b = distance R2 = reaction at Point 2 w1 = uniform load at Point 1
c = distance V = shear w2 = uniform load at Point 2
l = span length V1 = shear at Point 1 x = distance
M = moment

FM 3-34.343
7. Simple beam—concentrated load at center.
l P
P R = V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ----
x 2
R R Pl
M max (at point of load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -----
4
1/2 1/2 1 Px
Mx (when x < --- ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------
2 2
V
3
Shear V
∆ max (at point of load). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pl
= ----------
48E
∆ x (when x < --1- ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = Px 2 2
---------- ( 31 – 4x )
M max 2 48E
Moment
LEGEND:
E = modulus of elasticity R = reaction
l = span length V = shear
P = concentrated load
8. Simple beam—concentrated load at any point.
l
Pb
x P R1 = V1 (max when a < b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------
l
R R
Pa
R2 = V2 (max when a > b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -------
a
l
b
Pab
M max (at point of load). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -----------
V1 l
V2 Pbx
Mx (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = -----------
Shear l
a ( a + 2b ) ( a + 2b ) 3a ( 2 + 2b )
M max
∆ max (at x = ------------------------- when a > b) . . . = Pab
3
-------------------------------------------------------------------
3El
2 2
Moment ∆ a (at point of load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pa b
= ----------------
3El
∆ x (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pbx 2 2 2

= ----------- ( l – b – x )
6El
LEGEND:
E = modulus of elasticity R2 = reaction at Point 2
P = concentrated load x = distance
R1 = reaction at Point 1

FM 3-34.343
9. Simple beam—two equal concentrated loads symmetrically placed.
l
P P
x R=V .......................................... =P
R R
a a M max (between loads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = Pa
Mx (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = Px
V
Shear V ∆ max (at center) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---------
Pa 2 2
- ( 3l – 4a )
24E
∆ x (when x < a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = P------x- ( 3l a – 3 a2 – x2 )

6E
M max
∆ x (when x > a and < [l -a]) Pa 2 2
. . . . . . . . . = ------- ( 3l x – 3 x – a )
6E
Moment
LEGEND:
a = distance P = concentrated load
E = modulus of elasticity R = reaction
l = span length V = shear
10. Simple beam—two equal concentrated loads unsymmetrically placed.
l P
R1 = V1 (max when a < b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---- ( l – a + b )
x P P l
R1 R2 P
R2 = V2 (max when a > b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---- ( l – b + a )
l
a b P
Vx (when x > a and < [l - b]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---- ( b – a )
l
V1
M1 (max when a > b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .= R1a
Shear V2
M2 (max when a < b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .= R2b
M2 Mx (when x < a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R1x

M1
Moment Mx (when x > a and < [l - b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R1x - P(x - a)
LEGEND:
a = distance M1 = moment at Point 1 R2 = reaction at Point 2
b = distance M2 = moment at Point 2 V1 = shear at Point 1
l = span length P = concentrated load V2 = shear at Point 2
M = moment R1 = reaction at Point 1 x = distance

FM 3-34.343
11. Simple beam—two unequal concentrated loads unsymmetrically placed.

P1 ( l – a ) + P2 b
x R1 = V1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = --------------------------------------
-
P1 P2 l
R1 R2 P1 a + P 2 ( l – b )
R2 = V2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = --------------------------------------
-
l
a b
Vx (when x > a and < [l - b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R1 - P1
V1
M1 (max when R1 < P1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R1a
Shear V2
M2 (max when R2 < P2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R2b
M2 Mx (when x < a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R1x

M1
Moment Mx (when x > a and < [l - b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .= R1x - P1(x - a)
LEGEND:
a = distance P1 = concentrated load at Point 1 V2 = shear at Point 2
b = distance P2 = concentrated load at Point 2 x = distance
l = span length R1 = reaction at Point 1
M1 = moment at Point 1 R2 = reaction at Point 2
M2 = moment at Point 2 V1 = shear at Point 1
12. Beam fixed at one end, supported at other—uniformly distributed load.

3wl
l R1 = V1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---------
8
wl
5wl
R2 = V2 max. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---------
R1 R2 8
x Vx. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R1 - wx
2
wl
M max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = --------
V1 8
Shear V2 3 9 2
M1 (at x = --- l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ---------- wl
8 128
3/8l 1/4
2
wx
Mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = R 1 x – ----------
2
M1 M max
4
Moment ∆ max (at x l wl
= ------ ( 1 + 33 ) = 0.4215l ) . . . . . . . . . . = --------------
16 185E
∆ x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wx 3 2 3
= ---------- ( l – 3lx + 2x )
48E
LEGEND:
E = modulus of elasticity R2 = reaction at Point 2
M1 = moment at Point 1 w = uniform load on the span

Appendix F
Classification Examples
This appendix contains classification examples using the analytical
classification procedure. Refer to Chapter 3 for a detailed discussion of the
equations.
NOTATIONS
F-1. This appendix contains examples for classifying a bridge using the
analytical classification procedure. The following notations are used in this
appendix:
A = net area of the section, in square inches, or compression area of

the arch ring segment, in square inches
Aangles = angle area
A angles = net angle area
net
Ab = area of one reinforcing bar

Af = cross-sectional flange area, in square inches
Af(1) = area of girder flange, in square inches
Afa = area of angles connecting the flange to the web on a girder, in
square inches
Aflanges = flange area
Ag = gross cross-sectional area, in square inches
Agirder = girder area
An = net area of the bottom truss chord, in square inches
Ap = cross-sectional area of a bar or tendon, in square inches
Aplates = plate area
A plates = net plate area
net
Aps = total area of the prestressed steel in the bottom half of the beam
at midspan, in square inches
Arivets = rivet area
As = area of bearing plates, square inches
Ast = area of tension steel, in square inches
At = total area of the tension chord of one truss, in square inches
Av = effective shear area, in square inches
Aweb = web area
Classification Examples F-1

FM 3-34.343
b = arch-rib width, in inches

b′ = beam width, in inches
be = effective slab width, in feet
bs = stringer or slab width, in inches
c = allowable compressive force, in kips
C = reduction factor
Cc = buckling coefficient
d = stringer depth, in inches
d′ = distance from the top of the beam to the center of the tension
steel, in inches
df = depth of fill above the arch ring, in feet
di = inside web depth of the girder measured between the top and
bottom pieces
do = depth of the compression zone, in inches
steel, in inches
ds = distance from the top of the slab to the center of the
nonprestressed steel, in inches
dw = total depth of the girder, in inches
f′c = 28-day strength of the concrete, in ksi
fDL = dead-load compression for steel, in ksi
fps = average stress in the prestressed steel at the design load, in ksi
fpu = ultimate strength of the prestressed steel, in ksi
fsy = yield strength of the nonprestressed reinforcing steel, in ksi
ft = allowable tension in the suspended cable, in ksi
F′ = smaller of tensile or compressive force on the chords, in kips
Fa = allowable axial compression, in ksi
Fc = allowable axial compressive stress, in ksi
FDL = stress induced in the steel by the dead-load moment, in ksi
FLL = allowable live-load stress for steel or concrete, in ksi
Ft = allowable tension on the bottom chord, in ksi
Fv = maximum allowable shear stress, in ksi
Fy = yield strength of the reinforcing steel, in ksi
HDL = redundant horizontal thrust, in ksi
HLL = horizontal-loading component, in kips
Ic = moment of inertia for the combined beam section, in inches
Io = moment of inertia for geometric portions of the beam, in
inches4
F-2 Classification Examples

FM 3-34.343
Is = moment of inertia for the combined beam section, in inches4

K = material constant
Leff = equivalent span length
Lx = unbraced length in the vertical direction, in inches
Ly = unbraced length in the horizontal direction, in inches
m = moment capacity of a component, in kip-feet
mDL = dead-load moment per component, in kip-feet
M = total moment capacity, in kip-feet
N1 = maximum effective number of stringers for one-lane traffic
N1,2 = the smaller value of N1 and N2
N2 = maximum effective number of stringers for two-lane traffic
Nt = number of trusses
PcLL = live-load capacity of the bridge, in kips
Pe = effective load per track or line of wheels, in kips
PLL = live-load capacity of the bridge, in kips
r = minimum radius of gyration of the member, in inches
rm = modular ratio
rx = radius of gyration for the x axis
ry = radius of gyration for the y axis
R = rise of the arch, in feet
Rps = prestressed reinforcement ratio
Rr = reinforcement ratio
Rs = steel ratio, in square inches
Sb = lateral-brace spacing, in feet
Scomposite = section modulus of the composite section, in cubic inches
Se = center-to-center track or wheel spacing, in feet
Sgirder = section modulus of the girder
Sr = rib spacing, in feet
Ssteel = section modulus of steel, in cubic inches
St = center-to-center truss spacing, in feet
ST-B = center-to-center T-beam spacing, in inches
t = thickness of the arch ring

FM 3-34.343

T = tensile force on the bottom chord, in kips
TDL = dead-load component of the cable capacity
T1 = tracked vehicles, one-lane traffic
T2 = tracked vehicles, two-lane traffic
TLL = live-load capacity of the suspended cable, in kips
v = shear capacity per member, in kips
vDL = dead-load shear per member, in kips
vLL = live-load shear capacity per member, in kips
VLL = allowable vehicle shear for one lane, in kips
wb = uniform dead load due to lateral bracing of floor stringers, in
kpf
wDL = dead-load capacity per foot of member, in kips
wFS = uniform dead load on the girder due to the deck, stringers, and
floor beams, in kpf
wg = uniform dead load due to the girder itself, in kpf
W1 = wheeled vehicles, one-lane traffic
W2 = wheeled vehicles, two-lane traffic
WDL = total dead-load weight per foot per member, in kips
WLL = allowable live-load per member, in kips
x = impact factor
xr = reduction factor
y = distance from the baseline to the neutral axis of the simple
shape, in inches
yc = centroid of the composite section, in inches
TIMBER-STRINGER BRIDGE
F-2. In this example, Table F-1, pages F-5 and F-6, shows the procedure for
classifying a timber-stringer bridge and Table F-2, page F-6, contains a
classification summary. Figure F-1, page F-7, shows a sample bridge-
reconnaissance report for a timber-stringer bridge. Information from an on-
site inspection is as follows:
• The bridge is in good condition.
• All members are in good condition.
• The piling and abutment end beams have been treated to reduce
deterioration. Therefore, substructure is not rated.
• The bridge is about two years old.
• Each of the three spans are constructed identically, so the longer
(17-foot) span will be classified as the weakest span.
• The timber species is dense, select-structural Douglas fir.
• The horizontal splits are no longer than 6 inches.

FM 3-34.343
Table F-1. Classification Procedure for a Timber-Stringer Bridge
Step Equation/Procedure Consideration Computation

Allowable stress (dense, select- para 3-46 Fb = 1.9 ksi (stringers)
1
structural Douglas fir) Table C-1 = (1.33)(1.9) = 2.53 ksi
Ss = 3 ft, nail-laminated deck (≥6 in):
One lane:
10 10
para 3-32, 3-49 N 1 = ------ = ------ = 3.33
2 Number of effective members Ss 3
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
8.5 8.5
N 2 = ------- = ------- = 2.83
Ss 3
3 Equivalent span length para 3-42 Leff = (0.7)(17 ft) = 11.9 ft (interior span)
para 3-34, 3-49 S = 432 in3
FbS (eq 3-2)
4 m = ---------
12 ( 2.53 ) ( 432 )
Use Tables C-4 and m = ----------------------------- = 91.08 kip-feet
12
C-5 to find S.
8 × 18
W DL = ( 9 )  --------------- ( 32 ) +  6 × ------ ( 50 ) ( 24 )
1
 144   12
para 3-29, 3-35
+  2 × ------ ( 150 ) ( 24 ) + 100 = 1,588 lb/ft
Total dead-load weight of the bridge Compute for an 1
5 12
components average 1-ft length
of bridge span.
1,588 lb/ft
W DL = ------------------------- = 1.59 kpf
1,000
W DL para 3-29 W DL 1.59 kpf

6 w DL = ------------ w DL = ------------ = ------------------- = 0.176 kpf
NS (eq 3-1) NS 9
2 para 3-35 2
w DL L ( 0.176 ) ( 11.9 )
7 m DL = ------------------ (eq 3-3) m DL = ------------------------------------- = 3.12 kip-feet
8 8
L = Leff = 11.9 ft
m – m DL para 3-36 91.08 – 3.12

m LL = ---------------------- m LL = ------------------------------ = 87.96 kip-feet
8 1+x (eq 3-4) 1
x = 0 (timber)
One lane:
para 3-38 MLL = (3.33)(87.96) = 292.91 kip-feet
9 MLL = N1,2mLL
(eq 3-5) Two lanes:
MLL = (2.83)(87.96) = 248.93 kip-feet
Appendix B
Table B-2 or One lane: Two lanes:
10 Moment classification Figures B-1, B-2 W150 W150
para 3-43 T150 T150
L = 11.9 ft
para 3-46 Fv = 0.085 ksi (stringers)
11 Allowable shear stress
Table C-1 = (1.33)(0.085) = 0.113 ksi
12 Effective shear area Table C-4 Av = 96 in2
para 3-51
13 v = Av Fv v = (96)(0.113) = 10.85 kips
(eq 3-6)

FM 3-34.343
Table F-1. Classification Procedure for a Timber-Stringer Bridge (continued)

W DL L para 3-52 ( 0.176 ) ( 11.9 )
v DL = ----------------------------------  1 – ----------------------- = 0.783 kips
18
v DL = ----------------  1 – ------
14 d
2  6L (eq 3-7) 2  ( 6 ) ( 11.9 )
para 3-53
15 vLL = v - vDL vLL = 10.85 - 0.783 = 10.07 kips
(eq 3-8)
One lane:
 
V LL = ( 5.33 ) ( 10.07 )  ------------------------ = 44.71 kips
1
 2 
 0.6 + ----------
1 para 3-54 3.33
16 V LL = 5.33v LL ------------------------------
0.6 +  ----------
2 (eq 3-9) Two lanes:
N 
1,2
 
V LL = ( 5.33 ) ( 10.07 )  ------------------------ = 41.07 kips
1
 2 
 0.6 + ----------
2.83
Appendix B One lane: Two lanes:
Table B-2 or
17 Shear classification W43 W35
Figures B-3, B-4
T45 T41
L = 11.9 ft
S = (0.75)(3 ft) = 2.25 ft = 27 in
para 3-57, 3-58,
Deck classification
18 3-59 with t = 6 in
(laminated plank)
Figure 3-13 ∴ class 50-150
One lane: Two lanes:
para 3-61
19 Width classification W150 W60
Table 3-4
T150 T60
20 Final classification N/A W43 W35
T45 T41
Table F-2. Classification Summary for a Timber-Stringer Bridge
Classification W1 W2 T1 T2
Moment (step 10) 150 150 150 150
Shear (step 17) 43 35 45 41
Width (step 19) 150 60 150 60
Deck (step 18) 150 150 150 150
Final 43 35 45 41
NOTE: For one-lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, and deck classifica-
tions. Post a width-restriction sign if the width classification is smaller than the final classification. For two-lane
bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, width, and deck classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
a. SIDE ELEVATION SCALE
1 SQUARE = None
15′ 17′ 15′
3′ 4′ Pile abutments
12″ X 12″ 6, 12″ φ
piles
18′
Looking North (Cross bracing on

15′ spans omitted
for clarity)
b. CROSS SECTION OF CRITICAL SCALE d. SITE PLAN SCALE

SPAN 1 SQUARE = None 1 SQUARE = None
26′ Heavner 10 mi
2″ X 4″
(no
Ke
24′
13
wR
r ma
90
2″ asphalt wearing surface
un
lly
d
oa
dry
tR
es
)
r
Fo
3′
12″ X 6″ Rob’s
curbs Store
9 stringers
2″ X 6″ @ 100% deck
300′ AB123456
c. CROSS SECTION OF CRITICAL SCALE
MEMBER 1 SQUARE = None
US 210
(divided)
12″ 12″
18″
Piles 12″
8″ Caps Jacksonville
15 mi
Stringers N
24. Computation of Bridge Class
REVERSE, DA FORM 1249, 1 JUL 60
Figure F-1. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Timber-Stringer Bridge

FM 3-34.343
STEEL-STRINGER BRIDGE
F-3. In this example, Table F-3 shows the procedure for classifying a steel-
stringer bridge and Table F-4 contains a classification summary. Figure F-2,
page F-10, shows a sample bridge-reconnaissance report for a steel-stringer
bridge. Information from an on-site inspection is as follows:
• The bridge is in excellent condition.
• The date built is unknown.
• The steel-stringer sections were identified by comparing dimensions
with the section properties found in Appendix D.
• The concrete deck does not act to increase the moment capability of
the stringers. Therefore, it is noncomposite.
Table F-3. Classification Procedure for a Steel-Stringer Bridge
Yield stress F y = 30 ksi

para 3-63
1
Tables 3-5, 3-6
Allowable stress F b = 0.75F y = ( 0.75 ) ( 30 ) = 22.5 ksi
para 3-64 Section = W36x300

Fb S (eq 3-2)
2 m = ---------
12 Use Table D-2 to ( 22.5 ) ( 1,110 )
m = ---------------------------------- = 2,081.25 kip-feet
find S. 12
para 3-29, 3-35

Compute for an
average 1-ft
length of bridge
W′ DL = ( 5 ) ( 300 ) +  7 × ------ ( 28 ) + ( 2 ) ( 1 ) ( 4.33 )
span. For 1
W36x300,  12
Total dead-load weight of the bridge unit weight
3
components stringers = ( 150 ) + ( 20 ) ( 42.7 ) + 20 = 6,123 lb/ft
300 lb/ft
unit weight 6,123 lb/ft
W′ DL = ------------------------ = 6.12 kpf
concrete = 1,000
150 lb/ft3
unit weight braces
= 42.7 lb/ft
W ′ DL para 3-29 W ′ DL 6.12

4 w DL = --------------- w DL = --------------- = ---------- = 1.22 kpf
NS (eq 3-1) NS 5
2 2
w DL L para 3-35 ( 1.22 ) ( 72 )
5 m DL = ------------------ m DL = ----------------------------- = 790.56 kip-feet
8 (eq 3-3) 8
m – m DL para 3-36 2,081 – 790.56

m LL = ---------------------- m LL = ------------------------------------ = 1,122.12 kip-feet
6 1+x (eq 3-4) 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)

FM 3-34.343
Table F-3. Classification Procedure for a Steel-Stringer Bridge (continued)

Ss = 7 ft 10 in = 7.83 ft and concrete deck on steel I-
beams:
One lane:
para 3-32 14 14
7 Number of effective members N 1 = ------ = ---------- = 1.79
Table 3-3 Ss 7.83
Two lanes:
11 11
N 2 = ------ = ---------- = 1.40
Ss 7.83
One lane:
para 3-38 M LL = ( 1.79 ) ( 1,122.12 ) = 2,008.59 kip-feet
8 MLL = N1,2mLL
(eq 3-5) Two lanes:
M LL = ( 1.40 ) ( 1,122.12 ) = 1,570.97 kip-feet
Table B-2 or
9 Moment classification W65 W50
Figures B-1, B-2
L = 72 ft T60 T45
Seldom critical
10 Deck classification N/A
(para 3-65)
11 Width classification Table 3-4 W150 W100
T150 T100
12 Final classification para 3-66 W65 W50
T60 T45
Table F-4. Classification Summary for a Steel-Stringer Bridge
Moment (step 9) 65 50 60 45
Width (step 11) 150 100 150 100
Final 65 50 60 45
NOTE: For one-lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, and deck
classifications. Post a width-restriction sign if the width classification is smaller than the final classification. For
two-lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, width, and deck classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
SCALE
a. SIDE ELEVATION
1 SQUARE = None
72′
Concrete
15.5′ abutments
US Highway 212
Looking northwest
b. CROSS SECTION OF CRITICAL SCALE SCALE

SPAN 1 SQUARE = None d. SITE PLAN 1 SQUARE = None
Beck
1′ 1′ 1.6 mi
28′
3′ 3′ i
m
7″ Concrete slab 2
12″ hn
2′ 4″ Howard’s House Ha
of Snakes
ad
Large e Ro
tobacco at
St
7′ 10″ barn
31.33′ “Ring
5 lateral braces between
chew”
5 stringers (no
cover plates) each pair of stringers AB123456
MEMBER 1 SQUARE = None Wiederich
10 mi
1 5/8″ 5/8″
Lateral
18″ braces (16)
1/2″ US 212
36 3/4″ (4 lanes undivided)
1″
4″
Bearing plates
41″ N
16 5/8″
6″
Palmerton 12 mi
Stringers (5)
15″ 45″

NOTES:
Stringers identified as W36x300.
Lateral braces identified as C18 x 42.7.
Figure F-2. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Steel-Stringer Bridge

FM 3-34.343
COMPOSITE STEEL-CONCRETE STRINGER BRIDGE

F-4. In this example, Table F-5, pages F-11 through F-14, shows the
procedure for classifying a composite steel-concrete stringer bridge and
Table F-6, page F-14, contains a classification summary. Figure F-3,
page F-15, shows a sample bridge-reconnaissance report, and Figure F-4,
page F-16, shows a composite section of this bridge. Information from an on-
site inspection is as follows:
• The bridge is in excellent condition.
• Full lateral support of the stringers is provided by the connection with
the concrete deck.
• The steel-stringer sections were constructed from A36 steel (36 ksi
yield), according to civilian authorities.
• The concrete allowable stress is 4,000 psi (f′c = 4,000 psi; and rm = 8).
• Scomposite denotes the composite section modulus as determined
according to paragraph 3-75.
Table F-5. Classification Procedure for a Composite Steel-Concrete Stringer Bridge

para 3-63
Yield stress Fy = 36 ksi
1 A36 Steel
Allowable stress Fb = 0.75Fy = (0.75)(36) = 27 ksi
Table 3-6
W ′ DL = ( 8 )  ------ ( 150 ) ( 28 ft ) + ( 2 ) ( 2.2 ) ( 150 ) +

1
para 3-29, 3-35  12
Compute for an
Total dead-load weight of the bridge
40 + ( 4 ) ( 47.25 )  --------- ( 490 ) = 4,143.125 lb/ft
2 1
average 1-ft
components  144
length of bridge
span. 4,143.125 lb/ft
W DL = ----------------------------------- = 4.15 kpf
1,000
Ss = 8.33 ft:
One lane:
14 14
para 3-32 N 1 = ------ = ---------- = 1.68
3 Number of effective members Ss 8.33
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
11 11
N 2 = ------ = ---------- = 1.32
Ss 8.33
4 Equivalent span length para 3-42 Leff = (0.7)(80) = 56 ft (for interior span)
W ′ DL para 3-29 W ′ DL 4.15

5 w DL = --------------- w DL = --------------- = ---------- = 1.0375 kfp
Ns (eq 3-1) Ns 4
2 para 3-35 2
6
w DL L (eq 3-3) ( 1.0375 ) ( 56 )
m DL = ------------------ m DL = ----------------------------------- = 406.7 kip-feet
8 L = Leff = 56 ft 8

FM 3-34.343
Table F-5. Classification Procedure for a Composite Steel-Concrete Stringer Bridge (continued)
Section A y Ay
Bottom flange 22.50 0.9375 21.09
Web 18.00 25.8800 465.84
Top flange 6.75 50.1600 338.58
Σ= 47.25 — 825.51
825.51
Section modulus: y c = ---------------- = 17.47 in
47.25
Is
S steel = ---- 3
ys ( 12 ) ( 0.5625 )
I o top flange = ----------------------------------- = 0.1780
12
The values for y
ΣAy 3
y c = ---------- are given. ( 0.375 ) ( 48 )
7 ΣA I o web = -------------------------------- = 3,456
12
2 para 3-72
I s = ΣI o + ΣAy ( 12 ) ( 1.875 )
3
I o bottom flange = -------------------------------- = 6.59
12
3
bd
I o = ---------
12
2
Section A y Ay Io
Bottom flange 22.50 16.53 6,147.92 6.5900
Web 18.0 8.41 1,273.11 3,456.0000
Top flange 6.75 32.69 7,231.29 0.1780
Σ= — — 14,652.32 3,462.7700
Is = 3,462.77 + 14,652.32 = 18,115.09 in4

18,115.09 3
S steel = ------------------------ = 1,036.9 in
17.47
Lesser value of:
1
b″ = --- ( 0.8 ) ( 80 ) × 12 = 192 in
4
8 Effective concrete-flange width para 3-73
b″ = ( 12 ) ( 7 ) = 84 in
b″ = ( 8.33 ) ( 12 ) = 100 in
∴ b″ = 84 in
para 3-74 r m = 8 ( for f ′c = 4,000 psi )

9 Equivalent steel-flange width (eq 3-12) 84
Table 3-7 b′ = ------ = 10.5 in
8

FM 3-34.343
Section A y Ay
Concrete 73.50 53.9400 3,964.59
Top flange 6.75 50.1600 338.58
Web 18.00 25.8800 465.84
Bottom flange 22.50 0.9375 21.09
Σ= 120.75 — 4,790.10
Section modulus of composite section: 3

( 10.5 ) ( 7 )
I o concrete = -------------------------- = 300.13
Ic 12
S composite = -----
yc 3
( 12 ) ( 0.5625 )
I o top flange = ----------------------------------- = 0.1780
The values for y 12
Σ Ay are given. 3
y c = ------------ ( 0.375 ) ( 48 )
10 ΣA I o web = -------------------------------- = 3,456
12
para 3-75
3
Ic = Σ I o + Σ Ay 2 Figure F-4 ( 12 ) ( 1.875 )
I o bottom flange = -------------------------------- = 6.59
12
3
bd
I o = --------- 2
12 Section A y Ay Io
Concrete 73.50 14.27 14,967.02 300.1300
Top flange 6.75 10.49 742.77 0.1780
Web 18.00 13.79 3,422.95 3,456.0000
Bottom flange 22.50 38.73 33,750.29 6.5900
Σ= — — 52,883.03 3,762.8980
Ic = 3,762.9 + 52,883.03 = 56,645.93 in4

56,654.93 3
S composite = ------------------------ = 1,427.93 in
39.67
m DL 12 para 3-76 ( 406.7 ) ( 12 )

11 F DL = ------------------ F DL = ----------------------------- = 4.71 ksi
S steel (eq 3-13) 1,036.9
para 3-77
( F b – F DL )S composite ( 27 – 4.71 ) ( 1,427.93 )
12 m LL = ----------------------------------------------------- (eq 3-14) m LL = ----------------------------------------------------- = 2,306.42 kip-feet
( 1 + x )12 ( 1 + 0.15 ) ( 12 )
x = 0.15 (steel)

FM 3-34.343

One lane:
M LL = ( 1.68 ) ( 2,306.29 ) = 3,874.57 kip-feet
M LL = N 1, 2 m LL para 3-38
13
(eq 3-5) Two lanes:
M LL = ( 1.32 ) ( 2,306.29 ) = 3,044.30 kip-feet
Appendix B
Table B-2 or
14 Moment classification W150 W150
Figures B-1, B-2
L = Leff = 56 ft T150 T150

T150 T100
16 Final classification para 3-79 W150 W100
T150 T100
Table F-6. Classification Summary for a Composite Steel-Concrete Stringer Bridge
Moment (step 14) 150 150 150 150
Width (step 15) 150 100 150 100
Final 150 100 150 100
NOTE: For one-lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, and deck classifica-
tions. Post a width-restriction sign if the width classification is smaller than the final classification. For two-lane
bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, width, and deck classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
80′ 80′ 80′
16′ 16′
25′
Concrete East-bound West-bound

abutments lanes lanes
Interstate

28′ 2′8″
7″ iv e
Nagel and Son Dr
10″ l er
Hardware Store w
Fo
8′4″ 2′
AB123456
25′ 4′2″
Vines
3 mi
Cowgill
26 mi Interstate 100
(4 lanes divided)
(No wearing surface) County

Road 12
7″ 1 1/2″
Top flange Mullen Street

embedded in
concrete Lafortune County
50″ 3/8″ Sewage Treatment
Facility
1 7/8″
N
12″

NOTES: Details of stringer from as-built
Bearing plates: 12″″ x 16″″ x 2″.
″. plans on attached sheet.
No cover plates on stringer.
Figure F-3. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Composite

Steel-Concrete Stringer Bridge

FM 3-34.343
b″
b″/n
7″
1″
0.5625″ (9/16″)
48″
54.94″
50.44″
0.375″ (3/8″)
yc
25.22″
ys
1.875″ (1 7/8″)
12″
LEGEND:
n = modular ratio between concrete and steel
yc = centroid of the composite section
ys = centroid of the steel section alone
Figure F-4. Composite Section

FM 3-34.343
STEEL-GIRDER BRIDGE
procedure for classifying a steel-girder bridge, and Table F-8, page F-21,
contains a classification summary for a steel-girder bridge. Figure F-5,
page F-22, shows a sample bridge-reconnaissance report for a steel-girder
bridge. Figures F-6 and F-7, page F-23, show details of the girder. According to
civilian authorities, the deck is a concrete slab constructed of noncomposite
construction.
Table F-7. Classification Procedure for a Steel-Girder Bridge
Yield stress Fy = 30 ksi (unknown type and date)

para 3-63
1
Tables 3-5, 3-6
Allowable stress Fb = 0.75Fy = (0.75)(30) = 22.5 ksi
Effective number of girders:

One lane:
One lane:
( 2 ) ( 30 )
2S g N 1 = ------------------------------ = 1.36
30 + 24 – 10
N 1 = ----------------------------- para 3-83
S g + b r – 10 Two lanes:
(eq 3-15, 3-16)
2 Two lanes: para 3-84 C v = 24 – ( 2 ) ( 7 ) – 3 = 7
C v = b r – 2S e – 3 ≥ 2.0 ft (eq 3-17)
30
N 2 = --------------------------------------- = 1.0
Sg 30 + 24 – 17 – 7
N 2 = ------------------------------------------
S g + b r – 17 – C v
A f ( 1 ) = ( 15 ) ( 3 ) + ( 2 ) ( 6 × 0.75 ) + ( 2 ) ( 1 ) ( 3.75 )
Deduct cross- 2
sectional area of = 61.5 in
rivet holes. Use 2
Aw A w = ( 60 ) ( 1 ) – ( 10 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 ) = 50 in
3 S girder = d w  A f ( 1 ) + ------- + d i A fa approximate
 6 section modulus 2
equation. A fa = ( 2 ) ( 7.25 ) ( 0.75 ) – ( 2 ) ( 1 ) ( 2.5 ) = 5.88 in
(eq D-7)
S girder = 61  46.5 + ------ + ( 45 ) ( 5.88 ) = 3,609.41 in
50 3
6
Fb S para 3-86 ( 22.5 ) ( 3,609.41 )

4 m = --------- m = ----------------------------------------- = 6,767.64 kip-feet
12 (eq 3-18) 12
2
A flanges = ( 6 ) ( 15 ) ( 1 ) = 90 in
2
A angles = ( 4 ) ( 9.94 ) = 39.76 in
5 Area girder para 3-87
2
A web = ( 60 ) ( 1 ) = 60 in
2
A girder = ( 90 + 39.76 + 60 ) = 189.7 in

FM 3-34.343
Table F-7. Classification Procedure for a Steel-Girder Bridge (continued)

( 490 ) ( 24.7 ) ( 7 )
w FS = ( 7 ) ( 26 ) ( 150 ) +  -------------------------------------- +
 12 
 (----------------------------------------
490 ) ( 88.3 ) ( 30 ) ( 33.3 ) ( 4 – 1 )
- × -------------------------------------------- = 1.56 kpf
 ( 12 ) ( 33.3 )  ( 12,000 ) ( 2 ) ( 100 )
para 3-87
6 Dead load per girder (eq 3-19 through ( 490 ) ( 189.76 )
w g = ----------------------------------- = 0.646 kpf
3-22) 144,000
( 490 ) ( 6.09 ) ( 3.96 ) ( 72 )

w b = -------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0295 kpf
( 2 ) ( 100 ) ( 144,000 )
w DL = 1.565 + 0.646 + 0.0295 = 2.241 kpf
2 2
7 w DL L para 3-88 ( 2.241 ) ( 100 )
m DL = ------------------ (eq 3-23) m DL = ----------------------------------- = 2,801.25 kip-feet
8 8
m – m DL para 3-89 6,767.64 – 2,801.25

8 m LL = ---------------------- m LL = ------------------------------------------------ = 3,449.03 kip-feet
1+x (eq 3-24) 1 + 0.15
One lane:
M LL = ( 1.36 ) ( 3,449.03 ) = 4,690.68 kip-feet

M LL = N 1,2 m LL para 3-90
9
(eq 3-25) Two lanes:
M LL = ( 1.0 ) ( 3,449.03 ) = 3,449.03 kip-feet
Appendix C
para 3-91 One lane: Two lanes:
10 Girder moment classification Table B-2 or W100 W75
Figures B-1, B-2 T100 T75
L = 100 ft
( 490 ) ( 24.7 ) 1
w DL = ( 7 ) ( 4 ) ( 150 ) + ----------------------------- × ----------------
11 Dead load per stringer para 3-29, 3-35 12 12,000
= 0.434 kpf
Ss = 4 ft:
One lane:
14 14
para 3-32, 3-92 N 1 = ------ = ------ = 3.5
12 Effective number of stringers Ss 4
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
11 11
N 2 = ------ = ------ = 2.75
Ss 4
para 3-64
Fb S (eq 3-2) ( 22.5 ) ( 196 )
13 m = --------- m = ----------------------------- = 367.5 kip-feet
12 Use Table D-2 to 12
find S.
2 para 3-29, 3-35 2
w DL L (eq 3-3, 3-26) ( 0.434 kpf ) ( 33.3 ft )
14 m DL = ------------------ m DL = -------------------------------------------------- = 60.16 kip-feet
8 L = Sf = 33.3 ft 8

FM 3-34.343

para 3-36
m – m DL 367.5 – 60.16
15 m LL = ---------------------- (eq 3-4) m LL = --------------------------------- = 267.25 kip-feet
1+x 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)
One lane:
M LL = ( 3.5 ) ( 267.25 ) = 935.38 kip-feet

para 3-38
16 M LL = N 1,2 m LL
(eq 3-5) Two lanes:
M LL = ( 2.75 ) ( 267.25 ) = 734.94 kip-feet
Appendix B
Table B-2 or
17 Stringer moment classification W100 W80
Figures B-1, B-2
T75 T55
L = 33.3 ft
para 3-63, 3-93
18 Allowable shear stress Fv = 0.45Fy = (0.45)(30) = 13.5 ksi
Table 3-6
para 3-93
(eq 3-27)
19 v = Av Fv
Obtain Av from
v = (10.60 in2)(13.5 ksi) = 143.1 kips
Table D-2.
w DL S f para 3-93 ( 0.434 ) ( 33.3 )
20 v DL = ---------------- v DL = ---------------------------------- = 7.23 kips
2 (eq 3-28) 2
para 3-93
21 vLL = v - vDL vLL = 143.1 - 7.23 = 135.87 kips
(eq 3-29)
2v LL para 3-93 ( 2 ) ( 135.85 )
22 V LL = ------------ V LL = ----------------------------- = 236.26 kips
1.15 (eq 3-30) 1.15
Appendix B
Table B-3 or
23 Stringer shear classification W150 W150
Figures B-3, B-4
T150 T150
L = 33.3 ft
para 3-95
Fb S (eq 3-31) ( 22.5 ) ( 1,110 )
24 m = --------- for floor beams m = ---------------------------------- = 2,081.25 kip-feet
find S.
( 490 ) ( 24.7 ) ( 7 )
w DL = ( 7 ) ( 26 ) ( 150 ) +  -------------------------------------- +
 12 
para 3-96
25 Dead load per floor beam
(eq 3-32)
( 490 ) ( 88.3 ) ( 30 )
 ---------------------------------------- 33.3
- × ----------------------------------- = 1.04 kpf
 ( 12 ) ( 33.3 )  ( 12,000 ) ( 100 )
2 2
26
w DL S g para 3-96 ( 1.04 ) ( 30 )
m DL = -------------------- m DL = ----------------------------- = 117.0 kip-feet
8 (eq 3-33) 8
para 3-97
m – m DL 2,081.25 – 117.0
27 m LL = ---------------------- (eq 3-34) m LL = ---------------------------------------- = 1,708.04 kip-feet
1+x 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)
One-way traffic: para 3-98
P e = ( 2 ) ( 1,708.04 )  --------------- = 148.53 kips
(eq 3-35) 1
P e = 2m LL  -----------------
28 1
30 – 7
S –S g e Se = 7 ft

FM 3-34.343

para 3-98
Two-way traffic:
(eq 3-36)
P e = ( 1,708.04 )  ------------------------ = 106.75 kips
1
29
P e = m LL  -----------------------------
1 Use Cv as 30 – 7 – 7
S – S – C  computed in
g e v
step 2.
para 3-99
Figures 3-21
30 Floor-beam moment classification W150 W150
through 3-24
T150 T150
L = 33.3 ft
para 3-101
(eq 3-37)
31 v = Av Fv v = ( 31.5 ) ( 13.5 ) = 425.25 kips
Obtain Av from
Table D-2.
w DL S g para 3-102 ( 1.04 ) ( 30 )
32 v DL = ----------------- v DL = -------------------------- = 15.6 kips
2 (eq 3-38) 2
para 3-103
v – v DL ( 425.25 – 15.6 )
33 v LL = ------------------ (eq 3-39) v LL = ------------------------------------- = 356.22 kips
1+x 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)
P e = ( 356.22 ) ( 30 )  ------------------------------------
1
One-way traffic: 30 + 24 – 3 – 7
para 3-104
P e = v LL S g  ------------------------------------------ ≥ v LL
34 1
S + b – 3.0 – S
(eq 3-40) = 242.88 kips < 425.25 kips
g r e
∴ P e = 425.25 kips
Two-way traffic:
( 356.22 ) ( 30 )
P e = --------------------------------  ------------------------------------------------
1
v LL S g 2  30 + 24 – 3 – 27 – 7
P e = --------------- para 3-104
35 2 (eq 3-41) = 314.31 kips < 850.5 kips
 ---------------------------------------------------------
1
-
 S + b – 3.0 – 2S – C  ≥ 2v LL ∴ P e = 850.5 kips
g r e v

36 Floor-beam shear classification Figures 3-21 W150 W150
through 3-24 T150 T150
para 3-107
Not critical here.
T150 T60
T75 T55

FM 3-34.343
Table F-8. Classification Summary for a Steel-Girder Bridge
Girder (step 10) 100 75 100 75
Moment (stringer) (step 17) 100 80 75 55
Shear (stringer) (step 23) 150 150 150 150
Floor beam (moment) (step 30) 150 150 150 150
Floor beam (shear) (step 36) 150 150 150 150
Deck (step 37) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Width (step 38) 150 60 150 60
Final 100 60 75 55
classifications. Post a width-restriction sign if the width classification is smaller than the final classification. For
two-lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, width, and deck
classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
100′
Floor beams
(inside girders) 33.3′
Main 26″
girder Southern Railway
Concrete Freight Yard Concrete
abutment abutment
Looking south

Main
girder
BA123456
12″ 24′
7″
61″ Kenneth Street
To Jostville
4′ 3 braces between
each stringer Johnnie Street
Floor Isidro Railway Yard
beam
30′ To Fiscueberg
3/4″ 3″ James
Avenue
1/4″ Braces (27)
12″
1/2″
24″ 1/2″
I-75 2.3 mi
16 5/8″
9″
36 3/4″ 1″ Floor
Stringers (7)
beams N
1 5/8″ (4 total)

NOTES: Details of main girder and
Floor beam identified as W36x300. Stringers identified as W24x84. connections shown on
Lateral braces identified as C12 x 20.7. attached sheet.
Angles identified as 8 x 8 x 1/2 inches.
Figure F-5. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Steel-Girder Bridge

FM 3-34.343
3 plates (15″ x 1″)

3″
3″
3″
8″ x 6″ x 0.75″ angle
4.5″
60″ x 1″ plate
61″ 5@
8″
All rivets 1″ diameter
0.75″
4.5″
0.50″ gap 2.56″
3″
3″
3″
Figure F-6. Detail of the Main Girder
2
Area y Ay
0.75″
3″ 15 31.625 15,002
3″ 2.5″
5 27.500 3,781
3″ 2 24.500 3,001
4.5″ 2 20.000 800
30.5″
8″ 2 12.000 288
2 4.000 32
8″
4″
— — 22,904 in4
Figure F-7. Moment of Inertia of the Rivet Holes

FM 3-34.343
TRUSS BRIDGE
procedure for classifying a truss bridge. Table F-10, page F-28, contains a
classification summary. Figure F-8, page F-29, shows a sample bridge-
reconnaissance report for a truss bridge. Figures F-9 and F-10, page F-30,
show details of the bridge.
Table F-9. Classification Procedure for a Truss Bridge

Area tension cord:
2
A angles = 4 ( 2.11 ) = 8.44 in A t = A angles + A plates + A rivets
2 2
1 A plates = 2 ( 18 ) ( 1 ) = 36 in N/A = 8.44 + 36 + 1.77 = 46.21 in
2
π ( 0.75 ) 2
A rivets = --------------------- × 4 = 1.77 in
4
[ 190 ( 38 ) + 25 ( 46.21 ) + 260 ( 6 ) + 120 ( 7 ) – 2,400 ]

para 3-116 W DL = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 Through-deck truss 1,000
(eq 3-45)
= 8.375 kpf
W DL para 3-117 8.375
3 w DL = ------------ w DL = ------------- = 4.19 kpf
Nt (eq 3-46) 2
2 2
w DL L para 3-118 ( 4.19 ) ( 160 )
4 m DL = ------------------ m DL = -------------------------------- = 13,408 kip-feet
8 (eq 3-47) 8
Yield stress Fy = 30 ksi (unknown type and data)

para 3-63
5
Tables 3-5, 3-6
Allowable tensile stress Ft = 0.75Fy = 0.75(30) = 22.5 ksi
2
A angles = 8.44 – ( 4 ) ( 0.375 ) ( 0.75 ) = 7.32 in
net
Deduct cross-
2
6 Net-area tension chord sectional area of A plates = 36 – ( 4 ) ( 1 ) ( 0.75 ) = 33 in
rivet holes. net
2
A n = 7.32 + 33 = 40.32 in
para 3-119
7 T = Ft An T = ( 22.5 ) ( 40.32 ) = 907.2 kips
(eq 3-48)
para 3-120 L x = L y = 20 ft
KL x (eq 3-49, 3-50)
---------- KL x
rx Use K = 0.88 (for ( 0.88 ) ( 20 ) ( 12 )
---------- = -------------------------------------- = 30.09
8 unknown type). rx ( 0.39 ) ( 18 )
and— Determine rx and
ry from para D-15 KL y ( 0.88 ) ( 20 ) ( 12 )
KL y ---------- = -------------------------------------- = 30.72
---------- and eq D-8. ry ( 0.55 ) ( 12.5 )
ry

FM 3-34.343
Table F-9. Classification Procedure for a Truss Bridge (continued)

para 3-121
Table 3-9
KL
Cc = 138.1 ------- = 30.72 ≤ C c
r
(for unknown type
2
9 Allowable compressive stress and date). Use F c = 17,650 – ( 0.46 ) ( 30.72 ) = 17,215.89 psi
KL KL y
------- = ---------- 17,215.89
r ry F c = ------------------------ = 17.22 ksi
1,000
= 30.72
Area compression cord:
2
A angles = 2 ( 2.48 ) + 2 ( 4.0 ) = 12.96 in
A plates = 2 ( 18 ) ( 0.75 ) + 1 ( 21 ) ( 0.438 ) A g = A angles + A plates + A rivets

10 N/A
2
2 = 12.96 + 36.2 + 2.65 = 51.81 in
= 36.2 in
2
π ( 0.75 ) 2
A rivets = --------------------- × 4 = 2.65 in
4
para 3-121
11 C = Fc Ag C = (17.22)(51.81) = 892.17 kips
(eq 3-51)
para 3-122
(eq 3-52)
12 m = F′d′ m = (892.17)(24) = 21,412.08 kip-feet
F′ = C
= 892.17 kips
m – m DL para 3-123 21,412.08 – 13,408
13 m LL = ---------------------- m LL = ---------------------------------------------- = 6,960.07 kip-feet
1.15 (eq 3-53) 1.15
Effective numbers of trusses:

One lane: One lane:
2S t ( 2 ) ( 43 )
N 1 = ---------------------------- N 1 = ------------------------------ = 1.21
S t + b r – 10 43 + 38 – 10
para 3-124
14 Two lanes: (eq 3-54, 3-55, Two lanes:
3-56)
C v = b r – 2S e – 3.0 ≥ 2.0 ft C v = 38 – ( 2 ) ( 7 ) – 3 = 21
St 43
N 2 = ---------------------------------------- N 2 = ------------------------------------------ = 1.0
S t + b r – 17 – C v 43 + 38 – 17 – 21
One lane:
para 3-125 MLL = (1.21)(6,960.07) = 8,421.68 kip-feet
15 MLL = N1,2mLL
MLL = (1.0)(6,960.07) = 6960.07 kip-feet
para 3-126
16 Truss moment classification Table B-2 or W100 W85
L = 160 ft
Stringer:
para 3-63, 3-127
17 Yield stress Fy = 30 ksi (unknown type and date)
Tables 3-5, 3-6
Allowable stress Fb = 0.75Fy = (0.75)(30) = 22.5 ksi

FM 3-34.343

( 490 ) ( 27.7 ) 1
para 3-29, 3-35 w DL = ( 6 ) ( 6.33 ) ( 150 ) + ----------------------------- × ----------------
18 Dead load per stringer Interior stringers 12 12,000
control. = 0.569 kpf
S = 6.33 ft:
One lane:
14
para 3-32, 3-92 N 1 = ------ = 2.21
19 Effective number of stringers S
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
11
N 2 = ------ = 1.74
S
para 3-64
Fb S (eq 3-2) ( 22.5 ) ( 222 )
20 m = --------- m = ----------------------------- = 416.25 kip-feet
find S (W24x94).
2 para 3-29, 3-35 2
21
w DL L (eq 3-3, 3-26) ( 0.569 ) ( 20 )
m DL = ------------------ m DL = -------------------------------- = 28.45 kip-feet
8 L = Sf = 20 ft 8
m – m DL para 3-36
416.25 – 28.45
22 m LL = ---------------------- (eq 3-4) m LL = ------------------------------------ = 337.25 kip-feet
1+x 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)
One lane:
para 3-38 MLL = (2.21)(337.22) = 745.25 kip-feet
23 MLL = N1,2 mLL
(eq 3-5) Two lanes:
MLL = (1.74)(337.22) = 586.76 kip-feet
Table B-2 or
24 Stringer moment classification W150 W150
Figures B-1, B-2
L = 20 ft T150 T110
para 3-63, 3-93

25 Allowable shear stress Fv = 0.45Fy = (0.45)(30) = 13.5 ksi
Table 3-6
para 3-93
(eq 3-27)
26 v = A v Fv
Obtain Av from
v = (11.64)(13.5) = 157.14 kips
Table D-2.
w DL S f para 3-93 ( 0.569 ) ( 20 )
27 v DL = ---------------- v DL = ----------------------------- = 5.69 kips
2 (eq 3-28) 2
para 3-93
28 v LL = v – v DL v LL = 157.14 – 5.69 = 151.45 kips
(eq 3-29)
2v LL para 3-93 ( 2 ) ( 151.45 )
29 V LL = ------------ V LL = ----------------------------- = 263.39 kips
1.15 (eq 3-30) 1.15

Table B-3 or
30 Stringer shear classification W150 W150
Figures B-3, B-4
L = 20 ft T150 T150

FM 3-34.343

For floor beams: para 3-95
(eq 3-31) ( 22.5 ) ( 1,030 )
31 Fb S m = ---------------------------------- = 1,931.25 kip-feet
m = --------- Use Table D-2 to 12
12 find S (W36x280).
( 490 ) ( 27.7 ) ( 7 )
w DL = ( 6 ) ( 40 ) ( 150 ) + -------------------------------------- +
para 3-96 12
32 Dead load per floor beam
(eq 3-32)
( 490 ) ( 82.4 ) ( 43 ) 20
----------------------------------------- × ----------------------------------- = 0.533 kpf
( 12 ) ( 20 ) ( 12,000 ) ( 160 )
2 2
w DL S f para 3-96 ( 0.533 ) ( 30 )
33 m DL = ------------------- m DL = -------------------------------- = 59.96 kip-feet
8 (eq 3-33) 8
para 3-97
m – m DL ( 1,931.25 – 59.96 )
34 m LL = ---------------------- (eq 3-34) m LL = --------------------------------------------- = 1,627.21 kip-feet
1+x 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)
One-way traffic:
P e = ( 2 ) ( 1,627.21 )  --------------- = 90.40 kips
para 3-98 1
35
P e = 2m LL  -----------------  43 – 7
1 (eq 3-35)
Sg – Se
para 3-98
Two-way traffic:
(eq 3-36)
P e = ( 2 ) ( 1,627.23 )  --------------------------- = 216.96 kips
1
36 Use Cv as
P e = 2m LL  -----------------------------  43 – 7 – 21
1
S –S –C g e v
computed in
step 14.
Figures 3-21
37 Floor-beam moment classification W150 W150
through 3-24
L = 20 ft T150 T150
para 3-101
(eq 3-37)
38 v = A v Fv
Obtain Av from
v = (29.6 in2)(13.5 ksi) = 399.6 kips
Table D-2.
w DL S g para 3-102 ( 0.533 ) ( 43 )
39 v DL = ----------------- v DL = ----------------------------- = 11.46 kips
2 (eq 3-38) 2
v – v DL para 3-103
399.6 – 11.46
40 v LL = ------------------ (eq 3-39) v LL = --------------------------------- = 337.51 kips
1+x 1 + 0.15
x = 0.15 (steel)
P e = ( 337.51 ) ( 43 )  ------------------------------------
1
One-way traffic:  43 + 38 – 3 – 7
para 3-104
P e = v LL S g  ------------------------------------------ ≥ v LL
41 1
 S + b – 3.0 – S  (eq 3-40) = 204.41 kips < 399.6 kips
g r e
∴ P e = 399.6 kips
( 337.51 ) ( 43 ) 1
Two-way traffic: P e = -------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------
2 43 + 38 – 3 – 2 ( 7 ) – 21
v LL S g para 3-104
42
Pe = ---------------  ---------------------------------------------------------- ≥ 2v LL
1
2  S g + b r – 3.0 – 2S e – C v
(eq 3-41) = 168.78 kips < 799.2 kips
∴ P e = 799.2 kips

43 Floor-beam shear classification Figures 3-21 W150 W150
through 3-24 T150 T150

FM 3-34.343

para 3-107
Not critical here.
T150 T150
T110 T90
Table F-10. Classification Summary for a Truss Bridge
Moment (truss) (step 16) 100 85 110 90
Stringer moment (step 24) 150 150 150 110
Stringer shear (step 30) 150 150 150 150
Floor-beam moment (step 37) 150 150 150 150
Floor-beam shear (step 43) 150 150 150 150
Deck (step 44) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Width (step 45) 150 150 150 150
Final 100 85 110 90
classifications. Post a width-restriction sign if the width classification is smaller than the final classification. For two-
lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment, shear, width, and deck classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
160′
Top chord
24′
Concrete 20′ Concrete

Bottom chord
abutment abutment

Conway
30 mi
15′
r
ve
Ri
e
nn
38′
Ly
6.33′ Kasper’s
spacing Spook AB 123456
43′ House
21″ 3 1/2″ x 3 1/2″ x 3/8″
Old
3″ x 3″ x 3/8″
Sp
a rk
1/2″
sH
3/4″ N
igh
18″ 1″ 18″
w ay
3 1/2″
1/2″ Thomasville 5 mi
5″
Top chord Bottom chord
NOTES:
Stringers identified as 2 each W21x62 and 5 each W24x94. Additional details on attached sheets.
Floor beams identified as W36x280.
Figure F-8. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Truss Bridge

FM 3-34.343
21″ x 7/16″ plate 3/4″ rivets 3″ x 3″ x 3/8″ angle
18″ x 1″ plate
3/4″ rivets
3 1/2″ x 3 1/2″ x 3/8″ angle
18″ x 3/4″ plate
1/4″ lattice bracing 5″ x 3 1/2″ x 1/2″ angle 1/4″ lattice bracing
Top-Chord Detail Bottom-Chord Detail
6″ concrete block
6.33′
W21x62 W24x94 W36x280
Figure F-9. Truss Details
21″ x 7/8″ plate

3/4″
3/8″
3 1/2″ x 3 1/2″ x 3/8″ 3/4″ rivets
1″
h = 18″
5″ x 3 1/2″ x 1/2″
Arivets = (3/8″ + 1″)(3/4″) = 1.03125″2
18″ x 3/4″
b = 14″
LEGEND:
h = height
b = arch-rib length
Figure F-10. Rivet Details

FM 3-34.343
REINFORCED CONCRETE-SLAB BRIDGE

F-7. In this example, Table F-11, pages F-31 and F-32, shows the procedure
for classifying a reinforced concrete-slab bridge and Table F-12, page F-32,
contains a classification summary. Figure F-11, page F-33, shows a sample
bridge-reconnaissance report, and Figure F-12, page F-34, shows the steel-
reinforcement details of this bridge. The local civilian bridge authorities
provided the following stress values:
• Fy = 50 ksi (grade-50 bars).
• f′c = 3 ksi.
Table F-11. Classification Procedure for a Reinforced Concrete-Slab Bridge

1 Concrete strength para 3-132 f′c = 3 ksi
2 Steel yield strength para 3-133 Fy = 50 ksi
12A b ( 12 ) ( 1.00 ) 2
A st = ------------ para 3-134 A st = -------------------------- = 1.6 in
Sb (eq 3-58, 3-59) 7.5
3
A st Ab = 1.00 in2 (for 1.6
R s = ----------------------------- = 0.011
R s = -----------
12d′
No. 9 bar) ( 12 ) ( 12.25 )
A st F y para 3-135 ( 1.6 ) ( 50 )

4 d o = ----------------- d o = ----------------------- = 2.61 in
10.2f ′c (eq 3-60) ( 10.2 ) ( 3 )
do
m = ( 0.075 ) ( 1.6 ) ( 50 )  12.25 – ---------- = 65.67 kip-feet
para 3-136 2.61
5 m = 0.075A st F y  d′ – ----- (eq 3-61) 2
2
W DL =  ------ ( 150 ) ( 31.125 ) +  ------ ( 150 ) ( 28 ) +

14 2
para 3-137  12  12
Compute for an
14 × 18
( 2 )  ------------------ ( 150 ) = 6,671.88 lb/ft
6 average 1-ft
components  144 
length of bridge
span. 6,671.88
W DL = --------------------- = 6.67 kpf
1,000
2 2
W DL L para 3-137 ( 6.67 ) ( 20 )
7 m DL = ------------------ m DL = ----------------------------- = 10.72 kip-feet
8b s (eq 3-62) ( 8 ) ( 31.125 )
m – 1.3m DL para 3-138 65.67 – ( 1.3 ) ( 10.72 )

8 m LL = ----------------------------- m LL = -------------------------------------------------- = 34.49 kip-feet
1.5 (eq 3-63) 1.5
para 3-139
9 b e = 8 + 0.12L ≤ 14 ft b e = 8 + ( 0.12 ) ( 20 ) = 10.4 ft
(eq 3-65)
para 3-140
10 M LL = b e m LL M LL = ( 10.4 ) ( 34.49 ) = 358.69 kip-feet
(eq 3-66)
para 3-141
11 Moment classification Table B-2 or W75 W75
L = 20 ft

FM 3-34.343
Table F-11. Classification Procedure for a Reinforced Concrete-Slab Bridge (continued)

T150 T100
T50 T50
Table F-12. Classification Summary for a Reinforced Concrete-Slab Bridge
Moment (step 11) 75 75 50 50
Width (step 12) 150 100 150 100
Final 75 75 50 50
NOTE: For one-lane bridges, use the moment classification and post a width restriction sign if required. For two-
lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment and width restrictions.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
20′
4′
3′
10′
Concrete
abutment
Concrete-lined channel Looking northeast
15′
7″ 28′
7″
2″ asphalt Sachsendorf
14″
6″
ch
ba
31′ - 1 1/2″
el l
ldw
12″
Ca
AB123456
See attached sheet Flow Schoss Max von

Kinnen 6 mi

Details of steel reinforcement from as-built
drawing shown on attached sheet.
Figure F-11. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Reinforced Concrete-Slab Bridge

FM 3-34.343
18 No. 3 bars @14″

(temperature steel)
2″ asphalt
12 1/4″ 14″
51 No. 9 bars @7 1/2″

(main reinforcing steel)
0.85 f′c
1 1/2″ do c
d′ = 12 1/4″ na
D = 14″
12 2
A s = -------- ( 1 ) = 1.6 in T = Asfy
7.5
b = 12″
LEGEND:
As = total area of the reinforcing steel
b = width
c = compression
d′ = distance from the top of the beam to the center of the tension steel
D = depth
do = depth of concrete compression zone
f′c = concrete compressive strength
fy = yield strength for reinforcing steel
T = tension
Figure F-12. Steel-Reinforcement Details for a Concrete-Slab Bridge

FM 3-34.343
REINFORCED CONCRETE T-BEAM BRIDGE

for classifying a reinforced concrete T-beam bridge and Table F-14, page F-36,
contains a classification summary. Figure F-13, page F-37, shows a sample
bridge-reconnaissance report, and Figure F-14, page F-38, shows details of
this bridge. The local civilian bridge authorities provided the following stress
values:
• f′c = 3 ksi.
Table F-13. Classification Procedure for a Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridge

1 Concrete strength para 3-132 f ′c = 3 ksi
2 Steel yield strength para 3-133 F y = 40 ksi
Effective flange width. Lesser value of: 1

b″ = --- ( 50 ) ( 12 ) = 150 in
1 4
b″ = --- L
4
3 para 3-145 b″ = ( 12 ) ( 6 ) + 16 = 88 in
b″ = 12t d + b b″ = 88 in
b″ = S T – B ∴ b″ = 88 in
2
A st = A b × total number of bars A st = ( 1.56 ) ( 10 ) = 15.6 in
para 3-146
4 in bottom of T-beam
(eq 3-67, 3-68)
T = AstFy T = ( 15.6 ) ( 40 ) = 624 kips
A st F y para 3-147 ( 15.6 ) ( 40 )

5 d o = ------------------------ d o = ----------------------------------- = 2.78 in < td = 6 in
0.85f ′cb″ (eq 3-69) ( 0.85 ) ( 3 ) ( 88 )
do
m = ( 0.075 ) ( 15.6 ) ( 40 )  41 – ---------- = 1,853.73 kip-feet
para 3-148 2.78
6 m = 0.075A st F y  d′ – ----- (eq 3-70) 2
2
W ′ DL = --- ( 5 ) ( 5 ) × 2 + ( 16 ) ( 37.5 )  ---------

1 1
2  144
( 150 ) ( 4 ) +  6 × ------ ( 150 ) ( 28 ) +

1
 12
7 N/A
components
 2 × -----
1
- ( 150 ) ( 24 ) = 5,304.38 lb/ft
 12
5,304.38 lb/ft
W ′ DL = -------------------------------- = 5.30 kpf
1,000
W ′ DL para 3-29 5.30

8 w DL = -------------- w DL = ---------- = 1.32 kpf
Ns (eq 3-1) 4
2 2
9
w DL L para 3-150 ( 1.32 ) ( 50 )
m DL = ------------------ (eq 3-75) m DL = ----------------------------- = 412.5 kip-feet
8 8
m – 1.3m DL para 3-151 1,853.73 – ( 1.3 ) ( 412.50 )

10 m LL = ----------------------------- m LL = ------------------------------------------------------------- = 878.32 kip-feet
1.5 (eq 3-76) 1.5

FM 3-34.343
Table F-13. Classification Procedure for a Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridge (continued)

Ss = 88 in = 7.33 ft:
One lane:
para 3-32 N1 = 2.2
11 Number of effective members
Table 3-3 Two lanes:
12 12
N 2 = ------ = ---------- = 1.64
Ss 7.33
One lane:
para 3-152 M LL = ( 2.2 ) ( 878.32 ) = 1,932.30 kip-feet

12 M LL = N 1, 2 m LL
M LL = ( 1.64 ) ( 878.32 ) = 1,440.44 kip-feet
para 3-153
L = 50 ft
para 3-154
14 Width classification W150 W60
Table 3-4
T150 T60
Table F-14. Classification Summary for a Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridge
Moment (step 13) 120 85 90 65
Width (step 14) 150 60 150 60
Final 120 60 90 60
NOTE: For one- and two-lane bridges, the final classification is the smallest value of the moment and width
classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
50′
17′
Concrete
abutments
State Road 294
(Both lanes have
identical bridges.) Looking northwest

McIntrye
1.6 mi Thompson
4 mi
2′ 24′
13 mrong
2″ Asphalt
i
Karin’s
st
1.5′
Restaurant
A rm
6″
37.5″
Sta
88″ te R
294 oad
16″ Bayless
Goetz Gas Potoky
8 mi 3 mi
MEMBER 1 SQUARE = None AB123456
Denise’s
Ma
Cash and Carry

188
rian
Hw
y
6″
hwa
y
H ig
5″
Malherek 15 mi
US
5″
37.5″
Bishop 8 mi
16″
N
24. Computation of Bridge Class Details of steel reinforcing on
attached sheet.
Figure F-13. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Reinforced Concrete T-Beam Bridge

FM 3-34.343
88″
6″
41″
16″
100 No. 5 bars @ 6″
(deck reinforcement)
2 1/2″
10 No. 11 bars
(main reinforcing steel)
Figure F-14. Steel-Reinforcement Details

FM 3-34.343
REINFORCED CONCRETE-BOX-GIRDER BRIDGE

for classifying a reinforced concrete-box-girder bridge and Table F-16,
page F-40, contains a classification summary. Figure F-15, page F-41, shows a
sample bridge-reconnaissance report, and Figure F-16, page F-42, shows
details of this bridge from as-built civilian drawings. The local civilian bridge
authorities provided the following stress values:
• f′c = 4 ksi.
Table F-15. Classification Procedure for a Reinforced Concrete-Box-Girder Bridge
Step Equation/Procedure Considerations Computation

1 Concrete strength para 3-132 f ′c = 4 ksi
2 Steel yield strength para 3-133 F y = 50 ksi
bf para 3-157 ( 21 ) ( 12 )
3 b ″ = ------ b ″ = ---------------------
- = 84 in
N (eq 3-79) 3
s
para 3-146 Three stems, thus divide Ast by 3.
(eq 3-67, 3-68)
A A × total number of bars ( 1.56 ) ( 34 )
st = b Assume one-third A = -------------------------
- = 17.68 in
2
4 st 3
in bottom of T-beam of the bars act
with the stem to
T = A st F y resist tension. T = ( 17.68 ) ( 50 ) = 884.0 kips
A F
st y -
d o = -----------------------
para 3-147 ( 17.68 ) ( 50 )
5 d o = ----------------------------------- = 3.09 in
0.85f ′ cb ″ (eq 3-69) ( 0.85 ) ( 4 ) ( 84 )
do para 3-148
m = ( 0.075 ) ( 17.68 ) ( 50 )  85 – ---------- = 5,533.40 kip-feet
3.09
6 m = 0.075A st F y  d ′ – ------
 2 (eq 3-70) 2
W ′ DL = ( 71 × 8 × 3 )  --------- ( 150 ) +
1
144
( 21 × 12 × 7.5 )  --------- ( 150 ) +

1
 144
( 29 × 12 × 7.5 )  --------- ( 150 ) +

Total dead-load weight of the bridge 1
7 N/A
components  144
 1.5 × -----
1-
( 150 ) ( 24 ) = 6,912.5 lb/ft
 12
6,912.5 lb/ft
W ′ DL = ----------------------------- = 6.91 kpf
1,000
W′ para 3-29
DL 6.91
8 w DL = --------------- W ′ DL = ---------- = 2.30 kpf
Ns (eq 3-1) 3
2 2
9
w DL L para 3-150 ( 2.30 ) ( 50 )
m DL = ------------------- (eq 3-75) m DL = ----------------------------- = 718.75 kip-feet
8 8

FM 3-34.343
Table F-15. Classification Procedure for a Reinforced Concrete-Box-Girder Bridge (continued)
Step Equation/Procedure Considerations Computation

m – 1.3m DL para 3-151 5,533.40 – ( 1.3 ) ( 718.75 )
10 m m LL = ------------------------------------------------------------- = 3,066.02 kip –feet
LL = ------------------------------
1.5
-
(eq 3-76) 1.5
Ss = 10.17 ft:
One lane:
16 16
N 1 = ------ = ------------- = 1.57
para 3-32 Ss 10.17
11 Number of effective stringers
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
= 14
14
N ------ = ------------- = 1.37
2 Ss 10.17
One lane:
para 3-152 MLL = (1.57)(3,066.02) = 4,813.65 kip-feet
12 M LL = N 1, 2 m LL
MLL = (1.37)(3,066.02) = 4,200.45 kip-feet
para 3-153
L = 50 ft
T150 T60
T150 T60
Table F-16. Classification Summary for a Reinforced Concrete-Box-Girder Bridge
Moment (step 13) 150 150 150 150
Width (step 14) 150 60 150 60
Final 150 60 150 60
classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
50′
25′
Concrete
abutments
Looking north
Old railroad
guide

2′ 6″
24′
1.5″ asphalt
7.5″ 10″
Seaboard Coastline RR
)d
one
4′
6′ 6.5″ and
(Ab
Atomic Boulevard Orlando 6 mi

21′
Idaho Falls
c. CROSS SECTION OF CRITICAL SCALE 25 mi
Brown’s
Croydon Road
MEMBER 1 SQUARE = None Tree AB123456

Farm
(See attached
sheet)
Jordan
3 mi
N

NOTES:
Details of interior from civilian plans shown on attached sheet.
Bridge is in excellent condition.
Figure F-15. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a

Reinforced Concrete-Box-Girder Bridge

FM 3-34.343
24′ 2′ 6″
7.5″ 200 No. 5 bars
1.5″ asphalt @ 6.0″
10″
4′
10′ 2″
71″ 7′ 2″
8″ 8″ 8″
5 concrete
diaphragms, 8″ thick,
25′ center-to-center
spacing 1″
34 No. 11 bars
7.5″
21′
Figure F-16. Details From As-Built Civilian Drawings

FM 3-34.343
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGE

F-10. In this example, the bridge deck is of composite construction. Since the
28-day compressive strength of the deck and stringers is the same, no
transformed moment of inertia calculations are required. If the deck were
made of ordinary-grade concrete and the precast, prestressed beam made of
high-strength concrete, the different moduli of elasticity would have to be
considered. Table F-17, pages F-43 through F-45, shows the procedure for
classifying a prestressed concrete bridge, and Table F-18, page F-45, contains
a classification summary. The detailed dimensions and information about the
prestressed steel in Figure F-17, page F-46, were taken from as-built
drawings. Figure F-18, page F-47, shows a sample bridge-reconnaissance
report. The local civilian bridge authorities provided the following allowable
stress values:
• fpu = 240 ksi.
• f′c = 5 ksi.
Table F-17. Classification Procedure for a Prestressed Concrete Bridge

1 Concrete strength N/A f ′c = 5 ksi
2 Steel prestress strength N/A f pu = 240 ksi
Effective flange width. Lesser value of: 1

b″ = --- ( 75 ) ( 12 ) = 225 in
1 4
b″ = --- L
4 b″ = ( 12 ) ( 7 ) + 26 = 110 in
3 para 3-165
b″ = 12t d + b b″ = 90 in
b″ = S ∴ b″ = 90 in
Aps = Ap x total number of prestressed bars 2
A ps = ( 1.1 ) ( 6 ) = 6.6 in
in bottom half of beam
para 3-166
4 A ps (eq 3-81) 6.6
R ps = -------------- R ps = ---------------------- = 0.0013
b″d ps ( 90 ) ( 57 )
As = Ab x total number of prestressed bars in As = 0

bottom half of beam
para 3-166
5 As
R s = -------------- (eq 3-82) Rs = 0
b″d ps
R ps f pu R s d s f sy
R r = ----------------- + -------------------
para 3-167 ( 0.0013 ) ( 240 )
6 R r = ----------------------------------- + 0 = 0.0624
f ′c d ps f ′c (eq 3-83) 5
para 3-168 f ps = ( 240 ) [ 1 – 0.5 ( 0.0624 ) ] = 232.51 ksi

7 f ps = f pu ( 1 – 0.5R r )
(eq 3-84)
para 3-169
8 T = A ps f ps + A s f sy T = ( 6.6 ) ( 240 ) + 0 = 1,584 kips
(eq 3-85)

FM 3-34.343
Table F-17. Classification Procedure for a Prestressed Concrete Bridge (continued)

T
A c = -------------
xr f ′c
1,584 2
A c = -------------------- = 396 in
where— para 3-170 ( 0.8 ) ( 5 )
9
(eq 3-86)
x r = [ 0.85 – 0.05 ( f ′c – 4 ) ] ≥ 0.65 x r = 0.85 – ( 0.05 ) ( 5 – 4 ) = 0.8
for f ′c > 4.0 ksi
para 3-171 2
10 A f = t f b″ A f = ( 7 ) ( 90 ) = 630 in
(eq 3-87)
For Rr ≤ 0.3 and Af > Ac:
R r d ps ( 0.0624 ) ( 57 )
d o = -------------- d o = -------------------------------- = 4.45 in
xr 0.8
para 3-172
11
and— (eq 3-88, 3-89)
m = ( 0.075 ) ( 1,584 )  57 – ---------- = 6,507.51 kip-feet
4.45
2
do
m = 0.075T  d ps – -----
 2
W DL =  1,094 × --------- ( 150 ) ( 5 ) +

1
 144
 7 × -----
1
- ( 150 ) ( 34 ) +  2 × ------ ( 150 ) ( 30 )
1
12
N/A  12  12
components
= 9,422.92 lb/ft
9,422.92 lb/ft
W DL = -------------------------------- = 9.42 kpf
1,000
W DL para 3-29 9.42

13 w DL = ------------ w DL = ---------- = 1.88 kpf
Ns (eq 3-1) 5
2 2
14
w DL L para 3-173 ( 1.88 ) ( 75 )
m DL = ------------------ (eq 3-95) m DL = ----------------------------- = 1,321.88 kpf
8 8
6,507.51 – ( 1.3 ) ( 1,321.88 )

m – 1.3m DL para 3-174 m LL = -----------------------------------------------------------------
15 1.5
m LL = ----------------------------- (eq 3-96)
1.5
= 3,192.72 kip-feet
Ss = 7.5 ft:
One lane:
14 14
N 1 = ------ = ------- = 1.87
16 Number of effective members Table 3-3 Ss 7.5
Two lanes:
11 11
N 2 = ------ = ------- = 1.47
Ss 7.5
One lane:
para 3-175 MLL = (1.87)(3,192.72) = 5,970.38 kip-feet
17 M LL = N 1,2 m LL
MLL = (1.47)(3,192.72) = 4,693.29 kip-feet

FM 3-34.343
Table F-17. Classification Procedure for a Prestressed Concrete Bridge (continued)

para 3-176
L = 75 ft
T150 T100
T150 T135
Table F-18. Classification Summary for a Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Moment (step 18) 150 150 150 135
Width (step 19) 150 100 150 100
Final 150 100 150 135
classifications.

FM 3-34.343
b″ = 90″
7″
d = 57″
6 bars @ 1.1 in2 each
Figure F-17. Details of a Prestressed Beam

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
75′
15′
Concrete
abutment
3′

30′
2″ asphalt Flow
12″
7″
Sp
61″
ha
r
Cr
ad
ee
Ro
k
y
Ra
7′ 6″
Gan
Restaurant
AB123456

2″ asphalt
RoStre
nd et
on
7″
20″
8″
6″
Concrete 18″ 23″

stringers
9″ N
26″ 8″

NOTES:
Details from civilian drawings on attached sheet.
Bridge is ten years old, but in excellent condition.
Figure F-18. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Prestressed Concrete Bridge

FM 3-34.343
MASONRY-ARCH BRIDGE
F-11. In this example, Table F-19 shows the measured bridge dimensions,
Table F-20 shows the classification procedures, and Table F-21 shows a
classification summary for a masonry-arch bridge. Figure F-19, page F-50,
shows a sample bridge-reconnaissance report. Tests show that the arch is
made of blue engineering brick. The ring is in good condition with well-
mortared joints (about 3/8-inch wide). A small transverse crack was noted
within 2 feet of the edge of the ring and there is a slight vertical settlement at
one of the abutments.
Table F-19. Masonry-Arch Dimensions

Bridge Dimensions
L (ft) (refer to the diagram at right) 40
br (ft) 18 df t
bd (ft) 20
R
R (ft) (refer to the diagram at right) 20
L
td (in) (do not include the wearing surface) td = t + df 30
Table F-20. Classification Procedure for a Masonry-Arch Bridge

1 PLC Figure 3-43 PLC = 34
L L L 40
Length-to-rise ratio: --- Length-to-rise ratio: --- --- = ------ = 2
R R R 20
Arch factors: Arch factors:
A (Table 3-13) Arch factors: A = 1.0
B (Table 3-14) Profile B = Blue engineering brick = 1.2
2 C (Table 3-15) Material C = Normal joints, pointed mortar = 1.0
D (Table 3-16) Joint D = Both satisfactory = 1.0
E (Table 3-19) Abutment size E = Small, transverse crack within 2 feet of the edge = 1.0
F (Table 3-17) Crack F = No significant deformation = 1.0
G (Table 3-18) Deformation G = Slight vertical settlement of one abutment = 0.8
Abutment fault
Strength classification:
T1 = PLC (arch factors) T1 = (34)(1.0)(1.2)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(0.8) = 32.64
Obtain W1 and W2 from
3 T2 = 0.9 T1 T2 = (0.9)(32.64) = 29.38
Figure 3-45.
W1 W1 = 52
W2 W2 = 48
T150 T30
See summary in
5 Final classification N/A
Table F-21.
6 Posting Draw a bridge sign.

FM 3-34.343
Table F-21. Classification Summary for a Masonry-Arch Bridge
Moment (step 3) 52 48 33 29
Width (step 4) 150 30 150 30
Final 52 30 33 29
NOTE: For one-lane bridges, the controlling classification is always the strength classification. Post
a width-restriction sign if the width classification is smaller than the strength classification. For
two-lane bridges, the controlling classification is the smaller value of the strength and width
classifications.

FM 3-34.343
23. Sketches
1 SQUARE = None
65′
20′
18″
40′
Steep
approach on
this side
Looking northwest
18′
df = 12″ Fill Manassas 6 mi
Arch ring AB123456

t = 18″
Cracks
along Flow
ring/ Ford
parapet site Steep
approach
un

ll R

Bu
Centerville
25 mi

NOTES:
- 3/8″ joints. - The fill seems to be spreading.
- Limestone. - The southern approach goes up a steep hill just before the bridge.
- Good mortar.
Figure F-19. Sample Bridge-Reconnaissance Report for a Masonry-Arch Bridge

Appendix G
Concrete Properties
Concrete is a mixture of aggregates (sand and gravel), entrained air,
cement, and water. A chemical reaction between the cement and the water
causes concrete to harden. This reaction is known as hydration. Concrete
is, at first, a plastic mass that can be cast or molded into nearly any size or
shape. When hydrated, concrete becomes stonelike in strength, durability,
and hardness. The strength of concrete depends on the water-to-cement
ratio used in the concrete mixture. Generally, the less water in the mix,
the stronger, more durable, and watertight the concrete. Too much water
dilutes the cement paste and results in weak concrete.
GENERAL PROPERTIES
G-1. A sack of cement requires about 2 1/2 gallons of water for hydration.
However, more water will improve the workability of plastic concrete.
Normally, concrete mixtures will use 4 to 7 gallons of water per sack of
cement.
G-2. Table G-1 shows the approximate compressive strengths of concrete for
various water-to-cement ratios. To classify bridges with unknown concrete
strength, assume a compressive strength of 3,000 psi.
Table G-1. Maximum Permissible Water-to-Cement Ratios for Concrete

Maximum Absolute Permissible
Specified Compressive
Water-to-Cement Ratio (by Weight)
Strength (f′′c) (psi)1
Nonair-Entrained Concrete Air-Entrained Concrete
2,500 0.67 0.54
3,000 0.58 0.46
3,500 0.51 0.40
4,000 0.44 0.35
4,500 0.38 See note 2
5,000 See note 2 See note 2
NOTES:
1. This value refers to the 28-day strength. With most materials, the water-to-cement ratios
shown will provide average strengths greater than required.
2. For strengths above 4,500 psi (nonair-entrained concrete) and 4,000 psi (air-entrained
concrete), proportions should be established using the trial-batch method.
1,000 psi ≈ 7 megapascal
Concrete Properties G-1

FM 3-34.343
G-3. Concrete is among the best and most important building materials.
Concrete is fireproof, watertight, comparatively economical, and easy to
prepare. It offers surface continuity and solidity and bonds with other
materials. Concrete is used in bridging to make abutments, intermediate
supports, columns, beams, slabs, decks, curbs, and handrails. Concrete offers
good compressive strength and has a long service life. Certain limitations of
concrete cause cracking and other structural weaknesses that detract from its
appearance, serviceability, and useful life. Some limitations of concrete are
discussed below.
LOW TENSILE STRENGTH

G-4. Concrete members subject to tensile stresses must be reinforced with
steel bars or mesh. This will prevent cracking and failure.
THERMAL MOVEMENTS
G-5. During setting and hardening (curing), the heat of hydration raises the
concrete temperature and then gradually cools. The temperature changes can
cause severe thermal strain and early cracking. Also, hardened concrete
expands and contracts with changes in temperature at roughly the same rate
as steel. Therefore, provide expansion and contraction joints in concrete
constructions.
DRYING, SHRINKAGE, AND MOISTURE MOVEMENT

G-6. Concrete shrinks as it dries out and, even when hardened, expands and
contracts with wetting and drying. These movements require control joints to
avoid unsightly cracks. To prevent drying shrinkage and cracks, keep the
surface of newly placed concrete moist during the curing process.
CREEP
G-7. Concrete gradually deforms (creeps) under load. The concrete does not
recover completely when the load is removed. Over time, creep may reduce the
structural soundness of the bridge.
PERMEABILITY
G-8. Concrete is not entirely impervious to moisture. It contains soluble
compounds that may be leached out by water.
HYDRATION
G-9. To hydrate concrete properly, keep the temperature of the concrete above
50oF during the early curing process of the concrete. Trying to maintain the
minimum required temperature causes some additional problems when
placing concrete in cold weather.
CEMENT TYPES
G-10. Different types of cement have been developed to offset some of the
limitations of using concrete in structures. The ASTM specifications cover five
types of portland cements.
G-2 Concrete Properties

FM 3-34.343
TYPE I
G-11. Type I is a general-purpose cement for concrete work that does not
require any of the special properties of the other types. In general, it is used
when concrete structures are not subject to sulfate attack or when the heat of
hydration will not cause too great a temperature rise. Type-I cement is used in
pavement and sidewalk construction, reinforced concrete buildings and
bridges, railways, culverts, and soil-cement mixtures. Do not use Type-I
cement where it will come into contact with sea water. Type-I cement reaches
its design strength in 28 days.
TYPE II
G-12. Modified to resist moderate sulfate attack, Type-II cement generally
generates less heat of hydration and cures at a slower rate than Type-I
cement. In general, it is used in drainage structures where the sulfate
concentrations in either the soil or the groundwater are higher than normal,
but not severe, and in large structures when the moderate heat of hydration
produces only a slight temperature rise in the concrete. However, temperature
rise can be a problem when Type-II cement is placed during warm weather.
Type-II cement reaches its design strength in 45 days.
TYPE III
G-13. Type-III cement achieves a high design strength very quickly in the
curing process (usually 7 days or less). It has a higher heat of hydration and is
more finely ground than Type-I cement. Type-III cement permits fast form
removal and, in cold weather construction, reduces the period of protection
against low temperatures. Although richer mixtures of Type I can obtain high
design strength at an early stage, Type-III cement produces this early
strength more satisfactorily and economically. Use Type-III cement cautiously
in concrete structures having a minimum spacing of 2 1/2 feet or more because
the high heat of hydration can cause shrinkage cracking.
TYPE IV
G-14. Type-IV cement has a low heat of hydration and is intended for
applications requiring a minimal rate and amount of heat of hydration. Its
strength also develops at a slower rate than other types of cement. Use
Type-IV cement primarily in very large concrete structures, such as gravity
dams, where the temperature rise from the heat of hydration could damage
the structure. Type-IV cement reaches its design strength in 90 days.
TYPE V
G-15. Type V is a sulfate-resistant cement and is used mainly for applications
where the concrete is subject to severe sulfate action, such as when the soil or
groundwater in contact with the concrete has high concentrations of sulfate.
Type-V cement reaches its design strength in 60 days.
AIR-ENTRAINING CEMEMTS
G-16. Types IA, IIA, and IIIA correspond in composition to Types I, II, and
III, respectively, with the addition of small quantities of air-entraining

FM 3-34.343
materials ground into the clinker during manufacture. Air-entraining

cements produce concrete having improved resistance to freeze-thaw action
and to scaling caused by snow- and ice-removal chemicals. Such concrete
contains extremely small, well-distributed (as many as 3 billion per cubic
yard), and completely separate air bubbles.
MASONRY CEMENTS
G-17. Masonry cements (sometimes called mortar cements) are typically
mixtures of portland cement, hydrated lime, and other materials. This
mixture improves the workability, plasticity, and water retention of the
cement.
MASS-CONCRETE STRUCTURES
G-18. Some structural members are made of solid concrete (little or no steel
reinforcement). Generally, these concrete structures are in compression only
and require massive weight to be effective. Examples of members that may be
solid concrete are abutments, suspension-bridge cable anchors, masonry
arches, and gravity dams. Concrete structures (even those in complete
compression) will normally have some reinforcing steel to provide internal
strength.
STEEL-REINFORCED CONCRETE
G-19. Steel-reinforced concrete is used in almost all concrete structures. Since
concrete has poor tensile strength (it breaks easily when pulled apart), steel
has to be added to structural members to accommodate the tensile forces. On
the other hand, while steel is better at carrying tensile force, it has the
tendency to buckle when compressed. Therefore, when the two materials are
combined, one makes up for the deficiency of the other. When steel
reinforcement in concrete helps carry loads, the combination is called
reinforced concrete. A reinforced concrete structure takes many forms—
beams, columns, girders, walls, footings, slabs, and so forth. See FM 5-428 for
more specific information on steel reinforcement.
BEAM REINFORCEMENT, SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

G-20. When a simply supported beam is loaded, the top of the beam receives
compressive stresses and the bottom of the beam receives tensile stresses.
This condition can easily be visualized by bending a pencil up and observing
the shortening of the top fibers (compression) and the lengthening of the
bottom fibers (tension). In the compression area of the beam (top), no steel
reinforcement is necessary because concrete is strong under compression.
However, in the tension area of the beam (bottom), steel reinforcement is
necessary to carry the tensile forces.
BEAM REINFORCEMENT, CONTINUOUSLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

G-21. The tension areas in continuous beams (beams supported by three or
more supports) are found on the top and the bottom of the beam, depending on
the location along the beam being analyzed and the position of the load. At the

FM 3-34.343
center of a continuous span, the top of the beam is in compression and the
bottom is in tension (similar to a simply supported beam). The tension-
reinforcing steel is located in the bottom portion of the beam. Over the
intermediate support(s) of a continuous beam, the top of the beam receives
tensile stresses, so the reinforcing steel is located in the top portion of the
beam over the intermediate support(s).
BEAM REINFORCEMENT, BAR REPLACEMENT

G-22. Figure G-1 shows common shapes of reinforcing steel for beams. The
purpose of both straight and bent-up bars is to resist the bending tension in
the bottom of a beam. A beam requires fewer bars near the ends of a span
because the bending moment is smaller near the span ends than at the span
center. However, the shear forces are larger at the span ends, and this
condition causes diagonal tension in the beam. This area is where the inclined
portion of the bent-up bar is placed to resist the diagonal tension due to shear.
The bent-up portion of reinforcing bars for continuous beams continues across
the intermediate supports to resist top tension in the support area. When the
bent-up bars cannot resist all of the diagonal tension, U-shaped bars (called
stirrups) are added. Because of the tensile stress on the stirrups, they pass
under the bottom bar and are inclined or perpendicular to it to prevent
slippage.
Bent-up or truss bar Hook

Vertical stirrup
Straight bar
Welded, inclined stirrups
Bolster (bar support)
Figure G-1. Typical Shapes of Reinforcing Steel for Beams
SLAB-DECK REINFORCEMENT
G-23. Slab decks are usually continuous over each of the stringers on a
bridge. Tension exists in the top and bottom portions of the slab as a load is
applied. Steel reinforcement is necessary in the top and bottom portions of
slab decks, perpendicular to the stringers (Figure G-2, page G-6). Besides the
main reinforcement of concrete slabs, reinforcement comes from the
distribution steel that is placed perpendicular to the main reinforcing steel.
Distribution steel—
• Carries tensile forces caused by changes and stresses induced by
temperature.

FM 3-34.343
• Is located in the bottom portion of the slab.

• Is also used in the top portion to tie the main reinforcement in place
properly and to strengthen the slab.
Tension
Compression
Compression
Tension
B A
B A
Section A-A Section B-B

Compression Steel
area Tension area reinforcement
na
Tension area Steel Compression

reinforcement area
Figure G-2. Reinforcement Placement in Continuous Beams or Slabs
COLUMN REINFORCEMENT
G-24. A column is a slender, vertical member that carries a superimposed
load. When the structure’s height is less than three times its least lateral
dimension, this structure is known as a pier or pedestal. Concrete columns
must always have steel reinforcement because they are subject to bending.
Figure G-3 shows two types of column reinforcement. Vertical reinforcement
is the main type. Lateral reinforcement consists of individual ties or a
continuous spiral that surrounds the column.
FOOTING REINFORCEMENT
G-25. Steel reinforcement in footings and slabs that rest on the ground is
located in the bottom portion of the footing since the bottom portion receives
the tensile forces. The steel is placed so it runs in two directions, forming a
series of squares or a grid (Figure G-4).

FM 3-34.343
Vertical Lateral ties

reinforcing bars Spiral tie
Lateral tie T1
Concrete shell Lateral tie T2
Vertical
reinforcing bars
Expansion
Continuous
Lateral ties T1
Tied Column Spiral Column
Figure G-3. Reinforced Concrete Columns
LEGEND:
P = force P
Tension
Tension
Figure G-4. Wall and Footing Reinforcement

FM 3-34.343
ABUTMENT AND RETAINING-WALL REINFORCEMENT

G-26. Abutments and retaining walls have several sets of forces acting on
them (Table G-2 and Figure G-5). First, there are the vertical loads placed on
the stem and footing by bridge and soil loads. Second, there are the horizontal
loads that result from the tendency of the bridge and soil loads to push the
abutment or wall into the gap. Finally, there are horizontal bridge loads that
tend to push the abutment away from the gap. The steel reinforcement is
located in all areas of tension in these structures (Figure G-6, page G-10).
Table G-2. Maximum Reinforcement Ratio
Yield Strength (fy) (ksi)

f′′c
(ksi)
20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 50 60
2.0 0.052 0.045 0.037 0.037 0.030 0.030 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.015
2.5 0.067 0.060 0.045 0.045 0.037 0.037 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.022
3.0 0.082 0.067 0.060 0.052 0.045 0.037 0.037 0.037 0.030 0.030
3.5 0.097 0.082 0.067 0.060 0.052 0.045 0.045 0.037 0.037 0.030
4.0 0.105 0.090 0.075 0.067 0.060 0.052 0.052 0.045 0.045 0.037
4.5 0.120 0.105 0.090 0.075 0.067 0.060 0.052 0.052 0.045 0.037
5.0 0.135 0.112 0.097 0.082 0.075 0.067 0.060 0.060 0.052 0.045
5.5 0.150 0.127 0.105 0.090 0.082 0.075 0.067 0.060 0.060 0.052
6.0 0.165 0.135 0.112 0.105 0.090 0.082 0.075 0.067 0.067 0.052
LEGEND:
f′c (ksi) = compressive strength
PRESTRESSED AND POSTSTRESSED CONCRETE

G-27. The principles for placing reinforcement in prestressed and
poststressed concrete beams are the same as in normally reinforced concrete.
However, the reinforcing steel is placed in tension when the beam is unloaded.
This tension in the reinforcing steel causes compression in the concrete. The
compression on the beam lowers the neutral axis and uses more of the
compressive strength of the concrete to make the beam stronger. The two
ways of creating tension in the steel reinforcement (installing tendons) are by
prestressing or poststressing the steel.
G-28. In prestressed concrete, the tendons are placed in the bottom of the
formwork, pulled very taut, and covered with the plastic concrete. Once the
concrete gains sufficient strength, the tension on the tendons is released.
When released, the tendons try to resume their original length, thus
introducing compression into the lower portion of the beam. The compressive
stress in the bottom of the beam counteracts the tension caused when the
beam is loaded. The only difference between prestressing and poststressing is
that in poststressing the tendons are stretched to the desired tautness after
the concrete has reached the desired strength.

FM 3-34.343
Soil
Soil
Tension
Tension
Tension
Tension Tension Tension
(Exaggerated view)
Tension
Vertical Loads Horizontal Loads Acting Toward the Gap
Tension Tension
Tension
Tension
Tension
Tension
Tension Tension
(Exaggerated view)
Horizontal Loads Acting Away From the Gap (Abutment Only)
Figure G-5. Tension Forces in a Retaining Wall or Abutment

FM 3-34.343
b1
Bearing seat b2
B B
End dam
Stem
ha LEGEND:
ha = abutment height
Toe bh
bt hf = footing height (1′ to 2′)
C D Heel b1 = minimum of 12′
A A
b2 = bearing seat width (minimum 0.75′)
hf
bt = toe width (0.75′ to 1.5′ and 0.75 hf)
C D ba = footing width (0.4) ha to 0.6 ha)
ba
bh = heel width (0.75′ to 1.5′ and 0.75 hf)
Figure G-6. Typical Reinforced Concrete Abutment

Appendix H
Soil Properties
Bridges ultimately transfer all of their loads to the earth. Unless the
foundation is on bedrock, the bridge will transfer loads through the soil.
This appendix provides approximate values for several key soil
characteristics (Table H-1; Tables H-2 and H-3, page H-2; and Figure H-1,
page H-3). Due to the large degree of variance in these characteristics, the
actual values from field tests should be obtained whenever possible.
Table H-1. Soil Properties

Soil Unit Weight Angle of Internal Soil Bearing
Characteristics Symbol
Type (u) (lb/cu ft) θ) (deg)
Friction (θ Capacity (ksf)
Loose and dry 89 to 107 31 3
Loose and damp 99 to 117 31 3
Loose and saturated 108 to 134 31 3
Dense and dry 114 to 118 32.5 5
Dense and damp SW to SP 124 to 127 32.5 5
Sand
Dense and saturated 134 to 137 32.5 5
Compact and dry 121 to 127 33.5 10
Compact and damp 128 to 135 33.5 10
Compact and saturated 138 to 142 33.5 10
Sand (sand clay) SC 129 to 141 22 to 26 5
Loose and dry 112 to 118 30 4
Loose and damp 115 to 122 30 4
Loose and saturated 136 to 142 30 4
Gravel GW to GP
Dense and dry 136 33.5 12
Dense and damp 140 33.5 12
Dense and saturated 149 33.5 12
Sandy CL (with sand) 114 to 135 16 to 22 5
Clay Stiff — — 5
CH
Very stiff — — 6
Soil Organic OH 69 to 88 22 to 26 3
Soft and fractured — — — 20
Rock
Hard and solid — — — 40
Soil Properties H-1

FM 3-34.343
Table H-2. Friction Coefficients
Friction Coefficient
Material
(Kf)
Concrete on concrete 0.65
Concrete on wood (with grain) 0.60
Concrete on wood (against grain) 0.50
Concrete on dry clay 0.50
Concrete on wet clay 0.33
Concrete on sand 0.40
Concrete on gravel 0.60
Table H-3. Friction Between Pile and Soil
Allowable Friction
Soil Type Characteristics
(ksf)1
Mud 0.0125 ± 0.100
Silt 0.1500 ± 0.100
Soft clay 0.2000 ± 0.100
Silty clay 0.3000 ± 0.100
Fine-grained Sandy clay 0.3000 ± 0.100

soils Medium clay 0.3500 ± 0.100
Sandy silt 0.4000 ± 0.100
Firm clay 0.4500 ± 0.100
Dense, silty clay 0.6000 ± 0.150
Hard (stiff) clay 0.7500 ± 0.200
Very loose sand and silt or clay 0.1000 ± 0.025
Medium sand and silt or clay 0.2500 ± 0.050
Dense sand and silt or clay 0.3500 ± 0.050
Coarse-grained
Very dense sand and silt or clay 0.4500 ± 0.050
soils
Sand (all densities) 0.6000 ± 0.250
Sand and gravel2 1.0000 ± 0.500

Gravel 1.2500 ± 0.500
NOTES:
1. Allowable values are based on a safety factor of 2. Thus, the ultimate value is
equal to twice the allowable value.
2. Apply this vaule if not micaceous, muddy, or under hydrostatic pressure or
vibration.
H-2 Soil Properties

FM 3-34.343
60
50
Footing
thickness
40
6″
30 4″
3″
20
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Soil bearing capacity (SBC) (ksf)
Figure H-1. Footing Length Factor
Soil Properties H-3

FM 3-34.343
H-4 Soil Properties

Appendix I
Superstructure Design Examples

This appendix contains superstructure design examples. Refer to
Chapter 6 for a detailed discussion of the equations.
NOTATIONS
I-1. This appendix contains superstructure design examples for a bridge
using the analytical procedure. The following notations are used in this
appendix:
Af = area of compression flange, in square inches

Apl = bearing-plate area, in square inches
AS = reinforcing steel area per foot of slab width, in square inches
Ast = required area of tension steel, in square inches
At = cross-sectional area of one timber stringer, in square inches
Atemp = area of temperature and shrinkage steel, in square inches
bpl = plate width, in inches
bS = stringer width, in inches
CS = slenderness factor (nondimensional)
d′ = effective depth, in inches
db = nominal diameter of the bar, in inches
dLL = deflection due to live load plus impact, in inches
dmax = maximum deflection
dS = depth of the stringer, in inches
E = modulus of elasticity, in ksi
f′B = actual bearing stress, in ksi
f′bw = actual bearing stress in the web, in ksi
f′c = compressive strength of concrete, in psi
fy = yield strength of the reinforcing bars, in ksi
Superstructure Design Examples I-1

FM 3-34.343
FB = allowable bearing stress

Fc = allowable bearing of the supports perpendicular to the grain of
the support material
Fv = maximum allowable shear stress, in ksi
f′v = actual shear stress, in ksi
Fy = steel yield strength
Lb = length of the braces, in feet
Lc = clear distance between supporting stringers, in feet
Le = clear distance between stringer flanges, in feet
Lu = maximum unbraced length for timber, in feet
m = design moment per foot of stringer, in kip-feet
m′ = design strength of the section, in kip-feet
m′DL = estimated dead-load moment of the stringer, in kip-feet
m′LL = design live-load moment per stringer, in kip-feet
M = moment from a concentrated load of the stringer, in kip-feet
MDL = dead-load bending moment of the slab, in kip-feet per foot of
width
M′LL = total design live-load moment according to vehicle class, in
kip-feet
MLL = total live-load bending moment, in kip-feet
M LL T = live-load moment for tracked vehicle, in kip-feet
M LLW = live-load moment for wheeled vehicle, in kip-feet
N1 = effective number of stringers for one-lane traffic

N2 = effective number of stringers for two-lane traffic
N1,2 = effective number of stringers for one- or two-lane traffic
Nb = number of lateral braces affecting dead load in the entire span
PLL = critical concentrated live load per wheel, in kips
Pmax = maximum single-axle load, in tons
req h = required overall depth, in inches
Rn = strength coefficient of resistance, in psi
RS = steel ratio
Rtemp = minimum temperature reinforcement ratio
S = change in section modulus, in square inches
Sadj = adjusted effective span length, in feet
Sreq = required section modulus, in cubic feet
I-2 Superstructure Design Examples

FM 3-34.343
SS = actual center-to-center stringer spacing, in feet

t d req = required deck thickness

tpl = required plate thickness, in inches
tS = thickness of stringer, in inches; thickness of slab, in inches
tws = thickness of the web of the stringer, in inches
Uc = unit weight for concrete, in pounds per cubic foot
Um = unit weight of the material, in pounds per cubic foot
Uw = unit weight for wearing-surface material, in pounds per cubic
foot
v = design shear per stringer, in kips
v′DL = estimated dead-load shear per stringer, in kips
v′LL = theoretical live-load shear per stringer, in kips
vLL = live-load shear per stringer, in kips
VA = heaviest axle load, in kips
V LLW = live-load shear per lane for wheeled vehicle, in kips
V LLT = live-load shear per lane for tracked vehicle, in kips
wacc = assumed dead-load weight of the accessories, in kpf

wb = weight of the lateral braces, in kpf
wd = dead load due to the deck, in kpf
wDL = dead-load weight of the deck, in kpf
WDL = estimated dead load of the span, in kpf
w′DL = actual dead load carried per stringer, in kpf
W′DL = actual dead load of the span, in kips
wS = assumed dead-load weight per stringer, in kpf
ww = dead load due to the wearing surface, in kpf
TIMBER-STRINGER SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH A TIMBER DECK

I-2. Table I-1, pages I-4 through I-8, shows the procedure for designing a
timber-stringer bridge with a timber deck. Design information, materials, and
allowable stresses needed to construct this bridge are listed below.
• Class 50, two lanes, 12-foot-span timber deck.
• Douglas fir (dense, select structural; no information on splits),
rectangular sections only.
I-3. The final design for this bridge is as follows:

FM 3-34.343
Table I-1. Design Procedure for a Timber-Stringer Superstructure

With a Timber Deck

Table 6-1
1 Minimum number of stringers MLC = 50, Ns = 5
2 lanes
bR para 6-9 24
2 S s = --------------- S s = ------------ = 6 ft
Ns – 1 (eq 6-2) 5–1
ts 4
L c = S s – ------ para 6-11 L c = 6 – ------ = 5.67 ft
12 12
3 (eq 6-3, 6-4)
ts ts = 4 in 4
S eff = L c + ------ S eff = 5.67 + ------ = 5.83 ft = 70 in
24 24
para 6-16
Figure 6-3 td = 8.3 in > 6 in
req
4 Required deck thickness
Seff = 70 in
∴ use a laminated deck.
MLC = 50
5 S adj = 0.75S eff para 6-19 S adj = ( 0.75 ) ( 5.83 ) = 4.37 ft
para 6-19 td = 7.2 in

6 Required deck thickness
Figure 6-3 req
24
S s = ------------ = 3.43 ft
8–1
To further reduce deck thickness, 4

L c = 3.43 – ------ = 3.10 ft
increase the number of stringers to 12
7 N/A
Ns = 8. 4
S eff = 3.10 + ------ = 3.26 ft
24
td = 6.2 in
req
6- x 6-in timbers @ 5-ft centers

8 Curbs and handrails para 6-43, 6-44
6- x 12- x 30-in risers
bs Um t s bR Um tw ( 28 ) ( 50 ) ( 6.2 ) ( 24 ) ( 150 ) ( 2 )
w DL =  ----------------------------------- +  --------------------------------- = 1.32 kpf
para 6-47
9 w DL =  ------------------ +  --------------------    12,000 
 12,000   12,000  (eq 6-21) 12,000
W DL = w DL + w acc + w s N s W DL = 1.32 + 0.1 + ( 0.2 ) ( 8 ) = 3.02 kpf

2 para 6-47
10 W DL L 2
(eq 6-22, 6-23) ( 3.02 ) ( 12 )
m′ DL = ------------------ m′ DL = ----------------------------- = 6.80 kip-feet
8Ns 8 (8 )
Appendix B
M LL Table B-2 M LL = 125 kip-feet
11 W L = 12 ft W
MLC = 50
Appendix B
M LL Table B-2 M LL = 138.5 kip-feet
12 T L = 12 ft T
MLC = 50

FM 3-34.343

With a Timber Deck (continued)

Ss = 3.43 ft:
One lane:
10 10
N 1 = ------ = ---------- = 2.92
para 6-51 Ss 3.43
13 Effective number of stringers
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
8.5 8.5
N 2 = ------- = ---------- = 2.48
Ss 3.43
One lane:
para 6-51
(eq 6-24) ( 1.15 ) ( 138.5 )
m′ LL = ---------------------------------- = 54.54 kip-feet
1.15M′ LL Use the larger 2.92
14 m′ LL = ------------------------
N 1, 2 value of wheeled Two lanes:
and tracked
moment. ( 1.15 ) ( 138.5 )
m′ LL = ---------------------------------- = 64.22 kip-feet
2.48
para 6-52
15 M = m′DL + m′LL M = 6.80 + 64.22 = 71.02 kip-feet
(eq 6-25)
16 Allowable stress para 6-53 Fb = 1.9 ksi, Fv = 0.85 ksi, Fc = 0.455 ksi
17 Modulus of elasticity N/A E = 1,700 ksi
para 6-55 ( 12 ) ( 71.02 ) 3
12M S req = ----------------------------- = 448.55 in
18 S req = ----------- (eq 6-26) 1.9
Fb
Table C-4 Choose stringer size 12 in x 16 in.
2 2
331M′ LL L para 6-58 ( 331 ) ( 138.5 ) ( 12 )
19 d LL = ----------------------------- d LL = ------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.218 in
N 1, 2 ESd s (eq 6-27) ( 2.48 ) ( 1,700 ) ( 16 ) ( 448.55 )
12
d max = --------- ( 12 ) = 0.72 in
d max =  --------- 12
L 200
20 para 6-58
 200
d LL < d max ∴ OK
1 1
L u = --- L = --- ( 12 ) = 4 ft
3 3
21 Unbraced length para 6-61
∴ use N b = 4
Effective beam length:

12L u 12L u
If ------------ ≥ 14.3, L e = 22.1L u ( 12 ) ( 4 )
ds ------------ = ------------------- = 3 < 14.3
para 6-61 ds 16
22
(eq 6-28, 29)
12L u L e = ( 19.6 ) ( 4 ) + ( 3 ) ( 16 ) = 126.4 in
If ------------ ≤ 14.3, L e = 19.6L u + 3d s
ds
Le ds para 6-61 ( 126.4 ) ( 16 )

23 Cs = ----------- ≤ 50 Cs = ----------------------------- = 5.62 ≤ 50
2 (eq 6-30) 2
bs 8
bs U m t s para 6-71 ( 28 ) ( 50 ) ( 6.2 )

24 w d = ------------------ w d = ----------------------------------- = 0.723 kpf
12,000 (eq 6-35) 12,000

FM 3-34.343


bR Um t w para 6-72 ( 24 ) ( 150 ) ( 2 )
25 w w = -------------------- w w = --------------------------------- = 0.6 kpf
12,000 (eq 6-36) 12,000
At Um Ns para 6-73 ( 12 × 16 ) ( 50 ) ( 8 )
26 w s = -------------------- w s = ------------------------------------------ = 0.533 kpf
144,000 (eq 6-37) 144,000
para 6-75
27 Accessories wacc = 0.1 kpf
(eq 6-39)
t ws
L b = ( 8 – 1 )  3.43 – ------ = 17.01 ft
12
L b = ( N s – 1 )  S s – ------- para 6-76

12 (eq 6-42) 12
28
( N b – 2 )L b U m ( 4 – 2 ) ( 17.01 ) ( 0.1 )
w b = ------------------------------------ (eq 6-41) w b = ------------------------------------------------ = 0.284 kpf
L 12
W′ DL = w d + w w + w s + w acc + w b para 6-77 W′ DL = 0.723 + 0.6 + 0.533 + 0.1 + 0.284 = 2.24 kpf
29
(eq 6-43)
W′ DL para 6-78 2.24
30 w′ DL = -------------- w′ DL = ---------- = 0.28 kpf
Ns (eq 6-44) 8
W DL 3.02
W DL para 6-79 ------------ = ---------- = 0.378 kpf
31 w′ DL ≤ ------------ Ns 8
Ns (eq 6-45)
0.280 kpf < 0.378 kpf ∴ OK
w′ DL L para 6-82 ( 0.280 ) ( 12 )

32 v′ DL = ----------------- v′ DL = ----------------------------- = 0.21 kips
2N s (eq 6-46) (2) (8)
Appendix B
V LL Table B-3 V LL = 50 kips
33 W L = 12 ft W
MLC = 50
Appendix B,
V LL Table B-3 V LL = 46.2 kips
34 T L = 12 ft T
MLC = 50
Appendix B
Table B-1,
35 VA VA = 20 kips
Column 4
MLC = 50

FM 3-34.343


Choose the greater value of:
Ss  V′ LL – V A
v LL =  0.5 + ---------- ( 20 ) +  ------------------ = 22.42 kips
3.43 50 – 20
v LL =  0.5 + ------ V A +  -------------------------  32   2.92 
32  N 1, 2 
 S s – 2  V′ LL – V A v LL =  ------------------- ( 20 ) +  ------------------ = 20.43 kips

3.43 – 2 50 – 20
v LL =  -------------- V A +  ------------------------- para 6-84  3.43   2.48 
 Ss   N 1, 2 
36 (eq 6-47, 6-48,
46.2
V′ LL 6-49, 6-50) v LL = ---------- = 23.1 kips
2
v LL = ------------
2
v LL =  ------------------- ( 46.2 ) = 19.26 kips
3.43 – 2
 S s – 2  3.43 
v LL =  -------------- V′ LL
 Ss 
∴ v LL = 23.1 kips
12 – 0.0833 ( 16 )
v ′ LL =  --------------------------------------- ( 23.1 ) = 20.53 kips
 12 
L – 0.0833d s para 6-85
37 v′ LL =  ------------------------------- v LL ≥ 0.75v LL
L (eq 6-51) ( 0.75 ) ( 23.1 ) = 17.33 kips
20.53 kips > 17.33 kips ∴OK
v = v′ DL + 1.15v′ LL para 6-86

38 v = 0.21 + ( 1.15 ) ( 20.53 ) = 23.82 kips
(eq 6-52)
( 3 ) ( 23.82 )
f ′ v = ------------------------------- = 0.186 > 0.085 ksi
3v para 6-86 ( 2 ) ( 12 × 16 )
39 f ′ v = --------- ≤ F v
2A s (eq 6-53) ∴ no good
Choose stringer size 18 in x 24 in.

FM 3-34.343


2
( 331 ) ( 138.5 ) ( 12 )
d LL = ------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.145 in
( 2.48 ) ( 1,700 ) ( 24 ) ( 448.55 )
d LL < d max = 0.72 in ∴ OK
12L u ( 12 ) ( 4 )
------------ = ------------------- = 2 < 14.3
ds 24
L e = ( 19.6 ) ( 4 ) + ( 3 ) ( 24 ) = 150.4 in
( 150.4 ) ( 24 )
Cs = ----------------------------- = 3.34 ≤ 50
2
( 18 )
( 18 × 24 ) ( 50 ) ( 8 )
w s = ------------------------------------------ = 1.2 kpf
144,000
L b = ( 8 – 1 )  3.43 – ------ = 13.51 ft

18
 12
Using the new stringer size of 18 in x
( 4 – 2 ) ( 13.51 ) ( 0.1 )
24 in (from step 39), recheck all w b = ------------------------------------------------ = 0.225 kpf
40 N/A 12
necessary calculations from step 19
forward. W′ DL = ( 0.723 + 0.6 + 1.2 + 0.1 + 0.225 ) = 2.85 kpf
2.85
w′ DL = ---------- = 0.356 kpf
8
0.356 kpf < 0.378 kpf ∴ OK
( 0.356 ) ( 12 )
v′ DL = ----------------------------- = 0.267 kips
(2)(8)
12 – 0.0833 ( 24 )
v′ LL =  --------------------------------------- ( 23.1 ) = 19.25 kips
12
19.25 kips > 17.33 kips ∴ OK
v = 0.267 + ( 1.15 ) ( 19.25 ) = 22.4 kips
( 3 ) ( 22.4 )
f ′ v = ------------------------------- = 0.0778 ksi
( 2 ) ( 18 × 24 )
0.0778 ksi < 0.085 ksi ∴ OK

para 6-88
(eq 6-54) 22.4
v f ′ b = ------------------- = 0.156 ksi
41 f ′ b = ----------- ≤ F B bc = 8 in ( 18 ) ( 8 )
bs bc
FB = 2.04 ksi 0.156 ksi < 2.04 ksi ∴ OK
Table 6-8

FM 3-34.343
• Stringers: eight (each 18 x 24 inches).

• Deck: laminated (2 x 12 inches).
• Treadway: 2- x 12-inch planks.
• Curbs and handrails: standard design.
• Timber: Douglas fir (dense, select structural).
STEEL-STRINGER SUPERSTRUCTURE WITH A CONCRETE DECK

I-4. Table I-2, pages I-9 through I-13, shows the procedure for designing a
steel-stringer bridge with a concrete deck. Design information, materials, and
allowable stresses needed to construct this bridge are listed below.
• Class 70, 2 lanes.
• Nominal sizes of all beams in Table D-2, pages D-3 and D-4 (A36 steel).
• Curb and handrail timber.
• 3,000 psi concrete.
• Grade-40 rebar for concrete deck.
Table I-2. Design Procedure for a Steel-Stringer Superstructure

With a Concrete Deck

Table 6-1
1 Minimum number of stringers Ns = 5
MLC = 70, 2 lanes
bR para 6-9 24
2 S s = ------------ = 6 ft
S s = --------------- 5–1
Ns – 1 (eq 6-2)
bf 12
L e = S s – ------ (eq 6-5) L e = 6 – ------ = 5 ft
12 12
3 para 6-11
bf (eq 6-6) 12
S eff = L e + ------ S eff = 5 + ------ = 5.5 ft
24 24
4 Concrete compressive strength para 6-22 f ′c = 3,000 psi
5 Reinforcing steel yield strength para 6-23 fy = 40 ksi

6 Slab thickness para 6-24 ts = 7 in
7 Wearing surface para 6-25 tw = 1.5 in
ts U c + tw Uw ( 7 ) ( 150 ) + ( 1.5 ) ( 150 )

w DL = ( 1.4 )  ------------------------------------------------------- = 0.149 kpf
para 6-26
8 w DL = 1.4  ------------------------------- (eq 6-7)  12,000 
12,000
2 2
9
w DL S eff para 6-26 ( 0.149 ) ( 5.5 )
M DL = ----------------------- (eq 6-8) M DL = ---------------------------------- = 0.449 kip-feet
10 10
para 6-28
(eq 6-9)
10 PLL = Pmax PLL = 25.5 kips
Appendix B
Table B-1
S eff + 2
M LL = ( 1.564 )  ---------------- ( 25.5 ) = 9.35 kip-feet
para 6-28 5.5 + 2
11 M LL = 1.564  ------------------ P LL  32 
 32  (eq 6-10)
( M DL + M LL ) para 6-29 0.449 + 9.35

12 m = ----------------------------------- m = ------------------------------ = 10.89 kip-feet
0.9 (eq 6-11) 0.9

FM 3-34.343

With a Concrete Deck (continued)

13 B Factor para 6-30 B = 0.85
para 6-30
14 Steel reinforcement ratio Rs = 0.0139
Table 6-5
R n = ( 0.0139 ) ( 40,000 )
2 2
 Rs fy  para 6-31
15 R n = R s f y –  ----------------  ( 0.0139 2 ) ( 40,0002 )
 1.7f ′c 
(eq 6-12)
-  ------------------------------------------------ = 495.39 psi
 ( 1.7 ) ( 3,000 ) 
( 10.89 ) ( 1,000 )
1,000m para 6-32 req h = ------------------------------------- + 1.125 = 5.81 in
16 req h = ----------------- + 1.125 495.39
Rn (eq 6-13)
∴ use ts = 6.5 in
para 6-33
(eq 6-14)
17 d′ =
1,000m
----------------- + 0.5
Assume No. 6 ( 10.89 ) ( 1,000 )
Rn d′ = ------------------------------------- + 0.5 = 5.19 in
bars and a 495.39
3/4-in protective
cover.
0.85f ′c 2,350m para 6-34 ( 0.85 ) ( 3,000 ) ( 2,350 ) ( 10.89 )

18 R s = ------------------ 1 – 1 – -------------------- R s = ---------------------------------- 1 – 1 – ------------------------------------- = 0.0111
fy 2 (eq 6-15) 40,000 2
f ′c ( d′ ) ( 3,000 ) ( 5.19 )
A st = 12R s d′ para 6-34

19 Ast = (12)(0.0111)(5.19) = 0.691 in2
(eq 6-16)
para 6-35 Select four No. 4 bars.
20 Bar-size selection and placement
Table 6-6 As = 0.80 in2
21 Minimum clear spacing para 6-36 Min clear spacing = 1 in > db = 0.5 in, placed in one layer.
para 6-37 10.5 – ( 4 × 0.5 )

22 Bar spacing Bar spacing = -------------------------------------- = 2.13 in
(eq 6-17) 5–1
A st f y para 6-38 ( 0.80 ) ( 40,000 )

23 d o = ------------------ d o = ------------------------------------- = 1.05 in
10.2f ′c (eq 6-18) ( 10.2 ) ( 3,000 )
m′ = ( 0.80 ) ( 40,000 )  5.19 – ---------- ----------------

1.05 1
do para 6-38
m′ = A st f y  d′ – ----- ----------------
24 1 2 12,000
2 12,000 eq 6-19
= 12.44 kip – feet
25 m′ ≥ m para 6-39 12.44 kip-feet > 10.89 kip-feet ∴ OK

2
A temp = ( 12 ) ( 0.0020 ) ( 5.19 ) = 0.125 in
para 6-40
26 A temp = 12R temp d′ (eq 6-20) min = ( 3 ) ( 7 ) = 21 in max = 18 in
Rtemp = 0.0020 Select two No. 3 bars.
Atemp = 0.22 in2 @ 18-in spacing
Poured as part of the deck with drain holes @ 10-ft
27 Curbs and handrails para 6-43, 6-44
intervals on both sides of the bridge.

FM 3-34.343


bs Um ts bR Uw tw para 6-47
w DL =  ------------------ +  -------------------- ( 30 ) ( 150 ) ( 6.5 )
 12,000   12,000  (eq 6-22) w DL =  -------------------------------------- = 2.44 kpf
 12,000 
28
W DL = w DL + w acc + w s N s (eq 6-21)
W DL = 2.44 + 0.4 + ( 0.3 ) ( 5 ) = 4.34 kpf
tw = 0
2
W DL L 2
29
para 6-48 ( 4.34 ) ( 80 )
m′DL = ------------------ m′ DL = ----------------------------- = 694.4 kip-feet
8N s (eq 6-23) (8)(5)
Appendix B
M LL Table B-2 M LL = 2,460 kip-feet
30 W L = 80 ft W
MLC = 70
Appendix B
M LL Table B-2 M LL = 2,540 kip-feet
31 T L = 80 ft T
MLC = 70
For Ss = 6 ft:
One lane:
14 14
N 1 = ------ = ------ = 2.33
para 6-51 Ss 6
32 Effective number of stringers
Table 3-3
Two lanes:
11 11
N 2 = ------ = ------ = 1.83
Ss 6
One lane:
para 6-51
( 1.15 ) ( 2,540 )
(eq 6-24) m′ LL = ---------------------------------- = 1,253.65 kip-feet
1.15M′ LL 2.33
Use the larger
33 m′ LL = ------------------------
N 1, 2 value of wheeled Two lanes:
and tracked
( 1.15 ) ( 2,540 )
moment. m′ LL = ---------------------------------- = 1,596.17 kip-feet
1.83
M = m′ DL + m′ LL para 6-52
34 M = 694.4 + 1,596.17 = 2,290.57 kip-feet
(eq 6-25)
Fy = 36 ksi
para 6-55
35 Allowable stress Fb = 0.75Fy = (0.75)(36) = 27 ksi
Table 6-7
Fv = 0.45Fy = (0.45)(36) = 16.2 ksi
36 Modules of elasticity N/A E = 29 x 103 ksi
para 6-56 ( 12 ) ( 2,290.57 ) 3
12M S req = ------------------------------------- = 1,018.03 in
37 S req = ----------- (eq 6-26) 27
Fb
Table D-2 Choose W36x280.
2 2
331M′ LL L para 6-58 ( 331 ) ( 2,540 ) ( 80 )
38 d LL = ----------------------------- dLL = ------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 2.69 in
N 1, 2 ESd s (eq 6-27) ( 1.83 ) ( 29,000 ) ( 36.52 ) ( 1030 )
d max =  --------- ( 12 ) = 4.8 in

80
 200
d max =  --------- 12
L
39 para 6-58
200
d LL = 2.69 in < d max = 4.8 in ∴ OK

FM 3-34.343

6.33b f ( 6.33 ) ( 16.595 )

L c = ------------------------------------- = 17.51 ft
L c = --------------- 36
Fy para 6-64
(eq 6-31, 32) or—
40 or— Use the smaller 1,667
L c = ----------------------------------------------- = 29.73 ft
1,667 value. ( 36.52 ⁄ 26.05 ) ( 40 )
L c = --------------------------
( d s ⁄ A f )F y
∴ use L c = 17.51 ft
80
L para 6-65 N b = ------------- + 1 = 5.57
41 N b = ----- + 1 17.51
Lc (eq 6-33)
∴ use N b = 6
80
L u = ------------ = 16.0 ft
L para 6-66 6–1
42 L u = ---------------
Nb – 1 (eq 6-34) ∴ use 6 braces @ 16.0 ft along the bridge span.
Choose diaphragms W18x65.
bs Um ts para 6-71 ( 30 ) ( 150 ) ( 6.5 )
43 w d = ------------------ w d = -------------------------------------- = 2.44 kpf
12,000 (eq 6-35) 12,000
bR Um tw para 6-72
44 w w = -------------------- (eq 6-36) ww = 0
12,000
tw = 0
Ws Ns para 6-74 ( 280 ) ( 5 )

45 w S = -------------- w S = ---------------------- = 1.4 kpf
1,000 (eq 6-38) 1,000
para 6-75
46 Accessories wS = wacc = 0.4 kpf
(eq 6-39)
t ws para 6-76
L b = ( N s – 1 )  S s – ------- L b = ( 5 – 1 )  6 – ------------- = 23.71 ft
0.885
 12  (eq 6-42)  12 
47
( N b – 2 )L b U m para 6-76 ( 6 – 2 ) ( 23.71 ) ( 0.065 )
w b = ------------------------------------ w b = ------------------------------------------------------ = 0.077 kpf
L (eq 6-41) 80
W′ DL = w d + w w + w s + w acc + w b para 6-77

48 W′ DL = 2.44 + 0 + 1.4 + 0.4 + 0.077 = 4.32 kpf
(eq 6-43)
W′ DL para 6-78 4.32
49 w′ DL = -------------- w′ DL = ---------- = 0.863 kpf
Ns (eq 6-44) 5
W DL 4.34
W DL para 6-79 ------------ = ---------- = 0.868 kpf
50 w′ DL ≤ ------------ Ns 5
Ns (eq 6-45)
0.863 kpf < 0.868 kpf ∴ OK
w′ DL L para 6-82 ( 0.863 ) ( 80 )
51 v′ DL = ----------------- v′ DL = ----------------------------- = 6.90 kips
2N s (eq 6-46) 2( 5)
Appendix B
Table B-3
52 V LL V LL = 63.79 kips
W L = 80 ft W
MLC = 70

FM 3-34.343


Appendix B
V LL Table B-3
53 V LL = 63.44 kips
T L = 80 ft T
MLC = 70
Appendix B
Table B-1,
54 VA VA = 25.5 kips
Column 4
MLC = 70
Ss  V′ LL – V A Choose the greater value of:
v LL =  0.5 + ------ V A +  -------------------------
v LL =  0.5 + ------ ( 25.5 ) +  ------------------------------ = 33.96 kips
32  N  6 63.79 – 25.5
1,2
 32  2.33 
 S s – 2  V′ LL – V A
v LL =  -------------- V A +  -------------------------
v LL =  ------------ ( 25.5 ) +  ------------------------------ = 37.92 kips
6–2 63.79 – 25.5
 s  S  N 1,2  para 6-84 6 1.83
55 (eq 6-47, 48,
V′ LL 63.44
v LL = ------------ 49, 50) v LL = ------------- = 31.72 kips
2 2
 S s – 2 v LL =  ------------ ( 63.44 ) = 42.29 kips

6–2
v LL =  -------------- V′ LL  6 
 Ss 
∴ v LL = 42.29 kips
80 – ( 0.0833 × 36.52 )
v ′ LL = ----------------------------------------------------- ( 42.29 ) = 128.65 kips
80
L – 0.0833d s para 6-85
56 v′ LL =  ------------------------------- v LL ≥ 0.75v LL
L (eq 6-51) ( 0.75 ) ( 42.29 ) = 31.72 kips
128.65 kips > 31.72 kips ∴ OK
para 6-86
57 v = v′ DL + v′ LL v = 6.90 + 128.65 = 135.55 kips
(eq 6-52)
( 3 ) ( 135.55 )
3v f ′ v = ----------------------------- = 2.47 ksi < 16.2 ksi
58 f ′ v = --------- ≤ F v para 6-86 ( 2 ) ( 82.4 )
2A s (eq 6-53)
∴ OK
para 6-92
v 135.55 2
59 A pl = ------- (eq 6-55) A pl = -------------------------- = 5.02 in
FB ( 0.75 ) ( 36 )
FB = 0.75Fy
min length = 6 in
60 Plate width and length para 6-93 min area = 6bf = (6)(16.595) = 99.57 in2
∴ set area = 99.52 in2
v para 6-94 135.55
61 f ′ B = ------------- f ′ B = ----------------------------- = 1.36 ksi
b pl b c (eq 6-56) ( 16.595 ) ( 6 )
2
( 3 ) ( 1.36 )  ---------------- – 1.57
16.595
b pl 2  2 
3f ′ B  ------- – t f para 6-94 t pl = ----------------------------------------------------------------- = 2.62 in
62  2  27
t pl = ------------------------------------- (eq 6-57)
Fb
∴ use 11 plates @ 1/4 in each, laminated and fully
welded up to reach the minimum thickness of 2.62 in.
v para 6-95 135.55
f ′ bw = -------------------------- ≤ f B f ′ bw = ---------------------------------------------- = 20.23 ksi < 32.4 ksi
63 tw ( bc + tf ) (eq 6-58) ( 0.885 ) ( 6 + 1.570 )
FB = 0.90Fy ∴ OK
64 End-bearing stiffeners para 6-96 Not needed.

FM 3-34.343
I-5. The final design for this bridge is as follows:

• Stringers: five (each W36x280).
• Deck: 6.5-inch-thick reinforced concrete.
• No. 4 bars @ 3 inches (main reinforcing steel).
• No. 3 bars @ 12 inches (temperature steel).
• Curbs and handrails: standard design.
• Bracing: W18x65 @ 13.33 feet.
• Bearing plate: six 1/32-inch plates, laminated and fully welded
(6 x 16.595).
• No end-bearing stiffeners.

Glossary
∫ integral
∆ difference in; change in

γ gamma
π pi
∴ therefore; hence
φ diameter
≈ nearly equal to
θ angle
@ at that point
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
abutment a substructure supporting the end of a superstructure that retains
or supports the approach embankment. See also retaining wall
and wing wall
adfreezing the process by which one object becomes adhered to another by the
binding action of ice
AFCS Army Facilities Components System
aggregate the sand, gravel, or broken stone mixed with cementing material to
form a mortar or concrete. The fine material used to produce mortar
for stone and brick masonry and for the mortar component of
concrete is commonly termed fine aggregate. The coarse material
used in concrete only is termed coarse aggregate
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
allowable unit stress the stress per unit of area of the structure material determined to be
a safe amount for use (based on quality, condition, and so forth)
allowance see impact load
anchorage all members and parts that hold the anchor span of a cantilever
bridge in the correct position
anchor bolt a bolt-like piece of metal threaded and fitted with a nut or a nut and
washer at one end only used to fix members of a structure in
position
anchor span the span of a cantilevered bridge that is connected to the
moment-resisting support. See also cantilever girder
angle of internal see angle of repose
friction
Glossary-1
FM 3-34.343
angle of repose the batter or slope angle at which a given soil will slide from a
higher to a lower elevation; the angle below which the particles of
earth are held in equilibrium by the forces of gravity and friction
angle of skew see skew angle
anisotropy the property of exhibiting different strengths in different directions
AO area of operation
approach slab a heavy, reinforced concrete slab placed on the approach roadway
adjacent to and resting on the abutment back wall to carry wheel
loads on the approaches directly to the abutment
approx approximately
apron a timber, concrete, riprap, paving, or other construction shield that
is placed adjacent to substructure abutments and piers to prevent
scour
AR Army regulation
arch a bow-shaped, nonrigid structure that produces both vertical and
horizontal reactions at its supports
arch barrel an arch ring that extends the width of the structure
arched abutment see spill-through abutment
arch rib the curved members used in open-spandrel bridges. Ribs stretch the
length of the arch and are often parallel to each other with
spandrels running between them
arm the portion of a drawbridge that forms part or all of the span; the
rear or counterweight leaf of a bascule span; the overhanging part of
a cantilever bridge that supports the suspended span; the
perpendicular distance between the two parallel equal and opposite
forces of a moment
armor a secondary steel member that is installed to protect a vulnerable
part of another member (such as steel angles placed over the edges
of a joint)
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AVLB armored vehicle-launched bridge
axle load the load borne by one axle of a traffic vehicle, a movable bridge, or
other motive equipment or device and transmitted through a wheel
or wheels to a supporting structure. See also wheel concentration
backfill soil (usually granular) placed behind and within the abutment and
wing walls to fill the unoccupied part of the foundation excavation
backstay the part of the main suspension member of a suspension bridge that
extends between the tower and the anchorage to resist overturning
stresses exerted on the tower by the suspension span. When the
backstay extends over the towers, it no longer supports any portion
of the bridge’s floor system between the tower and the anchorage
back wall the topmost portion of an abutment above the elevation of the bridge
seat that functions as a retaining wall with a live-load surcharge or
as a support for the bridge deck and the approach slab
2-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
backwater a section of water with an elevation that is increased above normal

because of a condition downstream (such as a flood or an ice jam) or
because of stream-width contraction beneath a bridge)
balance blocks blocks of cast iron, stone, concrete, or other heavy material used to
adjust the counterbalance of swing and lift spans
balance wheel one of the wheels attached to the superstructure to maintain the
proper balance and lateral stability of the structure by preventing
excess rocking or other motion due to wind pressure, shock from
operating irregularities, and so forth. When correctly adjusted, the
wheel will transmit only its own weight to the track and will revolve
without load on its axle
balancing chain see counterbalancing chain
ballast filler material (usually broken stone or masonry) used either to
stabilize a structure or to transmit a vertical load to a lower level
baluster one of a set of small pillars supporting a handrail
balustrade a handrail supported by balusters
barbed anchor bolt see ragged anchor bolt
bascule bridge a bridge with a superstructure that swings vertically about a
horizontal axis
bascule span a span of a bridge that swings vertically about a horizontal axis
base coat see priming coat
base metal the metal at and adjacent to the surface to be incorporated in a
welded joint that will be fused and which will produce a welded joint
through coalescence and interdiffusion with the weld
base plate a plate-shaped piece of steel that is made an integral part of the
base of a column, a pedestal, or another member. It transmits and
distributes its load directly to the substructure or to another
member
batten plate a plate that covers the joint formed by two abutting metal plates or
shapes but does not transmit stress from one to the other; one used
instead of lacing to tie together the shapes comprising a built-up
member; one in which the bar latticing or lacing of a bolted, riveted,
or welded member terminates (sometimes used synonymous with
stay plates). See also stay plate
batter the inclination of a surface in relation to a horizontal, a vertical, or,
occasionally, an inclined plane (commonly noted on detail plans as
so many inches to one foot). See also rake
batter pile a pile driven in an inclined position to resist forces that act in other
than a vertical direction. It may withstand these forces or be a
subsidiary part of a structure to improve its rigidity. When driven
and made fast on the end of a pile bent or pier in a waterway, it acts
as a cutwater to divide and deflect floating ice and debris
bay the area between adjacent stringers of a multibeam structure
bead a narrow, continuous deposit of weld metal in a single pass of fused
filler metal
Glossary-3
FM 3-34.343
beam a piece receiving and transmitting transverse or oblique stresses

from externally applied loads when supported at intermediate
points or ends. The beam derives its strength from internal bending
or flexural stresses. It can be rolled, I-shaped or H-shaped metal;
I-shaped metal made of plates and angles; or other shapes bolted,
riveted, or welded together (built-up beams)
bearing failure a crushing under an extreme compressive load on an inadequate
support; a shear failure in the supporting soil when a footing or pile
applies excessively high pressures
bearing pad a thin sheet of material placed between a masonry plate and the
masonry-bearing surface. It is used to fill voids caused by
imperfection of the masonry plate and bearing surface, to seal the
interface, and to aid in even distribution of loads at the interface
bearing pile a pile that receives its support in bearing through the tip or lower
end of the pile
bearing plate a steel plate placed between stringers and the supporting seat to
distribute vertical bridge loads and to prevent crushing or flange-
and web-bending failures
bearing seat a prepared horizontal surface at or near the top of a substructure
unit upon which the superstructure bearings are placed
bedrock a natural mass formation of sedimentary or metamorphic rock
benchmark a point of known elevation and location
bent a supporting unit of a trestle or viaduct structure made of two or
more columns or column-like members connected by a cap, a strut,
o r a n o t h e r me m be r . T h i s c o n n e c t i n g m e m be r d is t r ib u t e s
superimposed loads on the bent. When combined with a system of
diagonal or horizontal bracing attached to the columns, the entire
construction functions somewhat like a truss distributing its loads
into the foundation
berm the line of intersection between the top surface of an approach
embankment or causeway and the surface of the side slope; a
horizontal bench located at the toe of the slope of an approach cut,
embankment, or causeway to strengthen and secure its underlying
material
blanket a streambed protection placed adjacent to abutments and piers and
covering the streambed for an adequate distance to resist scour; a
deposit of stones of varying sizes or a timber framework loaded with
stones or adaptable ballasting material for ballasting and protecting
from displacement
block abutment see straight abutment
bollard one of a series of short posts that is used for diverting or excluding
motor vehicles from a road
bolster a block-like wood, metal, or concrete member that supports a
bearing on top of a pier cap or abutment bridge seat. It adjusts
bearing heights (thus avoiding bridge-seat construction to the crown
of the roadway), provides an area that may be ground to a precise
elevation, or raises a bearing above moisture and debris that may
collect on the bridge seat. See also bridge pad
4-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
bolted joint see riveted joint

bond the grip of concrete on reinforcing bars that prevents slippage; the
mechanical force developed between two concrete masses when one
is cast against the already hardened surface of the other
bond stress the stress developed by the force tending to produce movement or
slippage at the interface between the concrete and the metal
reinforcemen t bars or other shapes in rein forced concrete
construction
bowstring truss any truss with its top-chord members polygonally arranged like a
parabolic truss; one with a top chord conforming to the arc of a circle
or an ellipse. See also parabolic truss
box beam a rectangular-shaped precast and prestressed concrete beam. These
beams may be side by side or connected laterally and are used to
form a bridge deck with or without a cast-in-place slab or topping.
The units act similar to a slab. They act as a beam when spread and
when a cast-in-place slab is used
bracing a system of tension and/or compression members connected to the
main members of a structure for support. This system transfers
wind, dynamic, impact, and vibratory stresses to the substructure
and gives rigidity throughout the complete assemblage. Types of
bracing include lateral (which resists transverse forces) and
longitudinal (which resists longitudinal forces). See also cross
frames; diaphragm; sway brace; and transverse bracing
bracket a projecting support or brace fixed on two intersecting members to
transfer reactions or shear stress from one to the other, to
strengthen and render a joint connection of the members more rigid,
or to fix one member in position
breast wall the portion of an abutment between the wings and beneath the
bridge seat that supports the superstructure loads and retains the
approach fill. See also face wall and stem
brick veneer see stone facing
bridge a structural means of transit for pedestrians or vehicles above the
land or water surface (whether natural or artificial). The essential
parts of a bridge are the substructure with its abutments and/or
piers supporting the superstructures; the superstructure slab,
girder, truss, arch, or other spans supporting the roadway loads and
transferring them to the substructure; and the roadway receiving
and transmitting traffic loads. See also culvert
bridge pad the raised, leveled area on which the pedestal, shoe, sole, plate, or
other members take bearing by contact. See also bolster
bridge seat the top surface of an abutment or pier that holds and supports the
superstructure span. For an abutment, it is the surface forming the
support for the superstructure and from which the back wall rises.
For a pier, it is the entire top surface
bridge-seat bearing see bridge pad
area
bridge-seat pedestal a block-like member between the bridge seat and the bearings that
supports the superstructure. See also bolster
Glossary-5
FM 3-34.343
bridge site the selected position or location of a bridge

bridging the cross bracing fastened between wooden floor stringers (usually
at the one-third span points) to increase the floor rigidity, uniformly
distribute the live load, and minimize the effects of impact and
vibration
brush curb a narrow curb (9 inches wide or less) that prevents a vehicle from
brushing against the railing or parapet
buckle to fail by an inelastic change in alignment, usually because of
compression
buffer a mechanism designed to absorb the concussion or impact of a
moving superstructure or another part when it swings, rises, or falls
to its limiting position of motion
built-up column a column comprised of several plates and angles or other shapes
united by bolting, riveting, or welding to render the entire
assemblage a unit. Commonly described as a plate girder
built-up girder see built-up column
bulkhead a retaining timber, steel, or reinforced concrete structure or a
barrier of wooden timbers. Bulkheads consist of driven piles
supporting a wall or a wall-like structure resisting the earth or
other material and preventing sliding and overturning
bumper see buffer
buttress a bracket-like wall that projects from a wall to strengthen and
stiffen it against overturning forces that are applied to the opposite
face. A buttress must touch the wall it reinforces, although it may be
integral with or independent of it. All parts of a buttress act in
compression. See also counterfort
buttressed wall a retaining wall with projecting buttresses to provide strength and
stability
butt weld a weld that joins two members end to end
cable one of the main members of a suspension bridge that receives bridge
floor loads and transmits them to the towers and anchorages. See
also suspension bridge
cable band a steel casting with bolts or other fasteners fixing it securely on the
cable of a suspension bridge and preventing the band from slipping
from its correct location
camber the slight arch or convex curvature provided in a span structure to
compen sate for dead -load def le ction and to secure a more
substantial and aesthetic appearance than uniformly straight lines
produce; the superelevation given to the extreme ends of a swing
span during erection to diminish the deflection (droop) of the arms
when in the open position, cantilevered from the center bearing; a
projecting beam, truss, or slab supported at one end only
cantilever abutment an abutment in which the stem or breast wall is fixed rigidly to the
footing. Acting as a cantilever beam, the stem transmits the
horizontal earth pressure to the footing, which maintains stability
by virtue of the dead weight of the abutment and of the soil mass
resting on the rear portion (or heel) of the footing
6-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
cantilever beam see cantilever girder

cantilever bridge a bridge with a cantilevered superstructure
cantilever girder a girder or truss with its members or parts arranged so that one or
both of its end portions extend beyond the point or points of support.
The girder may consist of two projecting ends counterbalanced over
a center support, two projecting ends with an intermediate
suspended portion in which the weight is completely
counterbalanced by the anchor spans or anchorages, or a projecting
end counterbalanced by a portion extending in the opposite direction
beyond the point of support or by an uplift-resisting anchorage
cantilever span a superstructure span of a cantilever bridge composed of two
cantilever arms or of a suspended span connected with one or two
cantilever arms
cantilever truss see cantilever girder
cap the top piece or member of a viaduct, trestle, or frame bent serving
to distribute the loads on the columns and to hold them in their
proper relative positions. See also pier cap and pile cap
capillary action the process by which w ater is drawn from a wet area and
transported to a dry area through the pores of a material
capstone the top stone of a masonry pillar, a column, or another structure
requiring the use of a single capping element; one of the stones used
in constructing a stone parapet to make up its top (weather) course
catch basin a box-shaped receptacle fitted with a grilled inlet and a pipe outlet
drain to collect rain water and floating debris from the roadway
surface and to retain solid material for periodic removal. Catch
basins are usually installed beneath a bridge floor or within the
approach roadway, with the grilled inlet adjacent to the roadway
curb
catchment area see drainage area
catwalk a narrow, permanent or temporary walkway for access to some part
of a structure. See also inspection ladder
cellular abutment an abutment of reinforced concrete boxes in which the space
between the wings, the breast wall, the approach slab, and the
footings is hollow. On some bridges, curtain walls between the pier
and the abutment simulate a cellular abutment
cement matrix the binding medium in mortar or concrete produced by hardening
cement
cement paste the plastic combination of cement and water that supplies the
cementing action in concrete
center bearing all parts (including pedestal castings, the pivot, and discs) that
support the entire dead load of a swing span when the end lifts are
released or the span is revolving open or closed
center discs the bronze, steel, or other metal enclosed in the pivot of a
center-bearing swing span to reduce its frictional resistance
Glossary-7
FM 3-34.343
centering the support for formwork for any slab, beam, or other horizontal
concrete structure on which the arch ring is constructed. Centering
is usually timber or metal framework, with its top portion shaped to
conform with the arch intrados and covered with lagging or with
bolsters spaced to permit treatment of the mortared joints of stone
masonry
centering device the mechanical arrangement or device that guides the span of a
bascule or a vertical lift to its position on its supports when moving
from open to closed
center lock a locking device that transmits shear at the centerline of a
double-leaf bascule or double-swing span bridge. This device
eliminates deflection and vibration at the center of the span
center wedges the assembly of pedestals and wedges located upon the pivot pier
b e n e a t h t h e l o a d i n g g i r d e r o n a s w i n g b r i d g e . O p e ra t e d
mechanically, it receives the pivot-pier live loads and transmits
them directly to the substructure, thus relieving the pivot casting
from all (or nearly all) live-load stress
CH clay, high plasticity
channel profile the longitudinal section of a channel
chase a channel, groove, or elongated recess built into a structure surface
to receive a part of a joint or structure
check analysis see ladle analysis
chord the upper (top) and lower (bottom) longitudinal members of a truss
that extend the full length and carry the tensile and compressive
forces. The chords may be parallel (the upper one may be polygonal
or curved [arched] and the lower one horizontal) or both may be
polygonal [broken chords]). The panel points of polygonal top chords
are parabolic chords (they follow the arc of a parabola)
chord members the trusses that are commonly divided lengthwise into panels, the
length of each being termed a panel length. The corresponding
members of the chords are described as upper (top) chord members
and lower (bottom) chord members
circular arch an arch in which the intrados surface is a portion of the surface of a
right circular cylinder
CL clay, low plasticity
clearance the unobstructed space provided on or under a bridge
superstructure for the free passage of vehicular and pedestrian
traffic, a river or stream with its surface burden of floating debris, or
a navigation craft. Clearance is also provided for the free assembly
and adjustment of the elements or members of a structure and for
the variations in dimension due to workmanship, temperature
changes, and minor irregularities. Clearance is sometimes described
as go-and-come or play allowance. See also clear headway
clear headway the vertical clearance beneath a bridge structure for navigation. In
tidal waters, headway is measured above mean high-tide elevation.
See also clearance
8-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
clear span the unobstructed space or distance between the substructure

elements measured between faces of abutments and/or piers. When
a structure is located on a navigable waterway, the clear span is
measured at mean low-water elevation and may be the distance
between guard or fender piers, dolphins, or other constructions to
protect navigation
clevis a forked device used to pin the end of a rod on a gusset plate or other
structural part. The clevis may be adjustable or fixed. An adjustable
member with a fixed clevis at one end may be fitted with a thread
and nut at its opposite end, while one having fixed clevises at each
end may be fitted with either a sleeve nut or a turnbuckle in its
midlength portion. Lateral bracing and tie-rod diagonals on steel
trusses often use clevises
clevis bar a member consisting of a rod having upset threaded ends fitted with
clevises for engaging end-connection pins. For later adjustment, it
has right- and left-hand end threads or it has a sleeve nut or a
turnbuckle within its length with right- and left-hand end threads
on each of its sections and its clevises forged integrally with the
body sections of the bar
clip angle see connection angle
closed-spandrel arch an arch bridge with earth filling the space between the deck and the
bottom of the arch
coarse aggregate see aggregate
coefficient of thermal the unit strain produced in a material by a change of one degree in
expansion temperature
cofferdam an open, box-like structure constructed to surround the area to be
occupied and to permit draining of the enclosure so that excavation
may be effected in open air. In its simplest form, the dam consists of
interlocking steel sheet piles
cold work the rolling or bending of material at ordinary room temperature or
of steel under concentrated forces
collision strut a redundant member reinforcing the inclined end post of a through
truss against damage from vehicular traffic. The strut joins the end
post at a height above the roadway perceived to be the location of
collision contact and connects the post with the first interior
bottom-chord panel point. The use of collision struts in highway
bridges is limited
column a member resisting compressive stresses, vertical to the bottom
chord of a truss and common to two truss panels
composite bridge a bridg e w ith a co ncrete deck that has lon gitudinal main
load-bearing members
composite joint a joint in which combined mechanical devices or such devices
combined with a fusion weld develop its strength, rigidity, and so
forth. Using joints is undesirable due to the uncertain functioning of
composite joints
compound roller a large, hollow roller holding a large, solid cylinder surrounded by
smaller solid rollers with circular spacing bars engaging their ends.
The roller is commonly hollow at the center to permit observation of
its interior material
Glossary-9
FM 3-34.343
compression the stress that occurrs when force is applied at the ends of a
member. The stress is inward toward the center of the member
concrete a composite material consisting of a binding medium (such as
cement and water) within which are embedded particles or
fragments of aggregate (a relatively inert mineral filler)
concrete box girder a large, reinforced or prestressed concrete, box-shaped beam,
usually multicelled with several interior webs. The bottom slab of
the girder serves as a flange only, while the top slab is both a flange
and a transverse deck slab
connection angle a piece or pieces of material shaped in an angle serving to connect
two elements of a member or two members of a structure
consolidated soil a foundation of soft soil made more resistant to its loads by
foundation consolidating natural material, adding material such as sand and
gravel into the soft material, and injecting cementing materials into
the soil mass that will produce consolidation by lapidification
consolidation the time-dependent change in the volume of a soil mass under
compressive load that occurs when water slowly escapes from the
pores or voids of the soil. The soil skeleton is unable to support the
load and changes structure, thereby reducing its volume and
producing vertical settlements
continuous girder any girder, span, or truss that extends without interruption over
one or more intermediate supports
continuous span see continuous girder
continuous truss see continuous girder
continuous weld a weld that extends the entire length of a joint
coping the top stone layer of a retaining wall, pier, abutment, wing wall,
and so forth that projects beyond the surface of the masonry below.
The top surface is usually battered (washed) to prevent the
accumulation of rain or other moisture
corbel a projecting part of a structure that supports a brace, a short beam,
or another member or that serves as part of the architectural
treatment of the structure. In stone and brick masonry construction,
this form of corbel is called a corbel course, implying greater length
than that of a simple corbel
corbel course see corbel
corrosion the general disintegration and wasting of surface material through
oxidation, temperature, decomposition, and other natural agents
cos cosine
cotter bolt a bolt with a head at one end and a round hole with a cotter pin or a
hexagonal slot with a tapered wedge near the opposite end. Cotter
bolts usually have one or two washers. A cotter bolt with a key is
sometimes called a key bolt
counter a diagonal truss member located at the midspan panel of the truss.
Counters function only when the span is partially loaded. The dead
load of the truss does not stress the counter. See also web members
counterbalancing chains in a vertical-lift bridge that serve to counteract the varying
chain weight of the supporting cables incidental to the span movements
10-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
counterfort a bracket-like wall that projects from another wall to resist tensile
and bending stresses. Counterforts are integrally built with or
otherwise securely attached to the side of and extend partially or
completely to the top of the wall they reinforce. See also buttress
counterforted an abutment that develops resistance to bending moment in the
abutment stem through counterforts. This permits the breast wall to be a
horizontal beam or slab spanning between counterforts rather than
a vertical cantilever slab
counterforted wall a retaining wall with projecting counterforts to provide strength and
stability. See also retaining wall
counterweight a weight used to counterbalance the weight of a movable part such
as a bascule leaf or a vertical-lift span
counterweight well an enclosed space beneath the approach end of a bridge floor that
accommodates the counterweight and its supporting frame during
span movement on certain types of bascule-bridge structures
course a layer made of either cut or uncut pieces of stone with horizontal or
slightly longitudinally inclined joints in stone masonry; a layer of
bricks in mortar (in brick masonry)
cover the clear thickness of concrete between a reinforcing bar and the
concrete surface
covered bridge a wooden bridge with an adaptable truss. To prevent or delay
deterioration of the timbers caused by moisture in the joints, a
housing of fastened materials covers the structure or its trusses. A
covered bridge may be a deck or a through structure that may use
pony trusses
cover plate a plate used with flange angles or other shapes to provide an
additional flange section on a girder, column, strut, or similar
member
cracking visible cracks in an overlay indicating cracks in the concrete below
cradle the lateral distance from the midpoint of one of the main cables to a
straight line drawn between its support points on the towers
creep an inelastic deformation that increases with time while the stress is
constant
crib a structure with compartments or coffers full or partly full of
satisfactory material for supporting the structure. It may also serve
as a training wall averting changes in shore and bank locations. The
exterior portion may be planked or sheet-piled to protect the crib
against erosion or floating debris. See also dike
crimped stiffener a stiffener forged at its ends to fit on the web and web legs of the
flange angles of a plate girder
cross fall of roadway see crown of roadway
cross frames transverse bracings between two main longitudinal members. See
also bracing and diaphragm
cross girder large timber, metal, and reinforced concrete girder members placed
perpendicular to and connected on the main girders or trusses of a
bridge span, including intermediate and end floor beams
Glossary-11
FM 3-34.343
cross wall see diaphragm wall

crown of roadway the crest line of the convexed surface or the vertical dimension
measuring the convexed or raised surface from gutter to crest
C-shaped beams steel channels
cu ft cubic foot; cubic feet
culvert a small bridge entirely below the elevation of the roadway surface,
with no integral parts. Structures less than 20 feet in span are
culverts, even though they support traffic loads directly. Structures
over 20 feet in span and parallel to the roadway are bridges
curb a stone, concrete, or wooden barrier paralleling the side of the
roadway. Curbs guide vehicles and safeguard bridge trusses,
railings, and other structures outside the roadway. Curbs also
protect pedestrians on sidewalks from colliding with vehicles
curb inlet see scupper
curtain wall a thin, nonbearing masonry wall; a thin, vertical, and integral part
o f a culvert p aving slab that p ro tects the culve rt against
undermining by stream scour; a wall uniting the pillar or shaft
portions of a dumbbell pier and serving as a frame composed of
struts and braces to make the entire structure act integrally
curve banking see superelevation
curved wing wall a wall forming either a convex or concave arc flaring from the
alignment of the abutment breast wall
curves in plan and a roadway may be curved in its lateral alignment, its vertical
profile contour, or in both its alignment and contour
cut or cutting that portion of construction produced by the removal of the natural
formation of earth or rock, whether sloped or level. The terms side-
hill cut and through cut describe the resulting cross sections
commonly encountered
cut slope the inclined surface of an approach cut ending with a ditch or gutter
at its base, which in turn serves to remove accumulations of water
from all areas drained into it
cylinder pier see pier
CZ combat zone
DA Department of the Army
DC District of Columbia
dead load a static load due to the weight of the structure
deadman an anchorage member engaging the end of a stay rod, cable, or other
tie-like pieces. The deadman resists the stresses of tie members and
restrains and holds structure members in position against
horizontal movement
debris rack a grill barrier used to intercept debris above a sewer or culvert inlet
deck the part of a bridge that directly supports traffic. The deck
distributes the load to beams and stringers and may be the main
supporting element of a bridge. It may be reinforced concrete,
timber, a steel plate or grating, or the top surface of abutting
concrete members or units
12-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
deck bridge a bridge with its floor elevation at or above the elevation of the
uppermost part of the superstructure
decking the flooring of bridges with wooden floors. Decking does not include
floor stringers, floor beams, or flooring-support members
deformation dimensional changes that occur when stress in a material is less
than the yield point. The material will return to its original shape if
the stress is removed
deformed bars see mechanical bond
deg degree(s)
depth of truss the vertical distance between the centerlines of action of the top and
bottom chords of trusses with parallel chords
design load the load of concentrations used to determine the stresses, stress
distributions, and the cross-sectional areas and compositions of a
bridge structure. The design’s fixed load or loadings are often
composite rather than actual, but are based on a study of vehicle
types
diagonal see web members
diagonal stay a cable support extending diagonally from the tower to the roadway
to add stiffness to the structure and to diminish the deformations
and undulations caused by traffic in a suspension bridge
diam diameter
diaphragm a reinforcing plate or member that is placed within a member or
deck system to distribute stresses and to improve strength and
rigidity. See also bracing and cross frames
diaphragm wall the walls of a reinforced concrete caisson or box-like structure that
divides its interior space into reinforcing compartments; a wall built
transversely to the longitudinal centerline of a spandrel arch to tie
together and reinforce the spandrel walls and to provide a support
for the floor system. The diaphragms of an arch span may have
manholes to allow inspection
dike a soil embankment constructed to prevent inundation by an
adjacent area. A dike prevents stream erosion and localized scour
and directs the current so that debris will not accumulate on
bottomland adjacent to approach embankments or portions of the
structure. This term is sometimes misapplied to crib construction.
See also crib
dimension stones stones quarried with the dimensions large enough to provide cut
stones with given finished dimensions (commonly called quarry face
or rock face)
distribution girder a beam or girder-like member forming a part of the frame that
transmits loads to the drum girder of a rim-bearing swing span
ditch see drain
diversion drain an open, top-paved drain for diverting and conveying water from a
roadway gutter down the inclined surface of a bridge-approach
embankment or causeway
Glossary-13
FM 3-34.343
diversion flume see diversion drain

dolphin a group of piles driven close together and placed to protect portions
of a bridge exposed to possible damage by collision with river or
marine traffic
double lattice see lattice
double-leaf bascule a bridge that has spans with two bascule leaves
bridge
double-movable a bridge in which the arms of two adjacent swing spans or the leaves
bridge of two adjacent bascule spans are joined at or near the center of the
navigable channel to produce the clear span for navigation
dowel a short, round or square length of metal used to attach and prevent
movement and displacement of wooden, stone, concrete, or metal
pieces when placed in a hole in their contact surfaces. Dowels
generally resist shear forces, but footing dowels in reinforced
concrete walls and columns resist bending forces. See also drift bolt
drain a trench or trough-like excavation made to collect water. A drain
collects and conveys water (a ditch may only serve to collect water).
A gutter is a paved drain commonly built in conjunction with the
curbs of the roadway or closely adjacent to the paved portion of the
roadway
drainage a construction or appliance that intercepts and removes water
drainage area the place where the run-off water goes when passing beneath a
bridge or passing a specific location in a river or stream
drain hole an open hole or embedded pipe that provides an exit for water or
other liquid matter that might otherwise accumulate. In areas
exposed to freezing temperatures, these holes prevent damage from
expansion caused by freezing
drawbridge a bridge over navigable water with a movable superstructure span
of any type that frees the channel from obstructing navigation
draw rest a block of masonry, a rigid metal frame, or another support on a
fender or guard pier that is equipped with a latch block for holding
open a swing span
draw span a swing or a retractile superstructure span of a bridge over a
navigable stream, river, lake, canal, tidal inlet, gut, or strait. See
also movable bridge
dressed rubble see rubble
drift bolt similar to a dowel, except drift bolts are commonly driven in holes
having a diameter slightly less than the bolts. The difference is more
a matter of term usage rather than of functions to be performed. See
also dowel
drip bead a channel or groove in the bottom of an exposed part of a masonry
structure that stops rainwater and keeps it from dripping on
surfaces below the projection
drip hole see drain hole
14-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
drop inlet a box-like construction built integrally with the upstream end of a
culvert, which may include a grating. The inlet allows water to flow
in at its top and to center the culvert within its bottom portion. If
the base is constructed to form a sump below the inlet elevation of
the culvert, the inlet may retain material likely to become lodged in
the culvert
drum girder the circular-plate girder forming a part of a swing-bridge turntable
that transfers its loads to the rollers and the track on which they
travel. When the swing span is closed, the drum-girder track
receives the superstructure loads and transmits them to the
substructure bearing area beneath the track
ductility the ability to withstand nonelastic deformation without rupture
dyke see crib and dike
efflorescence a white deposit on concrete or brick that is caused by crystallization
of soluble salts brought to the surface by moisture in the masonry
el elevation
elastic see deformation
elastomer a natural or synthetic, rubber-like material
electrolytic corrosion corrosion resulting from galvanic action
element a piece of material forming a part of a structure
elliptic arch an arch (fitted to stone masonry arches) in which the intrados
surface is half the surface of an elliptical cylinder. This terminology
is sometimes incorrectly applied to a multicentered arch
end block the thickening of the web or an increase in the beam width at the
end to provide adequate anchorage bearing for the posttension
wires, rods, or strands on a prestressed concrete beam
end floor beam see floor beam
end hammer the hammering action of an end-lift device on its pedestal or bearing
plate. End hammer occurs when the lifting device is improperly
adjusted and traffic movements cause deflections and vibrations
end lift t h e m e c h a n i s m o f w e d g e s , t o g g l e s , l i n k -a n d -r o l l e r ,
rocker-and-eccentric, or other devices combined with shafts, gears,
or other needed parts to remove the camber (droop) of a swing span
end post the end compression member of a truss, either vertical or inclined in
position and extending from the top chord to the bottom chord. It
serves to transmit all of the truss shear loading to the
superstructure
engr engineer
epoxy a synthetic resin that cures or hardens by a chemical reaction
between components that are mixed together shortly before use
eq equation(s)
equalizer a balance lever engaging the counterweight and the suspending
cables of a vertical-lift span to adjust and equalize the stresses in
the latter
Glossary-15
FM 3-34.343
equilibrium the condition in which the forces acting on a body produce no

external effect or movement in statics
equivalent uniform a load with a constant intensity per unit of its length. When used to
load determine the stresses in a structure, this load produces a very
similar or equal effect to that of a live load with vehicle or wheel
concentrations spaced at varying distances
expansion bearing a device or assemblage that transmits a reaction from one member
or part of a structure to another. The expansion bearing overcomes
sliding, rolling, or other friction conditions to permit longitudinal
movement caused by temperature changes and superimposed loads
without transmitting a horizontal force to the substructure
expansion dam the expansion joint or that part of the expansion joint that serves as
an end form for placing concrete at a joint
expansion joint a joint designed to provide a means for expansion and contraction
that is caused by temperature changes, loadings, and so forth
expansion pedestal see expansion shoe
expansion rocker an articulating assembly that forms part of the movable end of a
girder or truss and facilitates longitudinal movements caused by
temperature changes and superimposed loads
expansion roller a cylinder that is mounted so that when it revolves it facilitates
movements caused by temperature changes, loadings, and so forth.
See also roller nest
expansion shoe a member or assemblage that provides a means for expansion,
contraction, or other longitudinal movement. Anchor bolts fix the
masonry plate or casting in position, and the superimposed shoe
plate or pedestal is free to move longitudinally on it or on
intervening rollers but is restrained from transverse movement. A
shoe permits movement by sliding. A pedestal secures a somewhat
greater total depth and permits movement by sliding or rolling
extrados the curved surface of an arch that is farthest from its longitudinal
axis or axes; the curve defining the exterior surface of an arch
eyebar a rectangular bar member that has enlarged forged ends or heads
with holes through them for engaging connecting pins. An
adjustable eyebar has two sections fitted with upset threading
engaging a sleeve nut or a turnbuckle
eyebolt a bolt with a forged hole or loop at one end to allow anchorage of a
cable, a hooked rod, other parts of the bridge, or unrelated
equipment or structures. See also hook bolt and ringbolt
F Fahrenheit
face stones the stones exposed to view in the drop surfaces of abutments, piers,
arches, retaining walls, or other stone structures
face wall the outermost spandrel walls providing the face surfaces of the
completed structure. See also breast wall and spandrel
falsework a wooden or metal framework built to support the weight of a
structure without appreciable settlement and deformation until it
can stand alone. Falsework helps construction operations and
provides for economical removal and salvaging of material
16-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
fanged anchor bolt see ragged anchor bolt

fascia a light, stringer-like outside member spanning longitudinally
between cantilever brackets that support large overhangs on girder
or beam bridges. A fascia is designed for effect rather than strength
and rigidity, although it may involve both
fascia girder an exposed outer girder of a span that is sometimes treated to
provide an attractive appearance
fatigue the tendency of a member to fail at a lower stress when subjected to
cyclical loading rather than static loading
felloe guard see wheel guard
fender a structure that is placed upstream close to a pier or upstream and
downstream from the center pier and end piers or abutments of a
superstructure span to protect the superstructure or an open span
from collision with floating debris, ice, or other waterborne traffic
field coat a coat of paint that is applied after the structure is assembled and
its joints are completely bolted, riveted, or welded together. This is
often part of the field erection procedure
fill material (usually earth) used to raise or change the surface contour
of an area or to construct an embankment
filler a piece used in wooden and structural-steel construction to fill a
space beneath elements such as a batten, splice plate, gusset,
connection angle, or stiffener
filler metal metal prepared in wire, rod, electrode, or other adaptable forms to
be fused with the structure metal in the formation of a weld
filler plate see filler
fillet a curved portion forming a junction of two surfaces that would
otherwise intersect at an angle. A fillet is used to disseminate and
relieve shrinkage or other stresses, to allow movement not
otherwise possible, and to facilitate the placement and removal of
concrete forms
fillet weld a weld that joins intersecting members by depositing weld metal to
form a near-triangular or fillet-shaped junction of the member
surfaces. This weld serves to unite the intersecting surfaces of two
elements of a member
filling see fill
fine aggregate see aggregate
finger dam expansion joint in which the opening is spanned by meshing steel
fingers or teeth
fish belly a term that is applied to a girder or truss with its bottom flange or
chord haunched or bow-shaped with the convex side downward. See
also lenticular truss
fixed bearing the plates, pedestals, or other devices that receive and transmit the
reaction stresses of a beam, slab, girder, truss, arch, or other
superstructure span to the substructure or to another supporting
member or structure
Glossary-17
FM 3-34.343
fixed bridge a bridge with supers tructure sp ans fixed in position. The
construction may allow for expansion and contraction from
temperature changes, loading, and so forth
fixed-end arch see voussoir arch
fixed span an immovable superstructure span anchored in its location on the
substructure
flange the part of a rolled I-shaped beam or built-up girder extending
transversely across the top and bottom edges of the web. Flanges
carry the forces of internal resisting moment and may consist of
angles, plates, or both
flange angle an angle used to form a flange element of a built-up girder, column,
strut, and so forth
flare the lateral distance from the cable support on the tower to the
anchorage
flared wing wall a wall that forms an angle with the alignment of the abutment
breast wall by receding. It also deflects water and floating debris
into the waterway of the bridge, which protects the approach
embankment against erosion
floated face see mortar
floating bridge a bridge that is similar to a pontoon bridge except that its parts
providing buoyancy and supporting power may be logs or squared
timbers held in position under a plank floor with lashing pieces,
chains, or ropes or made of hollow cellular construction
floating foundation a soil-supported raft or mat foundation with low bearing pressures.
See also foundation
floodgate a gate installed in a culvert or bridge waterway to prevent the
ingress of floodwater or tidewater to the area drained by the
structure
floor see deck
floor beam a beam or girder transverse to the general alignment of the bridge
with its ends framed on the columns of bents and towers or on the
trusses or girders of superstructure spans. A floor beam at the
extreme end of a girder or truss span is an end floor beam
floor system the complete framework of floor beams and stringers or other
members supporting the bridge floor and traffic loading, including
impact
flow line the surface of a watercourse
flux a material that dissolves and removes oxides from metal during the
welding process and protects the weld from oxidation during the
fusion process. Flux may be in the coating on a metal-stick electrode
or a granular mass covering the arch in submerged arc welding
FM field manual
footbridge a bridge designed and constructed for pedestrian traffic
footer see footing
18-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
footing the enlarged or spread-out lower portion of a substructure that

distributes the structure load to the earth or to supporting piles.
Concrete slabs most often use footings, although stone piers also use
footings or plinth
footing course see footing
footwall see toe wall
forms the wood or metal construction used for receiving, molding, and
sustaining a plastic mass of concrete (to the dimensions, outlines,
and details of surfaces planned for) while it hardens. Lagging refers
to the surface-shaping areas producing the intradoses of arches or
other curved surfaces, especially when strips are used
formwork see forms
foundation the supporting material on which the substructure portion of a
bridge is placed. A natural foundation consists of natural earth,
roc k, o r n ea r-rock ma ter ia l st ab le enough t o supp or t t he
superimposed loads without lateral displacement or compaction
entailing appreciable settlement or deformation. The term
foundation also applies somewhat to a substructure unit
foundation excavation the hole dug for a foundation
foundation grillage a construction of layered steel, timber, or concrete members. All
layers are alike. The members in each layer are parallel, producing
a crib or grid-like effect. Grillages usually hold heavy concentrated
loads. See also floating foundation and grillage
foundation load the load imposed on a given foundation
foundation pile or a wood, metal, or reinforced concrete pile used to reinforce a
piled foundation to support superimposed loads
foundation pit see foundation excavation
foundation raft see floating foundation
foundation seal a concrete mass placed underwater to close or seal a cofferdam
against incoming water. See also tremie
foundation stone a coarse stone that touches the foundation of a structure
FP fixed point
fps feet per second; foot per second
frame a structure arranged and secured so that it will not be distorted by
supporting loads and forces and physical pressures. Framing
includes design and fabrication for the complete structure
framed bent see bent
framing see frame
friction pile a pile that receives its support through friction resistance along the
lateral surface of the pile
friction roller a roller placed between members that reduces frictional resistance
to translation movement to cause change in the relative positions of
the members
Glossary-19
FM 3-34.343
front-load bearing live-load bearings on the support pier of a bascule bridge

frost heave the upward movement of and force exerted by soil due to alternate
freezing and thawing of retained moisture
frost line the depth to which soil may freeze
ft foot; feet
full-height abutment see shoulder abutment
galvanic action the electrical current between two unlike metals
gauge the distance between parallel lines (such as rails and rivet holes) or
a measure of sheet metal or wire thickness
girder a flexural member that is the main or primary support for the
structure, which usually receives loads from floor beams and
stringers. A girder can be any large beam, especially if built up
girder bridge a bridge with two or more girders supporting a separate floor system
of slab and floor beams and possibly stringers; a bridge using large,
built-up steel beams, prestressed concrete beams, or concrete box
girders
girder span a span in which the major longitudinal supporting members are
girders
go-and-come see clearance
allowance
gothic arch an arch in which the intrados surface has two equal cylinder
segments intersecting obtusely at the crown
GP poorly graded gravels; a gravel-sand mixture with little or no fines
GPM gallons per minute
grade crossing an intersection of one railroad and one highway at a common grade
or ele vation; an intersection of tw o or more h ighways; an
intersection of two railroads
grade intersection the place where a horizontal and an inclined length of roadway or
two inclined lengths meet in profile. The intersections are connected
by a vertical curve to provide an easy transition from one to the
other. The resulting profile is a sag or a summit, depending on
whether it is concaved or convexed upward
grade separation the use of a bridge structure and its approaches to confine portions
of traffic to different elevations, thus dividing or separating the
crossing movement. See also overpass
gradient the rate at which the roadway or sidewalk surface inclines. It is
commonly expressed as a percentage relation of horizontal to
vertical dimensions
gravity abutment a heavy abutment that resists the horizontal earth pressure with its
own dead weight
gravity wall a brick, stone, or concrete wall that is stable against sliding and
rotation (overturning) on its foundation or on any horizontal plane
by virtue of its shape and weight
20-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
grillage a frame that is rigidly connected and built into a masonry bridge
seat, a skewback, or another substructure support to ensure
satisfactory load distribution; a platform-like construction or
assemblage used to ensure distribution of loads on unconsolidated
soil material. See also foundation grillage
grout a mortar with enough water content to make it a free-flowing mass.
Grout is used to fill the spaces between stones or fragments (spalls)
in the backing part of stone masonry, to fix anchor bolts, or to fill
cored spaces in castings, masonry, or other spaces where water may
accumulate
GTA graphic training aid
guard fence see railing
guard pier a concrete or stone-masonry fender that protects the supporting
center pier of the swing span from injury. The pier may or may not
be equipped with a rest pier upon which the swing span in its open
position may be latched
guard rail see railing
guide a member that holds a moving part in position and directs its
movement
guide roller a fixed roller that serves as a friction roller and guide for a member
gusset a plate serving to connect or unite the elements of a member or the
members of a structure and to hold them in correct alignment or
position at a joint. A plate may function either as a gusset and splice
plate or as a gusset and stay plate. See also stay plate
gutter see drain
gutter grating a perforated or barred cover that is placed on an inlet to a drain to
prevent the entrance of debris
guy a cable, chain, rod, or rope that checks and controls movement or
holds a structure or part in fixed alignment or position
GW well-graded gravels; a gravel-sand mixture with 5 percent or less of
fines
hacked anchor bolt see swedged anchor bolt
hand-drawn bridge see hand-operated span
hand hole holes provided in cover plates of built-up box sections to permit
access for maintenance and construction
hand-operated span a span that is operated manually by applying force on a capstan,
w inch, wind lass , o r w heel. Such swing spans are called a
hand-drawn bridge, a hand-swing bridge, or a lever-swing bridge
handrail railing presenting a latticed, a barred, a balustered, or another
open-web construction. See also railing
hand-swing bridge see hand-operated span
hanger a tension element or member that suspends or supports an attached
member such as the floor system of a truss, arch, or suspension
span. Suspension bridges use wire cable (termed suspender). See
also suspender
Glossary-21
FM 3-34.343
haunch a beam or column deepening, usually deepest at the support and

vanishing at or toward the center. The curve of the lower flange or
surface may be circular, elliptic, parabolic, straight, or stepped
H-beam a rolled-steel bearing pile with an H-shaped cross section
head a measure of water pressure expressed in terms of an equivalent
weight or pressure exerted by a column of water. The height of the
equivalent column of water is the head
headwater the depth of water at the inlet end of a pipe, culvert, or bridge
waterway. See also tailwater
headway see clear headway
heat treatment various operations (such as tempering, quenching, and annealing)
that use heating and cooling to impart specific properties to metals
heel of span the rotation end of a bascule span
heel stay see shear lock
hem hemlock
hemisperical bearing a bearing that uses the ball-and-socket principle to allow revolution
in any direction
hinged joint a joint constructed to permit rotation
hip joint the juncture of the inclined end post with the end top-chord member
of a truss. In a swing span, the juncture of the inclined end post next
to the span center with the combined top chord and the connecting
tie member between the arms is an interior hip joint or hip of truss
hip of truss see hip joint
hook bolt a bolt with its head end bent at or nearly at a right angle to its body
portion that acts as a clamp; a bolt with a forged hook at one end
used like an eyebolt. See also eyebolt
hooked anchor bolt an anchor bolt bent to form a hook-like anchorage
horizontal curve a curve in the plan location defining the alignment
Howe truss a parallel-chord truss in which the web system is composed of
vertical (tension) rods at the panel points with an x-pattern of
diagonals. Although Howe trusses are usually used in wooden
bridges, metal bridges also use them, but to a limited extent because
using metal in compression members is uneconomical
HP-shaped beams bearing piles
HQ headquarters
hydrolysis a chemical process of decomposition in the presence of water
elements
hydroplaning loss of contact between a tire and a deck surface when the tire
planes or glides on a film of water covering the deck
hydrostatic of or relating to fluids at rest or the forces exerted by such fluids
ice guard see fender
impact load a load allowance or increment intended to provide for the dynamic
effect of nonstatic loads
22-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
in inch(es)
indeterminate bridge a bridge in which forces in the members cannot be determined by
static equations alone
indeterminate stress a stress induced by incorporating a redundant member in a truss or
by an additional reaction in a beam, making stress distributions
indeterminate. In redundant beams or trusses, stress distribution
depends on the relative stiffnesses or areas of the members
inelastic compression compression beyond the yield point
inspection ladder special devices or appliances that make a safe and efficient means
for making inspections and tests. They are rigidly fixed on the
structure to prevent displacement. However, some structures are
adapted for movable platform devices. See also catwalk
integral abutment a small abutment cast monolithically with the end diaphragm of the
deck
intercepting ditch a ditch constructed to prevent surface water from flowing in contact
with the toe of an embankment or a causeway or down the slope of a
cut
intergranular pressure between soil grains
pressure
intermittent weld a noncontinuous weld composed of a series of short welds and
intervening spaces with fixed length and spacing
intrados the curve defining the interior surface of the arch
IPS improved plow steel
ISBN International Standard Book Number
jack stringer the outermost stringer supporting the bridge floor in a panel or bay,
commonly weaker than a main stringer
joint the space between individual stones in stone masonry; the division
or end of continuity in concrete; a point at which members of a truss
or frame are connected
Jul July
key bolt see cotter bolt
keystone a stone of the crown string course of an arch; the final stone placed,
closing the arch; or symmetrically shaped, wedge-like stone in a
head-ring course at the crown of the arch, extending beyond the
extradosal and intradosal limits of the voussoirs of adjoining string
courses
king post the post member in a king-post truss or in the king-post portion of
any other type of truss
king-post truss a truss adapted to either wooden or metal bridges. The king-post
truss has two triangular panels with a common vertical post and a
beam or chord extending the full truss. It is the simplest truss
king rod see king post
kip-feet a unit of measure used to express moment equal to 1,000 pounds of
force acting over a one-foot-long moment arm
Glossary-23
FM 3-34.343
kips a unit of weight (equal to 1,000 pounds) that is used to express

deadweight loads
km kilometer(s)
knee brace a short member that engages two other members, which are joined
to form a right angle or a near-right angle, at its ends. The brace
strengthens the connecting joint and makes it more rigid
knee wall a return of the abutment back wall at its ends to enclose the bridge
seat on three sides. The returned ends hide the bridge seat, beam
ends, and bearings and may retain a portion of the bridge approach
material
knuckle part of the anchorage of a main suspension member that permits the
anchorage chain-free, longitudinal movement in changing direction
and provides for elastic deformations caused by temperature
changes and the pull of the suspension member
kpf kip(s) per foot
ksf kip(s) per square foot
ksi kip(s) per square inch
K-truss a truss with a web system in which the diagonal members intersect
the vertical members at or near midheight (K-shaped)
L-abutment a cantilever abutment with the stem flush with the toe of the
footing, forming an L in cross section
lacing see lattice
ladle analysis the analysis or test of a spoon sample of ferrous metals taken during
each melt of the pouring (teeming) operation. It is the analysis of
drillings taken from the finished material and a check
determination of the results secured from the ingots made at the
furnace
lagging see forms
lam laminated; lamination
laminated timber timber planks glued together to form a larger member. Laminated
timber is used for frames, arches, beams, and columns
lapidification see consolidated soil foundation
lap joint a joint in which a splice is secured by fixing two elements or
members in a position where they project on or overlap each other
latch the device provided at one or both ends of a swing span to hold it in
its correct alignment when closed and in readiness for the end
wedges or lifts
latch block see latch
latch lever a hand-operated lever attached by a rod, cable, or chain to the
latching device of a movable span and used to engage and release
the latch
24-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
lattice or latticing an assemblage of single or combined bars, channels, or angles fixed

in inclined positions on two or more elements of a member to secure
the elements in position and ensure their combined action. When
the bars incline in opposite directions and connect at their
intermediate length intersections, the assemblage becomes a double
lattice
lattice truss a truss with inclined web members. It has two or more web systems
composed entirely of diagonal members at any interval and crossing
each other without reference to vertical members. Any vertical
members act as web stiffeners and may connect vertical brace
frames to the girders
lb pound(s)
lb/ft pound(s) per foot; pound(s) per feet
leaf the portion of a bascule bridge that forms part or all of the span
ledger course a layer in masonry or concrete construction with a projection
beyond the plane of superimposed on its top bed
ledge rock see bedrock
LEE labor and equipment estimates
lenticular truss a truss in which the polygonal chords curve in opposite directions,
while their ends meet at a common joint. This is very similar to a
parabolic arc. In through spans, the floor system is suspended from
the joints of the bottom chord and the end posts are vertical
lever-swing bridge see hand-operated span
lift span a superstructure span revolving or lifting vertically to allow
obstruction-free navigation. See also movable bridge
lifting girder a girder or girder-like member engaging the trusses or girders of the
attached vertical-lift span
link and roller an adjustable, hinged, strut-like link fitted with a roller at its
bottom end. It is supported on a shoe plate or pedestal and operated
by a thrust strut, which forces it into and withdraws it from a
vertical position. When installed on the outer ends of the girders or
trusses of a swing span, link and rollers lift the span enough to
remove the camber or allow the span to droop and free the arms to
act as simple spans. When the links are withdrawn to a fixed
(inclined) position, the span can be opened
lintel bridge a bridge with one or a series of spans composed of slabs of stone or
reinfo rced concrete, spanning the interval(s) bet ween its
substructure elements
lintel stone a stone used to support a wall over an opening
live load a dynamic load (such as traffic) that is applied to a structure
suddenly or that is accompanied by vibration, oscillation, or other
conditions that affects its intensity
Glossary-25
FM 3-34.343
live-load bearing a class of bearings or supports installed on movable swing and

bascule spans. They are engaged when the bridge is in the closed
position, taking the load off the trunnions and center pivot and
preventing the outer end of the lift span from hammering on the rest
pier under live load
loading girder girders of a center-bearing swing span located above the pivot pier.
Loading girders concentrate the superimposed load on the pivot
LOC lines of communication
lock device any of various devices, including incidental levers, shafts, and gears,
used to lock bascules, vertical lifts, or swing spans in position
locking mechanism see lock device
lower track see roller track
L-shaped beam a beam comprised of two legs that forms an L
m meter(s)
MANSCEN Maneuver Support Center
margin see tolerance
masonry stone, brick, or concrete structures (such as abutments, piers,
retaining walls, and arches)
masonry plate a steel plate or plate-shaped member attached on a substructure
part to support the rocker, shoe, or pedestal of a beam, girder, or
truss span and to distribute the load to the masonry beneath
mattress a mat-like protective covering made of brush and poles (commonly
willow) compacted by wire or other lashings and ties. Mattresses are
placed on water beds, banks, or shores to prevent erosion and scour
max maximum
meander a slow-flowing stream’s serpentine curvature in a floodplain
mechanical bond the bond resulting from surface irregularities from manufacturing
operations. The difference in round-bar reinforcement between the
force required to produce initial slip and the ultimate, producing
failure. Deformed bars use this mechanical bond with the surface
bond
member any individual piece of an assembled frame or structure
MGB medium-girder bridge
mi mile(s)
milled a careful grinding of an edge or surface in steel fabrication to ensure
good bearing or fit
min minimum
MLC military load classification
mortar a mixture of cementing material with fine aggregate and water.
Mortar is used to bed and bind quarried stones, bricks, or other solid
materials together or to produce a plastic coating on such
constructions. This coating is also termed floated or surface face,
mortar coat, mortar finish, or parapet
26-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
mortar coat see mortar

mortar finish see mortar
MOS military occupational specialty
movable bridge any bridge with one or more spans that can be raised, turned, lifted,
or slid from their normal position to allow passage of navigation. See
also draw span and lift span
movable span a superstructure intended to be swung or lifted to provide an
unobstructed waterway space for waterborne traffic
mph mile(s) per hour
MSR main supply route
mud sill a piece of timber or a unit of two or more timbers placed on a soil
foundation to support a single column, a framed trestle bent, and so
forth. A load distribution piece aligned with and placed directly
beneath the sill piece of a framed bent is a subsill, although it may
act as a mud sill
multicentered arch an arch in which the intrados surface is outlined by two or more arcs
having different radii by intersecting tangentially and disposed
symmetrically
N north
N/A not applicable
na neutral axis
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
natural foundation see foundation
natural slope see angle of repose
NDS national design specification
neat line the general alignment or position of a face or another surface
exclusive or regardless of projections
neat surface see neat line
No. number(s)
normal roadway cross the usual cross section of a roadway along straight stretches of a
section road
nose a projection acting as a cutwater on the upstream end of a pier. See
also starling
notched anchor bolt see swedged anchor bolt
notch effect stress concentration caused by an abrupt discontinuity or change in
a section. It can markedly affect a member’s fatigue strength
N-truss see Pratt truss
OCONUS outside continental United States
OH organic silt; organic silt clay of low plasticity
Glossary-27
FM 3-34.343
open-spandrel arch an arch with unfilled spandrel walls. The arch ring receives its
superimposed loads through these walls and, if necessary, through
interior spandrel walls, tie or transverse walls, or interior columns.
An open-spandrel arch is a structure in which bays or panels with
arches, lintel spans, or other construction supporting the deck
replace the spandrel walls. In turn, a cross wall or columns resting
on the arch ring support these bays or panels
open-spandrel, ribbed a structure in which two or more comparatively narrow arch rings
arch function in the place of an arch barrel. Arch rib struts located at
intervals along the length of the rings secure the ribs rigidly in
position. The arch rings support a column-type, open-spandrel
construction sustaining the floor system and its loads
operator’s house the building containing the power plant, operating machinery, and
devices required to open and close a bridge span. Also referred to as
an operator’s cabin
outer bearing those live-load bearings placed on swing-span and bascule-rest piers
overpass a separation of grades in which elevated traffic structures are
overpasses and lowered ones are underpasses. See also grade
separation
packing ring see spreader
paddle boards striped, paddle-shaped signs or boards placed on the roadside in
front of a narrow bridge as a warning
panel the portion of a truss span located between adjacent web and
chord-member intersection points and applied to intersections on
the bottom chord. A truss panel divided into two equal or unequal
parts by an intermediate web member (such as a subdiagonal or a
hanger) forms subpanels
panel point the point where primary web and chord members of a truss intersect
para paragraph(s)
parabolic arch an arch in wh ich the intrad os ’s s urf ace is a s eg me n t of a
symmetrical parabolic surface (suited to concrete arches)
parabolic arched see parabolic truss
truss
parabolic truss a polygonal truss with its top chord and end-post vertices similar to
the arc of a parabola, its bottom chord straight, and its web system
triangular or quadrangular
parapet a wall-like brick, stone, or reinforced concrete member on the
retaining wall of an approach cut, embankment, or causeway or
along the outer edge of the roadway or sidewalk of a bridge to
protect vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Although similar to a
balustrade, a parapet is usually a block barrier with no openings in
the body portion. See also mortar
parent metal see base metal
Parker truss an adaptation of the Pratt truss in which the top chord is polygonal
in shape. See also Pratt truss
PC personal computer
28-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
pedestal a cast or built-up metal member or assemblage that transmits loads

from one part of a structure to another. A pedestal may also provide
for longitudinal, transverse, or revolutional movements; block-like
stone, concrete, or brick constructions on the bridge seat of an
abutment or pier that provide support for the beams. See also
expansion shoe
pedestrian bridge see footbridge
peen to draw, bend, or flatten by or as if by hammering with a peen
penetration the depth to which a pile tip is driven into the ground, surface wood
is permeated by creosote oil, or the surface of structure metal is
fused and coalesced with metal to produce a weld joint
perched abutment see stub abutment
pier a shaft or block-like structure that supports the ends of the spans of
a multispan superstructure midway between its abutments. Several
types apply to bridge construction. Some are classified by functional
distinctions (anchor, pivot, and rest piers), and others are classified
by shape (cylinder, pedestal, pile, and rigid-frame piers)
pier cap the top part of a pier. On rigid-frame piers, the pier cap is the beam
across the column tops. On hammerhead and T-piers, the pier cap is
a continuous beam. See also cap and pile cap
pilaster a column-like projection on a face surface used to relieve the
blankness of a plane surface
pile a rod or shaft-like linear member driven into the earth. Piles carry
structure loads through weak soil to that soil capable of supporting
them and support loads where scour may cause loss of earth support
pile cap a concrete footing for a pier or an abutment supported on piles or the
concrete below the pile tops when footing reinforcing steel is placed
completely above the piles. See also cap and pier cap
pile cut-off the part of a pile that has been removed or will be removed from its
driven butt end to secure the desired elevation
pile shoe a metal piece fixed on the point or penetration end of a pile to
protect it during driving and to ease penetration of dense earth
pile splice a means of joining one pile on the end of another to provide greater
penetration length
piling a number of piles used together to form a construction (such as a
crib, cofferdam, or bulkhead)
pin a cylindrical bar used to connect, hold in position, and transmit the
stresses of members in a truss or framed joint. To restrain the pin
against longitudinal movement, the pin ends are fitted with pin
nuts, cotter bolts, or both. The pin ends may also be burred or fitted
with cotters to prevent the nut from dislodging or coming loose
pin-connected truss any truss in which pins connect the chord and web members at the
truss joints
pin-filler see spreader
pinion the small driving gear on the power train of a movable bridge
Glossary-29
FM 3-34.343
pinion bracket the frame supporting the turning pinion with its shaft and bearings
on a swing-span drum girder or loading girder
pin joint a joint in a truss or another frame in which the members are
assembled on a cylindrical pin
pin packing an arrangement of truss members on a pin at a pinned joint
pin plate a metal sheet that is rigidly attached on the end of a member to
secure a desired bearing, to develop and distribute the stress of the
joint, and/or to secure additional strength and rigidity
pintle a small steel pin or stud that engages the rocker in an expansion
bearing, permitting rotation, transferring shear, and preventing
translation
pitch the longitudinal spacing between rivets, studs, bolts, holes, and so
forth that are in a straight line
plate girder an I-shaped beam made of a solid plate web with flange plates or
angles bolted, riveted, or welded on its edges. Additional cover
plates may be attached to the flanges to provide greater flange area.
See also built-up column
plate span see girder span
platform see inspection ladder
play allowance see clearance
PLC provisional load classification
plinth see footing
plug weld a weld that connects two overlapping members by placing weld
material in a hole or slot drilled in one of the overlapping members
pointed arch see gothic arch
pointing the operations involved in compacting mortar in the outer part of a
joint and in troweling or otherwise treating its exposed surface to
secure watertightness, desired architectural effect, or both
polygonal truss any truss with an irregular (broken) straight top-chord alignment
that forms with the end posts and with the bottom chord forming
the perimeter of a polygon
pontoon a boat or another floating structure used as one of the supports for a
temporary bridge
pontoon bridge a bridge with boats, scows, or pontoons fixed in position on the deck
or floor to support vehicular and pedestrian traffic. A pontoon bridge
may have a removable part to ease navigation. Modern floating
bridges may have pontoons integrated with the deck. See also
portable bridge
pony truss a truss not high enough to permit an effective top-chord system of
lateral bracing above the bridge floor
pop-out conical fragment (about one inch in diameter) broken out of a
concrete surface; shattered aggregate particles usually found at the
bottom of a hole
portable bridge a bridge that may be readily erected for a temporary
communication/transport service, then disassembled and reused.
See also pontoon bridge
30-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
portal the clear, unobstructed entry of a through bridge; the chord bracing
that fixes the top vertical clearance. The portal of a skew bridge is a
skew portal
post see column
posted a limiting dimension indicating a bridge cannot safely take larger
dimensions or loads or higher speeds
pot holes small, worn or disintegrated areas of a bridge floor or approach
surface caused by vehicle wheels
Pratt truss a truss with parallel chords and a web system of vertical posts with
diagonal ties inclined from the bottom-chord panel points toward
the ends of the truss except for the counters required in midlength
panels. See also Parker truss
prestressed bridge a bridge in which the main carrying members are prestressed
concrete
priming coat the first coat of paint applied to the metal or other material of a
bridge. For metal structures, it is often applied in the shop and is
termed the shop coat
protection railing see railing
psi pound(s) per square inch
PSP pierced, steel plank
QSTAG Quadripartite Standardization Agreement
quarry face see dimension stones
queen-post truss a parallel-chord truss adapted to either timber or metal bridges. The
queen-post truss has three panels. One of the chords occupies only
the length of the center panel. Unless center-panel diagonals are
provided, this is a trussed beam. See also trussed beam
rack a bar with teeth on one side to mesh with the gears of a pinion or
worm. It is usually attached to the moving portion of a movable
bridge
radial rod a radially located tie rod connecting the roller circle of a rim-bearing
swing span with the center pivot or center-bearing casting
radial strut a radially located brace member of the drum construction of a
rim-bearing wing span
ragged anchor bolt an anchor bolt cut with a chisel to produce fin-like projections that
hold the bolt in place
railing a fence-like barrier or protection built within the roadway shoulder
area to be a combined guide and guard for moving vehicular and
pedestrian traffic and to prevent or hinder the accidental passage of
such traffic beyond the berm line of the roadway
rake the slope, batter, or inclination of the sides of an embankment or
other earth construction or of a masonry surface. See also batter
ramp an inclined traffic way leading from one elevation to another (such
as an inclined, usually steep, approach to a bridge)
random stone a quarried stone block of any dimension
Glossary-31
FM 3-34.343
range of stress the algebraic difference between the minimum and maximum
stresses in a member or any of its parts produced by a given
condition of loading or by its actual service loading
rebar a steel reinforcing bar placed in concrete to improve its tensile
properties
redundant member a member of a truss or frame necessary only to reduce the stress
carried by the determinate structure, which would be stable without
it
reentrant corner a corner with more than 180 degrees of open space
reflection see cracking
reinforced concrete a beam in which the metal reinforcement carries the tensile
beam stresses. The concrete takes compression only, with some shear. It is
commonly rectangular or T-shaped, with its depth dimension
greater than its stem width
reinforced concrete a wall with a base section integral with its stem constructed
cantilever wall approximately at a right angle, giving its cross section an L- or an
inverted T-shape. The stem portion resists the forces producing
overturning by acting as a cantilever beam
reinforcing bar a steel bar, with a plain or deformed surface, that bonds to the
concrete and supplies tensile strength to it
retaining wall a structure designed to restrain and hold back a mass of earth
retractile drawbridge a bridge with a superstructure that can move horizontally (either
longitudinally or diagonally) from a closed to an open position. The
part acting in cantilever is counterweighted by that supported upon
rollers
rigid-frame bridge a bridge with rigid or moment-resistant connections between deck
slabs or beams and the substructure walls or columns that produce
an integral elastic structure. The structure may be steel or concrete
rim girder see drum girder
rim plate a toothed or plain segmental rim on a rolling-lift bridge
ringbolt a ringbolt is an eyebolt fitted with a ring for added articulation; See
also eyebolt
ring stone see voussoir
riprap protective covering material (such as blocks, brickbats, or stones)
deposited on water beds, banks, and shores to prevent erosion and
scour
rise of an arch the vertical distance for a symmetrical arch (from the chord through
its springing lines to the intrados at its crown). For an
unsymmetrical arch, the rise is measured from the springing lines
to the crown
riveted joint a joint in which rivets or bolts unite the assembled elements and
members. Proper distribution of rivets or bolts allows the joint to
develop its various parts with relation to their stresses and
purposes. Bolted and riveted joints employ different allowable unit
stresses
32-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
roadway the portion of the deck surface of a bridge or of an approach

embankment, causeway, or cut intended for vehicular and
pedestrian traffic
roadway berm see berm
roadway shoulder that part of the top surface of an approach embankment, causeway,
or cut immediately adjoining the roadway that accommodates
stopped vehicles in emergencies and laterally supports base and
surface courses
rocker and camshaft an adjustable mechanism consisting of a rocker bearing and a
camshaft. Properly mounted and geared, the mechanism reacts on a
fixed shoe plate or pedestal, rotating to produce a vertical lifting
action
rocker bearing a cylindrical, sector-shaped member attached to the expansion end
of a girder or truss. The rocker bearing has line-bearing contact with
the masonry plate or pedestal. This wheel-like translation allows
longitudinal movement caused by temperature changes and
superimposed loads
rocker bent a metal, reinforced concrete, or timber bent that is hinged or joined
at one or both ends to allow longitudinal movement caused by
temperature changes and superimposed loads
rock face see dimension stones
roller a steel cylinder in a roller nest or any other rolling device or part;
one of the wheel-like elements forming the roller circle of a rim-
bearing swing span
roller bearing one or more rollers housed to permit movement of structural parts
roller nest a group of rollers (usually assembled in a frame or box) forming part
of the movable end of a girder or truss and located between the
masonry plate and shoe or pedestal. Roller nests ease longitudinal
movement caused by temperature changes and superimposed loads
roller track the circular track on which the drum rollers of a rim-bearing swing
span travel
rolling-lift bridge a bascule bridge that rolls backward and forward on supporting
girders
RR railroad
rubble irregularly shaped pieces of stone obtained from a quarry. Rubble
may vary from small, usable pieces to large boulders and fragments
requiring mechanical equipment for handling. Stones that are ready
to use in rubble masonry are worked or dressed rubble
run see bead
runoff the part of precipitation on a drainage (catchment) area that is
discharged quickly and therefore affects the design of that area of
the bridge. The amount of runoff depends on the soil type and
conditions, the amounts of rainfall or snow, and so forth
saddle a member on the tower of a suspension bridge that supports the
suspension cable or chain and allows horizontal movement caused
by elastic deformations from temperature changes and service loads
Glossary-33
FM 3-34.343
safe load the maximum load that a structure can hold. The maximum load is
determined by the magnitude and distribution of the wheel, the
axle, and so forth and is based on the physical condition of the
structure and its previous use
safety curb a narrow curb (between 9 and 24 inches wide) that serves as a
refuge or walkway for pedestrians crossing a bridge
safety factor a factor that engineers use to allow for the failure stress or stresses
assumed to exist in a structure or a member. It provides a margin of
error in the strength, rigidity, deformation, and endurance of a
structure or its component parts to compensate for irregularities in
structural materials and workmanship, uncertainties involved in
mathematical analysis and stress distribution, service deterioration,
and other unevaluated conditions
sag a deformation of an entire span (or one of its members or parts) from
its required position; the total deflection of the cable members of a
suspension bridge
sag ratio the relation between the sag and the span length
sag rod a rod with threads and nuts at its ends that restrains a structure
member from sagging due to its own weight or external forces
sash brace the horizontal member in a tier of bracing attached to a timber or a
reinforced concrete or metal trestle bent or tower to add rigidity to
the structure
sash stay see sash brace
SBC soil bearing capacity
SC clayey sands; sand-clay mixture
scab a plank that is spiked or bolted over the joint between two members
to hold them in correct adjustment and to strengthen the joint
scour an erosion of a water-bed area that is caused by moving water;
erosion that produces a deepening or widening of the water area
scow a flat-bottomed floating vessel with a rectangular hull, sloping ends,
and no means of propulsion; commonly used as a support in a
temporary bridge
screw jack and an adjustable mechanism consisting of a screw operated in a fixed
pedestal nut and joined on the bottom with a pedestal-like bearing,
permitting adjustment on a fixed-shoe plate or pedestal. Screw jacks
and pedestals installed at each outermost end of the girders or
trusses of a swing span lift them to allow the camber or droop to
remove the swing span and free the arms to act as simple spans
scupper an opening in a bridge floor (commonly located next to the curb or
wheel guard) to allow accumulated water to drain. On a reinforced
concrete bridge, the scupper may be in the curb-face surface
scupper block one of the short, wooden pieces fixed between the planks of a bridge
floor and the bottom side of the wheel guard to provide scuppers
seam weld a weld that joins the edges of two elements of a member or of two
members placed in contact. This weld forms a continuous surface
and prevents infiltration of moisture between the parts. This weld is
not a stress-carrying weld
34-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
seat angle a steel section that is attached to the side of a column girder or
another member to provide support for a connecting member either
temporarily during its erection or permanently
segmental arch an arch in which the intrados surface is less than half the surface of
a cylinder or cylindroid. Any right section that shows a parabolic
curvature may include a segmental arch
segmental girder a girder that uses a curved bottom flange and tread coatings to join
the bridge span with the track girder on a movable bridge. See also
track girder
segmental rim the curved rim or circular segment of a rolling lift bridge
segmental roller a roller with two circular segments that are integrally joined by a
web-like portion
seizing a wrapping of wire or other material that is applied on
suspension-bridge cables to hold the individual wires in satisfactory
contact condition
semistub abutment a cantilever abutment that is found part way up the slope between a
shoulder abutment and a stub abutment and is intermediate in size
shafts pieces that are used in movable structures and that carry torsion
stresses
shear lock the mechanism at the heel of a bascule span that engages and holds
the leaves closed and prevents rotation
sheave a wheel with one or more grooves in its face surface
sheave hood a protective covering that is placed above a sheave to prevent
accumulations of moisture, sleet, and ice on the sheave face
sheet girder a girder or girder-like member that supports the operating-cable
sheaves at the top of a tower on a vertical-lift bridge
sheet pile a timber, reinforced concrete, or rolled-steel pile used in bulkheads,
cofferdams, and cribs to retain the earth and to prevent the inflow of
water, liquid mud, and sand
sheet pile cofferdam a wall-like, watertight barrier of driven timber or metal sheet piling.
This dam is adapted to construction in still or slow-flowing, shallow
water. Depositing earth material against the exterior side will
sometimes makes the dam more watertight
sheet piling a number of sheet piles placed together to form a crib, cofferdam,
bulkhead, and so forth
shelf angle see seat angle
shim a comparatively thin piece of wood, stone, or metal that is inserted
between two elements, pieces, or members to fix their relative
position and/or to transmit bearing stress
shoe a pedestal-shaped member at the end of a plate girder or truss that
transmits and distributes its loads to a supporting area or member.
A shoe may be a cast or a built-up member. See also expansion
shoe
shoe plate the base plate or plate-like part of a shoe that may take bearing
directly on a masonry plate or an intervening expansion device
Glossary-35
FM 3-34.343
shop coat see priming coat

shore a strut or prop that is placed in a horizontal, inclined, or vertical
position against or beneath a structure or a part of the structure to
restrain movement
shoulder abutment a cantilever abutment that extends from the grade line of the road
below to that of the road overhead. It is usually set just off the
shoulder
shoulder area see roadway shoulder
shuttering see forms
side-hill cut see cut
sidewalk the part of the bridge floor serving pedestrian traffic only and
commonly elevated above the vehicle area for the safety and
convenience of its users
sidewalk bracket a triangular frame or cantilever beam attached to and projecting
from the outside of a girder, truss, or bent to serve as a support for
the sidewalk stringers, floor, and railing or parapet
sill the base piece or member of a viaduct or trestle bent that distributes
column loads directly on the foundation or on mud sills embedded in
the foundation soil transversely to the alignment of the bent
sill piece see sill
silt very fine siliceous or other hard and durable material derived from
its mother rock through attrition or other mechanical action rather
than chemical decomposition
simple span a superstructure span with a single unrestrained bearing or support
at each end. This span is unaffected by stress transmission to or
from an adjacent span or structure
sin sine
skew see skew angle
skew angle the acute angle subtend ed by a line th at is normal to the
longitudinal axis of the structure and a line that is parallel to or
coinciding with the alignment of its end as applied to oblique bridges
skewback the course of stones in an abutment or pier that is located at the
extremity of an arch and has inclined or battered beds as required to
transmit the stresses of the arch; a casting or combination of
castings or a built-up member designed to function as a skewback
skewback pedestal see skewback shoe
skewback shoe the hinged shoe or pedestal member that transmits the thrust of a
trussed arch or plate-girder arch to an abutment or pier skewback or
cushion course
skew portal see portal
slab a thick plate (usually of reinforced concrete) that supports loads by
flexure and is usually treated as a widened beam
36-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
slab bridge a bridge with a superstructure that is composed of a reinforced

concrete slab that is either singular, constructed in place, or a series
of narrow, precast slabs. This slab is parallel with the roadway
alignment and spans the space between the supporting abutments
or other substructure parts
slag inclusion small particles of metal that are trapped inside a weld during the
fusion process
sleeve nut a device used to connect the elements of an adjustable rod or bar
member. The sleeve nut is a forging with an elongated, nut-shaped
body that has right- and left-hand threads in its end portions,
permitting wrench adjustments or desired member tension
slenderness ratio the measure of a member’s stiffness, which is expressed as the
length of the member divided by its radius of gyration
slice plate see gusset
slope the inclined surface of an excavated cut or an embankment
slope pavement a thin surfacing of material deposited on the sloped surface of an
approach cut, embankment, or causeway to prevent its
disintegration by rain, wind, or other erosive action
slope protection see slope pavement
slot weld see plug weld
SM silty sands; a sand-silt mixture
soffit see intrados
soldier beam a steel pile that is driven into the earth (with its butt end projecting)
and used as a cantilever beam to support a plank-style retaining
wall
sole plate a plate that is bolted, riveted, or welded on the bottom flange of a
rolled beam, plate girder, or truss to take direct bearing on a roller
nest, bearing pedestal, or masonry plate. The plate distributes the
reaction of the bearing to the beam, girder, or truss member and
may act as a combined sole and masonry plate at the fixed end of a
beam, a girder, or a truss
SP poorly graded sands; a gravelly sand mixture with 5 percent or less
of fines
spalls a circular or oval depression in concrete that is caused by a
separation of the surface concrete, revealing a fracture that is
parallel with or slightly inclined to the surface; pieces of spalled
concrete
span the distance (center to center) of the end bearings or the distance
between the lines of action of the reactions; the unobstructed space
or distance between the faces of the substructure elements; the
complete superstructure of a single-span bridge or a corresponding
integral part or unit of a multiple-span structure
spandrel the space bounded by the arch extrados, substructure abutments
and/or piers, and the roadway surface or another fixed-elevation
limit
spandrel-arch see face wall
structure
Glossary-37
FM 3-34.343
spandrel column a column that is superimposed on the ring or a rib of an arch span
and serving as a support for the deck construction of an
open-spandrel arch
spandrel fill the filling material placed in the spandrel space of an arch
spandrel tie wall one of the walls built at intervals above the arch ring to tie together
and reinforce the spandrel walls; any wall serving as a restraining
member to prevent bulging and distortion of two other connected
walls. See also diaphragm wall
spandrel wall a wall that is built on an arch as a retaining wall for the spandrel fill
and the roadway in a spandrel-filled arch or to support the floor
system and its loads when the spandrel is not filled. Wide structures
with unfilled spandrels may have one or more interior walls to
provide a cellular construction when combined with tie walls
specifications a detailed construction plan, including material quality and
handling, load conditions and application, stress, design, and
construction procedures
spider the collar-like plate that connects a spider frame to a pivot
spider frame the assemblage of struts, radial rods, spacer rings, and
roller-adjusting devices holding the conical roller ring of a
rim-bearing or a combined rim- and center-bearing swing span to
the pivot
spider rod see radial rod
spill-through two or more columns supporting A-grade beams. This abutment
abutment r e ta i n s t h e ap p ro a ch e m b an km e n t o n l y p ar t ly , s in ce t he
embankment’s sloped front and side portions extend with their
normal slope to envelop the columns
splay saddle a member at the anchorage ends of suspension-bridge cables that
permits the wires or strands to spread for connection to the
anchorage
splice the joining or uniting of elements or members of a structure to
provide the desired conditions for transmitting stress and
developing rigidity and strength to fulfill service requirements in
design. All the parts used to unite elements of a member or
members of a structure
splice joint a joint in which the elements of a member or the members of a
structure are joined by a splice plate or by a piece securing a
required amount of strength and stability
spreader a cast or fabricated piece used to hold angles, beams, channels, or
fabricated parts in place to function as parts of a member or
structure; a ring-like or sleeve-like piece placed on a pin to hold
eyebars or other members in the correct position
springing line the line in the face surface of an abutment or pier at which the
intrados of an arch originates
spur dike a projecting construction that is placed downstream and/or
upstream and adjacent to a U- or T-shaped, blocked, or arched
abutment to secure a gradual contraction of the stream’s width and
to induce a free, even flow of water adjacent to and beneath a bridge.
Spur dikes may be constructed as an extension of the wing wall or as
a winged abutment
38-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
sq ft square feet; square foot

sq in square inch(es)
S-shaped beam the American-standard beam
sta station
STANAG Standardization Agreement
starling an extension at the upstream end or at both ends of a pier that is
built with battered surfaces, forming a cutwater to divide and
deflect waters and floating debris. When on the downstream end,
the starling functions to reduce crosscurrents and swirl and eddy
actions that produce sand, silt, and debris deposits
statics the branch of physical science concerned with bodies, static or at
rest, upon which balanced forces act
stay-in-place forms a prefabricated, metal, concrete-deck form that will remain in place
after the concrete has set
stay plate a plate that is placed at or near the end of a latticed side or the web
of a compression or another member and at intermediate locations
where connections interrupt the continuity of the latticing. This
plate serves to distribute lattice-bar stress to the elements of the
member and adds stiffness and rigidity to joint assemblages. See
also batten plate and gusset
steel box girder a steel beam or girder with a rectangular or trapezoidal cross section
that is made of plates and angles or other structural shapes that are
bolted, riveted, or welded together (a girder’s only interior
construction is stiffeners, diaphragms, or other secondary bracing
parts). Steel box girders are large, steel, multicell boxes with
interior webs and composite in which the concrete slab forms the top
side of the box
stem the vertical wall of an abutment retaining wall or solid pier. See also
breast wall
stiffener an angle, a T, a plate, or another rolled section that is riveted,
bolted, or welded on the web of a plate girder or another built-up
m e m b er t o tra n s fe r st r e s s and p r ev e n t b u c kli n g o r ot h e r
deformation
stiffening girder a girder or truss incorporated in a suspension bridge to act with a
suspension cable or chain by restraining the deformations of the
cable or chain and by distributing the irregularly distributed loads,
thus resisting and controlling vertical oscillations of the floor system
stiffening truss see stiffening girder
stirrup a U-shaped rod, bar, or angle piece that is placed in concrete beams,
slabs, and so forth to resist diagonal tension stresses
stirrup bolt a U-shaped rod or bar (that is fitted at its ends with threads, nuts,
and washers) that is used to support streamer or other timber pieces
of wooden truss structures that are suspended from the bottom
chord
Glossary-39
FM 3-34.343
stone facing a stone or brick surface covering or sheath laid to imitate stone or
brick masonry with a depth thickness equal to the width dimension
of one stone or brick for stretchers and equal to the length
dimension for headers
stone veneer see stone facing
straight abutment an abutment that has the stem and wings in the same plane or that
has the stem included within a length of the retaining wall. In
general, the stem wall is straight but will conform to the alignment
of the retaining wall
straight wing wall a wall in continuation of the breast wall of the abutment
strain the distortion of a body caused by one or more external forces and
measured in units of length. In common use, strain is the
proportional relation of the amount of distortion divided by the
original length
stream flow the water discharge that occurs in a natural channel. A more
general term than runoff, stream flow may be applied to discharge
whether or not it is affected by diversion or regulation
stress resistance of a body to strain when in a solid or plastic state and
which acts in an unconfined condition
stress sheet a drawing that shows a structure in skeletal form and clarifies the
general makeup, major dimensions, and the arrangement and
composition of its integral parts. The drawing should show
computed stresses (based on applying a system of loads) and the
design composition of individual members (based on applying
assumed unit stresses)
stringer a longitudinal beam supporting the bridge deck and, in large or
truss bridges, it is framed in or is on the floor beams
structural members ties, beams, columns or struts, or any combination of the three
structural shapes rolled iron and steel with various cross-sectional shapes adapted to
the construction of metal members
structural T a T-shaped, rolled member that is formed by cutting a wide flange
longitudinally along the centerline of the web
structure metal see base metal
strut a piece or member acting to resist compressive stress
strut sash see sash brace
stub abutment an abutment that is in the top portion of the end of an embankment
or slope and is quite short as a result. Often supported on piles
driven through the underlying embankment or in situ material,
stubs may be founded on gravel fill, the embankment, or natural
ground
subpanel see panel
subpunched and structural steel shapes or assembled members or structures with
reamed work rivet holes that are punched a specified dimension less in diameter
than the nominal size of the rivets to be driven in and subsequently
reamed to a specified diameter greater than the rivet size
subsill see mud sill
40-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
substructure the part of a bridge superstructure that is constructed to support a

span or spans
sump a pit or tank-like depression or receptacle into which water is
drained. The water may then be pumped or siphoned for removal
superelevation the transverse inclination of a roadway’s surface in a horizontal
curve and the relatively short, adjacent tangent lengths required for
full d evelopment. Superelevation allows resistance to the
centrifugal forces of moving vehicles
superstructure the part of a bridge structure that primarily receives and supports
highway, canal, railway, or other traffic loads and transfers the
resulting reactions to the bridge substructure
surcharge an additional load placed atop existing earth or dead loads. With
abutments and retaining walls, the surcharge is replaced by an
earth load of equivalent weight
surface face see mortar
suspended span a superstructure span with one or both ends supported on or from
adjoining cantilever arms, brackets, or towers. This span is
unaffected by stress transmission to or from an adjacent structure
suspender a cable, a rod, or a bar that engages a cable band or another device,
connecting it to the main suspension member of a suspension bridge
at one end and a member of the bridge floor system at the other. The
suspender transfers loads to the main suspension members of the
structure, helping to support the floor system and its loads. A
suspender is a member that supports another member in a
horizontal or an inclined position against sagging, twisting, or other
deformation due to its own weight. See also hanger
suspension bridge a bridge in which the floor system and its incidental parts and
appliances are suspended on cables supported at two or more
locations on towers and anchored at their extreme ends. These
cables (which are the main suspension members) support the floor
system horizontally
suspension cable one of the main members supporting the floor system of a
suspension bridge. The cable ends may be fixed at the tops of
backstay towers that resist the horizontal components of the cable
or chain stresses, or the cable may rest on saddles at the tops of two
or more towers and be extended and fixed on anchorage members
suspension chain see suspension cable
SW well-graded sands; a gravelly sand mixture with 5 percent or less of
fines
sway anchorage a guy, stay cable, or chain that is attached at an intermediate
location on the floor system of a suspension bridge and anchored on
the end portion of an abutment or pier or in the adjacent land
surface to increase the resistance of the suspension span to lateral
movement
sway brace a component attached at an angle to the vertical components of a
pile or bent, connecting it with the ground surface or sill for support.
See also bracing
sway cable see sway anchorage
Glossary-41
FM 3-34.343
sway frame a sway bracing panel or frame. See also bracing

swedged anchor bolt an anchor bolt with traverse and diagonal niches to hold it in place
swing bridge a bridge with a superstructure that revolves in a horizontal plane on
a pivot from a closed to open position. Its alignment is very similar
to the original alignment. A swing bridge is a structure, with its
substructure skewed, that commonly allows revolution in only one
direction through an arc less than 90 degrees
swing span a superstructure supported on a pier at its center, with its end
supports withdrawn or released. This span is equipped to be
revolved in a horizontal plane to provide an unobstructed waterway
for navigation. See also movable bridge
swing-span pivot the center casting that the movable portion of a swing span revolves
on or about in making a cycle. In a center-bearing span, this casting
acts both as a pivotal member and as the support for the movable
span when the end-lift device is released. In a rim-bearing span, the
swing span acts as a pivotal member but does not support the
movable span. In a combined center- and rim-bearing span, the
swing span acts as a support for a portion of the weight of the
movable span when the end-lift device is released
T tracked
tack weld a butt, fillet, or seam weld intended only to fix an element or
member of a structure in correct adjustment and position before full
welding. Tack welds may restrain welded parts against deformation
and distortion caused by expansion of the metal
tail lock see shear lock
tail pit see counterweight well
tailwater water that is ponded below the outlet of a culvert, pipe, or waterway
to reduce the amount of waterway flow. Tailwater is expressed in
terms of its depth. See also headwater
tan tangent
TCMS Theater Construction Management System
telltale a traffic-control device used to show the driver if the vehicle exceeds
horizontal-clearance restrictions for a bridge
temporary bridge a structure built for emergency or interim use to replace a
previously existing bridge that is demolished or unserviceable due to
flood, fire, wind, and so forth or to supply bridge service required for
a relatively short period
tendon a prestressing cable or strand
tension an axial force or stress caused by equal and opposite forces pulling
at the ends of the members
threaded anchor bolt an anchor bolt that is shaped with a machine-cut thread. The thread
anchorage uses a nut or a nut and anchor plate when the bolt is to
be built into the masonry instead of being set in a drilled hole
three-hinged arch an arch with end supports pinned and a third hinge (pin) located
somewhere near midspan, making the structure determinate
throat the dimension normal to the sloping face of a fillet weld between its
heel and the sloping faces
42-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
through bridge a bridge with its floor located between the two sides of the
superstructure, causing traffic to pass through the structural
members
through cut see cut
tide gate see floodgate
tie bar see tie rod
tie plate see stay plate
tie rod a rod or bar in a truss or other frame that transmits tensile stress
tie wall see spandrel tie wall
TM technical manual
TO theater of operation
toe of a slope the place where the sloped surface of an approach cut, an
embankment, a causeway, or another area intersects with natural
or artificial ground surface at a lower elevation
toe wall a low retaining wall placed near the toe of a slope to produce a fixed
end point, to protect against erosion and scour, or to prevent
water-debris accumulation
toggle joint a mechanical arrangement where two members are hinged together
at a central location and separately at their opposite ends. Their
alignment forms an obtuse angle, causing a force applied at the
common hinge to produce a lateral thrust at the end hinges directed
by the original force
tolerance a range or variation in physical or chemical properties that is
determined to be permissible for construction materials
top see pier cap
TOP land-force tactical doctrine and operational procedures
tower a pier or frame that supports the cables or chains of a suspension
bridge at the end of a span; a frame acting as an end support, guide
frame, and counterweight support for a vertical lift span during an
operating cycle; a three-dimensional substructure framework in a
viaduct with the vertical bents at its ends joined longitudinally by
struts and braces, enabling the structure to resist forces acting
longitudinally on the structure; a four-sided frame supporting the
ends of two spans or one complete span (tower span) and the ends of
two adjacent spans of a viaduct, with its column members strutted
and braced in the tiers and the planes of two or four sides battered
track girder one of the plate girders or trusses that is intended to provide
support for the movable span throughout a cycle. The tread casting
fitted on its top flange or chord forms the track on which the
segmental girder moves. See also segmental girder
track plate the plate on which the segmental girder of a rolling lift span rolls
track segment one of the pieces of the circular track that supports the balance
wheels of a center-bearing swing span or the drum-bearing wheels
of a drum or combined center- and drum-bearing spans
TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command
Glossary-43
FM 3-34.343
trailing wheel see balance wheel

transition length the tangent length within which the change from a normal to a
superelevated roadway cross section is developed
transverse bracing the bracing assemblage engaging the columns of trestle and viaduct
bents and towers in perpendicular or slightly inclined planes and in
the horizontal planes of their sash braces. This bracing resists the
transverse forces of wind, lateral vibration, and traffic movements
that produce lateral movement and deformation of the united
columns. See also bracing
transverse girder see cross girder
transverse system see transverse bracing
trapezoidal abutment see straight abutment
travel way see roadway
traverse drawbridge see retractile drawbridge
tread plate the plates attached on the bottom flange of a drum girder, shaped to
form a circular surface with a uniform bearing on the drum rollers.
These plates transfer the live and dead loads of the superimposed
structure to the rollers. The assemblage is sometimes termed the
upper track
tremie a long trunk or pipe with a hopper at its upper end that is used to
place concrete underwater. See also foundation seal
tremie concrete the concrete placed underwater by use of a tremie
trestle a bridge structure with beam, girder, or truss spans supported on
bents, which may include two or more tiers. Trestle structures are
designated by the material and characteristics of their principal
members
triangular truss see Warren truss
trunnion in a bascule bridge, the assemblage of a pin fitted into a supporting
bearing and forming a hinge or axle on which the movable span
swings during its cycle
trunnion girder the girder supporting the trunnions on a bascule bridge
truss a jointed structure with an open, built web arranged so that the
frame is divided into a series of triangular figures and its component
straight members are primarily stressed only axially. The
connecting pins are assumed to be frictionless
truss bridge a bridge with a truss for a superstructure. The ordinary single span
rests on one support at each end (which may be abutments, piers,
bents, or towers or any combination of these). The superstructure
span includes the trusses, the flow system, and the bracing
trussed beam a beam that is reinforced by one or more rods on its tension side
(attached at or near its ends) and passing beneath a support at the
midlength of the span, producing in effect an inverted king-post
truss. See also queen-post truss
trussed girder see king-post truss
truss panel see panel
44-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
tubular truss a truss with chords and struts composed of pipes or cylindrical tubes
Tudor arch a modification of the gothic arch produced by adding shorter radius
cylinder segments at the haunches, thus making it a four-centered
form or type. See also gothic arch
turnbuckle a device used to connect the elements of adjustable rod and bar
members
two-hinged arch an arch with a pinned connection at each support
U-bolt a round or square bar that is bent in the shape a U and fitted with
threads and nuts at its ends
underpass see overpass
unit stress the stress per square inch (or another unit) of the surface or
cross-sectional area
uplift a negative reaction or force that lifts a beam, a truss, a pile, or other
bridge elements
upper track see tread plate
US United States
USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers
USAES United States Army Engineer School
U-wing wall a wall placed parallel to the alignment of the approach roadway
vertical curve a curve in the profile location that defines the elevation
vertical hip the vertically placed tension member engaging the hip joint of a
truss and supporting the first panel floor beam in a through-truss
span or the bottom chord only of a deck-truss span
vertical-lift bridge a bridge with a superstructure that can be raised or lowered
vertically by cables, chains, or other mechanical devices, with its
ends seated on bridge-seat pedestals. See also movable bridge
viaduct a bridge structure consisting of beam, girder, truss, or arch spans
that are supported on abutments with towers and bents, piers, or
any combination of these supporting parts. Though a viaduct
generally seems to be higher than a trestle, this is not usually so. A
viaduct may be exactly like a multispan bridge
Vierendeel truss a rigid frame with an assemblage of rectangles and trapezoids but
no diagonal members
voided unit a precast concrete-deck unit with cylindrical voids to reduce dead
load
voussoir one of the truncated wedged stones composing a ring course in a
stone arch. The facing or head voussoirs are placed at the ends of a
ring course
voussoir arch a hingeless arch with both supports fixed against rotation.
Originally, built of voussoirs (wedge-shaped stone blocks), the
hingeless arch may also be concrete
W wheeled
Glossary-45
FM 3-34.343
wale a wooden or metal piece or assemblage placed inside and/or outside

the wall of a cofferdam, crib, or similar structure, usually in a
horizontal position to maintain shape and increase rigidity,
stability, and strength. An assemblage of wale pieces is termed a
waling
wale piece see wale
waling see wale
walk see inspection ladder
Warren truss a parallel-chord truss that is developed for metal bridge structures
in which the web system is formed by a single triangle. It has no
counters, but web members near the center of a span can be
subjected to stress reversals. It may include verticals
water table the upper limit or elevation of groundwater that saturates a part of
a soil mass
waterway the available unobstructed width for the passage of water beneath a
bridge. In a multispan bridge, the available width is the total
unobstructed waterway lengths of the spans. See also clear span
wearing course see wearing surface
wearing surface the surface of a roadway that is in direct contact with traffic and
that resists the resulting abrading, crushing, or other disintegrating
action
web the stem of a dumbbell or solid wall pier or the part of a beam
located between and connected to the flanges or the chords. The web
resists shear stresses
web members the intermediate members of a truss, generally extending from
chord to chord but not including the end posts. Inclined web
members are termed diagonals. See also counter
web plate the plate that forms the web element of a plate girder, built-up
beam, or column
wedge and pedestals an adjustable lifting mechanism with a wedge operating between an
upper and a lower bearing block or pedestal
wedge stroke the theoretical distance a wedge must move on its pedestal to lift the
arm of a swing span a distance equal to the vertical camber of the
arm, due to elastic deformation minus the portion assumed to be
provided in the field erection
weep hole see drain hole
weep pipe see drain hole
weld the process of uniting portions of one or more pieces, the elements of
a member, or the members of a structure in an intimate and
permanent position or status; the joint produced by the welding
process
welded bridge a structure in which the metal elements composing its members and
their joints are welded
welded joint a joint in which the assembled elements and members are welded
welded structure see welded bridge
46-Glossary
FM 3-34.343
weld layer a single thickness of weld metal composed of beads (runs) placed in
contact to form a p ad we ld or a portion of a weld made of
superimposed beads
weld metal the filler metal added to the fused structure metal to produce (by
coalescence and interdiffusion) a welded joint or a weld layer
weld penetration the depth beneath the original surface to which the structure metal
is fused in a fusion weld. See also penetration
weld sequence the order required in making the welds of a built-up piece or the
joints of a structure to avoid the residual stresses producing
individual joint distortions and deformations of the structure or its
members
wheel base the axle spacing or length of a vehicle. When applied to vehicles with
wheel concentrations at the ends of the front and rear axles, the
wheel base is the center-to-center length of the axles or the length
from the front to the rear wheels
wheel concentration the load carried by and transmitted to the supporting structure by
one wheel of a vehicle, a movable bridge, or other equipment or
device. See also axle load
wheel guard a timber piece that is placed longitudinally along the side limit of
the roadway to guide vehicle wheels and to safeguard trusses,
railings, and other structures outside the roadway limit from
collision
wheel load see wheel concentration
white-way lighting the lighting provided for night illumination along a road or bridge,
as distinguished from sign lighting or colored regulatory and
warning lights
wide flange a rolled member with an H-shaped cross section with wider flanges
and a thinner web than an I-beam
wind bracing the bracing systems in girder and truss spans and in towers and
bents that resist the stresses of wind forces
wing wall the retaining-wall extension of an abutment that restrains and
holds t he s id e-slop e mat erial of an ap proach cause way o r
embankment in place
worked rubble see rubble
working stress the unit stress in a member under service or design load
W-shaped beam wide-flange beam
Glossary-47
Bibliography
ACI Code 318-83. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete. American
Concrete Institute. Detroit, Michigan. 1986.
AR 415-16. Army Facilities Components System. 17 March 1989.
AR 415-28. Real Property Category Codes. 10 October 1996.
DA Form 1249. Bridge Reconnaissance Report. 1 July 1960.
DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms.
1 February 1974.
FM 3-19.40. Military Police Internment/Resettlement Operartions.
1 August 2001.
FM 5-125. Rigging Techniques, Procedures, and Applications. 3 October 1995.
FM 5-134. Pile Construction. 18 April 1985.
FM 5-170. Engineer Reconnaissance. 5 May 1998.
FM 5-233. Construction Surveying. 4 January 1985.
FM 5-250. Explosives and Demolitions. 30 July 1998.
FM 5-277. M2 Bailey Bridge. 9 May 1986.
FM 5-34. Engineer Field Data. 30 August 1999.
FM 5-410. Military Soils Engineering. 23 December 1992.
FM 5-412. Project Management. 13 June 1994.
FM 5-426. Carpentry. 3 October 1995.
FM 5-428. Concrete and Masonry. 18 June 1998.
FM 5-430-00-1. Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports in the
Theater of Operations - Road Design. 26 August 1994.
FM 5-430-00-2. Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports in the
Theater of Operations - Airfield and Heliport Design. 29 September 1994.
GTA 5-7-12. Track Commander’s Bridge Crossing Booklet. June 1991.
GTA 5-7-13. Bridge Classification Booklet. August 1993.
Introductory Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Geotechnic Engineering. Fourth
Edition. Macmillian. ISBN 0-02-413870-3. 1979.
QSTAG 180 (Edition 4). Civil Bridges (Computation of Bridge, Ferry, Raft, and
Vehicle Classifications). 27 May 1993.
Bibliography-1
FM 3-34.343
STANAG 2010 ENGR (Edition 5). Military Load Classification Markings.

18 November 1988.
STANAG 2021 ENGR (Edition 5). Military Computation of Bridge, Ferry, Raft,
and Vehicle Classifications. 18 September 1990.
STANAG 2101 TOP (Edition 10). Establishing Liaison. 20 June 2000.
Standard Specifications of Highway Bridges. Thirteenth Edition. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Incorporated.
Washington, DC. 1983.
TC 5-210. Military Float Bridging Equipment. 27 December 1988.
TM 5-303. Army Facilities Components System - Logistics Data and Bills of
Materiel. 1 June 1986.
TM 5-304. Army Facilities Components System User Guide. 1 October 1990.
TM 5-5420-203-14. Operator’s, Unit, Direct Support and General Support
Maintenance Manual for Bridge, Armored-Vehicle-Launched: Scissoring
Type; Aluminum, 60-Ft Span for M-48A5 and M-60 Launcher (all makes
and models). 3 June 1991.
TM 5-852-1. Arctic and Subartic Construction - General Provisions.
4 September 1987.
Bibliography-2
Index
A ASTM, 4-14 continuous-span truss, 3-8
AASHTO, 1-3 AVLB, 1-3 curb, 3-12
AASHTO’s Standard deck, 3-9
Specifications for Highway B demolished, 1-1, 2-4
Bridges, 1-3, 3-1 backhoe, 1-5 expedient, 1-3
abutment, 2-1, 2-4, 7-1 backstay slope, 8-3, 8-4 fixed, 1-3
accessories, 1-1 Bailey bridge, 1-3 floating, 3-13
AFCS, 1-3, 10-2 balanced weld, 9-16 floor stringer, 3-8
A-frame, 4-10 beam foundations and
air photos, 2-3 failure, 6-1 substructures, 12-4
allowable load, 9-2, C-1 bearing, 6-1 girder, 3-13
maximum, 9-3 bending, 6-1 glue-laminated stringer, 3-21
parallel to the grain, 9-2 lateral deflection, 6-1 handrail, 3-12
perpendicular to the grain, 9-2 shear, 6-1 iron, 1-1
allowable pressure, 9-6 vertical deflection, 6-1 M2 Bailey, 4-1
allowable shear stress, 3-20 prestressed, 3-73 masonry, 4-20
allowable stress, 3-19, 3-23, 8-15, bearing, 9-10 masonry-arch, 3-74, 3-75,
9-7 capacity, 2-2, 12-3 4-17
steel, 3-25 failure, 9-7 masonry-arch deck, 4-27
timber, C-1 stress, E-3 movable, 3-81
allowable vehicle shear, 3-21 bending, 11-17 bascule, 3-81
American Association of State bending moment, 3-17 swing, 3-81
Highway and Transportation vertical-lift, 3-81
Officials, see AASHTO bents, 2-1, 3-20
bolt spacing, 9-9 multiple-span, 8-2
American Society for Testing and
Materials, see ASTM bracing, 3-12, 8-7 multispan, 3-16
analytical method, 1-4 knee, 8-7 multispan arch, 2-1
anchor, 8-16 sway, 8-7 nail, 3-12
anchorage, 8-1 bridge, 1-1, 8-1, 8-2 noncomposite steel-stringer,
3-26
AO, 1-5 approaches, 5-1
nonengineered, 3-19
approach, 2-1 Bailey, 1-3
reinforced concrete, 3-60
area of operation, see AO bolt, 3-12
reinforced concrete
Artic and Subartic Environments, box-girder, 3-65
box-girder, 3-64
12-1 bracing, 3-12
ribbon, 1-3
armored vehicle-launched bridge, cantilever truss span, 3-8
see AVLB semipermanent, 1-1
composite-stringer, 3-26
Army Facilities Components signs, 5-1
concrete, 1-1
System, see AFCS simple steel, 2-1
concrete-stringer, 2-1
assembly sites, 2-3 simply supported, 3-16
continuous span, 3-16, 3-17
Index-1
FM 3-34.343
slab, 3-56, 3-60 moment, 3-12 compressive strength, 6-8

span, 3-13 moment capacity, 3-15 mass-concrete structures, G-4
steel, 1-1 shear, 3-12 poststressed, G-8
steel-arch, 3-8 camber, 8-3, 8-4 prestressed, 3-15, G-8
steel-girder, 3-83 capacity, load-carrying, 4-1 reinforced, 3-26
stringer, glue-laminated, 3-21 cement types, G-2 steel-reinforced, G-4
suspension, 2-1, 3-8, 3-82, classification, 1-1, 3-1 T-beam, 3-65
3-83, 8-1 concrete, 1-2 connection, 1-1, 4-7, 9-1
T-beam, 3-59, 3-60 correlation-curve method, bolt, 4-15
timber stringer, 3-18, 3-20 3-49 reinforcement, 4-12
glue-laminated, 3-18 deck, 3-22 rivet, 4-15
laminated, 3-18 dual, 5-2 weld, 4-15
plank, 3-18 floor beam, 3-49 construction, 10-1
truss, 2-1, 3-8, 3-46, 3-49 live load, 3-55 composite, 3-55, 3-66
abutment, 3-48 method, 3-1 concrete-deck, 3-67
anchor, 3-48 moment, 3-16, 3-35, 3-59 dead load, 3-67
cantilever, 3-48 procedure, 3-65, 3-74 expedient ice-bridge, 12-18
deck, 3-48 shear, 3-67 noncomposite, 3-66
pier, 3-48 steel, 1-2 precautions, 10-27
pony, 3-46 stringer, 3-49 scheduling, 10-7
through, 3-47 suspension, 1-2 suspension-bridge, 10-29
bridge components, 3-11 timber, 1-2 construction site, 4-1
deck, 3-11 truss, 3-54 continuous span bridge, 3-17
timber decking, 3-11 classification examples conversion charts, A-1
bridge height, 2-3 composite steel-concrete correlation curve, 3-3
bridges stringer bridge, F-11
correlation method, 3-8
nonstandard fixed, 1-4 masonry-arch bridge, F-48
cradle and flare, 8-3, 8-4
standard, 1-3 prestressed concrete bridge,
cross section, 3-12
F-43
bridge site, 2-1, 8-2 curb-to-curb roadway width, 3-50
reinforced concrete-box-girder
bridge structure, 2-1 CZ, 1-4
bridge, F-39
bridging in arctic and subarctic
reinforced concrete-slab
environments, 12-1 D
bridge, F-31
bulldozer, 1-5 damage, 1-2
reinforced concrete T-beam
bypass, 2-1 bridge, F-35 dams, 2-2
steel-girder bridge, F-17 dead load, 3-12, 3-67, 4-12, 4-20,
C 7-2, E-1
steel-stringer bridge, F-8
cable, 8-1 computation, 3-49
timber-stringer bridge, F-4
cable, suspender, 8-1 decking, 3-12
truss bridge, F-24
cableways, 10-14 moment, 3-15
combat zone, see CZ
calculation moment per component, 3-15
composite construction, 3-26, 3-55
allowable bending stress, 3-15 span length, 3-15
compressive stress, E-2
bending-moment, 3-11 total per stringer, 3-15
computation, dead-load, 3-49
dead load, 3-12, 3-13 uniformly distributed, 3-15
concealment, 2-2
live load, 3-13 deadman, 8-20
concrete, 3-15, 3-55, G-1
Index-2
FM 3-34.343
deck, 1-3 backstay slope, 8-3, 8-4 tensile strength, 9-12

bridge, 3-9 camber, 8-3, 8-4 falsework, 10-15
classification, 3-22 cradle and flare, 8-3, 8-4 bents, 10-15
clear distance, 6-4 sag ratio, 8-3 platforms and scaffolding,
concrete-box-girder, 3-10 load, 3-3, 6-1 10-15
concrete on concrete T-beam, methods, 1-3 trestles, 10-15
3-10 procedures, 7-1, 9-1 floor beam, 3-36, 4-11, 8-6
concrete on steel I-beam process, 6-1 floor-beam reaction, 3-45
stringer, 3-10 floor clips, 9-8
suspension-bridge, 8-1
concrete on timber stringer, flow, 4-20
detours and bypasses, 1-2
3-10
diagrams, E-10 footings, 2-3
design, 6-4
moment, E-13, E-18 force
floor stringer, 3-9
shear, E-11, E-16 allowable tensile, 3-51
glue-laminated, 3-10
double-story configuration, 1-3 bending, 3-46
laminated, 6-5, 6-6
dual classification, 5-2 compression, 3-46
maintenance, 11-15
dead-load shear per stringer,
nail-laminated, 3-10 3-21
E
plank, 3-10, 6-5, 6-6 horizontal, 4-20
earth pressure, 7-5
prestressed concrete girder, horizontal shear, 3-20
effective shear, D-12
3-10
effective shear area, 3-20, 3-43 live-load shear capacity, 3-21
reinforced concrete, 6-7
effective span length, 6-4, 6-5 moment classification, 3-20
repair, 4-5
equivalent span length, 3-8, 3-48 shear capacity, 3-20
required thickness, 6-6
examples shear capacity per stringer,
steel arch, 3-9 3-21
classification, F-1
thickness, 3-22 tension, 3-46
design, I-1
timber, 6-5 forces
expedient
wearing surface, 6-4 soil, 7-5
bridge, 1-3
decking, 2-2, 3-12 temperature, 7-6
classification procedure, B-20
deflection, 4-7 water, 7-6
crossing, 2-2
demolished bridge, 1-1, 2-4 fords, 1-2, 4-1
field design, 8-12
demolition, 2-1 foundation, 10-3, 11-17
explosives, 12-3
derricks, 10-14 abutments, 11-17
accessories, 12-3
design, 1-1, 2-2, 6-4, 8-1, 8-3 concrete, 11-18
commercial, 12-3
abutment procedures, 7-1 steel, 11-17
military, 12-3
criteria, 9-6 timber, 11-17
allowable stresses, 9-7
F
allowable tensile, 9-7 G
failure, 1-2
bolted connections, 9-6 girder, 1-3, 3-12
beam, 6-1
examples, I-1 continuous-span structure,
mode, 6-1, 9-10
steel-stringer bridge with 3-11
bearing, 9-10
a concrete deck, I-9 moment classification, 3-31
end bearing, 6-1
timber-stringer bridge plate, 3-11
with a timber deck, I-3 excessive deflection, 6-1
reinforced concrete beam,
expedient field, 8-12 lateral buckling, 6-1 3-11
factor, 8-3 shear, 9-10 steel, 3-11
Index-3
FM 3-34.343
grade, 3-19 lamination, 6-6 military operation, 1-1

gravel, 2-6 moment, 3-9, 3-28, 3-35, 3-59 MLC, 1-3, 3-1, B-1
grillage, 10-9 total moment capacity, 3-16 one-way, 3-9
gross weight, 8-8 load, 3-1, 3-3, 7-1 two-way, 3-9
guy line, 8-16 abutment, 7-1 modulus of elasticity, 3-15, 8-15
capacity, 4-14 moisture content, 3-19
H dead, E-1 moment
handrails, 9-1 design, 3-3, 6-1 capacity, 3-15, 3-49, 3-55
hanger cable, 3-9 footing, 7-1 classification, 3-16
Hankinson formula, 9-2 horizontal, 7-4 dead load, 3-15, 3-16, 3-73
hasty method, 2-1 impact, 8-8, E-1 diagram, E-13, E-18
hoists, 10-14 live, 3-16, 4-20, 6-6, E-1 internal, E-10
horizontal loads, 7-4 pile, 7-1 live-load, 3-9, 3-16, 3-28,
hydration, G-2 post, 7-1 3-35, 3-59
hydrostatic uplift, 7-4 superstructure dead, 7-2 moment classification, 3-35, 3-59
hypothetical vehicles, B-1 vertical, 7-1 moment classification, girder, 3-31
load-carrying capacity, 1-1 moment of inertia, D-15
I moment stress, E-4
loads, 2-5
impact MOS, 1-5
LOC, 1-1
factor, 3-16, 3-35 MSR, 11-11
locks, 2-2
load, 8-8, E-1
inspection, 3-12, 11-11 M N
equipment, 11-12 M2 Bailey bridge, 1-3, 4-1 NATO, 3-13, 3-18, 5-6, B-1
items, 11-12 main cable, 8-9 neutral axis, 3-56, D-12
mission, 11-11 main supply route, see MSR nonstandard fixed bridges, 1-4
intermediate support, 2-1 maintenance, deck, 11-15 North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
internal see NATO
map
moment, E-10 geologic, 2-3 O
reactions, E-8 topographic, 2-3
obstacle, 2-1, 2-5
shear force, E-9 maximum allowable load, 9-3
OCONUS, 1-4
medium-girder bridge, see MGB
J outside continental US, see
members, 1-1 OCONUS
jacks, 10-14
method, 3-1 overhead
K analytical, 3-1 bracing, 3-55
analytical load-classification, clearance, 2-1, 2-2, 3-55
knee brace, 4-11, 9-1
3-67
knee bracing, 8-7 overload, 1-2
classification, 3-1
L correlation, 3-8 P
MGB, 1-3 permafrost, 12-1
lamination, live-load, 6-6
military load, 1-1 excavated foundation, 12-10
lanes, 2-2
military-load classification, see foundation survey, 12-7
launching nose, 10-22
MLC
layout, 2-3, 10-9 intermediate supports, 12-8
military occupational specialty, see
lines of communication, see LOC nonexcavated foundation,
MOS
12-11
live load, 3-16, 4-20, 6-6, E-1
Index-4
FM 3-34.343
pile bents, 12-8 tension members, 4-15 shear stress, E-4

picket holdfast, 8-16 trestle bent, 4-8 signs, 5-2
pier, 2-4 truss, 4-11, 4-14 bridge, 5-1
pile piers, 2-1 repair, 1-1, 4-4 bridge-classification, 5-1
plank deck, 6-6 abutment, 4-18 North Atlantic Treaty
posting, 5-1 A-frame, 4-10 Organization, see NATO
prestressed damaged member, 4-17 rectangular, 5-4
beam, 3-73 debris, 4-18 temporary, 5-3
concrete beam, 3-66 deck, 4-5 simply supported, 3-16
profile flooring, 4-17 slab, reinforced concrete, 3-55
rock, 2-4 footing, 4-6, 4-10 slenderness ratio, 4-15
soil, 2-4, 2-5 knee brace, 4-11 soil, 3-11, 7-3, H-1
properties masonry-arch bridge, 4-20 forces, 7-3
concrete, G-1 masonry pier, 4-18 properties, 2-5
end-bearing H-piles, D-4 noncontinuous stringer, 4-7 sample, 2-3
rolled angles, D-6 pier failure, 4-6 spacing, 9-7
rolled beams, steel, D-3 shear, 4-7 bolt, 9-7, 9-9
rolled channels, D-5 substructure, 4-10 span, 2-2, 8-1
round beams, timber, C-10 superstructure, 4-6 bending moment, 3-17
soil, H-1 timber pier, 4-6 continuous, 3-17
steel stringers, D-9 truss, 4-11 length, 3-3, 3-9
unequal-leg angles, D-7 required deck thickness, 6-6 effective, 6-4, 6-5
retaining wall, 12-12 equivalent, 3-8
R ribbon bridge, 1-3 special equipment, 10-13
radius of gyration, D-19 river-crossing operation, 1-3 species, 3-19
railroad, 2-3 road, curb-to-curb roadway width, standard, 1-3
reconnaissance, 1-1, 2-1, 3-49, 3-50 Standard Specifications for
10-1 road network, 1-1 Highway Bridges, AASHTO’s,
deliberate, 2-1 1-3, 3-1
rolled shapes, 3-22
hasty, 2-1 static equilibrium, E-6
reinforced concrete slab, 3-55 S steel, 2-3, 3-15, D-1
reinforcement, 1-1, 4-1 saddle, 8-16 connections, 9-10
abutment, G-8 safety factor, 8-8, C-1 end-bearing H-piles, D-4
beam, G-4 sag ratio, 8-3 high-strength, D-1
bypass, 4-1 sand, 2-6 reinforcing, 3-57
column, G-6 scheduling, 10-6 reinforcing bar, 3-55, D-5
compression member, 4-13 scheduling, construction, 10-7 reinforcing yield strength, 6-9
detour, 4-1 scour, 3-11, 4-6, 11-17 rolled angles, D-6
footing, G-6 section modulus, 3-15, 3-22, D-17 rolled beams, D-3
intermediate support, 4-12 semipermanent bridge, 1-1 rolled channels, D-5
load capacity, 4-14 settlement, 3-11 stringers, D-9
retaining-wall, G-8 shear, 3-67, 9-10 unequal-leg angle, D-7
slab-deck, G-5 shear diagram, E-11, E-16 yield strength, 3-57
stringer, 4-9 shear force, internal, E-9 stream, 4-20
Index-5
FM 3-34.343
stress, E-1 theater of operations, see TO weld types, 9-13

allowable, 8-15 tie rod, 4-21, 4-22 butt weld, 9-13
allowable bending, 3-26 I-beam, 4-22 fillet weld, 9-15
allowable horizontal-shear, pier, 4-22 wing wall, 4-18
3-20 steel plate, 4-22
bearing, 3-15, E-3 timber, 2-3, 2-6, 3-15, 4-17, C-1 Y
compressive, E-2 allowable loads, C-1 yield point, 3-15
deflection, 3-15 allowable stresses, C-1 yield strength, 3-57, 6-9
moment, E-4 connections, 9-1 yield strength, steel, 3-23
shear, E-4 bolts, 9-1, 9-3
stresses, 1-5, 9-1 fastener, 9-1
stresses, allowable, 9-7 nails, 9-1
stringer, 2-2, 2-4, 3-8, 3-12, 3-13 spikes, 9-1
effective, 3-14 load direction, C-1
effective number, 3-21 grade, C-1
steel, 3-22, 3-55, properties
timber, 3-13 rectangular beams, C-9
vehicular loading, 3-12 round beams, C-10
structural mechanics, E-1 select structural grade, C-1
structure, bridge, 1-1 solid-sawn, 3-20
substructure, 1-1, 3-10, 3-11, 7-1, species, C-1
9-1, 10-1
strength, C-1
subsurface, 2-6
timber deck, 3-22, 6-5
superstructure, 1-1, 1-3, 3-10,
laminated, 3-22
3-11, 3-83, 10-1
plank, 3-22
abutment weight, 7-3
TO, 1-1, 5-2
connections, 3-11
tools and equipment, 10-10
dead load, 7-2
hand tools, 10-13
superstructure design, I-1
towers, 8-1, 8-13
support
traffic controls, 5-5
bearing plate, 3-12
truss, 3-12
roller, 3-12
inverted king, 4-9
suspenders, 8-8
inverted queen, 4-9
suspenders, cable, 8-1
reinforcement and repair, 4-11
sway bracing, 8-7
W
T
washers, 9-7
tactical bridging, 2-1
washers, bearing failure, 9-7
T-beam, concrete, 3-65
water forces, 7-6
TCMS, 1-4
wearing surface, 4-17
temperature forces, 7-6
welding process, 9-12
tensile strength, 9-12
electric-arc, 9-12
test pits, 2-5
oxyacetylene, 9-12
Theater Construction Management
System, see TCMS welds, 9-12
Index-6
FM 3-34.343 (FM 5-44)
12 FEBRUARY 2002
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
0204301
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the initial
distribution number 114374, requirements for FM 3-34.343.

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FM 3-34.

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public relase; distribution is unlimited.

Field Manual Headquarters

Military Nonstandard Fixed Bridging

PART ONE BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

Chapter 2 RECONNAISSANCE AND PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS............................ 2-1

PART TWO CLASSIFICATION, REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR, AND POSTING

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

*This publication supersedes FM 5-446, 3 June 1991..

Hasty Method ......................................................................................................... 3-2

Chapter 4 REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR......................................................................... 4-1

Chapter 5 POSTING ............................................................................................................... 5-1

PART THREE DESIGN

Chapter 7 SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN ................................................................................... 7-1

Chapter 8 SUSPENSION-BRIDGE DESIGN .......................................................................... 8-1

Chapter 9 CONNECTIONS ..................................................................................................... 9-1

Chapter 10 CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................. 10-1

Derrick Elevation ................................................................................................ 10-19

Chapter 11 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................... 11-1

Chapter 12 BRIDGING IN ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC ENVIRONMENTS ........................... 12-1

Appendix A CONVERSION CHARTS ....................................................................................... A-1

Appendix B VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION................................................................................. B-1

Expedient Classification Procedure ..................................................................... B-20

Appendix C TIMBER PROPERTIES ......................................................................................... C-1

Appendix D STEEL PROPERTIES ........................................................................................... D-1

Appendix E STRUCTURAL MECHANICS................................................................................ E-1

Appendix F CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES ............................................................................ F-1

Appendix G CONCRETE PROPERTIES................................................................................... G-1

Appendix H SOIL PROPERTIES............................................................................................... H-1

Appendix I SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN EXAMPLES .......................................................... I-1

Bibliography ............................................................................................................ Bibliography-1

This chapter implements STANAGs 2010 (Edition 5)

Background Information 1-1

EXISTING BRIDGES, INTACT

DETOURS AND BYPASSES

EXISTING BRIDGES, REINFORCED OR REPAIRED

1-2 Background Information

the tactical bridges, which support existing permanent bridges. Standard,

Armored Vehicle-Launched Bridge

Background Information 1-3

Transportation Officials [AASHTO]). See TM 5-304 for more information on

ARMY FACILITIES COMPONENTS SYSTEM

1-4 Background Information

LABOR AND EQUIPMENT ESTIMATES

Background Information 1-5

1-6 Background Information

Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations

Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations 2-1

2-2 Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations

Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations 2-3

Exit road floor beams, stringers, Stock

Tools Stores Office

Figure 2-1. Construction-Site Layout

2-4 Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations

24+00 24+50 24+00 24+50

Figure 2-2. Soil Profile

Reconnaissance and Preliminary Investigations 2-5