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3.2 Fired Boilers and heaters Inspection Advanced Inspection

API 573 Inspection of fired heaters and boilers
ABSA AB 507 Guidelines G id li for f the th inspection i ti of f installed fired heaters FTIS Furnace tube inspection system (Quest TuTec)

Pressure Systems Risk

RISK Probability of failure Susceptibility factor Severity factor
Risk to life Damage to asset Loss of production Cost of failure Environmental effects Public image

consequence of failure

Internal corrosion External corrosion Fatigue Stress Corrosion Cracking Third party damage Sabotage/pilferage Loss of ground support

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Boiler Inspection
A boiler inspector is a professionally trained and commissioned technical specialist charged with the examination of boilers. While every boiler should be professionally inspected annually, there is more than one type of inspection made by an inspector.
Jurisdictions and insurance companies recommend that power boilers be inspected annually, annually both internally and externally, while not under pressure. An external inspection while the boiler is under pressure is suggested midway between the annual inspections.

Boiler Inspection
An internal boiler inspection consists of all waterside (steam, , blow-off, , and water areas of the vessel ( connections), and fireside conditions, as well as dearators, superheaters, and economizers. While evidence of internal corrosion and scale, leaks, overheating, and flame impingement are noted and documented in the boiler inspector's report, the root cause may require additional resources.
B Both h the h owner/operator / and d the h water treatment consultant l are this resource, playing an active role at this inspection, and in any subsequent adjustments made tot he boiler management program.

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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UT Inspection of Boiler Tubes

EMAT Guided Wave

Boiler, Heater &Furnace Tube Applications

100% High Speed Flaw Detection in Tubes Chromium Depletion Detection Tube Imbrittlement Detection Corrosion Detection caused by Flame Impingement U-Bend Inspection for Corrosion and Wall loss

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Furnace, Heater & Boiler Tube Applications for EMAT Guided Waves
Boiler with welded membrane - only topside accessible

Coil Heater - only Accessible on inside radius

Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Steam Drum

The steam drum is the single most expensive component in the boiler Consequently boiler. Consequently, any maintenance program must address the steam drum, as well as any other drums, in the convection passes of the boiler. In general, problems in the drums are associated with corrosion. In some instances, where drums have rolled tubes, rolling may produce excessive stresses that can lead to damage p g in the ligament areas. Problems in the drums normally lead to indications that are seen on the surfaceseither inside diameter (ID) or outside diameter (OD).

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Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Steam Drum

Assessment: Inspection and testing focuses on detecting surface indications. indications The preferred nondestructive examination (NDE) method is wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT). Because WFMT uses fluorescent particles that are examined under ultraviolet light, it is more sensitive than dry powder type magnetic particle testing (MT) and it is faster than liquid dye penetrant testing (PT) methods. j welds, , selected attachment WFMT should include the major welds, and at least some of the ligaments. If locations of corrosion are found, then ultrasonic thickness testing (UT) may be performed to assess thinning due to metal loss. In rare instances, metallographic replication may be performed

Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Headers

Boilers designed for temperatures above 900F (482C) can have superheater outlet headers that are subject to creep the plastic l ti deformation d f ti (strain) ( t i ) of f the th header h d from f long-term l t exposure to temperature and stress. For high-temperature headers, tests can include metallographic replication and ultrasonic angle beam shear wave inspections of higher stress weld locations. Industrial boilers are more typically designed for temperatures less that 900F (482C) thus failure is not normally related to creep. creep Lower temperature headers are subject to corrosion or possible erosion. Additionally, cycles of thermal expansion and mechanical loading may lead to fatigue damage.

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Headers

Assessment: The nondestructive examination (NDE) method should include testing g of the welds by y magnetic g p particle testing g (MT) or by wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT). In addition, it is advisable to perform internal inspection with a video probe to assess waterside cleanliness, to note any buildup of deposits or maintenance debris that could obstruct flow, and to determine if corrosion is a problem. Inspected headers should include some of the water circuit headers as well as superheater headers. headers If a location of corrosion is seen, then ultrasonic thickness testing (UT) to quantify remaining wall thickness is advisable.

Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Tubing

By far, the greatest number of forced outages in all types of boilers are caused by tube failures. Failure mechanisms vary greatly from long term to short term. Superheater tubes operating at sufficient temperature can fail long term (over many years) due to normal life expenditure. For these tubes with predicted finite life, the NOTIS test and remaining life analysis software (Babcock & Wilcox) would be useful. Most tubes in the industrial boiler do not have a finite life due t their to th i temperature t t of f operation ti under d normal l conditions. diti Tubes are more likely to fail because of abnormal deterioration such as water/steam-side deposition retarding heat transfer, flow obstructions, tube corrosion [inside diameter (ID) and/or outside diameter (OD)], fatigue, and tube erosion.

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Tubing

Assessment: Tubing is one of the components where visual examination is of great importance because many tube damage mechanisms lead to visual signs such as distortion distortion, discoloration, discoloration swelling, swelling or surface damage damage. The primary nondestructive examination (NDE) method for obtaining data used in tube assessment is contact ultrasonic thickness testing (UTT) for tube thickness measurements. Contact UTT is done on accessible tube surfaces by placing the ultrasonic transducer onto the tube using a couplant, a gel or fluid that transmits from the ultrasonic transducer sound into the tube. Variations on standard contact UTT have been developed due to access limitations. Examples include: Internal rotating inspection system (IRIS)-based techniques in which the signal from the ultrasonic transducer is reflected from a high rpm rotating mirror to scan tubes from the IDespecially in the area adjacent to drums. Laser-Optic Tube Inspection System (LOTIS) technology is capable of very accurately mapping and quantifying internal tube damages such as Pitting, Corrosion, Erosion, Open Surface Cracking, Bulging, Denting, etc.

Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Piping

Main Steam For lower temperature systems, the piping is subject to the same damage as noted for the boiler headers. In addition, addition the piping supports may experience deterioration and become damaged from excessive or cyclical system loads. Assessment: The nondestructive examination (NDE) method of choice for testing of external weld surfaces is wet flourescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT). Magnetic particle testing (MT) and penetrant testing (PT) methods are sometimes used if lighting or pipe geometry make WFMT impractical. Non-drainable sections, such as sagging horizontal runs, are subject to internal corrosion and pitting pitting. These areas should be examined by internal video probe and/or ultrasonic thickness testing (UTT) measurements. Volumetric inspection (i.e., ultrasonic shear wave) of selected piping welds may be included in the NDE. However, concerns for weld integrity related to the growth of subsurface cracks is a problem associated with creep of high temperature piping and is not a concern on most industrial installations.

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Piping

Feedwater A piping system often overlooked is feedwater piping. Depending upon the operating parameters of the feedwater system, the flow rates rates, and the piping geometry, geometry the pipe may be prone to corrosion or flow assisted corrosion (FAC). This is also referred to as erosion-corrosion. If susceptible, the pipe may experience material loss from internal surfaces near bends, pumps, injection points, and flow transitions. Ingress of air into the system can lead to corrosion and pitting. Out-of-service corrosion can occur if the boiler is idle for long periods. Assessment: A t Internal I t l visual i l inspection i ti with ith a video id probe b is i recommended if access allows. NDE can include MT, PT, or WFMT at selected welds. UTT should be done in any location where FAC is suspected to ensure there is not significant piping wall loss

Inspection and Assessment of Critical Boiler Components Deaerators

Overlooked for many years in condition assessment and maintenance inspection programs programs, deaerators have been known to fail catastrophically in both industrial and utility plants. The damage mechanism is corrosion of shell welds, which occurs on the inside diameter (ID) surfaces. Assessment: Deaerators welds should have a thorough visual inspection inspection. All internal welds and selected external attachment welds should be tested by wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT).

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Boiler Inspection/Maintenance Checklist

Description Overall visual inspection Check lubricating all components Check steam pressure Check unstable water level Check burner Check motor Condition temperatures Check oil filters Boiler blowdown Comment Complete overall visual inspection to be sure all equipment is operating and that safety systems are in place. Compare temperatures with tests performed after annual cleaning. Is the variation in steam pressure as expected under different loads? Wet steam may be produced if the pressure drops too fast. Unstable levels can be a sign of contaminates in feedwater, overloading of boiler, or equipment malfunction malfunction. Check for proper control and cleanliness. Check for proper function. X Check and clean/replace oil filters and strainers Verify the bottom, surface and water column blow downs are occurring and are effective. X X Maintenance Frequency Daily X Weekly Monthly Annually

X X

Boiler Inspection/Maintenance Checklist

Description Check all relief valves Check water level control Check pilot and Burner assemblies Check boiler Operating characteristics p system y Inspect for water or steam leaks Inspect all linkages on combustion air dampers and fuel valves Inspect boiler for air leaks Check for leaks. Stop feedwater pump and allow control to stop fuel flow to burner. Do not allow water level to drop below recommended level. Clean pilot and burner following manufacturer's guidelines. Examine for mineral or corrosion buildup. Stop fuel flow and observe flame failure. Start boiler and observe characteristics of flame. Look for: leaks, , defective valves and traps, p , corroded piping, and condition of insulation. Check for proper setting and tightness. X Check damper seals. Comment Maintenance Frequency y Daily Weekly y X X X X Monthly y Annually y

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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Boiler Inspection/Maintenance Checklist

Description Flue gases Combustion air supply Check fuel system Check belts and packing glands Check for air leaks Check all blower belts Check all gaskets Inspect boiler insulation Steam control valves Pressure reducing or regulating valves Comment Measure and compare last months readings for flue gas composition over entire firing range. Check combustion air inlet to boiler room and boiler to make sure openings are adequate and clean. Check pressure gauge, pumps, filters and transfer lines. Clean filters as required. Check belts for proper tension. Check packing glands for compression leakage. Check for air leaks around access openings and flame scanner assembly. Check for tightness and minimum slippage. Check gaskets for tight sealing. Replace if they do not provide a tight seal. Inspect all boiler insulation and casings for hot spots Calibrate steam control valves as specified by manufacturer. Check for proper operation. X Maintenance Frequency Daily Weekly Monthly X X X X X X X X X Annually

Boiler Inspection/Maintenance Checklist

Description Clean waterside surfaces Clean fireside Inspect & Repair Refractories on fireside Relief valve Feedwater system Fuel system Comment Follow manufacturer's recommendation on cleaning and preparing waterside surfaces. Follow manufacturer's recommendation on cleaning and preparing fireside surfaces. Use recommended material and procedures. X Remove and recondition or replace relief valves. Clean and recondition feedwater pumps. Clean condensate receivers and deaeration system. Clean and recondition system pumps, filters, pilot, oil preheaters, oil storage tanks, and other system components. Clean all electrical terminals. Check electronic controls and replace any defective parts. Check operation and repair as necessary. X Make adjustments to ensure optimal flue gas composition. Record composition, firing position, and temperature. As required, conduct eddy current test to assess tube wall thickness. X X X X Maintenance Frequency Daily Weekly Monthly Annually X X

Electrical systems Hydraulic And Pneumatic valves Flue gases

X X

Eddy current test

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Material Aging and Degradation

Materials aging and degradation typically increase as a function of increasing temperature and time in service. As essential equipment ages, the plant operator and owner must determine if they can continue to operate it safely and reliably to avoid injuries to plant personnel and to the public, damage to the environment, e v o e , and d business bus ess losses. osses. Fitness for service assessment can be used to evaluate equipment and piping systems, and make decisions based on sound, established engineering principles.

Material Degradation Mechanisms

Material degradation mechanisms include:
General corrosion, Localized li d corrosion, i Erosion-corrosion (conjoint corrosion). Pitting and crevice corrosion, Hydrogen attack, Embrittlement, Stress corrosion cracking, Fatigue Fatigue, High-temperature creep, and Mechanical distortion.

These degradation mechanisms affect mechanical integrity

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Deterioration / Degradation
Macroscopic damage such as dents or gouges, b l i deformation. bulging, d f ti General or localized wall thinning and pitting. Material flaws, cracks, and welding defects. Degradation of material properties due to changes h in i the th material t i l microstructure. i t t

Corrosion -1
Corrosion is caused by electro-chemical processes in which a metal reacts with its environment to form an oxide or compound by the formation of cells comprising: an anode (the deteriorating metal), a cathode (adjacent metal), a conducting solution (acid / salts). It can occur both internally and externally to pipelines, vessels, plant, machinery, structures and supports.

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Corrosion - 2
The materials selection philosophy aspect of the design phase of all plant and structures should take into account the: anticipated service conditions (pressure, temperature and atmosphere), and the contents of the system in order to either minimize corrosion or to make adequate allowances for it in the form of additional material thicknesses. The initial corrosion on some metals creates an impervious coating which prevents further corrosion taking place.

General Corrosion
Corrosion or degradation of material exposed to Atmospheric the air and its pollutants rather than immersed in a li id liquid General/Uniform Corrosion: Corrosive attack dominated by uniform thinning due to even regular loss of metal from the corrosion surface. The h predominant d i standard d d utilized for general corrosion assessment is ASTM G31 Galvanic Straycurrent General biological Molten salt Hightemperature Corrosion that occurs when a metal or alloy is electrically coupled to another metal or conducting non-metal in the same electrolyte Caused by an externally induced electrical current Corrosion of metals generally over the entire exposed surface in aqueous environments Corrosion of metals due to molten or fused salts Oxidation Sulfidation Carburization Other forms Corrosion by direct reaction of exposed metals to oxidizing agents at elevated temperatures

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Localized Corrosion
Filiform Occurs on metallic surfaces coated with thin organic i film, fil t typically i ll .1 1 mm thi thick, k characterized by the appearance of fine filaments in semi-random directions from one or more sources Corrosion in narrow openings or spaces in metal to metal or non-metal to metal component sites Extremely localized corrosion marked by the development of pits Cases where biological organisms are the sole cause or an accelerating factor in the localized corrosion

Localized Corrosion: all or most of the metal loss occurs at discrete areas

Crevice Pitting

Localize micro biological

Environmentally Influenced Corrosion

Occurs when the corrosion rate of the grain boundary areas of an alloy exceeds that of the grain interiors

Intergranular Metallurgically influenced corrosion: form of attack where metallurgy plays p y a significant g role Dealloying

A form of corrosion characterized by the preferential removal of one constituent of an alloy leaving behind an altered residual structure

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Mechanically Assisted Degradation

Erosion Removal of surface material by y the action of numerous individual impacts of solid or liquid particles Combined wear and corrosion between contacting surfaces when motion between the surfaces is restricted to very small amplitude oscillations Occurs on a metal surface in contact with a li id pressure diff liquid, differentials i l generate gas or vapor bubbles which upon encountering high-pressure zones, collapse and cause explosive shocks to the surface Occurs in metals as a result of the combined action of a cyclic stress and a corrosive environment

Mechanically assisted degradation: form of attack where velocity, abrasion, hydrodynamics etc. play a major role

Fretting

Cavitation C i i & Water drop impingement

Fatigue

Environmentally Induced Cracking

Stress cracking Hydrogen Environmentally induced damage cracking: forms of cracking that are produced in the presence Liquid metal of stress. embrittlement (Stress Corrosion Cracking) Solid metal embrittlement Service failures in engineering g g materials that occur by slow environmentally induced crack propagation Results from the combined action of hydrogen and residual or tensile stress Brittle failure of a normally ductile metal when coated with a thin film of a liquid metal and subsequently stressed in tension occurs below the melting point of the solid in certain liquid metal embrittlement couples

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Mechanically Assisted Degradation

Erosion Removal of surface material by y the action of numerous individual impacts of solid or liquid particles Combined wear and corrosion between contacting surfaces when motion between the surfaces is restricted to very small amplitude oscillations Occurs on a metal surface in contact with a li id pressure diff liquid, differentials i l generate gas or vapor bubbles which upon encountering high-pressure zones, collapse and cause explosive shocks to the surface Occurs in metals as a result of the combined action of a cyclic stress and a corrosive environment

Mechanically assisted degradation: form of attack where velocity, abrasion, hydrodynamics etc. play a major role

Fretting

Cavitation C i i & Water drop impingement

Fatigue

Bacteria Commonly Associated with

Microbiological Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
Microbiological Influenced Corrosion (MIC) is often confused with pitting corrosion and generally occurs in water normally considering benign. benign The term influenced is used since the bacteria itself does not cause the corrosion. Usually, the bacteria forms a crevice that isolates the water chemistry on the metal surface from the bulk water chemistry or has a waste product that can be very aggressive
Organism Thiobacillus Desulfovibrio Gallionella Crenothrix Spaerotilus Nitrobacter Action Sulfate Reducer Sulfate Reducer Mn/Fe Fixer Mn/Fe Fixer Mn/Fe Fixer Nitrate Reducer Problem Produces H2SO4 Produces H2S Precipitates MnO2, Fe2O3 Precipitates MnO2, Fe2O3 Precipitates MnO2, Fe2O3 Produces HNO3

Most common MIC attack in North America is a result of the influence of manganese reducing bacteria.

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Corrosion of Membrane Tubes

Crevice Corrosion
Intensive localized corrosion frequently occurs within crevices and other shielded areas on metal surfaces exposed to corrosives. This type of attack is usually associated with small volumes of stagnant solutions caused by holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints, surface deposits, and crevices under bolt and rivet heads.

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Crevice Corrosion Example

Gasket (crevice) corrosion on a large stainless steel pipe flange.

Erosion-Corrosion
A conjoint action involving corrosion and erosion in the presence of a moving corrosive fluid, leading to the accelerated loss of material. Flow velocity is an important environmental factor. Its effect is especially pronounced in chemical processing, petroleum, marine, and power plants, which handle fluids of all kinds.

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Erosion-corrosion
This form of corrosion is deterioration of metal caused by the combined action of mechanical erosion and electrochemical attack. Erosion is caused by relative motion between the corrosive processing medium and the metal surface. The electrochemical attack is caused by the surface condition and inherent nature of the bare metal vis-vis the corrosive fluid. The protective film on the metal surface is swept away by rapid movement of the processing fluid.

Erosion-corrosion In Power Plant Piping

Major failures have occurred in piping due to singlephase or wet wet-steam steam erosion-corrosion. erosion corrosion Significant variables include: temperature of water or steam, pH, oxygen content of fluid, quality of steam, flow velocity, quality of oxide layer on inner surface of the pipe, chemical composition of the steel pipe. Susceptible systems: feedwater and let-down let down lines in water, elbows, tees, etc., in wet steam.

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Factors mitigating erosion-corrosion:

pH (>9.0 is best), Oxygen content (50 ppb), Piping design/layout changes to improve flow geometries. Pipe material (a 2.25Cr 2 25Cr-1Mo 1Mo steel is very resistant to single-phase erosion-corrosion while austenitics are resistant to wet steam).

Erosion-corrosion In Power Plant Piping - 2

Erosion Failure of Superheater Tube

The fish-mouth type rupture occurred after 15 years of service.
Failure was located on the extrados of the bend near the tangent point and on the side opposite from direction of gas flow.

1) Visual Examination The preliminary visual examination revealed a distinct ridge or step, which had been sculpted into the tubing wall. This ridge is physical evidence of the effects of erosion. 2) Dimensional Analysis Wall thickness measurements indicated that there had been almost no wall loss a short distance away from the rupture. In contrast, wall thickness measurements taken in the immediate vicinity of the rupture revealed significant and highly localized wastage corresponding to a 91% loss of original wall thickness.

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Susceptibility of Stainless Steels to SCC Copson Curve

Not all stainless steels are equally susceptible to SCC. Copson determined that a direct relationship exists between the time to failure and the nickel content. The stainless steel nickel content with the most potential is 8%, which is the same content of the workhorse of the industry TP 304. industry, Improvements in time to failure come from selecting an alloy with very low nickel, such as TP 439, or very high nickel, such as the 6% molybdenum containing alloys or alloy 20. The high nickel alternative can be very expensive.

Critical Crevice Temperature and Maximum Chloride Levels Versus PREN of Various Stainless Steels
Crevice corrosion is commonly measured by the ASTM G 48 test. g CCT indicates more corrosion A higher resistance Kovach and Redmond developed relationships between the PREN and the G 48 critical crevice temperature (CCT) and plotted the relationships. This Figure is a modified version to be used as a tool for comparing alloys and determining maximum chloride levels

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Fatigue
Fatigue only takes place if the load is alternating. During this load alternation alternation, three types of alternating stresses can be registered:
1. Mechanical stresses due to change in pressure or to changing system stresses. 2. Thermal stresses due to temperature differences through the component wall thickness. These stresses become only significant when the wall thickness is larger than 45 mm. 3. Stratification due to temperature differences on two opposite spots on the component.

Creep Failure Bulged Tubes

Boiler superheater and fired heater tubes frequently fail by creep creep, corrosion or a combination of the two. Other failure modes include erosion-corrosion, metal dusting, vibration, and local life-limiting conditions such as flame impingement, impingement scale/coke build-up, etc. Tube swelling is evidence that significant consumption of creep life has taken place.

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Creep Rupture of Superheater Tube

The failed superheater tubing contained a relatively thick-lipped, fish-mouth type rupture. The rupture was located on the hot side of the tubing, adjacent to a butt weld. The tubing from which the sample was taken was specified to be 2.125" OD x 0 313" MWT, 0.313 MWT SA-213, SA 213 TP-321 TP 321 material. material Based on the results of the destructive examination, it was established that the SH tube had failed due to the effects of advanced creep-rupture damage, which was the result of long-term overheating.

The SH tube also contained a circumferential fracture that had resulted in the complete separation of the tubing at the location of the tube-to-tube butt weld. However, the results of the destructive examination demonstrated that this fracture was the result of consequential damage and was not the primary failure site.

Creep Rupture of Superheater Tube

Key Findings of Analysis:
1. As with some of the p previous overheating g failures, , there were longitudinal grooves running adjacent to and parallel with the rupture. These grooves were determined to be the secondary effects of creep rupture damage. 2. Examination of the inner surface revealed a relatively thick layer of partially exfoliated steamside scale along both sides of the element, with evidence of longitudinal grooving within the scale layer. This grooving resulted when the steamside scale fractured as the tubing swelled. 3. Measurements of the outer diameter and inner diameter indicated that there had been a significant amount of swelling, both at a location immediately adjacent to the rupture and at a location far removed from the rupture. The tubing near the rupture had swelled approximately 3%, while the tubing far removed from the rupture had swelled approximately 2%.

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Idealized Creep Curve and Corresponding Microstructural Damage

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the formation of brittle cracks in a normally sound material through the simultaneous action ti of f a tensile t il stress t and d a localized l li d corrosive i environment i t
Three factors must be present simultaneously for SCC to occur.
Examples include: Steel: SCC in caustic (high pH) amine solutions. pH), solutions SS and Al alloys: SCC in solutions containing chlorides. Ti-alloys: SCC in nitric acid or methanol.

Material SCC

Stress

Environment

Corroding media; Temperature

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Stress Corrosion Cracking

The three components necessary for stress-corrosion cracking to initiate are:
1. susceptible material, 2. contaminant to which the subject material is vulnerable and, 3. a tensile stress.

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Transgranular Cracking in TP 304N Feedwater Heater Tubing

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Stress Corrosion Cracking

With regard to possible contaminants, either caustics or chlorides can produce cracking with the microstructural f t features observed b d in i the th failed f il d stainless t i l tube. t b Although Alth h chloride-induced SCC is common in stainless steel components, caustic SCC can occur over a substantially broader range of temperatures and should not be dismissed without careful consideration of all possible sources of contamination. Even a relatively small amount of a caustic, such as sodium, in the original source water can be aggressive when concentrated. With regard to the tensile stress component of the damage, possible sources of stress include local residual stresses associated with tube manufacturing (i.e. rotary straightening of the tube), bending, or with welding (i.e. welded attachments).

Stress Corrosion Cracking

If one tube fails due to SCC it is very likely, given the nature of the damage, g that a number of tubes will have been affected. If the unit is returned to service before all significant damage is identified, then failures will continue to occur. Therefore, tubing should be inspected using the appropriate NDE techniques to detect badly cracked tubes for replacement. All possible ibl sources of f contamination i i should h ld be b reviewed i d in an effort to identify the contaminant and to determine how the contaminant entered the damaged area so that the risk of similar problems can be eliminated during future operation.

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Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)

FAC is a chemical/corrosion process involving the dissolution of the protective oxide layer along the ID surface of a component. component The partial or complete removal of the protective oxide results in a rapid thinning of the component wall, until eventually the remaining wall thickness is insufficient to contain the internal pressure and rupture occurs.

The FAC failure shown in the photograph occurred in an economizer nipple tube.

Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)

FAC typically occurs in the temperature range of approximately 170 170 F to 450 450 F and and, therefore therefore, is mostly commonly found in economizer tubing, low pressure evaporator tubing, and drum internals. In addition, the propensity for forming FAC damage is greater in areas of high turbulence, such as would be found at a nipple connection.
A An i increase i in turbulence t b l results lt in i an increase i in i the th mass transport of ferrous ions away from the oxide/fluid interface, which increases the diffusion gradient. This results in a more rapid rate of diffusion of ions through the oxide layer and into the flowing fluid.

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Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)

1. The key evidence indicating single phase FAC as the cause of the failure was a series of overlapping elongated pits. This type of pitting often is referred to as horseshoe-shaped pitting. The obvious orientation to the pitting is a reflection of the influence of the fluid flow on the pattern of ID attack.

2. Aside from the evidence of FAC, there was no indication of any other damage mode. Specifically, there was no evidence of a shallow cold worked layer along the ID surface of the tube, indicating that the wastage was not due to erosion-corrosion, in which particle impact is responsible for the removal of the protective oxide film.

Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)

Modifications addressing temperature and/or turbulence typically yp y are not feasible and, therefore, the primary p y approach pp to solving problems with FAC is to address the issue of water chemistry.
The feedwater pH must be carefully controlled and, if possible, oxygen scavengers such as hydrazine should not be employed.

If changing the water chemistry is not an option, then another approach might be to use tubing materials that are more resistant to FAC damage damage.
Steels with a higher level of residual chromium and/or molybdenum (e.g. SA-213, T11) tend to form a more protective oxide layer and, therefore, often are highly resistant to attack by FAC.

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Short Term Elevated Temperature Tensile Strength

For all materials used in boiler construction, the strength decreases as temperature p increases. This Table lists the short-term tensile strength g for SA192 and SA213 TP321H that illustrates this point. Test Temperature, oF
80 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500

Tensile Strength, psi

SA192
55,000 59,000 59,500 , 52,600 41,000 20,000 9,900 5,600

SA213 TP321H
84,000 68,000 62,500 , 60,000 56,000 49,300 38,000 23,000

Short Term Overheating Failures

The simplest explanation for all "short-term" overheating failures is:
when the tube metal temperature rises so that the hoop stress from the internal steam pressure equals the tensile strength at elevated temperature, rupture occurs. For example, in a super-heater of SA192 tubes, with a designed metal temperature of 800oF, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code gives the allowable stress at 800oF as 9,000 psi. If the tube-metal temperature should rise to a temperature of around 1300oF, the hoop stress would be equal to or slightly greater than the tensile strength at 1300oF, and failure would occur in a few minutes.

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Short Term Overheating Failures

The balance between heat flow and fluid flow can be upset from either side; too much heat flow or too little fluid flow. In a waterwall tube, steam forms as discrete bubbles, nucleate boiling.
When the bubble is large enough, the bubble is swept away by the moving fluid, and the cycle repeats. At too high a heat flux or too low a fluid flow, steam-bubble formation is too fast for removal by the moving fluid. Several bubbles join to form a steam blanket, a departure from nucleate boiling, DNB. Heat transfer f through h h the h steam blanket bl k is i poor (steam ( is i an excellent ll insulator) and tube-metal temperatures rapidly rise and failure occurs quickly.

In a superheater or reheater, DNB cannot occur as only steam super heating takes place, no boiling. However, short-term overheating failures do occur but usually during start-up.

Short Term Overheating Failures

Boiler operational problems that can lead to these short-term high-temperature g p failures include, among g others:
1. Flame impingement from misaligned or worn burners that leads to the formation of a steam blanket, as the local heat flux is too great for the fluid flow through the tube. 2. Blockage of a superheater tube with condensate or foreign material that prevents steam flow. These problems are more frequent during start-up. 3. Reduced flow in either a water or steam circuit that leads to inadequate cooling Pinhole leaks cooling. leaks, especially at poor welds or slag falls falls, severe dents from slag falls or ruptured tubes, and partial blockage from debris or other foreign matter are some of the more obvious causes. 4. Foreign objects, broken attemperation- spray nozzles, for example, in headers that partially block a superheater or reheater tube.

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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10/7/2010

Short Term Overheating Failures

Regardless of the location within the boiler that these failures occur, the appearance pp is similar.
There is a wide-open burst with the failure edge drawn to a near knife-edge condition, and the length of the opening four or five tube diameters. These failures display considerable ductility; the thinning at the failure lip may be more than 90% of the original wall at the instant of rupture.

The microstructures throughout the failure will usually indicate the peak temperature at the time of failure.
For ferritic steels there is a transformation from ferrite and iron carbide or pearlite, to ferrite and austenite. This temperature is referred to as the lower-critical transformation temperature and occurs at 1340oF or higher, depending on the exact alloy composition.

Boiler Tube Corrosion Mechanisms

Example

Hydrogen Damage

Caustic Corrosion

N. Al-Khirdaji, AZTech Sr. Consultant

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