The Impact of Information Technologies on Organizations and their Employees R.

Baker Introduction The world is in the mist of the most radical and rapid transformation of commerce and society since the invention of the automobile. During the next few years, electronic markets will grow and begin operating over cheep, accessible public networks, the so-called electronic highway. Whole industries will be destroyed and new ones born. Productivity will leap and competitive advantage shift in the direction of small business. Thousands of jobs will become obsolete and disappear, and thousands of others will be created. The electronic frontier, like the frontiers that preceded it, is at once a realm of boundless opportunity and a harsh, brutal place.1 The technological basis of electronic commerce is simultaneously simple and complex. The simple part is that all images and sounds - a voice, a movie, a document, a tune, can be expressed in a digital code, streams of ones and zeros. Once digitized, they can be shipped electronically or stored in electronic memories and retrieved later. The complex part lies in making the network easy to use, changing organizations to enable them to incorporate the network's benefits, developing the services it will make possible (examples - electronic shopping malls, world-wide yellow pages), and training and developing the people necessary to make the organizations function effectively within the electronic environment. The rise of electronic networks is staggering. The market for networking between companies barely existed s few years ago; today it exceeds billions annually. Most stunning of all of this has been the growth of the Internet, a loosely confederated network of networks, public and private. According to Vinton Cerf, president of the Internet Society. "Internet is growing faster than any other telecommunications system ever built, including the telephone network." Internet reaches from Greenland to Antarctica, connecting more than 50 countries. Internet's growth must invariably slow. At the current growth rate everyone on earth would be connected by the year 2010. Even though a slowdown is inevitable, Cerf says a reasonable estimate is that 100 million new users per year will be connected to the system in five years. All that is needed is the construction of a high-capacity highway into the homes and businesses of potential users. The enormous market for entertainment will pay for the construction of this highway. Existing highways, Internet in particular, will connect with it, widening its reach, driven by the burgeoning business-to-business markets. The so called "information highway" is just one example of the many extraordinary advances in technology which are affecting individuals and organizations throughout the world in a way never before felt in the history of mankind. Information technology will reshape every organization that survives through the 90s, every job within those organizations, and every individual that holds those jobs. However, businesses will not be able to incorporate technology advances if they do not find a way to make workers comfortable with computers. Additionally, workers will not have the requisite skills and abilities to succeed and advance if they are not able to work with computers. PEOPLE AND THEIR CRUCIAL CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORGANIZATION -

Thomas Stewart, "Boom Time on the New Frontier," Fortune Special Issue, Making High Tech Work for You, Autumn 1993, p. 153.

"American management, in general, has not done a very good job of understanding how you link the people and the computer into a functional process. In the past, projects became automated disasters because management became enamored with the technology and computer side of the program. They completely forgot about the people side and neglected to incorporate people into the development process."2 American management has been predominantly insensitive to the needs and desires of its employees when implementing computer technologies. Almost every white-collar job in America requires some level of familiarity with computers. Additionally, it is estimated that 75% of industrial workers also need at least elementary computer skills. Before the computer can be successfully integrated into an organization's structure, management must both understand the benefits of the system for the organization and understand the impact of computers on people and organizations. The next section will examine the positive and negative effects on the individual in the workplace, then extend this examination to the organization. COMPUTERS IMPACT ON PEOPLE The computer is one of the most powerful forces in society today. It is being put to use in organizations of all types and sizes. No one can doubt that this usage is having a strong impact on many people, organizations, and organization structures. But the computer is the driving force behind an information revolution, and as in any revolution, some innocent people may be harmed. In this section we will examine the positive and negative effects that the computer may have on people. THE POSITIVE IMPACT Many people challenging careers in computer positions as information systems managers, systems designers, programmers, operators, and data processors. But people in all jobs benefit in many ways from computers. People benefit on the job even though they are not directly employed as computer specialists. They benefit as consumers of the goods and services provided by computer-using organizations. People benefit away from the job by using personal computers for work and play. Employment benefits Each day computers help millions of people do their jobs more effectively. For example, they can help managers decide on what action is most effective for the organization, computers assist in planning of future activities, and also assist in follow-up and control of activities in process. By using facts supplied by computers that are timely, relevant, and accurate, a manager can do a better job of identifying problems, opportunities, and solutions. The facts retrieved by this type of software can then be manipulated by spreadsheet programs to assist the manager in planing alternative plans of action. Managers may not need to spend as much time controlling operations when a computer can respond with computed reports of performance variables compared to anticipated results. The time saved in the control function may allow managers additional time to give more attention to employee concerns, and this, in turn, may result in improved morale. But employment benefits are not restricted to management. Health-care providers, researchers, and other scientists now use computers to conduct research into complex problems that could not otherwise be studied. Lawyers use online legal data banks to locate precedent cases in order to serve clients better. Sales people can receive more timely information about products in stock, can promise customers that their sales orders will be handled promptly, and can thus improve their performance because of computer systems. And the job duties of some office and factory worker have changed from routine, repetitive operations to more varied and appealing tasks through computer usage. Benefits received from computer-using organizations People also benefit as the consumers of the goods and services provided by computer-using organizations for several reasons: Greater efficiency. Because businesses have avoided waste and have improved efficiency through the use of computers, the prices we pay for goods and services are less than they would have been without computers. Computers can significantly improve productivity, the amount of goods or services that people and machines can produce from a given amount of input. And such productivity gains usually lead to higher levels of real income for more people. Higher quality products. Computers may also help improve the quality of the products and services we receive. The following examples show how computers are already improving the quality of the products produced by organizations today:
2

John H. Sheridan, "The CIM Evolution," Industry Week, April 20, 1992, pp. 29-51.

Microcomputers installed in cars not provide a more efficient means of controlling an engines fuel mixture. Computer-aided design (CAD) is a term that refers to the integration of computers and graphicsoriented software for the purpose of automating the design and drafting process. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) refers to the process of integrating all functional areas of a manufacturing facility through the use of computers. Better service. Consumers not receive faster, more accurate service from government agencies, businesses, and health care agencies through the use of computers. Recreational and educational benefits. Some businesses are using computers solely to amuse and entertain us. Computer animation firms have programs that give the illusion of movement to inanimate objects. Schools are using computers as educational aids. Multi-media systems are available to teach children how to read and write by showing an object, spelling its name, and speaking the word to provide the child visual, written and audio stimuli. Better information retrieval. The advantage computers have over the human brain are speed, accuracy, and storage capacity. Computers allow information to be retrieved and stored at speeds inconceivable for the unassisted individual. THE POTENTIAL DANGERS OF COMPUTER USAGE Regardless of the many advantages and benefits obtained as the result of using computers, this use also has its share of potential problems and dangers. Employment Problems The greatest hazard caused by computer use to the individual in the workplace is that of displacement. Displacement is a type of unemployment that results when technological change eliminates jobs. If displaced workers can't find similar jobs elsewhere or are not retrained enabling them to perform jobs created by technological implementation, then there is an increase in unemployment. Many examples of displacement occurred during the 1980s. As managers learned that computers could be used to make decisions which were routine, structured, and repetitive, fewer lower level managers were needed to perform the remaining job functions. Thus, middlemanagement ranks were reduced in many businesses. The speed and accuracy of computers eliminated the need for many clerical employees, and a significant displacement problem was accompanied by the increased use of computer-controlled robots in production operations. The automobile industry is a leading user of robots, which for years have performed such routine production tasks as stamping, welding, and spray panting. Robots perform these tasks without complaints, breaks, or time off. Because robots are unaffected by adverse conditions, they have often been used to perform the dreary and dirty tasks that lead to worker discontent. But automobile production techniques are rapidly changing as a result of technological advancements, and auto builders are replacing old machines with a new family of robots. According to the Society of Manufacturing Engineers, twenty percent of the direct labor formerly needed in automobile final assembly has already been replaced by programmable robots. An additional thirty percent might be displaced by 1995. Half of the direct labor formerly needed to assemble small components such as starters and alternators has already been eliminated. During his tenure as Chairman of General Motors, Roger Smith had an admirable vision for the company: "I want General Motors to be number one and not just in sales. I want us to be number one in quality. I want us to be number one in employee relations. I want us to be number one in profitability. And I want us to be a diversified, growing corporation implementing new products like robotics and new products like electronics."3 Implementing robotics became one of the highest priorities at G.M. under Smith. Without consideration for the effect these decisions had on the individual, he initiated corporate-wide robotics and cost-cutting moves that contributed to layoffs for 27,000 white-collar workers and 172,000 blue-collar workers.

Arthur A. Thompson and A. J. Strickland, Strategic Management, Concepts and Cases, (Boston, Irwin Publishing, 1992), p. 629.

Even where workers are not displaced, management must understand what enables workers at any skill level to be able to master their computers. Companies that have successfully transformed their work forces with technology have distilled a set of principles that apply equally to workers on an assembly line or in the front office.4 These principles include the following: THINK OF HOW TO EMPOWER YOUR WORKERS, INSTEAD OF DUMPING TECHNOLOGY ON THEM- The most advanced enterprises have realized that they have got to deal with the people side at the same time they deal with the technology. LISTEN TO YOUR EMPLOYEES WHEN DESIGNING A SYSTEM (BOTTOM UP) -Managers of highly automated operations are unanimous, if you don't involve the users, you will develop the wrong system. Nobody understands the job like the people who do it. They can tell you how to design the tools that will let them work more efficiently. They will trust new technology more if they had a say in it and knew it was coming. The company wins more commitment from its workers when they feel their contributions were valuable in the design of the system. UNDERSTAND AND COMMUNICATE YOUR BUSINESS OBJECTIVES- Employees will accept and learn new technologies if they understand their importance. Fancy computers seldom make much difference in productivity if workers do not understand how the technology helps achieve business goals. It is important to see new technology as only part of a total vision of a changed organizations. Therefore, management must look at the information employees need, the materials they need, the incentives they need, and all other aspects of the business, not just automating. TEACH YOUR EMPLOYEES BY HELPING THEM IMPROVE THEIR PERFORMANCE- The most important aspect of incorporating new technology is learning to do the job better, not learning how to operate the computer. Traditional classroom instruction is seldom the best way to go. The most useful training comes only when workers need it. Three common approaches are: 1Mentors, other employees in the organization who know a little more than most, who can help others when questions arise. 2On-line help programs within the software. 3Simultaneous interactive video training for workers. Don't ignore the generation gap - people who grew up in the Nintendo generation have an advantage over their elders. These younger workers adapt more readily to technological incorporation into the workplace. Conversely, big-time computer klutzes may slip in the pecking order if they can't handle the new technology deftly. Some companies introduce workers to computers by using computer games to make them comfortable interacting with a screen. The most important part of successful technological integration is top management commitment and participation. It is estimated that technological illiteracy at the top plagues 90% of American companies. Yet there is no better way to get middle management and supervisors to use computerized tools than to let them see the boss using it first. The first worker who has to be brought up to techno-speed is the person on top. The Impact of Computers on Organizations When examining the impact of computer technology on organizations one must first understand the basic functional purpose of computers. Computers process information. Whether a computer is calculating a spreadsheet, forecasting future production, or controlling a robotic welding machine, it is processing information.

David Kirkpatrick, "Making It All Worker-Friendly," Fortune Special Issue, 1994 Information Technology Guide, Autumn 1993, pp. 44-48.

Business in the second half of the twentieth century is characterized by ever increasing amounts of information to be processed into ever more complex decisions. Estimates for the size of the information sector in advanced economies run from twenty-five to forty percent of the total economy. Because of the magnitude of these estimates, many economists consider modern capitalist economies as evolving toward information-processing economies.5 "The greater the task uncertainty, the greater the amount of information that must be processed among decision makers during task execution in order to achieve a given level of performance."6 Uncertainty is defined as "the condition under which managers are unable to predict outcomes of activities accurately every time - limits the ability of managers to preplan and to make decisions."7 When dealing with uncertainty from the aspect of computer technology and information processing, there are two basic strategies. From these two strategies, four organizational design structure strategies result:8 Reduce the Need for Computer Technology This strategy is based on the assumption that information requirements can vary with different organizational structures. Thus, the information requirements can be reduced by pursuing one of the two following courses:

Michael Perelman, Information, social Relations and the Economics of High Technology, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991) p. 186.
6

Jay Galbraith, Organizational Design: An Information Processing View (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley),

1973.
7

James A. Senn, Information Systems in Management (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing), 1990, p. 123. James A. Senn, Information Systems in Management (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing), 1990, p. 123.

Reduce Expected Performance Level - Reducing performance expectations reduces the number of variables that management must deal with. Since variable management requires information, a reduction in variables reduces information requirements, thereby reducing dependence on technologies. This strategy is selfdefeating. If the organization attempts to deal with technology by withdrawing into a shell it will soon become uncompetitive and lose market share. As a result of competition and its shrinking market share, the organization will enter the design stage of the organizational lifecycle, and eventually cease to exist.9 Establish Self-Contained Tasked - Self contained work groups can perform their complete task without dependence on the activities and performance of other groups and departments. They rely completely on internal resources. Information processing, and the resultant dependance on computer technology, is reduced because the group has fewer interdepartmental inputs. While this strategy is more effective than the one above, the focus here is still the reduction of information requirements. By developing organizational structure around this strategy, growth of the organization is restricted and the firms competitive ability is limited. This will eventually lead the organization into the same decline stage of the lifecycle. Increase Information Processing Capacity In contrast to the previous strategy, organizations may decide to improve their ability to process information. The methods of accomplishing this are by developing a vertical information systems structure or a later relations structure. Use of Vertical Information Systems - Improved vertical information systems are designed to increase the flow of information up and down the management structure. This gives management information needed to make decisions sooner and provides for these decisions to be more accurate and responsive to the organization's needs. The vertical information system improves information processing ability by adding additional staff members, improving the information processing (computer) systems, improving databases, and training personnel in the use of the system to increase their proficiency. Information collecting ability is improved by developing improved procedures to gather information at its source and by developing procedures to ensure proper dissemination of this information. Information processing ability is thereby improved by combining a redeveloped organization structure, improved technology, and retrained employees.

Stephen P. Robbins, Organization Theory - Structure, Design, and Applications (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990) p.21.

Create a System of Lateral Relations - The alternative to improving the flow of information to decision makers is to move the decision-making authority and responsibility down the levels of the management hierarchy to the point where the information is available. "in the ideal organization, information should be available to those who will use it. Particularly if you are looking for increased flexibility or shortened response time, you will be asking people at lower levels to make more decisions than they previously had been expected to make. They must have access to the information that they need - drawings, part numbers, material specifications, and so forth, but, especially, the overall vision of the organization's mission. The key to moving decision-making nearer to the point of action is to be sure that the decision makers are well informed."10 Lateral relations decision making is decentralized, but unlike the SelfContained Tasks Structure, the group is not self-sufficient and still depends on interactions with other departments and groups. Lateral relations occur both formally and informally, in a multitude of forms including:11 1. Direct contact between members of different groups. 2. Liaison staffers whose responsibility is to maintain contact between groups. 3. Task forces consisting of members of several groups who work. together temporarily to deal with common problems or decisions. 4. Teams of individuals permanently assigned to work together. 5. Personnel who provide leadership of lateral processes. 6. Matrix organizations for dual authority. 7. Increasing computer communication and lateral databases which are shared across department boundaries increases the need for lateral relations. Lateral relations structures have two major advantages: 1. Reducing response time by eliminating the need for information to travel up and down a hierarchy, 2. Reducing the fear in middle of being displaced by computers by making them more participative in the decision making process of the organization. Although any of these structures or a combination of them can be used , it should be remembered that the main objective of information processing is to reduce uncertainty while maintaining or improving the state of the organization. The system or combination selected should maximize responsiveness within the organization and also maximize the individual employee's acceptance of the system implemented. The Positive Impact of Computers on Using Organizations There are a multitude of organizational applications for computers including government, law, health care, education, science, engineering, business and manufacturing. Computers can help government agencies with their planning, control, and law enforcement agencies. Computer planning models help city managers and planners gain insights into cause and effect relationships like effluent discharge and water pollution levels. These calculations can provide guidance for budgeting, zoning, etc. Computer simulations assist in evaluating traffic patterns, evaluating transportation routes, and planning the future infrastructure based on projected growth. Perhaps the best example of the benefits of computers is their use in manufacturing. Computers in Manufacturing One of the most controversial areas of computer usage has been the implementation of computers and automated systems into manufacturing. The installation of advanced computer technology systems, both information processing and robotics, in a manufacturing environment can provide significant benefits. It also presents significant problems for the organization and its employees.

Emily E. Schultheiss, Optimizing the Organization, How to Link People and Technology (Cambridge, Ballinger Publishing, 1988) p.170.
11

10

James A. Senn, Information Systems in Management (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing), 1990, p.

125.

The benefits most often cited by business executives are reduced manufacturing costs, improved flexibility on the shop floor, responsiveness to the market, improved product quality, improved product design, small lot manufacturing, reduced inventories, and optimal customer service.12 While these benefits are sometimes hard to quantify, they can reduce operating costs, improve customer relations, and stimulate sales. The key to evaluating these benefits is to understand that a computer integrated structure allows for fewer levels of management and therefore provides for better use of the business's assets, both human and mechanical. The result for the company is a simplified information flow, improved decision making and significantly improved profitability. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is one of several contemporary manufacturing concepts that comprise modern manufacturing technologies. As with other modern manufacturing tools (Decision Support Systems, just in time, total quality assurance), CIM's capabilities are based on the power of modern technologies. But it is greater than just a new technology, it is an organizational strategy upon which organizational structure is based. "The word integrated is the most important of the entire lexicon of CIM. It means coming together, the antithesis of standing alone. It is the cornerstone of the CIM philosophy. It implies that all functions, activities, decisions, and questions be acted on not solely for the immediate task at hand but for what it means for the entire entity."13 The modern view of integrated manufacturing includes all of the necessary activities for transformation of raw materials and labor (human or mechanical) into the finished product, delivery of these products to the end users, and supporting the product's performance in the field. Conceptually, this begins in development, which can be part of the marketing function. It includes customer survey, product design, and specification activities. These design and specification activities are usually the responsibility of the engineering function. The traditional manufacturing concept, the actual production of the product is at the core of the modern view. Finally, delivery and after-sales activities (customer support, warranty repair) that are usually part of the sales function. This definition of manufacturing is much more encompassing than the traditional responsibilities associated with the manufacturing component of a corporation.14 Computer integrated manufacturing, by joining all the functional areas in the business, can provide a variety of automated services in the factory. For businesses to remain competitive, advanced manufacturing technologies must characterize the factory of the future. In this regard, computer integrated manufacturing has many applications: Order management. CIM allows for faster delivery and responsiveness to customers and to customer orders through electronic data interchange. In essence, customers will electronically secure and lock in supplier capacity for the product. Additionally, a business will be able to respond to inquiries from its customers instantaneously through electronic data interchange. Being able to respond to customers with rapid information will result in extra business, retaining customers, and getting closer to the customer. Computer-aided design (CAD). Through CAD, CIM allows the computer to assist in minute details and specifications of a customer order or to simulate variations of the order. Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). This allows the production schedule to be simulated and integrated using one information base to direct the operations on the plant floor to balance supply and demand. Computer technology. CIM allows different hardware to be integrated to communicate with one another (open system). It provides a database foundation for both artificial intelligence and expert systems. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). CAM allows for factory machinery to be programmed through numeral controls (NC) tape preparation and computer numerical control (CNC). Robotics. Robotics allow for the minimization of human activity in the areas of pick/pack, excessive lifting, transportation, and repetitive manufacturing operations. Automated guided vehicle systems (AGV's). AGV's allow for driverless forklifts and automated storage and retrieval systems. As technology becomes more imbedded in future manufacturing disciplines, the role of
12

John H. Sheridan, "The CIM Evolution," Industry Week, (April 20, 1992) pp. 29-51. Daniel T. Koenig, Computer Integrated Manufacturing, New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,

13

1990. Malcom Warner, Werner Wobbe, And Peter Brodner, New Technology and Manufacturing Management (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1990), pp. 125-144.
14

computerized material-bundling equipment will become more vital. Group technology. Allows for the coding and classification system to group various families of parts or activities, and to aid in both inventory use and part standardization. Vendor scheduling. CIM provides for improved scheduling of customer orders to improve delivery and internal processing. In the future, orders will be booked directly via electronic data interchange into a vendors upcoming production schedule. Although this is just a partial list of the uses for computer integrated manufacturing in the factory, it shows that CIM is much more than a means of computers controlling machines. An integrated system provides the basis for an organizational structure. It is a structure focused on rapid information flow, high quality, responsive customer service, and controlled costs. However, for all the many advantages of computers and integrated systems, there also exist disadvantages which managers must be prepared to overcome. The Potential Problems For Computer Using Organizations There are numerous potential problems for organizations that are caused or complicated by computer technology. Four of these problems are common to many different types of organizations and therefore the most problematic. They are organizational stress, organizational rights versus individual privacy, the changing nature of workers, and resistance to change. Organizational Stress Perhaps the greatest danger for the organization that results from computer use is the danger of organizational stress. Organizations group people, information, raw materials, and equipment resources into logical and efficient units to carry out plans and achieve goals. In manufacturing firms, for example, people may be grouped by type of work performed (production, marketing), by geographic area (eastern district, southern district), and by product line produced or sold. As new computer systems are designed and implemented decision-making powers and data processing activities may move from one group to another, and computing resources and stored data may be centralized or distributed. When such changes occur, organizational stress is likely to appear. Work groups may be created, disbanded, or realigned. Existing departments bay be added to or eliminated. The people affected by such changes react in different ways. At one extreme, they may temporarily feel threatened, but after a brief adjustment period they resume their previous behavior. At the other extreme, they may resort to open opposition and even sabotage of the system. Between these extremes, a number of other stress symptoms appear, including withholding facts, providing inaccurate data, and displaying an indifferent attitude. Resisting employees and managers are able to sidetrack or even destroy systems installation efforts. Organizational Rights Versus Individual Privacy The introduction of computer technology into the workplace has led to other problems in addition to organizational stress. The technologically related phenomenon of electronic performance monitoring, and electronic mail interception are examples of privacy invasions related to computers.15 The privacy issue in organizations is a duel-edged sword which raises numerous questions regarding individual versus organizational rights: Does an organization has a right to access any part of a system it owns or to data and information developed on its time and on that system? Does the organization have the right to electronically monitor its workplace for productivity of its employees? Does the organization have the right to monitor its computer systems to ensure they are not being used for personal business? Is electronic mail received on an organization's computer entitled to the same privacy it would get if sent through the Post Office? Since privacy is not a specific constitutional right, and since a balance has to be struck between the personal need for privacy and the organization's need for legitimate information, the extent to which individuals are given privacy protection in the workplace must depend on judicial and legislative decisions yet to come. Undoubted, as the capabilities of technological privacy invasion grow and the issue expands in organizational settings, these
15

"Addressing New Hazards of the High Technology Workplace," Harvard Law Review, June 1991, pp. 1898-1916.

questions will be addressed by the courts and Congress. The Changing Nature of Workers In the past the dominant requirements of business included capital, raw materials, and an abundant supply of unskilled or semiskilled labor. With the advent of a high-technology based economy these changing. For business to be successful today, a highly skilled, computer literate work force is a necessity. "To build the requisite well-trained work force, employers will be compelled to do several things: They will have to be more inclusive in recruiting workers, actively seeking to bring in and train marginal candidates rather than screening them out as they have in the past. They will have to invest heavily in expanded, continuous educational and training programs for all employees. They must find ways to make employees more productive, especially by tapping their ability to contribute to improvements in the work process. Companies must replace adversarial labor relations with an approach that focuses on cooperation. By the year 2,000, experts say, 60% of all new jobs will require a high school education. Unfortunately, 70% of labor force entrants will have less than a high school education."16 Employers are going to be forced to spend an ever increasing percentage of their revenues on employee training, both remedial and job related. The work force will not have the required skills to function in the technological workplace. The burden will fall on the employer to provide these skills. With an ever increasing investment in the employee, employee retention becomes an even more important issue than it is today. Resistance to Change Although resistance to change is a problem that spans many aspects of organizations, it is of particular concern in the introduction of computer technologies because of the fears of middle management and direct labor that they will be displaced by this technology. "The cultural norms in most organizations are centered on stability. These norms are largely perpetuated by middle management and possibly the unions. Both tend to see their knowledge of, and stake in, the present system as a key to their survival and continued crucial role. Major organizational changes, such as may take place with the introduction of new technology, are therefore resisted by these groups, from early conception through final production. This resistance can be highly effective."17 As stated previously, involving middle managers and direct labor in the decision-making processes regarding the implementation of computer technologies can reduce their resistance. However, some resistance will inevitably remain in all organizations and this resistance must be dealt with by management. CONCLUSION Computer use in organizations will result in numerous benefits for these organizations and the individuals who comprise them. The computer-assisted manufacturing concepts discussed herein can lead to productivity gains that will result in a higher standard of living, a shorter workweek, and increased leisure time. Technology is changing the definition of the workplace. Telecommunications technology is allowing the worker to be far removed from the office setting and still accomplish the task assigned. Telecommunications allows working parents to stay home with sick children and not miss work. It allows an executive to remain in contact with the daily activities of the business while on a vacation or business trip. It even allows other workers to remove themselves from the office setting and perform their jobs entirely from their homes. However, telecommunications has drawbacks. It makes it more difficult for managers to supervise employees when they are not on site. It makes evaluation and training difficult. Finally, it removes the employee from contact with their coworkers, reducing teamwork and the employees sense of belonging.18 "New technologies increasingly are being introduced into the workplace to accommodate people with disabilities allowing those with physical challenges for the first time to become more productive and versatile

16

Dan Cordtz, "The Changing Nature of Work," Financial World, June 23, 1992, p. 66.

Toby D. Wall, Chris W. Clegg, and Nigel J. Kemp, The Human Side of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1987) pp. 21-22.
18

17

Daniel Janal, "Workplace: You Can Go Home Again," Compute!, October 1991, p.76.

members in an office environment."19 These technological innovations will give handicapped workers greater equality and access in the workplace than ever before. There is no way technological evolution can be stopped. Computers will continue to change the business, government, and social organizations of society. The organizations that will be successful in face of increased competition and consumer demand will be those that utilize this tool to its maximum potential by remaining flexible, responsive to its customers, and progressive with its employees.

19

"Technology Gives Workers Greater Freedom in the Office," HR Focus, July 1992, pp. 12-13.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Addressing New Hazards of the High Technology Workplace, Harvard Law Review, June 1991, pp. 1898-1916. Technology Gives Workers Greater Freedom in the Office, HR Focus, July 1992, pp. 12-13. Cordtz, Dan. The Changing Nature of Work, Financial World, June 23, 1992, p. 66. Galbraith, Jay. Organizational Design: An Information Processing View, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1973. Janal, Daniel. Workplace: You Can Go Home Again, Compute!, October 1991, p. 76. Kirkpatrick, David. "Making It All Worker-Friendly," Fortune Special Issue, 1994 Information Technology Guide, Autumn 1993, pp. 44-48. Koenig, Daniel T. Computer Integrated Manufacturing, New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1990. Perelman, Michael. Information, social Relations and the Economics of High Technology, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991) p. 186. Robbins, Stephen P., Organization Theory - Structure, Design, and Applications (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990). Schultheiss, Emily E. Optimizing the Organization, How to Link People and Technology (Cambridge, Ballinger Publishing, 1988). Senn, James A. Information Systems in Management (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1990). Sheridan, John H., "The CIM Evolution," Industry Week, (April 20, 1992) pp. 29-51. Stewart, Thomas. "Boom Time on the New Frontier," Fortune Special Issue, Making High Tech Work for You, Autumn 1993, p. 153. Stewart, Thomas, "Boom Time on the New Frontier," Fortune Special Issue, Making High Tech Work for You, Autumn 1993, p. 153. Thompson, Arthur A. and Strickland, A. J., Strategic Management, Concepts and Cases, (Boston, Irwin Publishing, 1992). Wall, Toby D.; Clegg, Chris W.; and Kemp, Nigel J., The Human side of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1987). Warner, Malcom; Wobbe, Werner; and Brodner, Peter, New Technology and Manufacturing Management (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1990).