The CEND Statement: MD Nastran Quick Reference Guide

CHAPTER 4 45 Specifying the Type of Analysis
The CEND Statement

The CEND statement is a recommended statement that designates the end of the Executive Control Section (and the beginning of the Case Control Section). Its format is simply
CEND
A variety of other Executive Control Statements are available, most notably the DIAG statement which offers the user a variety of useful diagnostic information. Discussion of these statements is beyond the scope of this book, but more information can be found in the Executive Control Statements (p. 95) in the MD Nastran Quick Reference Guide. Example Write an Executive Control Section for the linear static analysis of a simple model (a few elements). ID SIMPLE,MODEL SOL 101 CEND
Main Index
Aerodynamics for Professional Pilots lower surface of a wing is such an important factor in aerodynamics that it is given a name. It is called wing loading (WL.) Wing loading is one of the most important parameters in an aeroplanes design. It directly determines the stall and cruise speeds of aeroplanes. Table 2 shows some typical wing loadings of well-known aeroplanes. Aeroplane type C-172 Beech Baron KingAir Lear Jet A320 B747 Concorde Table 2 Wing loading (WL) lb/ft2 14 31 41 79 123 146 105
Wing loading can be calculated by dividing weight (W) by wing area (S.) We say:
WL = W/S
The sample aeroplane from Figure 27 had a wing loading of 15, calculated as 3000/200. This is a low wing loading, typical of low-speed training aeroplanes. Faster aeroplanes such as jets have higher wing loadings, as shown in table 2. If an aeroplane has a wing loading of 20 lb/ft2 then it can be made to fly by decreasing Ps above the wing by 20 lb/ft2. For a B747 with a wing loading of 146 lb/ft2 Ps above the wing must be reduced by 146 lb/ft2 to keep it airborne, etc. The following two tables give wing loadings of several aeroplanes and the consequent percent change in static pressure needed to sustain flight. Aeroplane type C-172 Beech Baron KingAir Lear Jet A320 B747 Concorde Aeroplane type C-172 Beech Baron KingAir Wing loading (WL) lb/ft2 14 31 41 79 123 146 105 Wing loading (WL) lb/ft2 14 31 41 Static Atmospheric Pressure at sea level 2116.2 lb/ft2 Static Atmospheric Pressure at 40,000 393.1 lb/ft2 Percent change in Ps needed to fly .7% 1.47% 1.94% 3.73% 5.8% 6.9% 4.96% Percent change in Ps needed to fly 3.6% 7.9% 10.4%
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Aerodynamics for Professional Pilots
Recall the W/S is called wing loading (WL) so the equation can also be written:
The above equation will give the un-accelerated true stall speed, in knots, of any aeroplane. To get the calibrated stall speed set = 0.002377 (see table 1.) Notice that four factors establish the stall speed of every aeroplane. The first two factors combine as wing loading (WL = W/S): 1. Weight (W) 2. Wing Area (S) 3. CLmax 4. Air density ( ) Notice that Vs is proportional to the square root of the factors. Consequently a change in aeroplane design such as doubling the wing loading will affect stall speed by the square root of 2 (1.41.) Wing loading is the dominant design parameter that determines stall speed. Aeroplanes with higher wing loading always have high stall speeds (refer back to table 2.) Cutting wing loading in half reduces stall speed to about 70% (1/1.41) of the previous value. If the Pilot Operating Handbook for a particular aeroplane does not divulge the stall speed at weights other than maximum they can be calculated using the equation: Vs = Vspublished x W / Wpublished
CLmax is the other design parameter that determines stall speed. The value of CLmax, as we have seen, depends on camber and the use of high lift devices such as slats and flaps. Aircraft designers must balance the cost and weight of such devices against the desire to have a low stall speed. Typical CLmax values for a wing with no flaps is1.4, with a simple flap it might be 1.6 and with expensive slats and a complex flap system it might reach 2.0. For small aeroplanes low wing loading is the most practical way to obtain a low stall speed. Remember that air density decreases with altitude, so pilots must realize that true stall speed increases with altitude. Equivalent stall speed (EAS) does not change with altitude. Ignoring compression error the calibrated (CAS) and indicated (IAS) stall speed can also
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CHAPTER 4 45 Specifying the Type of Analysis

The CEND Statement

Aerodynamics for Professional Pilots

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