Separated Viscous Flows &

Vortex Induced Vibrations

2.016
Fall 2005
Prof. A.H. Techet
 Viscous Drag

Skin Friction
Drag: Cf
laminar turbulent

Form Drag: CD
due to pressure
(turbulence,
separation)

Streamlined bodies reduce separation, thus reduce form drag.

Bluff bodies have strong separation thus high form drag.
 Boundary layer development
Flow over a flat surface causes a velocity gradient near the
boundary due to the NO-SLIP condition.

NO SLIP CONDITION: requires that the velocity of the fluid at the wall matches
the velocity of the wall, such that it does not “slip” along the boundary.

Since the velocity away from the wall is much faster a velocity gradient results in
the boundary layer region since fluid is a continuous medium. In this region
viscosity plays a strong role.
∂u
Wall shear stress: τw = µ
∂y y =0
 Friction Drag
The transfer of momentum between the fluid particles slows the flow down
causing drag on the plate. This drag is referred to as friction drag.

units

Cf = 1
F [ MLT ] −2

Friction Drag Coefficient:

2 ρU 2
Aw [ MLT ] −2
 Boundary Layer

δ = boundary layer thickness

δ99 = BL Thickness where u(y) = 0.99Uo
 Boundary Layer Growth

As a boundary layer on a plate grows its thickness increases

with distance, x. The Reynolds number of a boundary layer is
defined as
Rex = Ux/ν
 Boundary layer growth

Boundary layers develop along the walls in Boundary layers develop along the aerofoil
pipe flow. A cross sectional view shows the shown above. The velocity profile changes
layer at the top and the bottom creating a shape over the curved leading edge. Towards
symmetrical profile. The flow in the middle is the trailing edge the flow tends to separate as
fastest since it has not been slowed by the a result of an adverse pressure gradient.
momentum transfer in the boundary layers.

(pictures courtesy of Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, University of Iowa)

Turbulent Boundary Layers

This picture is a side view of the large eddies in a turbulent

boundary layer. Laser-induced fluorescence is again used to
capture the quasi-periodic coherent structures. Flow is from
left to right.

Contributor: Prof. M. Gad-el-Hak, University of Notre Dame

 Turbulent Wall Boundary Layer
(Top View)

This picture is a top view of the near-wall region of a turbulent boundary layer
showing the ubiquitous low-speed streaks. Flow is from left to right and laser-
induced fluorescence is used to visualize the streaks.

Contributor: Prof. M. Gad-el-Hak, University of Notre Dame

 Turbulent vs. Laminar
Boundary Layers:
It can be seen from these
plots that the two
boundary layers have
quite different shapes.

Wall shear stress:

∂u
τw = µ
Turbulent
∂y y =0
Laminar
The slope of the velocity
Linear profile very near wall profile near the wall is less
for a laminar boundary layer
implying a decreased wall
turbulent shear stress.
Flat Plate Friction Coefficient
 Viscous Flow around Bluff
Bodies (like cylinders) tends to
separate and form drag
dominates over friction drag.
 Potential Flow Æ No Drag
Streamlines around the body are symmetric fore/aft (and top/bottom) thus there
is no pressure differential that could result in a force on the body.

U(θ) = 2U∞ sinθ

P(θ) = 1/2 ρ U(θ)2 = P∞ + 1/2 ρ U∞2
Cp = {P(θ) - P ∞}/{1/2 ρ U∞2}= 1 - 4sin2θ
Pressure around a
cylinder in viscous
flow:
(a)Laminar
(b)Turbulent

From F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed.

McGraw Hill 2005. p. 480
 Viscous Flow Æ Form Drag
• Similar to the potential flow about a cylinder, in viscous flow there is a
stagnation point at the leading edge where the pressure is high.
• From there the flow travels along the boundary and a boundary layer forms
on leading edge of bluff body.
• As the flow moves around the body it is accelerated along the body and a
FAVORABLE PRESSURE GRADIENT develops.
• Towards the separation point an ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT
develops.
• At the point of separation the wall shear stress is zero.
• Past the separation point the boundary layer profile shows reverse flow near
the body indicating separation.
• The pressure in the near wake (or separation region) is lower than the
stagnation pressure at the leading edge resulting in drag on the body.
• This drag is sometimes called

Form Drag or Separation Drag or Pressure Drag

Pressure Gradient Effects on
Separation

From F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed.

McGraw Hill 2005.
Flow Separating from a Cylinder
Separation
point

Stagnation pressure
 Average Viscous Forces
• Drag Force on the
body due to viscous
effects:
1
FD = ρ CD AU 2

2
• Where CD is found • CD is Reynolds
empirically through number dependent
experimentation and is quite different
• A is profile (frontal) in laminar vs.
area turbulent flows
 Trade-off
between
Friction and
Pressure drag

c = Body length inline

with flow
t = Body thickness

From F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed.

McGraw Hill 2005. p. 479, 481.
Drag Coefficient: Cylinder
Drag Coefficient: Sphere
Spheres with roughness

Drag Coefficient, CD
Reynolds number, Ud/ν
 Drag Coefficients

For 2D bodies: use CD to calculate

force per unit length.

Use a “strip theory” type approach

to determine total drag, assuming
that the flow is uniform along the
span of the body.

From F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed.

McGraw Hill 2005. p.483
 CD Æ

From F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed.

McGraw Hill 2005. p.485
 Vortex Shedding
• When the flow separates vortices are shed
in the wake.
• Vortices are small “eddies” that result in a
force on the body.
• Recall vorticity is defined as the curl of the
velocity field:
JK JK
ω = ∇×V
Classical Vortex Shedding

l
h

Von Karman Vortex Street

Alternately shed opposite signed vortices

Vortex shedding results from a wake
instability
 Reynolds Number Rd =
Ud inertial effects
≈
Dependence v viscous effects
Rd < 5
5-15 < Rd < 40

40 < Rd < 150

150 < Rd < 300

Transition to turbulence
300 < Rd < 3*105

3*105 < Rd < 3.5*106

3.5*106 < Rd

From Blevins
Vortex shedding dictated by
the Strouhal number

St=fsd/U
fs is the shedding frequency, d is diameter and U inflow speed
Strouhal Number vs. Reynolds
Number

St = 0.2
 Vortex Induced Vibrations
• Vortices shed from bluff bodies are typically
shed alternately from top and bottom.
• Each time a vortex is shed there is a resultant
force on the body.
• Asymmetrical vortex shedding results in an
oscillating force acting on the body transverse
(and inline) to the flow.
• This forcing often results in vibrations on long
risers and cables.
• These vibrations are called vortex induced
vibrations (VIV)
Why is VIV important in
Ocean Engineering?
VIV in the Ocean
• Non-uniform currents
effect the spanwise
vortex shedding on a
cable or riser.
• The frequency of
shedding can be different
along length.
• Understanding the forces
on long risers/cables is
very challenging despite
the simple geometry.
Spar Platforms
 Offshore Platforms

Semi Submersible
Fixed Rigs Tension Leg Platforms
Genesis Spar Platform
 VIV Catastrophe

If neglected in design, vortex induced vibrations can prove catastrophic to

structures, as they did in the case of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.
 John Hancock Building “I n another city, the John Hancock tower wouldn't be anything special -- just another
reflective glass box in the crowd. But because of the way Boston and the rest of New
England has grown up architecturally, this "70's modern" building stands out from the
rest. Instead of being colonial, it breaks new ground. Instead of being quaint, it soars
and imposes itself on the skyline. And Instead of being white like so many buildings in
the region, this one defies the local conventional wisdom and goes for black. For these
reasons and more the people of Boston have fallen in love with the 790-foot monster
looming as the tallest building in New England at the time of its completion. In the
mid-1990's, The Boston Globe polled local architects who rated it the city's third best
architectural structure. Much like Boston's well-loved baseball team, the building has
had a rough past, but still perseveres, coming back stronger to win the hearts of its
fans. The trouble began early on. During construction of the foundation the sides of the
pit collapsed, nearly sucking Trinity Church into the hole. Then in late January, 1973
construction was still underway when a winter storm rolled into town and a 500-pound
window leapt from the tower and smashed itself to bits on the ground below. Another
followed. Then another. Within a few weeks, more than 65 of the building's 10,344
panes of glass committed suicide, their crystalline essence piling up in a roped-off area
surrounding the building. The people of Bean Town have always been willing to kick a
brother when he's down, and started calling the tower the Plywood Palace because of
the black-painted pieces of wood covering more than an acre of its façade. Some
people thought the building was swaying too much in the wind, and causing the
windows to pop out. Some thought the foundation had shifted and it was putting stress
of the structural geometry. It turns out the culprit was nothing more than the lead
solder running along the window frame. It was too stiff to deal with the kind of
vibrations that happen every day in thousands of office buildings around the world. So
when John Hancock Tower swayed with the wind, or sighed with the temperature, the
windows didn't and eventually cracked and plummeted to Earth. It cost $7,000,000.00
to replace all of those panes of glass. The good news is, you can own a genuine piece
of the skyscraper. According to the Globe, the undamaged sheets were sold off for use
as tabletops, so start combing those garage sales. For any other skyscraper, the
hardship would end there. But the Hancock building continued to suffer indignities.
The last, and most ominous, was revealed by Bruno Thurlimann, a Swiss engineer who
determined that the building's natural sway period was dangerously close to the period
of its torsion. The result was that instead of swaying back-and-forth like a in the wind
like a metronome, it bent in the middle, like a cobra. The solution was putting a pair of
300-ton tuned mass dampeners on the 58-th floor. The same engineer also determined
that while the $3,000,000.00 mass dampeners would keep the building from twisting
itself apart, the force of the wind could still knock it over. So 1,500 tons of steel braces
Reprinted from were used to stiffen the tower and the Hancock building's final architectural indignity
http://www.glasssteelandstone.com/BuildingDetail/399.php was surmounted.”
 Vortex Shedding Generates
forces on Cylinder
Uo Both Lift and Drag forces persist
on a cylinder in cross flow. Lift
FL(t) is perpendicular to the inflow
velocity and drag is parallel.
FD(t)

Due to the alternating vortex wake (“Karman street”) the

oscillations in lift force occur at the vortex shedding frequency
and oscillations in drag force occur at twice the vortex
shedding frequency.
 Vortex Induced Forces

Due to unsteady flow, forces, X(t) and Y(t), vary with time.

Force coefficients:

D(t) L(t)
Cx = Cy =
1/ ρ U2 d 1/ ρ U2 d
2 2
 Force Time Trace

DRAG
Cx
Avg. Drag ≠ 0

LIFT
Cy
Avg. Lift = 0
 Alternate Vortex shedding causes
oscillatory forces which induce
structural vibrations
Heave Motion z(t)
z (t ) = zo cos ωt
z (t ) = − zoω sin ωt
z (t ) = − zoω 2 cos ωt


LIFT = L(t) = Lo cos (ωst+ψ)

DRAG = D(t) = Do cos (2ωst+ ψ)

Rigid cylinder is now similar
ωs = 2π fs
to a spring-mass system with
a harmonic forcing term.
 “Lock-in”
A cylinder is said to be “locked in” when the frequency of
oscillation is equal to the frequency of vortex shedding. In this
region the largest amplitude oscillations occur.

Shedding ωv = 2π fv = 2π St (U/d)
frequency

Natural frequency ωn = m +k m
of oscillation a
Equation of Cylinder Heave
due to Vortex shedding
mz + bz + kz = L(t )
z(t)
L(t ) = − La 
z (t ) + Lv z (t )
m
mz(t ) + bz (t ) + kz (t ) = − La 
z (t ) + Lv z (t ) k b

(m + La ) 
z (t ) + (b − Lv ) z (t ) + kN
z (t ) = 0
 
 

Added mass term Restoring force

Damping If Lv > b system is
UNSTABLE
 Lift Force on a Cylinder
Lift force is sinusoidal component and residual force. Filtering
the recorded lift data will give the sinusoidal term which can
be subtracted from the total force.

LIFT FORCE: L(t ) = Lo cos(ωt + ψ o ) if ω < ωv

L(t ) = Lo cos ωt cosψ o − Lo sin ωt sinψ o

− Lo cosψ o Lo sinψ o
L(t ) = 
z (t ) + z (t )
zoω 2
zoω

where ωv is the frequency of vortex shedding

 Lift Force Components:
Two components of lift can be analyzed:

Lift in phase with acceleration (added mass):

Lo
M a (ω , a) = 2 cosψ o
aω
Lift in-phase with velocity:
Lo
Lv = − sinψ o
aω
Total lift:
L(t ) = − M a (ω , a ) 
z (t ) + Lv (ω , a ) z (t )

(a = zo is cylinder heave amplitude)

 Total Force:

L(t ) = − M a (ω , a) 
z (t ) + Lv (ω , a ) z (t )
=− ( π
4 ρ d 2
) Cma (ω , a) z (t )
+( 1
2 ρ dU ) CLv (ω , a ) z (t )
2

• If CLv > 0 then the fluid force amplifies the

motion instead of opposing it. This is self-
excited oscillation.
• Cma, CLv are dependent on ω and a.
Coefficient of Lift in Phase
with Velocity
Vortex Induced Vibrations are
SELF LIMITED

In air: ρair ~ small, zmax ~ 0.2 diameter

In water: ρwater ~ large, zmax ~ 1 diameter
 Amplitude Estimation
Blevins (1990)

a/ =~ 1.29/[1+0.43 S ]3.35
d G

_ _
^ 2 2m (2πζ) ; f^ = f /f ; m = m + ma *
SG=2 π fn n n s
ρ d2

b
ζ=
2 k(m+ma*)

ma* = ρ V Cma; where Cma = 1.0

 Drag Amplification
VIV tends to increase the effective drag coefficient. This increase
has been investigated experimentally.
~
Cd |Cd|
Gopalkrishnan (1993)
3

2
a
= 0.75
d
1

fd
0.1 0.2 0.3 U
Mean drag: Fluctuating Drag:
~
Cd = 1.2 + 1.1(a/d) Cd occurs at twice the
shedding frequency.
 Flexible Cylinders

Mooring lines and towing

cables act in similar fashion
to rigid cylinders except that
their motion is not spanwise
uniform.
t

Tension in the cable must be considered

when determining equations of motion
 Flexible Cylinder Motion Trajectories

Long flexible cylinders can move in two directions and

tend to trace a figure-8 motion. The motion is dictated by
the tension in the cable and the speed of towing.
VIV Suppression
•Helical strake
•Shroud
•Axial slats
•Streamlined fairing
•Splitter plate
•Ribboned cable
•Pivoted guiding vane
•Spoiler plates
VIV Suppression by Helical
Strakes
Helical strakes are a
common VIV suppresion
device.
 References
• Blevins, (1990) Flow Induced Vibrations,
Krieger Publishing Co., Florida.

• White, F.M. (2005) Fluid Mechanics, 5th

Ed. McGraw Hill, New York.