HOBSBAWN, Eric. The age of Empire. New York: Vintage Books, !"#$%!"#".

Chapter 4 The politics of democracy I

The historica& perio' with which this (o&)me 'ea&s *egan with an internationa& o)t*)rst of h+steria among the r)&ers of E)rope an' among its terrifie' mi''&e c&asses, pro(oke' *+ the short,&i(e' -omm)ne of .aris in !#$!, whose s)ppression ha' norma&&+ ha(e *een inconcei(a*&e in ci(i&i/e' nineteenth,cent)r+ states. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #12

This *rief, *r)ta& 3 an' for the time )ncharacteristic 3 )n&eashing of *&in' terror *+ respecta*&e societ+ ref&ecte' a f)n'amenta& pro*&em of the po&itics of *o)rgeois societ+: that of its 'emocrati/ation. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p.#12

4rom the moment when the 5rea& co)ntr+6 *egan to penetrate the po&itica& enc&os)re of the 5&ega&6 or 5po&itica&6 co)ntr+, 'efen'e' *+ the fortifications of propert+ an' e')cationa& 7)a&ifications for (oting an', in most co)ntries, *+ instit)tiona&i/e' aristocratic pri(i&ege, s)ch as here'itar+ cham*ers of peers, the socia& or'er was at risk. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #82

Yet after !#$9 it *ecame increasing&+ c&ear that the 'emocrati/ation of the po&itics of states was 7)ite ine(ita*&e. The masses wo)&' march on to the stage of po&itics, whether r)&ers &ike it or not. An' this is in'ee' what happene'. :% B+ &atter stan'ar's this 'emocrati/ation was sti&& incomp&ete 3 the )s)a& e&ectorate )n'er )ni(ersa& s)ffrage was *etween ;9 an' 19 per cent of the a')&t pop)&ation 3 *)t it sho)&' *e note' that e(en (otes for women was a&rea'+ more than a )topian s&ogan. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #8, #<2

These 'e(e&opments were (iewe' witho)t enth)siasm *+ the go(ernments that intro')ce' them, e(en when these were committe' *+ i'eo&ogica& con(iction to the representation of the peop&e. :% .o&iticians might resign themse&(es to proph+&actic e=tensions of the (ote whi&e the+, rather than some e=treme &eft, co)&' sti&& contro& it. :% -ertain&+ the socia&ist agitations of the !#"9s, an' the 'irect an' in'irect reperc)ssions of the first >)ssian >e(o&)tion, acce&erate' 'emocrati/ation. Sti&&, whate(er the wa+ in which 'emocrati/ation a'(ance', *etween !##9 an' !"!1 most western states ha' to resign themse&(es to the ine(ita*&e. ?emocratic po&itics co)&' no &onger *e postpone'. Henceforth the pro*&ems war how to manip)&ate them. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #<2

@anip)&ation in the cr)'est sense was sti&& eas+. One might, for instance, p&ace strict &imits on the po&itica& ro&e of assem*&ies e&ecte' *+ )ni(ersa& s)ffrage. :% E&sewhere secon' cham*ers, sometimes compose' of here'itar+ mem*ers as in Britain, (oting *+ specia& 0an' weighte'2 e&ectora& co&&eges an' other ana&ogo)s instit)tions p)t *rakes on 'emocrati/es representati(es assem*&ies. E&ements of propert+ s)ffrage were retaine',

reinforce' *+ e')cationa& 7)a&ifications :%. Timi' or simp&+ ca)tions (oters co)&' *e p)t )n'er press)re *+ open *a&&ots, especia&&+ where powerf)& &an'&or's or other patrons watche' o(er the scene :%. .atronage, as American cit+ *osses knew we&&, co)&' 'e&i(er (oting *&ocs :%. The minim)m age for (oting was e&astic: it range' from twent+ in 'emocratic Swit/er&an' to thirt+ in ?enmark, an' was often raise' somewhat when the right to (ote was e=ten'e'. An' there was a&wa+s the possi*i&it+ of simp&e sa*otage, *+ comp&icating the process of getting on to e&ectora& registers. Th)s in Britain it has *een estimate' that in !"!1 a*o)t ha&f the working c&ass was de facto 'isenfranchise' *+ s)ch 'e(ices Ne(erthe&ess, s)ck *raking 'e(ice;s might s&ow the mo(ements of the po&itica& (ehic&e towar's 'emocrac+, *)t the+ co)&' not stop its a'(ance. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #<,#$2

The &ogica& conse7)ence of s)ch s+stems was the po&itica& mo*i&i/ation of the masses for an' thro)gh e&ections, that is to sa+ for the p)rpose f p)tting press)re on nationa& go(ernments. This imp&ie' the organi/ation of mass mo(ements an' mass parties, the po&itics of mass propagan'a an' the 'e(e&oping mass me'ia 3 at this stage main&+ main&+ the new&+ 'e(e&oping pop)&ar or 5+e&&ow6 press 3 an' other 'e(e&opments which raise' maAor an' no(e& pro*&ems for go(ernments an' r)&ing c&asses. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #$2

No &onger wo)&' the e=pecte' imp&ications of 'emocrac+ *e 'isc)sse', e=cept *+ po&itica& o)tsi'ers, with frankness an' rea&ism of the 'e*ates which ha' s)rro)n'e' the British >eform Act of !#<$. B)t as the men who go(erne' wrappe' themse&(es in rhetoric, the serio)s 'isc)ssion of po&itics retreate' to the wor&' of the inte&&ect)a&s an' the e')cate' minorit+ p)*&ic which rea' them. The era of 'emocrati/ation was a&so the go&'en age of a new po&itica& socio&og+: of ?)rkheim an' Sore&, Ostrogorski an' the We**s, @osca, .areto, >o*ert @iche& an' @a= We*er. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. ##2

The age of 'emocrati/ation th)s t)rne' into the era of p)*&ic po&itica& h+pocris+, or rather ')p&icit+, an' hence a&so into that of po&itica& satire :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. ##2

Essa B&tima citaCDo co&oca a&go 'e no(o nas minhas 'isc)ssEes so*re 'emocracia: o s)rgimento 'a po&Ftica 'e massas, 'e certa forma, G o a*an'ono 'e )ma po&Ftica 'e c&asses, ao menos no 'isc)rso. A necessi'a'e 'e con(encer as massas 'e 7)e &he 'e(e ser conce'i'o o po'er G fr)to 'a amp&iaCDo 'a fran7)ia po&Ftica e aca*a por oc)&tar o) mesmo impe'ir )m 'e*ate mais franco e ra'ica&. >eparemos, no entanto, 7)e esse efeito especFfico G fr)to nDo sH 'a amp&iaCDo 'a fran7)ia, mas 'esse processo 'entro 'e )m Esta'o representati(o. A perg)nta 7)e fica G: se o po'er fosse 'istri*)F'o e nDo monopo&i/a'o pe&o Esta'o essa efeito 'o empo*recimento 'a 'isc)ssDo ain'a e=istiria, o) seAa, o 'isc)rso 'o &isonAea'or seria o 'ominanteI

B)t who were the masses who now mo*i&i/e' for po&itica& actionI Jn the first p&ace there were c&asses of socia& strata hitherto *e&ow an' o)tsi'e the po&itica& s+stem, se(era& of which might form rather more heterogeneo)s a&&iances, coa&itions or 5pop)&ar fronts6. The most formi'a*&e of these was the working c&ass, now mo*i&i/ing parties an' mo(ement on an e=p&icit c&ass *asis. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. ##2

There was a&so that &arge an' i&&,'efine' coa&ition of 'iscontente' interme'iate strata )ncertain which the+ feare' more, the rich or the pro&etariat. This was the o&' pett+,*o)rgeoisie of master artisans an' sma&& shopkeepers, )n'ermine' *+ the progress of capita&ist econom+, the rapi'&+ increasing new &ower,mi''&e c&ass of non,man)a& an' white,co&&ar workers :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #"

There was a&so, of co)rse, the peasantr+, which sti&& forme' the maAorit+ on man+ co)ntries, the &argest economic gro)p in others. Tho)gh peasants an' farmers from the !##9s on 3 the era of 'epression 3 increasing&+ mo*i&i/es as economic press)re,gro)ps, an' in'ee' Aoine' new organi/ations for co, operati(e gro)ps :% the peasantr+ rare&+ mo*i&i/e' po&itica&&+ an' e&ectora&&+ as a c&ass 3 ass)ming that so (arie' a *o'+ can *e regar'e' as a c&ass. Of co)rse no go(ernment co)&' affor' to neg&ect the economic interests of so s)*stantia& a *o'+ of (oters as the agric)&t)ra& c)&ti(ators in agrarian co)ntries. Sti&&, insofar as the peasantr+ mo*i&i/e' e&ectora&&+, the+ 'i' so )n'er non,agric)&t)ra& *anners :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #","92

Jf socia& gro)ps mo*i&i/e' as s)ch, so 'i' *o'ies of citi/ens )nite' *+ sectiona& &o+a&ties s)ch as those of re&igion an' nationa&it+. Sectiona&, *eca)se po&itica& mass mo*i&i/ations on a confessiona& *asis, e(en in co)ntries of a sing&e re&igion, were a&wa+s *&oc co)nterpose' to other *&ocs, either confessiona& or sec)&ar. An' nationa&ist e&ectora& mo*i&i/ations 0sometimes, as in the case of the .o&es an' Jrish, coinci'ing with re&igio)s ones2 were a&most a&wa+s a)tonomist mo(ements within m)&tinationa& states. The+ ha' &itt&e in common with the nationa& patriotism inc)&cate' *+ states 3 an' sometimes escaping from their contro& 3 or with po&itica& mo(ements, norma&&+ of the right, which c&aime' to represent 5the nation6 against s)*(ersi(e minorities. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. #"2

So, whi&e the po&itica& potentia& of -hristian parties was enormo)s, as E)ropean histor+ since !"18 was show, an' whi&e it e(i'ent&+ increase' with e(er+ e=tension of the (ote, the -h)rch resiste' the formation of catho&ic po&itica& parties forma&&+ *acke' *+ it, tho)gh recogni/ing, from the ear&+ !#"9s, the 'esira*i&it+ of wresting the working c&asses awa+ from go'&ess socia&ist re(o&)tion, an', of co)rse, the nee' to &ook after its maAor constit)enc+, the peasants. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "!2

The -h)rch th)s )s)a&&+ *acke' conser(ati(e or reactionar+ parties of (ario)s kin's, or, in -atho&ic nations s)*or'inate within m)&tinationa& states, nationa&ist mo(ements not infecte' with sec)&ar (ir)s, it kept on goo' terms with these. Against socia&ism an' re(o&)tion, it )s)a&&+ *acke' an+*o'+. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "!2

Jf re&igion ha' a (ast po&itica& potentia&, nationa& i'entification was an e7)a&&+ formi'a*&e an' in practice a more effecti(e mo*i&i/er. :% The po&itics of the A)strian ha&f of the Ha*s*)rg Empire were para&+/e' *+ s)ch nationa& 'i(isions. Jn'ee', after the riots an' co)nter,riots of Kermans an' -/echs in the mi',!#"9s, par&iamentarianism *roke 'own comp&ete&+, since no par&iamentar+ maAorit+ was henceforth possi*&e for an+ go(ernment. The grant of )ni(ersa& s)ffrage in !"9$ was not on&+ a concession to press)re, *)t a 'esperate attempt to mo*i&i/e e&ectora& masses who might (ote for non, nationa& parties 0-atho&ic or e(en socia&ist2 against irreconci&a*&e an' s7)a**&ing nationa& *&ocs. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "L2

Ho*s*awn entDo fa/ a seg)inte ressa&(a:

Jn its e=treme form 3 the 'iscip&ine' mass part+,c)m,mo(ement 3 po&itica& mass mo*i&i/ation remaine' )ncommon. :% Ne(erthe&ess, the e&ements constit)ting this new phenomenon co)&' now *e 'iscerne' a&most e(er+where. The+ were, first, the constit)ent organi/ations which forme' tis *ase. The i'ea&,t+pica& mass part+,c)m,mo(ement consiste' of a comp&e= of &oca& organi/ations or *raches together with a comp&e= of organi/ations, each a&so with &oca& *ranches, for specia& p)rposes, *)t integrate' into a part+ with wi'er po&itica& o*Aecti(es. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "L2

Jn the secon' p&ace the new mass mo(ements were i'eo&ogica&. The+ were more than simp&e gro)pings for press)re an' action in fa(o)r of partic)&ar o*Aects, s)ch as the 'efense of (itic)&t)re. :% >e&igions, nationa&ism, 'emocrac+, socia&ism, the prec)rsor i'eo&ogies of inter,war fascism: these he&' together the new&+ mo*i&i/e' masses, whate(er materia& interests their mo(ements a&so represente'. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. ";2

Jn the thir' p&ace, it fo&&ows that the mass mo*i&i/ations were, in their wa+, g&o*a&. The+ either shattere' the o&' &oca&i/e' or regiona& framework of po&itics, or p)she' it to the margin, or integrate' it into wi'er comprehensi(e mo(ements. Jn an+ case nationa& po&itics in 'emocrati/e' co)ntries &eft &ess scope for p)re&+ regiona& parties, e(en in states with as strong&+ marke' regiona& 'ifferences as Kerman+ an' Jta&+. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "12

As 'iferenCas regionais, em contraparti'a ao momento anterior, 'ei=aram 'e ter s)a importMncia no cenNrio po&Ftico e a fig)ra 'o caci7)e &oca& 3 a prNtica 'o c&iente&ismo 3 foi fortemente a*afa'a pe&o parti'o:
The 5*oss6 'i' not e(en 'isappear in 'emocratic po&itics, *)t there, increasing&+, it was the part+ which ma'e the nota*&e, or at &east which sa(e' h)m form iso&ation an' po&itica& impotence, rather than the other wa+ aro)n'. O&'er e&ites transforming themse&(es to fit in with 'emocrac+ might we&& 'e(e&op (ario)s com*inations *etween the po&itics of &oca& patronage an' inf&)ence an' those of 'emocrac+. An', in'ee', the &ast 'eca'es of the o&' cent)r+ an' the first of the new were fi&&e' with comp&e= conf&icts *etween

o&',st+&e 5nota*i&it+6 an' the new po&itica& operators, &oca& *osses or other ke+ e&ements contro&&ing the &oca& part+ fort)nes. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "12

The 'emocrac+ which th)s rep&ace' the po&itics of nota*&es 3 insofar as it ha' a&rea'+ s)ccee'e' in 'oing so 3 'i' not s)*stit)te 5the peop&e6 for patronage an' inf&)ence, *)t the organi/ation: that is to sa+ the committees, the part+ nota*&es, the acti(ist minorities. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "12

Jn short, for its s)pporters the part+ or mo(ement represente' them an' acte' on their *eha&f. This it was eas+ for the organi/ations to take p&ace of its mem*ers an' s)pporters, an' in t)rn for its &ea'ers to 'ominate the organi/ation. Str)ct)re' mass mo(ements were th)s *+ no means rep)*&ics of e7)a&s. B)t their com*ination of organi/ation an' mass s)pport ga(e them an enormo)s an' *are&+ s)specte' capacit+: the+ were potentia& states. Jn'ee', the maAor re(o&)tions of o)r cent)r+ were to rep&ace o&' regimes, o&' states an' o&' r)&ing c&asses *+ parties,c)m,mo(ements instit)tiona&i/e' as s+stems of state power. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "82

II
?emocrati/ation, tho)gh a'(ancing, ha' *are&+ *eg)n to transform po&itics. Yet its imp&ications, a&rea'+ sometimes e=p&icit, raise' the most serio)s pro*&ems for those who go(erne' states an' for the c&asses in whose interests the+ go(erne'. There was the pro*&em of maintaining the )nit+, e(en the e=istence, of states, which was a&rea'+ )rgent in m)&tinationa& po&itics confronte' with nationa& mo(ements. :% There was the pro*&em of how to maintain the contin)it+ of sensi*&e po&icies, as seen *+ the e&ites of the co)ntr+ 3 a*o(e a&& in economic affairs. :% @ore genera&&+, an' a*o(e a&&, there was the pro*&em of g)aranteeing the &egitimac+, perhaps the (er+ s)r(i(a&, of societ+ as then constit)te', when it face' the menace of mass mo(ements for socia& re(o&)tion. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "8,"<2

These threats seeme' a&& the more 'angero)s *eca)se of the )n'enia*&e inefficienc+ of par&iaments e&ecte' *+ 'emagog+ an' ri(en *+ irreconci&a*&e part+ conf&icts, an' the )n'o)*te' corr)ption of po&itica& s+stem which no &onger reste' on men of in'epen'ent wea&th, *)t increasing&+ on men whose careers an' wea&th were *ase' on their s)ccess in the new po&itics. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "<2

Sma&& won'er that the effecti(e contin)it+ of go(ernment an' po&ic+ was in the han's of the permanent, non,e&ecte' an' in(isi*&e f)nctionaries of the *)rea)crac+. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "<2

As for corr)ption, it was pro*a*&+ no greater than in the ear&+ nineteenth cent)r+ :%. Yet e(en when it was not, it was more (isi*&e, as se&f,ma'e po&iticians cashe' in, in one wa+ or another, on the (a&)e of their s)pport or opposition to *)sinessmen or other intereste' parties. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "<,"$2

A 'emocracia, especia&mente a e=pansDo 'a fran7)ia, nDo era *em (ista ao o&hos 'a *)rg)esia nos fins 'o sGc)&o OJO e s)a imp&ementaCDo parece) ser m)ito mais )ma reaCDo conser(a'ora Ps prHprias contra'iCEes 'o capita& 3 especia&mente P crise 'a 'Gca'a 'e !#$9 3 o) seAa, )ma forma 'e contornar as contra'iCEes e afastar 'o hori/onte a possi*i&i'a'e re(o&)cionNria.
-ontemporaries from )pper ranks of societ+ were ac)te&+ aware of the 'angero)s of 'emocrati/e' po&itics an', more genera&&+, of the growing centra&it+ of the 5masses6. :% @)ch of the per(asi(e pessimism of *o)rgeois c)&t)re from the !##9s on :% )n'o)*te'&+ ref&ecte' the sense of &ea'ers a*an'one' *+ their former fo&&owers of e&ites whose 'efences against the masses were cr)m*&ing, of the e')cate' an c)&t)res minorit+ :% in(a'e' *+ 5those A)st *eing emancipate' from:i&&iterac+ or semi,*ar*arism6, or c)t off *+ the rising ti'e of a ci(i&i/ation geare' to these masses. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "$2

The new po&itica& sit)ation 'e(e&ope' on&+ *+ steps, an' )ne(en&+, 'epen'ing on the 'omestic histor+ of the (ario)s states. This makes a comparati(e s)r(e+ of po&itics in the !#$9s an' !##9s 'iffic)&t, an' a&most point&ess. Jt was the s)''en internationa& emergence of mass &a*o)r an' socia&ist mo(ements in an' after the !##9s which seem to p&ace n)mero)s go(ernments an' r)&ing c&asses in essentia&&+ simi&ar pre'icaments, tho)gh we can see retrospecti(e&+ that the+ were not the on&+ mass mo(ements which ca)se' go(ernmenta& hea'aches. Broa'&+ speaking, in most of the E)ropean states of &imite' constit)tions or restricte' franchise, the mi', cent)r+ po&itica& pre'ominance of the &i*era& *o)rgeoisie *roke 'own in the co)rse of the !#$9s, if not for other reason, then as a *+,pro')ct of the Kreat ?epression :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. "$,"#2

Em gran'e parte, no entanto, essas sit)aCEes nDo atingiam a ati(i'a'e par&amentar e os go(ernantes conseg)iam gerenciar a sit)aCDo manten'o &onge 'o par&amento a7)e&es 7)e eram contrNrios o) ao Esta'o o) P or'em socia&. A (er'a'eira ameaCa era e=trapar&amentar nas ins)rreiCEes ca'a (e/ mais constantes. A sit)aCDo era ins)stentN(e&, mas irreme'iN(e& e sem (o&ta.
Broa'&+ speaking, the !#"9s, the 'eca'e of the emergence of socia&ism as a mass mo(ement, mark the t)rning,point. An era of new po&itica& strategies *egan. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. ""2

Ain'a assim, a e=pectati(a 'a *)rg)esia em re&aCDo ao a(anCo 'a or'em &i*era& era gran'e o s)ficiente para 'esconsi'erar as 5pe7)enas ins)rgQncias6, as ameaCas po&Ftica a s)a or'em socia& e as *ar*ari'a'es 'o tempo imperia&ista.
B)t if ...% *o)rgeois societ+ as a who&e 'i' not fee& serio)s&+ an' imme'iate&+ threatene', neither ha' its nineteenth,cent)r+ (a&)es an' historic

e=pectations *een serio)s&+ )n'ermine' as +et. -i(i&i/e' *eha(ior, the r)&e of &aw an' &i*era& instit)tions were sti&& e=pecte' to contin)e their sec)&ar progress. There was p&ent+ of *ar*arism &eft, especia&&+ 0so the 5respecta*&e were con(ince'2 among the &ower or'ers an' of co)rse among the now fort)nate&+ co&oni/e' 5)nci(i&i/e'6 peop&e. There were sti&& states, e(en in E)rope, s)ch as the Tsarist an' Ottoman empires, where the can'&es of reason f&ickere' 'im&+ an' were )n&it. Yet the (er+ scan'a&s which con()&se' nationa& or internationa& opinion in'icate how high e=pectations of ci(i&it+ were in the *o)rgeois wor&' in time of peace :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !992

III
The r)&ing c&asses therefore opte' for the new strategies, e(en as the+ 'i' their *est to &imit the impact of mass opinion an' mass e&ectorates on their own an' state interests, an' on the formation an' contin)it+ of high po&ic+. Their maAor target was the &a*o)r an' socia&ist mo(ement which s)''en&+ emerge' internationa&&+ as a mass phenomenon aro)n' !#"9. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9!2

Bringing &a*o)r mo(ements into the instit)tiona&i/e' game of po&itics was 'iffic)&t, insofar as emp&o+ers, face' with strikes an' )nions, were 'istinct&+ s&ower than po&iticians to a*an'on the po&ic+ of the strong fist for that of the (e&(et g&o(e, e(e in pacific Scan'ina(ia. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9!2

Jt was a&so 'iffic)&t po&itica&&+, where the new parties of &a*o)r ref)se' a&& compromise with the *o)rgeois state an' s+stem nationa&&+ 3 the+ were rare&+ as intransigent in the fie&' of &oca& go(ernment 3 as those a'hering to the @ar=ist,'ominate' Jnternationa& of !##" ten'e' to 'o. B)t *+ !"99 it ha' *ecome c&ear that a mo'erate or reformist wing ha' emerge' in a&& the socia&ist mass mo(ements :%. @eanwhi&e, the po&itics of mass e&ectora&ism, of which e(en the most @ar=ist parties were enth)siastic champions, since it a&&owe' their armies to grow with ma=im)m (isi*i&it+, co)&' not *)t 7)iet&+ integrate these parties into the s+stem. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9!, !9L2

The reason for these o(ert)res form the par&iamentar+ centre to the e=treme &eft was )s)a&&+ not the nee' for socia&ist s)pport, for e(en &arge socia&ist parties were minorit+ gro)ps which in most case co)&' easi&+ *een fro/en o)t of the par&iamentar+ game :% Jt was rather the 'esire to e=p&oit the possi*i&ities of 'omesticating these wi&' *easts of the po&itica& forest, which sensi*&e men in the r)&ing c&asses soon 'iscerne'. The strateg+ of the soft em*race ha (ar+ing res)&ts :%, *)t on the who&e it worke', at &east inasm)ch as it s)ccee'e' in sp&itting mass &a*o)r mo(ements into a mo'erate an' a ra'ica& wing of irreconci&a*&es 3 genera&&+ a minorit+ 3 an' iso&ating the &atter. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9L2

Howe(er, 'emocrac+ wo)&' *e the more easi&+ tamea*&e, the &ess ac)te its 'iscontents. The new strateg+ th)s imp&ies a rea'iness to (ent)re into programmes of socia& reform an' we&fare, which )n'ermine' the c&assic mi', cent)r+ &i*era& commitment to go(ernments which kept o)t of the fie&'

reser(e' for pri(ate enterprise an' se&f,he&p. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9L,!9;2

?ice+ )m A)rista ing&Qs% was a&so right in stressing the ine(ita*&e growth in the ro&e an' weight of the state apparat)s, once the i'ea& of state non, inter(ention was a*an'one'. B+ mo'ern stan'ar's *)rea)crac+ remaine' mo'est, tho)gh it grew at a rapi' rate :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9;2

B)t co)&' not the &o+a&ties of the masses *e ac7)ire' witho)t e=pensi(e socia& po&icies which might c)t into the profits of entreprene)rs on whom the econom+ 'epen'e'I As we ha(e seen, it was *e&ie(e' not on&+ that imperia&ism co)&' p&a+ for socia& reform *)t that is was a&so pop)&ar. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9;2

O 7)e esta(a em Aogo era, na (er'a'e, era a &egitimi'a'e 'o regime 'o Esta'o mo'erno frente Ps no(as massas 'emocrati/a'as. Os antigos regimes 'e s)*or'inaCDo esta(am progressi(amente em 'eca'Qncia: a ascensDo 'a *)rg)esia &i*era& se 'e) P c)sta 'a 'isso&)CDo 'a coesDo socia& 'as antigas hierar7)ias e com)ni'a'es, so*repon'o as re&aCEes 'e merca'o Ps re&aCEes h)manas 0p. !912. @as na (ira'a 'o sGc)&o, mesmo a *)rg)esia &i*era& encontra(a,se iso&a'a em s)a minoria n)mGrica. O Esta'o (ia esface&arem,se to'os os mecanismos 7)e mantinham a &ea&'a'e 'e se)s ci'a'Dos. R 'essa Gpoca o assom*ro 'os inte&ect)ais e homens 'e negHcio com a irraciona&i'a'e 'as massas, co&ocan'o em =e7)e a prHpria i'eia 'e raciona&i'a'e h)mana como )m po)co e=agera'a 'emais.
As the ancient wa+s 3 main&+ re&igio)s 3 of ens)ring s)*or'ination, o*e'ience an' &o+a&t+ were ero'e', the now patent nee' for something to rep&ace them was met *+ the invention of tra'ition, )sing *oth o&' an' trie' e(okers of emotion s)ch as crown an' mi&itar+ g&or+ an', as we ha(e seen, new ones s)ch as empire an' co&onia& con7)est. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !982

A instit)ciona&i/aCDo 'e feria'os nacionais como gran'es 'atas comemorati(as 0!1 'e S)&ho na 4ranCa remeten'o P 7)e'a 'a Basti&ha2 G sintoma 'esse processo 'e criaCDo 'e )ma no(a tra'iCDo e 'e )ma no(a &ea&'a'e.
Jn'ee', the stan'ar' commentator of the British constit)tion, after the franchise e=tension of !#<$, 'isting)ishe' &)ci'&+ *etween the 5efficient6 parts of it *+ which go(ernment was act)a&&+ carrie' on an' the 5'ignifie'6 parts whose f)nction was to keep the masses happ+ whi&e the+ *eing go(erne'. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !982

Yet the+ 'i' no create the 'eman' for emotiona&&+ satisf+ing rit)a& an' s+m*o&ism. The+ rather 'isco(ere' an' fi&&e' a (oi' &eft *+ the po&itica& rationa&ism of the &i*era& era, *+ the new nee' to a''ress the masses an' *+ the transformation of these masses themse&(es. Jn this respect the in(ention of tra'itions ran para&&e& to the commercia& 'isco(er+ of the mass market an' of mass spectac&e an' entertainment, which *e&ongs to the same 'eca'es. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9<2

.o&itica& regimes th)s con')cte' a si&ent war for the contro& of the s+m*o&s an' rites of *e&onging to the h)man race within their frontiers, no &east thro)gh their contro& of the p)*&ic schoo& s+stem :% an', genera&&+ where the -h)rches were po&itica&&+ )nre&ia*&e, thro)gh the attempt to contro& the great ceremonies of *irth, marriage an' 'eath. Of a&& s)ch s+m*o&s, perhaps the most powerf)& were m)sic, in its po&itica& forms of the nationa& anthem an' the mi&itar+ march :% an' a*o(e a&& the nationa& f&ag. Jn the a*sence of monarchies, the f&ag itse&f co)&' *ecome the (irt)a& em*o'iment of state :%. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9<,!9$2

4or states an' go(ernments compete' for s+m*o&s of togetherness an' emotiona& &o+a&t+ with )nofficia& mass mo(ements, which might 'e(ise their own co)nter,s+m*o&s s)ch as the socia&ist 5Jntenationa&e6, when the former anthem of re(o&)tion, the 5@arsei&&aise6, ha' *een taken o(er *+ the state. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9$2

O gran'e inimigo 'o Esta'o, no entanto, nessa 'isp)ta sim*H&ica nDo era m)ito os parti'os socia&ista 3 7)e ain'a esta(am *astante apega'os aos princFpios J&)ministas 0com )ma fG na e')caCDo, na ra/Do, na ciQncia e nas artes2 3 mas antes os mo(imentos naciona&istas, com 'isp)tas, por e=emp&o, pe&a afirmaCDo 'a &Fng)a &oca& na e')caCDo *Nsica. @esmo esses, no entanto, aca*aram por compor )m comp&e=o sistema 'e contra c)&t)ra e 'e &ea&'a'e em a&g)ma me'i'a. IV
?i' the po&itica& societies an' r)&ing c&asses of western E)rope s)ccee' in managing these potentia&&+ or act)a&&+ s)*(ersi(e mass mo*i&i/ationsI On the who&e, in the perio' )p to !"!1, the+ 'i' :%.0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9$2

4or most states of the *o)rgeois an' capita&ist west :% the perio' from !#$8 an' !"!1, an' certain&+ form !"99 to !"!1, was, in spite of a&ar)ms an' e=c)rsions, one of po&itica& sta*i&it+. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9#2

@o(ements reAecting the s+stem, &ike socia&ism, were ca)ght in its we* or e&se 3 if s)fficient&+ power&ess 3 the+ co)&' e(en *e )se' as cata&+sts of a maAorit+ consens)s. This was the f)nction of 5reaction6 in the 4rench >ep)*&ic perhaps, of anti,socia&ism in imperia& Kerman+: nothing )nite' as m)ch as a common enem+. E(en nationa&ism co)&' sometimes *e manage'. :% The irreconci&a*&es of the )&tra,right an' the )&tra,&eft co)&' *e iso&ate'.

The grat socia&ist mo(ements anno)nce' the ine(ita*&e re(o&)tion, *)t the+ ha' other things with which to occ)p+ themse&(es at present. When war *roke o)t in !"!1 most of them Aoine' their go(ernments an' r)&ing c&asses in patriotic )nion. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9#2

The socia&ists which accepte' the war often 'i' so witho)t enth)siasm, an' chief&+ *eca)se the+ feare' to *e a*an'one' *+ their fo&&owers, who f&ocke' to the co&o)rs with spontaneo)s /ea&. Jn Britain, which ha' no conscription, L mi&&ions were to (o&)nteers for mi&itar+ ser(ice *etween A)g)st !"!1 an' S)ne !"!8, me&ancho&+ proof of the s)ccess of the po&itics of integrating 'emocrac+. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9#2

Since po&itica& integration s)ccee'e', regimes therefore face' on&+ the imme'iate cha&&enge of 'irect action. S)ch forms of )nrest certain&+ sprea', a*o(e a&& in the &ast +ears *efore war. B)t the+ constit)te' a cha&&enge to p)*&ic or'er rather than to the socia& s+stem, gi(en the a*sence of re(o&)tionar+ or e(en pre,re(o&)tionar+ sit)ations in the centra& co)ntries of *o)rgeois societ+. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !9"2

A&& the same in the +ears *etween !##9 an' !"!1 r)&ing c&asses 'isco(ere' that par&iamentar+ 'emocrac+, in spite of their fears, pro(e' itse&f to *e 7)ite compati*&e with the po&itica& an' economic sta*i&it+ of capita&ist regimes. The 'isco(er+, &ike the s+stem itse&f, was new 3 at &east in E)rope. Jt pro(e' 'isappointing to socia& re(o&)tionaries. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !!92

B)t was not the sta*i&it+ of this marriage *etween po&itica& 'emocrac+ an' a f&o)rishing capita&ism the i&&)sion of a passing eraI What strikes )s, in retrospect, a*o)t the +ears from !##9 to !"!1 is *oth the fragi&it+ an' the restricte' scope of s)ch a com*ination. Jt was an' remaine' confine' to a minorit+ of prospero)s an' f&o)rishing economies in the west :%. B)t s+stem operates effecti(e&+ in (er+ few of the more than !89 states which form the Tnite' Nations of the &ate twentieth cent)r+. The progress of 'emocratic po&itics *etween !##9 an' !"!1 foresha'owe' neither its permanence nor its )ni(ersa& tri)mph. 0HOBSBAWN, !"#$%!"#", p. !!9, !!!2