- 1 -

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permission in writing from publisher.



BELUK GmbH
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BELUK GmbH 86956 Schongau, Germany
Taubenstr. 1 Phone +49 8861 2332-0 Fax +49 8861 2332-51
_________________________________________________________________________



Compensation of Reactive Power
(X. Edition January 2003)


1. How Electrical Reactive Power Originates ........................................................................................... 3
2. Recording the Resultant Electric Reactive Power................................................................................. 5
3. Calculation of Capacitor Bank Size....................................................................................................... 6
4. Selection of Switching Programme and Relay Types ........................................................................... 9
4.1 Response Value (C/k-Value)............................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Economy or Step-back Switching Programmes ............................................................................ 11
4.3 Rotational Switching Programme ..................................................................................................... 13
5. Function of the Electronic Power Factor Control Relays of C-Series................................................. 15
5.1 Structure and Mode of Operation...................................................................................................... 15
5.3 No-Volt Release Feature ................................................................................................................... 16
5.4 Target Power Factor Setting and Starting Current ............................................................................ 16
5.5 Hand / Automatic Switching............................................................................................................. 16
5.6 Technical Data on BLR-CA (C-series) ............................................................................................. 17
5.7 Connection Diagram of BELUK Power Factor Control Relays ....................................................... 17
5.8 Determing the Required Current Transformer .................................................................................. 18
6. Explanatory Notes on the Compensation Procedure in General ......................................................... 20
6.1 Relationship between Response Value (C/k-Value) and cos- setting............................................. 21
6.2 Power Factor Control Relays with Automatic C/k-Adjustment (C-series)....................................... 24
7. Reactive Power Compensation in the Four Load Quadrants............................................................... 26
7.1.1 Technical Consideration........................................................................................................ 26
7.1.2 Commercial Consideration......................................................................................................... 29
7.2 Reactive Power Compensation with Mixed Measurement............................................................ 30
7.2.1 Calculation of C/k-Value in case if Mixed Measurement ...................................................... 32
8. Reactive Power Compensation with more than one Incoming Supply ............................................... 33
8.1 Central Compensation by means of Summation Measurement ........................................................ 33
8.2 Individual Compensation of Each Incoming Supply ........................................................................ 36
9. How to Trace Possible Mistakes when connecting Power Factor Control Relays of the Series C..... 38
10. Indirect Capacitor Control (z) on BELUK Power Factor Control Relays, Type CA...................... 40


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1. How Electrical Reactive Power Originates

All electrical loads which operate by means of magnetic fields (motors, inductors, transformers,
inductive heaters) are characterized to a greater or lesser extent by electrical inertia. The correct
electrical engineering term for this inertia is inductance.
Taking an example from the field of mechanics by way of comparison, consider a car with a
specific mass which is set into motion as a result of force and gathers kinetic energy. If the force is
suddenly applied in the opposite direction, the car does not simply change its direction
instantaneously, but persists for a certain period in its previous direction of motion, is decelerated,
comes to a standstill and ultimately moves in the same direction as the new applied force.
If we imagine the force as a sine-wave variation, the car will always move with a time delay. This
means that the force (voltage) and the motion (current) are never synchronous.
Naturally, the above example occurs analogously in an electrical sense in our widespread mono-
and polyphase AC voltage networks. The diagram below is intended to illustrate what has been
explained above.


Figure 1. Tempora| course of vo|tage, current and power
- 4 -
At time t
1
the voltage (force) and current direction (direction of motion) still coincide. At t
2
there is
no voltage (force = 0).

However, the inertia of the inductive loads maintains the positive current direction for time t
3
-
t
2
= phase shift angle even though the negative voltage is already attempting to move in the
opposite direction. The force and direction of motion do not revert to the same direction until
time t
3
. At time t
4
, they reach a maximum power level and start to move in opposite directions
again at time t
5
.
This period t
6
- t
5
, identical to t
3
- t
2
, represents the time delay of current compared to voltage,
marked by the phase deviation angle .

In most AC voltage networks, this cycle is repeated fifty times per second. If we consider period t
2
to t
3
and t
5
to t
6
, we can recognize that the opposite polarities of current and voltage result in a
negative power or energy. This means that, in current fact, the following quantity of energy:

U I [(t
3
- t
2
) + (t
6
- t
5
) + etc.]

is pushed back into the public supply network. At the next moment, i.e. at times t
3
and t
6
etc.,
the same quantity of energy is required again in order to set up the magnetic fields in the inductive
loads (compare kinetic energy in the case of the car).
Thus, we can see why it is necessary to store this magnetic reversal energy, (referred to in the
language of specialists as reactive energy), briefly in capacitors to eliminate the need for feeding
reactive energy along power lines and cables.
For this purpose, automatic reactive power compensation systems are installed for large consumers
such as factories. These systems consist of a group of individually switchable capacitor units,
controlled by means of a power factor control relay.











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2. Recording the Resultant Electric Reactive Power

Before the ratings and dimensions of a compensation system are stipulated, the required electrical
reactive power must be measured. The most reliable method of doing this is to use wattmeters and
kVARh meters on the basis of which the power supply companies calculate their charges.

Naturally, several measurements must be conducted at various significant times during the day and
night (e.g. in the case of factories operating on a shift system) in order to be able to measure the
maximum reactive power peaks.

It is also recommended to take into consideration any available electricity bills specifying active
power and reactive power. A direct inquiry of the reactive power response could be realized by
means of so-called integrated "Energy-Management-Systems".

When planning a new plant the approximate quantity of reactive power has to be estimated on the
basis of the big consumers' data (calculation via nominal cos for example).
Example:
A 50 kW asynchronous motor with a nominal cos = 0,88 consumes a reactive power:
cos = 0,88 tan = 0,54
Q = P tan = 27 kVAr

This reactive power is necessary for magnetizing the iron volumes of motors (generators),
transformers etc. and is a constant amount of kVAr with small deviations caused by hysteresis. So
there is nearly no difference over load spectrum e.g. if an asynchronous motor (generator) runs at
idle, half load or full load.
A totally different situation is given with the power factor cos . It represents the ratio between
active and apparent power. It does not say anything else about the amount of reactive power. The
power factor depends on the variations of active power. That`s why cos Q and vice versa.

For further possible expansions it is recommended to allow for a 20-30 % reserve. It should
furthermore be ensured that the metering point for active and reactive energy is identical to the
measuring point: i.e. the location of the C.T. for the power factor regulator. In case of metering in
medium voltage systems and regulation in low voltage systems the reactive power demand of the
feeding transformer(s) has to be taken into account.

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3. Calculation of Capacitor Bank Size

Let us take one example:

A medium-sized enterprise has consumed 8200 kWh and 5900 kVArh in one month. This results
in the following average power factor cos :

72 . 0
8200
var 5900
tan = =
kWh
h k
(reactive energy is 72% of active!)
= 35.80 cos = 0.81
This is an average value, instantaneous values can differ widely!

The responsible power supply company, however, specifies a minimum power factor of cos =
0,90 ind. For reasons of safety, it will be necessary to design the proposed system for a target
power factor of at least 0,92 to 0,93 ind. Furthermore, it must also be anticipated that even less
favourable power factors of approx. 0,75 will occur temporarily since the value calculated above is
only an average value and so we must assume a cos improvement from 0,75 to 0,93 ind.

If reactive energy is metered on the medium voltage level it is essential to take into account also
the reactive power demand of the transformer(s). In this case the target power factor should be
increased to 0,96 - 0,98 inductive on the low voltage side. It is recommended, at first, to observe
the energy meters.

Measurements using meters have resulted in power peaks of up to 70 kW. This value must also be
included in consideration concerning dimensioning of the compensation equipment because the
bank of capacitors must be adequate even in the event of power peaks.
Thus, on the basis of value of the 70 kW, we can calculate the following total reactive power in the
case of a poor cos factor of 0,75:

tan = Q / P Q = P tan
cos = 0.75 = 41.5 tan = 0.88

Total reactive power:

Q = 70 kW 088 = 61.6 kVAr

However, as mentioned above, this reactive power needs not be fully compensated because only a
target power factor of cos = 0,93 ind. is required. Consequently, the following reactive power
can remain uncompensated:


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cos
o
= 0.93
o
= 21.6 tan
o
= 0.4

Uncompensated reactive power:
Q
o
= P tan
o
= 70 kW 0.4
Q
o
= 28 kVAr

Thus, only (61.6 - 28) = 33.6 kvar of the total of 61.6 kvar need to be compensated. A
corresponding commercially available system with a rating of 40 kvar would be suitable for the
above-mentioned installation (for capacitor step sizes and their calculation, see chapter 4).



Figure 2. Partia| compensation
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Another important aspect that must be considered is that failure to fully compensate for reactive
load losses will result in unnecessary kilowatt hours being consumed in the power distribution
cables. These losses are of considerable significance in an energy saving scheme, as is indicated in
Fig. 3 below. This diagram shows the yearly additional kWh loss per metre of cable assuming 95
or 120 mm
2
cable, for example.

Energy Cost Study
Figure 3. Additiona| Energy Losses in Distribution cab|es

Energy saving costs are not only limited to reactive power compensation. Important savings can
also be made by reducing the power loss in distribution cabling. In order to achieve these
additional savings it is of course necessary for the capacitors to be located adjacent to the source of
the inductive load.

Total energy loss over 2,400 hrs / annum
(in kWh per annum and m 3phase- cable)

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4. Selection of Switching Programme and Relay Types


Some consideration about how to stagger the calculated compensation power is required, and an
expert should be consulted for this purpose. One first basic question is whether control should be
carried out in coarse or fine steps. This will primarily depend on the size of the inductive loads. If
machinery with a relatively high connected load is installed, e.g. 10 - 15 kW as in the example in
Section 3 above, it will be sufficient to divide the determined 40 kvar into four steps of 10 kvar.

It often occurs, however, that a factory will operate with a large number of machines having a low
connected load. In such cases, it is practical to provide steps which are as fine as possible. Fine
stepping of a compensation system is, however, subject to a technical limit. This limit is the C/k-
value which can still be set on the relay (min = 50 mA reactive with current path 5 A; 10 mA
reactive with current path 1 A), meaning 1% of the nominal current with reference to secondary
coil of C.T.

The power factor control relays of the C-series (BLR-CA,-CB and -CC) with their so called
automatic C/k-adjustment are basically also subject to this technical limit. If a value falls below
this limit, the compensation effect is too low and the relay does not show any response!

If fixed switching programmes are required, e.g. in case of a filter or combi-filter-compensation
system, then these applications are applicable only with the power factor control relays type BLR-
CM.

4.1 Response Value (C/k-Value)

In general, the C/k-value is calculated according to the following formula:
C k
Q
U k
C
/ , .. , =

0 6 0 85
3

C/k : Threshold level - Relay starting current value (Amp. reactive)
Q
C
: Capacitor power step (kVAr), consider the smallest size, if
capacitors have different sizes
U : Mains voltage (kV)
k : Current transformer ratio,
e.g.: k= 100A/5A = 200

If the calculated C/k-value can no longer be set on the relay, the factor of 0,60 may be varied
between 0,60 and 0,85.

For the power factor control relay, this C/k value is a crucial controlled quantity. Control is not
initiated until this response value is reached. Owing to staggering of the capacitors, a capacitor
should not respond immediately to the slightest inductive load, but only when a minimum of 60-
70 % of the power of a capacitor step is present as an inductive load. At the previous reactive
power control relays BLR-MC/-MQ (M-series), the response sensitivity is variable within a
reactive range of 0,05 ... 1,00 A reactive.
- 10 -
Power factor control relays of the CA/CB/CC/CD series with fully automatic C/k-adaption
consider the threshould level of 60 ... 70 % automatically.

In the example mentioned in Section 3 above, the kVAr per step should be determined. In view of
subsequent expansion, a 300/5 A, k = 60 current transformer has been installed in the supply
busbars. The customer requires a control system that is as finely stepped as possible. The operating
voltage is 400/231 V.

The "Table of C/k values" listed in Figure 4 requires a minimum power step of 3 kVAr, controlled
by means of an 8-step relay, for example BLR-MC 08. Thus, the calculated 40 kVAr could be
distributed to 8 times 5 kVAr and controlled by an eight step power factor control relay, e.g. BLR-
CA 08.

This division is very rarely applied by the capacitor manufacturers because it is too expensive.
More often than not, more favourably priced units are available with a so-called economy or "step-
back" switching programs.



Figure 4. Tab|es of C/k va|ues for current path xA/5A and xA/1A

It shou|d be considered that thresho|d |eve|s be|ow 1%, meaning 0,05A reactive at 5A-current
path and 0,01A reactive at 1A-current path, are not presettab|e manua||y in regu|ators requesting
a C/k-setting and wou|d not be recognized a|so in regu|ators of the C-series.
- 11 -
4.2 Economy or Step-back Switching Programmes
(Presettable at regulators of CM- or at previous MC-/MQ-series only)
The four most common switching programmes S6, S610, S611 and S515 are depicted below in the
form of function diagrams.

They have the following meanings:
Programme S6: Control of a maximum of 6 capacitors with a power ratio of
1:1:1:1:1:1 switching in 6 stages.
Programme S610: Control of a maximum of 6 capacitors with a power ratio of
1:1:2:2:2:2 switching in 10 stages.
Programme S611: Control of a maximum of 6 capacitors with a power ratio of
1:2:2:2:2:2 switching in 11 stages.
Programme S515: Control of a maximum of 5 capacitors with a power ratio
1:2:4:4:4 switching in 15 stages.

- 12 -



The depicted switching programmes have been provided with additional code letters "K" or "S"
which show if circular switching (K) or standard switching (S) applies. Programme K611 for
example means that all double-sized (2) capacitors are switched under rotational switching, in
contrast to programme S611 which actuates capacitors sequentially in standard switching mode.

A combination of 3 capacitors with ratings of 5, 10 and 20 kVAr (total of 35 kVAr), switching in a
ratio of 1:2:4, would be suitable for the example system mentioned above. Obviously, these three
capacitors will be less expensive than 8 single capacitors of 5 kVAr each.

- 13 -
The power factor control relays BLR-CA, -CB and -CC of the C-series are provided with an
automatic self adjustment feature to any capacitor step value and do not follow a fixed switching
programme any longer. This means that the relay automatically selects the capacitor which has the
correct size according to the measured reactive power.
In cases where the selected capacitor has already been activated - where there are unequal
capacitor steps -, the relay selects the next size up capacitor and switches off the capacitor that had
been selected first.

If an expansion is planned, it is recommended to use a BLR-CB 06 as they can be limited from 6
to 3 control exits.


4.3 Rotational Switching Programme

With equal capacitor sizes the well-tried rotational switching programme is utilized with our
power factor control relay types BLR-CA,-CB and -CC (C-series). In this switching programme,
the sequence of capacitor switching is identical both for connection and disconnection, for
example, steps 1 to 5 are activated and when deactivating 4 steps for instance, this also takes place
in the same sequence, i.e. capacitors 1 to 4 are disconnected from the mains. In a normal relay,
steps 5 to 2 would be deactivated, that is to say in the opposite switching sequence.


Figure 5. The circ|e diagram shows random operating cyc|es.
- 14 -
The control relay thus begins to connect steps in clockwise rotation. Furthermore, in the rotational
switching programme, there is a fixed, specified first switching step only after a no-volt release or
on initial commissioning. If all capacitor steps are disconnected during a switching operation,
reconnection can take place at any point; this is always at the capacitor step that was switched off
the longest. When capacitors are added to the circuit, the cascade of steps grows longer, while
disconnecting takes place at the starting point of this cascade and in the same switching sequence.

This ensures that the switching cycles of a capacitor system are uniformly distributed over all steps
and are not chiefly restricted to particular steps. This technique has also made it possible to reduce
the step switching time down to 15 secs approximately. This is because a capacitor step that has
just been disconnected cannot be immediately reconnected.

With the relays of the C-series an additional lock-out time (30 s by standard) takes effect when
changing switching direction from up to down and vice-versa.
When using this switching programme, capacitors are usually controlled with a power ratio of
1:1.....1 which is not binding, however .


- 15 -
5. Function of the Electronic Power Factor Control Relays of C-Series

5.1 Structure and Mode of Operation

BELUK power factor control relays have a single-phase electronic measuring circuit.

Reactive power will be sensed from current I and voltage U (delta) digitally. The regulator
calculates the deviation of reactive power with reference to the preset power factor target and then
selects the correct and available size of capacitor automatically for switching in or out depending
on current power factor.

5.2 Operating and Signalling Elements on BLR-CA
(Detailed description in chapter 6.2)



1 Switch-over facility 5A/1A
2 Alarm On/Off
3 Function Switch
4/5 +/- Button
6 Stage Indicator (LED)
7 TTL-Interface
8 Display






Figure 6







- 16 -
5.3 No-Volt Release Feature

As standard, BELUK power factor control relays are fitted with an automatic no-volt release
feature that disconnects all capacitors in the event of mains failure exceeding 30 msecs. This
serves to protect capacitors against opposing voltages when the power is restored after so-called
brief interruptions in public supply networks. This is an important point to be specified when
purchasing a power factor control relay.

A discharge time of approx. 90 sec is allowed for the capacitors.


5.4 Target Power Factor Setting and Starting Current

As mentioned the regulators of C-series calculate the C/k-value automatically with regard to the
so-called compensation-effect of each capacitor. Any switching operation will start if 2/3 of
capacitor size has been exceeded, compared with the sensed deviation of reactive power from
preset power factor target.
Any danger of hunting a step, caused by an incorrectly preset C/k-value on previous regulators
of MC/MQ-series is absolutely not possible in regulators of the C-series.
Furthermore, there is a steady observation of the calculated C/k-value. This is essential in
capacitor banks operating either in parallel or individual mode at plants with more than one feed-in
transformer. (see chapter 8.2)
The requested power factor target is selectable digitally within the range of 0,70 lagging to 0,90
leading.

5.5 Hand / Automatic Switching
All BELUK power factor control relays offer the possibility of switching over to manual
operation.

In the relays of the C-series (see Figure 6) manual switching can be achieved by putting function
switch (3) in position HEX 4. After the switching time delay (40 s by standard), which is
adjustable in position 2, the capacitors can be switched in or out by means of the +/- buttons.

When in the manual mode, automatic mode of control is of course not available. This may cause
the danger of non-observance with regard to the preset power factor target and potential fees for
uncompensated reactive energy.
Any selection of manual mode should be taken only for maintenance purposes, e.g. to check the
contactors etc.

- 17 -
5.6 Technical Data on BLR-CA (C-series)

Measurement System: Single phase electronic measurement system for connection to phase-phase voltage. 380-415 V.
Operating frequency 50 or 60 xps to be stated on order. Voltage supply burden 7 VA max. - according to
number of steps switched in (facility for connecting to wide range of other voltages available)
Current transformer output 5A or 1A. Class 1 to 3 (burden 1.4 VA). Measurement system operates in all four
quadrants and analyses non-sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms.
Switch Rating: 3000 VA, per contact, 250 V AC (energizing). 1500 VA, 250 V (hold); 415 V available on request.
1. Target Power Factor Range: 0.70 lag ... 1.0 ... 0.90 lead, shown on digital display (function switch position 1)
Step Switching Time: Adjustable from 5 ... 1200 sec. (function switch position 2)
No-Volt Release: Automatic disconnection of all capacitors following voltage failure after only 35 msec.
Automatic switching will recommence 90 seconds after restoration of supply
Hand Operation: By means of +/- push buttons (function switch position 4 - see details above in catalogue)
Ambient Temperature: - 10 C ... + 70 C
Manufacturing Specifications: Insulation protection in accordance with VDE 0160 creepage air paths in accordance with VDE 0110,
group C, type tested. EMV guidelines 89/336/EEC; ;CE identification mark 93/68/EEC, UL and cUL 1997
Casing: Instrument casing 144x144 mm. Total depth including plug 95 mm, flame retardant to 94 V-0.
Mounting Position: As requird
Protection: IP 30
Weight: 1.3 kg
Connections: Plug-in terminal block
cos -Indication: Only when in automatic operation (function switch position 3 - as set on delivery from factory)
Current Path: 5A/1A switch-selectable

OPTIONAL FEATURES:
Single Phase Measurement (e): For single phase systems, version e is available for measurement between phase and neutral.
This relay, e.g. BLR-CA 12e can, of course, also be installed on three phase, four wire, systems.
Fault Signalling Relay (z): As a complimentary feature to the alarm signal in the digital display HA for harmonic overload alarm (du/dt),
a switching relay (z) is available for remote indication of this alarm. Volt-free contacts
1500 VA/250 V AC.
Fault Signalling Relay (m): Operates when the digital display alarm (AL) is functioning. In the event of a fault in the relay, the contact (MR)
will close, e.g. target power factor not obtained! Volt-free contacts 1500 VA/250 V AC
PC Monitor: When used with a separately supplied interface, the relay can be connected to a standard PC (VGA graphics
standard).
2.Target Power Factor Range: Target power factor setting on low tariff (NT) in position A indicated digitally from 0.70 lag ... 1 ... 0.90 lead.

5.7 Connection Diagram of BELUK Power Factor Control Relays

When measuring reactive power, a voltage must always be measured which has a 90 phase shift
with respect to the current vector (ohmic load). This principle of connection is already known
from the field of reactive volt-ampere-hour meters. Our BLR-CA and CB relays can be used in
single-phase networks by means of internal phase rotation, identified by the additional letter e
(e.g. BLR-CB 06e or BLR-CA 12e)

Please consider, though, that this phase shifting applies exclusively for the BLR-CB and
BLR-CA types!

The latter mode of connection also renders a check of the rotary field superfluous. Furthermore
just one phase must be fused.






- 18 -


Figure 7. Connection Diagramm

5.8 Determining the Required Current Transformer

It is a common feature of control devices to be dependent on the transmitter of measured values
where their accuracy is concerned. In our case this is the current transformer (C.T.). BELUK
power factor controllers also take into account the wave form of currents, a simultaneous
transmission is the precondition. C.T.'s do, though, only guarantee this within the specified load.
With regard to the load, in case of 5 A c.t.'s, mainly the employed transducer conductors show
their impact.

When calculating the loss of power in the C.T. lines, the basis is always the nominal current; e.g. 5
A. In case of an overload of 20 % (6 A) losses increase by a rate of 44 %!
The following principal formula is employed for determing transmission losses:

P
L
= J
2
R
L

R
I
A
L
=


l : Length of conductor in m (to and from)
: Resistivity in per m if copper section (A) is 1 mm
2

R
L
: Line resistance in
P
L
: Transmission losses in the c.t. conductor in Watts
A : Copper section (mm)

- 19 -
Example:
We want the transmission loss with a 8m long (simple length) C.T. conductor with a copper
section of 2,5 mm and nominal current 5 A in the transformer:
P
L
= J
2
R
L

R
L
=
2 8m 0.0178 mm
2,5mm m
0.114
2
2

=

P
L
= 25 A
2
0.114=2.85 VA

With an overload of 20 % = 6 A the transmission loss already accounts for

36 A
2
0.114
V
A
=4.10 VA!

This makes plain why a correct C.T. rating is indispensible. The two diagrams below illustrate the
correlation of length of line and power loss using upper sections as parameters. In BELUK Power
Factor Control Relay types BLR-CA and -CB the current path 5 A or 1 A can be selected
individually by means of DIP switch (1).


Figure 8. Transmission |osses in the C.T. conductors
- 20 -
6. Explanatory Notes on the Compensation Procedure in General
(Based on Figure 9)

All power factor control relays must be set to the corresponding compensation systems in which
they are installed. To do this, two values must be known:

a) The required target power factor cos
b) C.T.-ratio, only in BLR-CM relays

In regards to a) it is recommended to set the desired nominal power factor cos slightly above
the value demanded by the power supply company. This target value can only be respected at the
measuring point. If reactive energy is metered on the medium voltage level it is essential to take
into account also the reactive power demand of the transformer(s) (see also chapter 7.2). In case
of reactive power compensation in all four load quadrants (see chapter 7.1.1 and 7.1.2) cos has
to be set to unity (=1).

The power supply company allows the consumer free reactive energy up to an achieved power
factor which is equal to cos = 0,9 inductive. To prevent, in all cases, the current cos value
from dropping below the required value, it has been proven advantageous in practice to set the
nominal cos to approximately 0,93 to 0,95 inductive, depending on the installed capacitor
ratings.

In figure 9, the set nominal cos = 0,9 inductive is indicated by the dashed and dotted line
(-.-.-.-) at an angle of 25.4 to the real axis (active current = vertical axis).

In regards to b) BELUK Power Factor Control Relays of the types CA, CB, CC and CD
determine the C/k-value automatically. They control the compensation effect of each capacitor.
There is no need to preset any C.T. ratio.

In the case of regulators type BLR-CM, the C.T.-ratio must be preset to ensure correct indication
of energy data; e.g.: Power, Current, Energy etc.
- 21 -
6.1 Relationship between Response Value (C/k-Value) and cos- setting

We will use the example of reactive current calculated in item 4.1 as an essential technical value to
get a better understanding of the coherences up to figure 10.

In figure 9, this response value is shown as a band with the width of 2 C/k and the nominal cos
slope. This band symbolizes the so-called "dead range" of the relay. The system is compensated
completely when a load factor is covered fully by this band.

This is not clearly apparent with relays of the C-series. As long as the nominal cos (shown in the
display) is not identical to the target cos (digital technique) the relay searches for the right
capacitor. A small decimal point flashes over the symbols "+" or "-". The factor 0,60 only applies
when the relay is in search of the right capacitor, that means that on account of the deviation of the
nominal cos from the target cos , the resulting reactive power might be less than 60% of the
smallest capacitor size. Thus, the relay does not activate any step!

The reactive power is always the deciding factor for the regulating circuit and
never just the power factor cos !

Mathematically written: Q = U I s/n

The phase displacement angle thus is just a partial factor!

In figure 10 the following data have been assumed (example):
Nominal voltage: 400 V; 50 Hz
Current transformer: 250/5 A; k = 50
Capacitor power step: 10 kVAr (ratio 1:1:1:1...)



- 22 -


Figure 9. Target Power Factor Setting




- 23 -
The load condition plotted on the diagram with 183 A at a cos = 0,77 inductive must be
improved to nominal cos = 0,9. As can be seen, the current vector lies away beyond the C/k
band.

After the first capacitor stage has been connected relatively quickly, the cos value improves to
0,810, but this still does not suffice. The second capacitor stage with 10 kvar (15,2 A reactive)
follows, and the new cos is 0,846.

The resulting current vector still lies outside of the C/k band. Compensation is not completed until
the third capacitor stage is connected. At 157 A and cos = 0,886, the compensated load vector
lies completely within the C/k band. We can see from this that step compensation systems are
seldom capable of achieving the nominal cos exactly, but a monthly average of 0,9 must appear
in the electricity bill provided that measuring and metering point are identical (not in case of high
voltage metering!)

Naturally, the power factor may deviate greatly from the required power factor if the load values
are less. The load case indicated on figure No. 9 with values of 35 A and cos = 0.770, still just
does not suffice for control to take place.

For comparison, compensation to cos = 1 has been plotted on Figure 9 in the form of a broken
line. Basically, a capacitor rating of 50 kVAr is required. The current vector is reduced by 16 A to
141 A at cos = 0,996 capacitive.

Unless the power supply company expressly demands a power factor of 1, the decision is left with
the customer whether he wishes to install this relatively high and expensive capacitor rating in
order to reduce the current by relatively slight amounts.

For energy-saving measures, the energy cost study as detailed in chapter 3 should be taken into
account.




- 24 -
6.2 Power Factor Control Relays with Automatic C/k-Adjustment (C-series)

Some manufacturers of power factor control relays have departed from direct C/k value setting. As
is indicated in chapter 4.1, this value determines the response sensitivity, which is a component of
reactive power, so that the smallest capacitor is actuated only when a minimum of 60...70% of the
capacitor step power is present as an inductive load.

The microprocessor based control, which is very common in the field of automatic control
engineering, makes it possible to sense the compensating effect of each capacitor and thus to store
all capacitor sizes in the course of the control process.

The power factor control relay types BLR-CA, BLR-CB and BLR-CC of the C-series do not
require any presetting either of the current transformer ratio nor of capacitor sizes. These relays
measure the capacitors' size automatically in the daily control routine in the form of "units of
value" and rectify the registered values continuously. Defective capacitor steps are eliminated
from the control process. It is no longer necessary to run test routines/test switchings for the
recoginition of capacitor sizes as required from some other manufacturers; this way unnecessary
switchings can be avoided in favour of the contactors' rating life.

Furthermore they no longer follow fixed switching programmes as described in chapter 4.2., the
only exception being the case of equally sized capacitors which are switched with the well-known
circular switching programme (see chapter 4.3). Otherwise the relays of the "C"-series always
select the appropriate unit to meet the changing reactive load demand. In this connection, of
course, tolerances of the capacitors can have an effect also.

In special cases, however, it is essential to follow fixed switching programmes for example in
specially choked plants. In this case, the classical power factor control relay types BLR-CM
provides for selecting fixed switching programmes.

The self adapting power factor control relays of the C-series can be operated easily - even without
any operating instructions - and started by qualified personnel if the relay is correctly connected.
The relays are preset at the factory to a target cos = 1 and a switching time delay of 40 sec per
step.


- 25 -
As shown in the figure 11 below of the BLR-CB relay, the most important operating elements 3, 4
and 5 are located behind the removable name plate.


Figure 10. View of BLR-CB 06

By means of function switch (3) - 10 positions selectable by standard and 16 optionally - the most
important target values like cos , switching time and limitation of steps can be modified using
buttons 4 and 5. On the display (8) there are indicated and confirmed the selected values. Further
functions are available as a standard feature (except BLR-CC 03), e.g. manual operation and
indication of:
a) Defective capacitor steps
b) Switching operations per step
c) "Units of value" per capacitor
(The indicated value is just proportional to the capacitor's power.)

Further details can be seen in the installation and commissioning instructions supplied with each
relay.

As the self-adjusting power factor control relays depend on the compensation effect of each single
capacitor, they do not respond to "compensation" of (controlled) rectifiers, because the capacitors
do not compensate reactive energy but rather "trickle charge" the pulsating current - especially in
case of 6-pulse rectifiers (further details can be seen in Mr Hofmann's article "Reactive power does
not always mean Reactive Power", ETZ 22/95) .

1 Transformer switch-over 5A / 1A
(except BLR-CC)

2 Alarm ON/OFF

3 Function Switch

4/5 +/- Button

6 Stage indicator

7 TTL-Interface
(except BLR-CC and CD)

8 Display/ Cos Indication
- 26 -
7. Reactive Power Compensation in the Four Load Quadrants

7.1.1 Technical Consideration


Please refer to figure 11 for a better understanding of the following text. In electrical systems
referred exclusively to consumed active energy, reactive energy is controlled only in quadrants I
and II of the illustrated coordinate system.

This means that the vector P (active power) can only have a positive sign. Only vector Q can have
both signs, namely "+" for inductive and "-" for capacitve reactive power. In the former case,
reactive energy is extracted from the network, while in the latter case reactive energy is returned to
the network.


Figure 11
- 27 -
Two different target power factor setting lines (cos setting on the reactive power control relay),
namely cos = 0,90 inductive and cos = 1 are shown in the coordinate system. The broken lines
on either side of the vector line indicate the response thresholds set on the control relay. Thus, two
strips are produced whose areas symbolize the "dead range" or "range of insensitivity". If a load
vector, e.g. (1) falls into such a set range, the relay has compensated properly. This applies to load
case 3, which compensates with one capacitor stage to approx. 0,92 inductive (1) and with four
capacitor stages to approx. 0,99 capacitve (2) depending on the cos value set on the control
relay.

If, however, active energy is fed back from the system concerned into the public mains by an
existing generator, control is displaced to quadrants III and IV of the coordinate system.

As far as the amounts are concerned (apparent current), the same load case has been chosen for an
easier understanding, but referred to generator operation (load vector 4). At the same time, it can
be seen clearly that compensation is symmetrical when cos = 1 is set on the control relay (5), i.e.
also only 4 capacitor stages suffice for compensation.

The difference between motor and generator operation does not become clear until the target
power setting on the control relay deviates from 1. In generator operation, a relay set to cos =
0,90 inductive compensates to cos = 0,90 capacitive (6), needing 6 capacitor stages to do this.

This knowledge is indispensable in order to enable selection of the corresponding reactive power
control relay. For mixed operation (generator/motor), therefore, it is recommended to set the cos
to unity to obtain symmetrical compensation. When settings deviate from cos = 1, the mirror-
image control response on reversal of the active load must be taken into account. If a control relay
is to compensate to cos = 0,9 inductive in generator mode, it will want to compensate to 0,9
capacitive in motor mode and vice versa.

It is useful to set target cos = 1 not only for technical but also for commercial reasons (see next
chapter 7.1.2).

Referring to the measuring point "incoming supply", Figure No. 12 shows some unusual power
factors that could occur with generator operation. The present power factor can scatter over all
four quadrants from 1 to 0 inductive, and again over 1 (feedback ) to 0 capacitive!

As mentioned in chapter 6.1, power factor cos is not helpful to gain an insight into the existing
quantity of reactive power!


- 28 -
Variation of Power Factor on Import and Export of Power


Case a): All power imported










Case b) Power partly supplied
by Generator(s)









Case c) All Power supplied
by Generator(s) and
Power Export








Measuring point: Current Transformer at Main Incomer or at Metering Point

Figure 12. Power Factors in Four-Quadrant-Operation (Import/Export of Power)
P
N S
Q
P
N
P
V
cos

= 0,23
S
Q
P
G
cos

= 0,24
S
Q
P
G
cos = 0,73
- 29 -
7.1.2 Commercial Consideration

As indicated in 7.1.1, a technically practical and simple solution is possible in four-quadrant-
operation with BELUK standard power factor controllers by adjusting the target power factor cos
to 1.

This technical argumentation influences also the commercial decision. Most power supply
companies demand a minimum power factor cos = 0,9 inductive.

Financially, this means that the customer will not be charged for 50 % of the consumed active
energy as reactive energy.

What will happen, though, if the owner of a generator meticulously avoids receiving any kWh of
energy from the supplier or even feeds active energy back into the network?

What is more: those 50 % would not be restituted to him. Since 50 % of 0 equals 0, generator
owners, at that, are forced from a commercial point of view to completely compensate any amount
of reactive energy!

It should not be forgotten that of course here, too, the demand of the generator for reactive energy
shows its impact.

A closing remark to this subject: An operation of generators just for a few hours - as would for
example be the case if a stand-by set is tested once a month, is not to be regarded as a genuine
"four-quadrant-operation", i.e. only such equipment is concerned where generators are in constant
parallel use .

- 30 -
7.2 Reactive Power Compensation with Mixed Measurement

Energy loads with a large requirement frequently obtain their current through transformers from
the medium voltage network (20 kV). Here, it appears appropriate to measure the reactive power
in the high voltage system. This means that a current transformer must be provided for this
purpose. However, voltage transformers are not always accessible in the high voltage system, with
the result that the voltage for measurement must be tapped from the low voltage system.



Figure 13. Reactive Power Compensation with Mixed Measurement'

This results in a so-called "mixed measurement" because the current for measurement of the
reactive power control relay's current path must be tapped from the high voltage side and the
voltage measurement must be obtained from the low voltage side.

This offers the advantage that the control relay also registers and compensates the reactive power
of the main transformer.

BLR
CA-12
20 kV / 50 Hz
50 A / 5 A; k = 10 (Phase L2)
Transformator
1250 kVA
20 kV / 0,66 kV
Dd 6
660 V / 50 Hz
Kompensation
12 x 60 kvar
660 V / 400 V
(Phasen L3/L1)
- 31 -
To ensure that the control relay will actually measure reactive power, it goes without saying that
the phase rotation of the main transformer must be taken into account as shown below (Fig. 14).
As in the case of a reactive power meter, attention must be paid with our power factor control
relays (except type "e") to the fact that the measured voltage always has a 90 phase shift with
respect to the current path.

Connection Diagram for ,Mixed Measurement
Current transformer in L1 Measuring voltage
(H.V.-side) (L.V.-side)

Figure 14. Reactive Power Compensation with Mixed Measurement'

In vector groups Dy 5/Yz 5 or Dy 11/Yz 11, the reactive power control relay must be connected to
the voltage L2-N or N-L2 220...250 V. In the case of vector groups Dz 6 and Yy 6, our standard
control relays for 380...415 V measured voltage can be used. The latter vector goups are, however,
used only in special cases.

- 32 -
It is always necessary to assess in each individual case when use can be made of a "mixed
measurement". Particularly positioning of the capacitor bank or banks must be primarily oriented
to the location of the loads consuming the reactive power, in order to thus reduce the current in the
L.V. distribution system (please also see chapter 3).

7.2.1 Calculation of C/k-Value in case if Mixed Measurement
(only for Relays with manual C/k-Value in case of Mixed Measurement)

Before starting the determination of the response (C/k-value) of the power factor controller, please
consider that the current transformer measures on another voltage level - i.e. on the HV side.
When performing the C/k calculation (see chapter 4.1) the appropriate primary voltage must be
entered into the standard calculation formula.

With the help of the data from Figure No. 13 it is easy to calculate the C/k-value to be selected on
the relay:

Primary voltage: 20 kV
Current transformer: 50 A/5 A; k = 10
Capacitor power step: 60 kVAr
Ar
kV
k
k C 10 . 0
10 3 20
var 60
6 . 0 /

=

Clearly: If the reactive current amount supercedes

0.1 Ar k = 0.1 Ar 10 = 1 Ar

on the 20 kV-level - this corresponds to a reactive power of

Ar 20 kV 1.73 35 kvar
- the power factor controller will start to compensate.

Naturally, this represents no exception from the basic rule in reactive power compensation that all
reactive power coming after the current transformer - i.e.: also that of the main transformer - is
registered and monitored.

The reactive power requirement of the transformer - where not compensated by a fixed capacitor -
must be taken into account when dimensioning the compensation for the capacitor plant. An
approximate amount of 8-10 % of the rated power of the transformer must be assumed to call for
compensation.


- 33 -
8. Reactive Power Compensation with more than one Incoming Supply


8.1 Central Compensation by means of Summation Measurement

A number of industrial plants are supplied by two or more transformers, and, when planning their
compensation one must frequently proceed from the assumption that not always all transformers
are in operation at a time. From the point of view of reactive power compensation with the power
factor controller involved the main important details to know beforehand are: the number of
measuring c.t.'s, and their total transformation ratio - perhaps via summation transformer. Please
find below Figure No. 16 which displays an example of a supply operating via three incoming
supplies of 800 kVA each, of which - hypothetically - only two are in operation. Though this does
not exactly represent a standard case, let us assume that only one central compensation with one
power factor controller has been installed. This arrangement implies that the coupling switches
must of necessity remain closed throughout their operation to ensure all parts of the plant are to be
duly and constantly compensated. This is a disadvantage wherever a short-circuit power must be
mastered.

Figure 15. Centra| Compensation by means of Summation Measurement
- 34 -
The compensation has been connected near the incoming supply at transformer No. 2. Power is fed
in via transformers No. 1 and 3, as aforesaid, via the closed coupling switches.

Reactive Power is measured over one individual main c.t. - 1200 A / 5 A - for each incoming
supply; it is self-evident that each c.t. must be installed in the same phase: L1. The rated currents
of each of the three transformers are collected via summation transformer 5 A + 5 A + 5 A / 5 A.
No current is measured via transformer No. 2. Notwithstanding the fact that the plant is in service,
the total transformation ratio is measured as follows:


1200A 1200A 1200A
5A 5A 5A
5A 5A 5A
5A
3600A
15A
15A
5A
240 3 720
+ +
+ +

+ +
= = =
k = 720

The value of this total transformation ratio is the indispensible prerequisite to calculate the
response (C/k-value) for the power factor control relay. Here, it is of no concern at all how many
incoming supplies are in operation. Even if no transformer is switched in circuit, the total
transformation ratio exists; it is a factor relating merely to the compensation plant.

To determine the definite C/k-value please follow the customary mode - using the total
transformer constant "k" that you have just before calculated.

C/k =
0.6 P
U 3 k
0.6 33.3 kvar
0.4 kV 3 720
0,04Ar
c

=


=
Any technician working with reactive power compensation practically will face problems working
with the extremely low value of 40 mA (reactive), which is below 1 % of minimum sensitivity. Of
course, here the high transformation ratio of k=720 is the root of the problem.
- 35 -
In regulators with manual preset C/k-values (M-series), there is a cure left in case of this special
application: The factor 0,6 may be increased. Please refer to chapter 4.1 - Response value (C/k-
value) - where we have explained how the response value is at which amount of power per step in
the range between 0,6 and 0,9 the power factor control relay should start to compensate. This
implies that due to the adjustability of the response value at 0,05 Ar minimum it is linearly
increased in percentage terms following the rule of four:


0.60
0.04Ar
x
0.05Ar
0,06
0.05Ar
0.04Ar
= =
x = 0,75 = 75%

Consequently, the power factor control relay will not respond before 75 % of the capacitor's size
has been reached. Proceeding from the assumption of 33,3 kVAr this equals 0,75 x 33,3 kVAr =
25,0 kVAr. Thus there must be as much as 25 kVAr of reactive power before the power factor
controller switches steps into circuit. In plants as large as the example described above,
25 kVAr of reactive power does not import from the point of view of power factor compensation
when considering the installed capacitor power of 3 x 800 kVA = 2400 kVA.

Basically, a minimum response value of 1% of the nominal transformer current must be given also
for the power factor control relays of the C-series with self adjustment of the C/K-value.
Otherwise the relays of the C-series do not record any compensation effect and do not switch in
any capacitor. This has to be taken into account when planning a plant !

- 36 -
8.2 Individual Compensation of Each Incoming Supply

In continuing with the above subject, it must be said that the standard solution for such large plants
is to compensate each transformer separately. Notwithstanding the position of the coupling
switches, compensation is ensured. Figure No. 16 shows how each power factor controller
measures via the corresponding C.T. Here, of course, the total transformation ratio of all C.T.s
is no longer important, but rather that of each individual transformer, i.e.:

k
1200A
5A
240 = =
Only one third of the transmission ratio calculated in chapter 8.1 (k = 720) is left here.

C/k = Ar 0.18
240 3 kV 0.4
kvar 50 0,6
=

This value is above the requested minimum sensitivity of 1 %.


Figure 16. Individua| Compensation of each Incoming Supp|y
- 37 -
To ensure a smooth parallel operation of the power factor control relays - especially with closed
coupling switches - all adjustment of values prior to operation on the power factor controllers must
be done with utmost care and precision:

a) The target power factor adjusted must be the same on each relay.
b) The pre-determined switching time between the steps should differ 2 .. 3 sec between
each controller.

Following the recommendations in items a) and b) above an approximate synchronous operation
in so-called "Parallel mode" will be achieved. We would consider that it is a matter of chance that
all three regulators have the same amount of (de-) activated steps. However, the other possibility,
that one regulator has activated all of its capacitors and the next one has none may be excluded.

Due to the Fully Self Adjusting feature of the C-regulators, position of the coupling switch need
not be taken into account as noted in the following description:

In Individual Mode (with the coupling switches closed) each regulator is able to sense just 1/3 of
its capacitor sizes, as the capacitor current will be distributed over all three feeding transformers.
If the minimum sensitivity of 1 % as previously described is ensured, then proper control of the
reactive power will be guaranteed by the Fully Self Adjusting feature. This capability is not
available in regulators with manual C/k-setting.

In periods of maintenance sometimes it is necessary to switch off, say, one power transformer. The
regulator of the capacitor bank belonging to this transformer will receive no signal from its
reference C.T. The current is equal to zero, which will be indicated in regulators display with the
digital symbols I-- . If the duration of this condition exceeds more than 10 minutes, then the
regulator will disconnect all activated steps automatically, if any are energised.

If this does not meet the customers intention there is the possibility to activate any number of
steps, as requested, via manual mode (see instructions).

After completing the maintenance procedure the relay should be changed back to automatic
mode.
- 38 -
9. How to Trace Possible Mistakes when connecting Power Factor
Control Relays of the Series C

1. Please check the rotation field of both the incoming supply and the capacitor bank: uniform
right-hand rotation field is required!
2. Please follow the transformer wiring by the eye: The transformer must record in phase L1 in
the incoming supply the total current of all of the load to be corrected including the capacitor
bank.
Should it be too complicated to follow the transformer wiring, it is also possible to trace the
current transformer involved with the relay by short-circuiting the C.T.s in question. When
current = 0 the cos indication signals I - -
Please examine the connections K and L on the transformer, and k and l on the relay.
If necessary, switch in some steps manually in case of load shedding. The transformer
current present on the relay - measured by an ammeter connect in series with the relay - is
calculated below:
J
n Q
U k
=

3

n : Number of steps switched in circuit
Q : Power per capacitor step
U : Delta net voltage
k : C.T. ratio, for example 600 A/5 A; k = 120
4. Please check the phases in the capacitor bank:
Check for example, that L1 at the capacitor bank is identical with L1 at the incoming supply
(the same applies, of course, for L2/L2 and L3/L3)
Where necessary, please check by means of a voltmeter: If the phases are identical, there
will be zero voltage between these points.
Attention: Fuse the leads when measuring directly at the busbars!
5. If everything is in order according to point 4, please make sure the voltage path of the relay
is actually connected to phases L2 and L3.

- 39 -

6. If point 1 up to 5 are complied with, the examination of the relay itself can be started:
a) Check whether the theoretical calculation is higher than the
minimum sensitivity of 1 %; as per the example given below:
Q = 50 kVAr (power per capacitor step)
U = 500 V (delta voltage)
k = 1500 A / 5 A = 300
C k
k
kV
A
r
/ .
var
.
, =

= 0 6
50
0 5 3 300
012
This value is well above 0,05 A reactive (1%)
b) Power factor to be adjusted preliminarily to 1.

7. Please energize the relay. If there is no doubt there is inductive load the "+" will flash after
elapse of the pre-determined lock-out time (LED indicator on the front cover). In the case of
a flashing LED above "-", then L2 and L3 will need to bwe reversed. The relay switches in
step after step in the pre-adjusted rhythm of the switching time between steps until a power
factor of about 1 has been attained.
8. Testing the Power Factor Control Relay:
Please start by switching over from automatic to manual operation (see details in the
corresponding installation and commissioning instructions) so as to overcompensate, for
example each step of 50 kVAr. If all of the steps are not required due to the load situation,
the LED "-" will flash when switching back to automatic operation. The relay reduces the
number of steps in circuit in order to be able to compensate away from the capacitive range
towards power factor cos = 1.
Should the power factor indication signal an inductive load in case of over-compensation,
the poles of either current or voltage field have been incorrectly connected, or you have a
left-hand rotation field!
9. If all above mentioned points have been checked and corrected where necessary, the only
remaining setting is to adjust the desired power factor cos on the relay. Please ensure the
relay is set back to the automatic operation mode!

- 40 -
10. Indirect Capacitor Control (z) on BELUK Power Factor Control
Relays, Type CA

The true Purpose of Harmonic Analysis

A few manufacturers of P.F. Control Relays are now offering Controllers with extremely
inadequate harmonic analysis indication. These devices, which are claimed to give an
approximate indication, have no practical value whatsoever. The reason for this is that the levels
of harmonic currents are never constant - they fluctuate continuously - so that instanteous values
are meaningless.

The first fact to be fully understood is that there never has been and never will be a power system
which is completely harmonic free. Harmonic free means an absolutely pure sinewave without
the slightest interference - a text book curve - as pure as H
2
O distilled water. Even at the
generators and further along the line at the transformers, deformities in the waveform will be
already starting to appear. A distilled waveform will not exist - let alone be corrected.

So which items of a plant are therefore effected by harmonics? Principally, any item in a plant that
is sensitive to voltage rates of change (mathematically du/dt). Power Capacitor Banks are the
items of plant which are principally affected. The current that will flow through the Capacitor is
dependent upon each change of voltage!

Mathematically written: i
c
= C du/dt

Since C is constant, the variation will depend upon du/dt. An especially developed switching
system controls the voltage dynamics in BELUK Reactive Control Relay types BLR-CA on
phases L2 and L3. From the calculated values of du/dt the corresponding capacitor currents will be
calculated and integrated over a measurement period of 8 minutes - similar to a bi-metal function.

If the capacitor overload is calculated to be over 120 % , then this will be indicated either optically
(as in serial equipment) or optionally by means of a signalling relay "z".

This will show the specialist that his capacitor bank that has not been fitted with blocking reactors
is running dangerously overloaded and protective measures must be taken immediately.

The harmonic spectrum is extremely wide and never constant. With the monitoring system
described above, the full spectrum will be monitored completely - in practice from the first to the
"nth" harmonic, such that the monitoring system will see exactly the same condition as the Power
Factor Correction Capacitor.