O'^

*
'

^-rrj.*

3r^*^.

V:,

THUHSTON

,"^tti

miwjWJw

in mjjj!t '.i Mu. 'j<i Un.au lu

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

Digitized by the Internet Arciiive

in

2007

witii

funding from

IVIicrosoft

Corporation

Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/castestribesofso07tliuriala

CASTES AND TRIBES

OF

SOUTHERN INDIA

CASTES AND TRIBES

OF

SOUTHERN INDIA
BY

EDGAR THURSTON,
Superintendent, Madras Government

c.i.e.,

Museum
;

Correspondant Etranger,

Soci^t^ d'Anthropologie de Paris

Societa

Socio Corrispondante,

Romana

di

Antbropologia.

ASSISTED BY

K.

RANGACHARI,
of the

m.a.,

Madras Government Museum.

VOLUME VIIT

TO Z

GOVERNMENT

PRESS,

MADRAS

1909.

College

Library

V.7

CASTES

AND

TRIBES
INDIA.
VII.

OF SOUTHERN
VOLUME

^ABELU
jvjj

(tortoise).

sept

of

Aiyarakulu,

?^

and section of Gazula

Velama.

Kapu and Koppala

shave

Taccha Kurup. Barbers who

Kammalans.

Malabar

Tacchan.The name
as an

of the carpenter sub-division

of Kammalans, and further returned, at the census, 1891,

occupational

sub-division

by some

Paraiyans.
for

Taccha Karaiyan has been recorded as a name

some

members

of the Karaiyan fishing caste.

The Taccha-

sastram, or science of carpentry, prescribes in minute

details the rules of construction.

Tacchanadan Muppan.

Recorded,

in

the Madras

Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a sub-division of Kuricchans, and of Kurumbas of the Nilgiris.

Tadan. 5^^ Dasari. Tagara.A section of Poroja. Takru.A class of Muhammadan

in the

pilots

and

sailors

Laccadive islands.
(a chief).
is

{See Mapnilla.)
title

Talaivan

of the Maravans.

Jadi

or Jati Talaivan

the

name

of the hereditary chief

of the Paravas of Tinnevelly, who, at times of pearl

fisheries, receives

a fixed share of the

'

oysters.'

Talamala.A

sub-division of Kanikar.

2005015

TALAYARI

2
(talai,

Talayari. The Talayari

undepartmental village

head) or chief watchis

man, or Uddari (saviour of the

village),

a kind of
generally

policeman,

who

is

known
follow

as the Talari.

Among

other duties, he has to

to act as a

on the track of stolen

cattle,

guard

over persons confined in the village choultry (lock-up),

to attend

upon the head of the

village during the trial of

petty cases, to serve processes, and distrain goods.

In

big villages there are two or three Talayaris, in which

case one
quarter.
is

a Paraiyan,

who

officiates in the

Paraiya

In parts of the Telugu country, the Mutrachas,

who
or

are the village watchmen, are

in

known

as Talarivallu,

watchman people, and,

in

like

manner, the Bedars

are called Talarivandlu

districts.
It is

the

Kurnool and Bellary

noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district

that

(1906),

"from the

earliest

years of the British

occupation of the country, fees were paid to the talaiyari

or village watchman.
state of society in

He

was probably

survival of a
exist,

which kavalgars did not

and

his

duties were,

it

seems, to look after the villagers'

floors.

fields

and threshing existence even

(^see

At any

rate,

he continued in

after the abolition

of the kaval system

Maravan), and was declared by the early Police

Practically he did

Regulation (XI of 1816) to be part of the regular police

establishment.
little real

police duty,

and
all

in i860,

when

the mufassal police

was reorganised,

claims to the services of the talaiyari as a servant of

the State were formally abandoned, the Inspector-General

of Police having

reported

that any attempt to utilise

the talaiyari body would be fruitless and unpopular.

Talaiyaris
still

continue to be employed and paid by the

ryots (cultivators) as the private guardians of their crops

and harvested

grain.

Recently, however, the district was

TALI

brought into
creation of a

line

with the rest of the Presidency by the

force of talaiyaris,

new

who now perform

the police duties assigned

to such persons elsewhere.

They

are provided with lathis (sticks) and badges, and

are a useful auxiliary to the police."

Tali. "The tali," Bishop Caldwell writes,* "is the Hindu sign of marriage, answering to the ring of European Christendom. I have known a clergyman
refuse to perform a marriage with a
tali,

and

insist

upon

a ring being used instead.

little

consideration will

show that the scrupulous conscience can find no rest for

itself

even

in the ring

for, if

the ring
its

is

more Christian
Christians

than the
is

tali, it is

only because

use

among

more ancient. Every one knows that the ring has a Pagan origin, and that, for this reason, it is rejected by Quakers." "The custom," Wagner informs us,t "of wearing the wedding ring on the fourth finger of the left hand had unquestionably a Pagan origin. Both the Greeks and the Romans called the fourth left-hand finger the medicated finger, and used it to stir up mixtures and potions, out of the belief that it contained a vein, which communicated directly with the heart, and
therefore nothing noxious could

come

in contact
vital

with

it,

without giving instant warning to that

organ."

The marriage badge,

is,

as

it

occurs in Southern India,

broadly speaking, of two types.

the Tamil castes
is

The one

in use

among
top.

oblong

in shape,

with a single

or double indentation at the base, and rounded at the

The corresponding
tali

bottu or sathamanam of the

is

Telugu and Canarese castes

flat

or cup-shaped disc.

The

in

use

among
is

various Malayalam castes at the

tali-kettu

ceremony

a long cylinder.

* Ind. Ant. IV, 1875.

f Manners, Customs, and Observances.

VII-1 B

TALI-KETTU KALYANAM

Tali-kettu kalyanam (tali-tying marriage). ceremony gone through by Nayar girls, and girls of some other Malayalam castes, in childhood. Of those who gave evidence before the Malabar Marriage Commission, some thought the tali-kettu was a marriage, some not. Others called it a mock marriage, a
formal marriage, a

sham marriage,

fictitious

marriage,

a marriage sacrament, the preliminary part of marriage,

a meaningless ceremony, an empty form, a ridiculous

farce,

an incongruous custom, a waste of money, and

in

a device for becoming involved

debt.
strict
is

" While," the

Report
still

states, " a small

minority of

conservatives

maintain that the tali-kettu

a real marriage
as a

intended to confer on the bridegroom a right to cohabit

with the bride, an immense majority describe

fictitious

it

marriage, the origin of which they are at a loss

to explain.

And

another large section tender the expla-

nation accepted by our President (Sir T. Muttusami

Aiyar), that in

some way

or other

it

is

an essential

caste observance preliminary to the formation of sexual

relations."

him,

summing up the evidence collected by Mr. Lewis Moore states * that it seems to be
In
all

proved beyond

reasonable doubt
all

that

"

from the

up to the early portion of the nineteenth century, the relations between the sexes in families governed by marumakkathayam (inheritance in the female line) were of as loose a
sixteenth century at
events, and

description as

it

is

possible to imagine.

The
all

tali-kettu

kalyanam,

brought about by the Brahmans, brought

in

about no improvement, and indeed,

sanction
to

probability,

made matters much worse by giving a

a
fictitious

quasi-religious

marriage,

which

bears

an

Malabar

Law and Custom,

1905.

TAMBALA

unpleasant

resemblance to the sham marriage cereelsefor prostitution {see

monies performed among certain inferior castes

where as a cloak
teenth century,

Deva-dasi).

As

years passed, some time about the opening of the nine-

the Kerala

mahatmyam and

Keralol-

pathi were concocted, probably by Nambudris,

and

false

and pernicious doctrines as to the obligations

the Nambudris were disseminated abroad.
classes

laid

on

the Nayars by divine law to administer to the lust of

The

better

among

the Nayars revolted against the degrad-

ing system thus established, and a custom sprang up,

especially in

North Malabar, of making sambandham a more or less formal contract, approved and sanctioned by the Karnavan (senior male) of the tarwad * to which the lady belonged, and celebrated with elaborate ceremony under the pudamuri (female cloth cutting) form. That there was nothing analogous to the pudamuri prevalent
in

may,

think,
to
it

be
in

fairly

allusion
writers."

Malabar from A.D. 1500 to 1800 presumed from the absence of all the works of the various European
to

Act IV, Madras, 1896, samalliance between a man and woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom of the community to which they belong, or either of them belongs, cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife.

According

bandham means an

Tainbala. The Tambalas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as " Telugu-speaking
temple
priests.

Their social position difers

in different

localities.

They are regarded as Brahmans in Godavari, Kistna and Nellore, and as Sudras in the other Telugu
It is

districts."
* Tarwad

noted, in the

Census Report,

that the

marumakkathayam

family, consisting of all the descendants in

the female line of one

common

female ancestor.

TAMBAN
who worship

Tambalas are described by C.

beggars,
Siva,

Brown as a class of and who beat drums

P.
;

secular priests, etc.

These men are generally Sudras,

" It
is

but wear the sacred thread.

said that, during his

peregrinations in the north, Sankaracharya appointed

Tamil Brahmans
Saiva shrines.
of

to

perform temple services

the

in all the

Hence
are

Telugu people,

in the

midst

whom

the Tamilians lived, called them the Tambalas

(Tamils).

They

not

now, however, regarded as

Brahmans, whatever their original position may have Most of them been. They will eat only with Brahmans.
are Lingayats. The Smarta Brahmans officiate as their priests at birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. They do not eat animal food, and all their religious rites are more or less like those Their usual titles are Aiya and Appa." of Brahmans.
are Saivites, and a few

Tamban.
Travancore.

One

of the divisions of Kshatriyas

in

{See Tirumalpad.)

Tambi (younger brother). A term of affection in the

Tamil country, used especially when a younger person
being addressed.
It is
is

also recorded as an honorific title

of Nayars in Travancore, and a suffix to the

names of Nayar sons of Travancore sovereigns. Tambiran. The name for Pandaram managers of temples, e.g., at Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot. Tamburan. For the following note on the Rajahs or Tamburans, I am indebted to the Travancore Census " They form an endogamous community Report, 1901. of Kshatriyas, and live as seven families in Travancore. They are distinguished by the localities in which

they reside,

viz.,

Mavelikkara, Ennaikkat, Kartikapalli,

Mariappalli, Tiruvalla, Praikkara, and Aranmula.

are

all

related by blood,

They the connection between some of

tamburAn
all

them being very

close.

Like the Koiltampurans,

birth

the

members of

their

community observe

pollution with reference to each other.

and death Their original

is

home

is

Kolattunat in North Malabar, and their immi-

gration into Travancore, where the reigning family

of the Kolattunat stock,

main, with the

invasion of Malabar by

was contemporaneous, in the Tippu Sultan.

The

came into the country from Kolattunat was the Putuppalli Kovilakam in the 5th century M.E. (Malabar era). The Travancore royal family then
first

family that

stood in need of adoption.

The then Rajah arranged

for adoption, as his
fruitless.

through a Koiltampuran of Tattarikkovilakam to bring

from Kolattunat two princesses
tiations

nego-

with the then Kolattiri were

The
The
But

Puttuppali Kovilakam

members thus

settled themselves

at Kartikapalli, the last of

whom died in
also

1030 M.E.

next family that migrated was Cheriyakovilakam, between

920 and 930 M.E.

their right

They

came

for adoption.

was disputed by
settled

another house, Pallikkovi-

lakam.

They then

themselves at Aranmula.

The

third series of migrations

were during the invasion

of Malabar by
there at

Tippu in 964 M.E. All the Rajahs living the time came over to Travancore, of whom,

however,

many

returned

home

after a time.

The

Rajahs, like the Koiltampurans, belong to the

laid

Yajurveda section of Dvijas, but follow the sutra

down by Baudhayana.
gava,
i.e.,

Their gotra

is

that of Bhar-

Parasurama, indicating in a manner that these

are Kshatriyas

who were accepted by Parasurama, the uncompromising Brahmin of the Hindu Puranas. They
have
all

the Brahminical Samskaras, only the Brahmin

priest does
tuft

most of them on
is

their behalf.

Chaulam, or

ceremony,

performed along with Upanayanam.

or termination of the pupil stage,

The Samavartanam,

TAMBURAN
is

celebrated on the fourth day of the thread investiture.

Instruction in

arms
to

is

then given to the Kshatriya boy,

until the requisite skil

and

is

supposed

be kept up

has been obtained.

The

tali-tying (niangalya
is

dharanam

or pallikkettu of a Raja lady)

done by a Koiltampuran,

who The Kanyakadanam,

Sastraic rites.
first

thereafter lives with her as her married husband.

or giving

away of

the bride,

is

performed by the priest

who

attends also to the other

If

The males

take Sudra consorts.

or

the

husband leaves by death

otherwise,

another

Koiltampuran may be accepted.

This

is

not called

marriage, but kuttirikkuka (living together).

At Sradhas (memorial
spiritual

services), the Karta, or per-

former of the ceremony, throws a flower as a mark of

homage

at the feet of the

Brahmins who are

in the

invited to represent the manes,

and greets them

conventional form (namaskara).

other ceremonies.

The

priest

does the

After the invited Brahmins have been

duly entertained, oblations of cooked rice are offered

to the ancestors

by the Karta

himself.

They
Sandhya
Their

are to repeat the Gayatri

ten times at each

prayer, together with the Panchakshara

and

the Ashtakshara mantras.

caste

government
Their

is

in the

hands of the
belong
Tiruveli

Nambutiri
to the
Pottis.

Vaidikas.

family

priests

class of

Malayala

Pottis,

known

as

Besides the ordinary names prevalent

among

Koil-

tampurans, names such as

Martanda Varma, Aditya Varma, and Udaya Varma are also met with. Pet names, such as Kungaru, Kungappan, Kungoman, Kungunni, Unni and Ampu are common. In the Travancore Royal House, the first female member always takes

the

name

of

Lakshmi and the second

that of Parvati.

TANDAN

Tamoli. A
census.
occur.
I

few members of this North India caste

of betel-leaf sellers

have been returned at times of

district

am

unable to discover in what

or

they

Tambuli
on
a

Tamuli
Bengal,

is

recorded as a caste of
the

betel-leaf sellers in

and Tamboli as a caste

in

carrying

similar

occupation

Bombay

Presidency.

Tanamanadu.A Tanda.The word

encampment

sub-division of Valaiyan.
literally refers to

a settlement or
it is,

of the Lambadis, by

some of whom

at

times of census, returned as a tribal synonym.

Madras Census Report, 1891, that "in Walluvanad and Palghat (in Malabar) Tandan is a distinct caste. The ceremonies observed by Tandans are, in general outline, the same as those of the southern Tiyyans, but the two do not
is

Tandan. It

recorded, in the

intermarry, each claiming superiority

over the other.

Tandan females There is of Walluvanad from crossing a channel which separates that taluk from Mankara on the Palghat side." The
a custom which prohibits the

Tandans of Malabar are described by Mr. F. Fawcett

as a people allied to the Izhuvans,

who observe
the

the

custom of fraternal
abhor.

polyandry, which

Izhuvans

For the following note on the Tandans of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The castemen are known as Uralis to the south of Varkailay, and Tandans to the north of it. In some
places to the east of Kottarakaray, they were popularly

termed Mutalpattukar, or those who receive the first perquisite for assistance rendered to carpenters. In the
days when there were no saws, the rough instruments of the Tandan served their purpose. Hence some members
of the caste were called Tacchan (carpenter).

Tandan

TANDAN
is

lO

derived from the Sanskrit dandanam or punishment,

ancient times,

as, in

men

of this caste were employed

inflicted by the For the execution of such punishments, the Tandans were provided with swords, choppers and knives. As they were also told off to guard the villages (ur) of which they happened to be

to carry out the

punishments that were

authorities

upon offenders.

inhabitants, they acquired the title of Urali.

places,

In

some

Tandans are

also

called Velans.
title

females have respectively the

patti,

Males and Muppan and Mup-

meaning an elder. In addressing members of higher castes, the Tandans call themselves Kuzhiyan, or
dwellers in
pits.

The Tandans
same

are said to have once belonged to the

caste as the Izhuvans,

but to have fallen away

in

from that position.

joined the military

They must,
service

times gone by, have

in

of the various States

Malabar.

They

were, in

some

places, given rent-free

for the duties they

lands, called Urali

parambu, in return

were expected

to perform.

With the return of peaceful

times, their occupation changed,

palm
in the

trees,

and the climbing of to extract the juice thereof, became their

calling.

most important

They

are also largely

families

engaged
receive

manufacture of ropes.

Many

still

the mutalpattu, or allowance from the carpenters.

The Tandans The ornaments

are divided

into

four

endogamous

sections, called Ilanji, Puvar, Irunelli,

and Pilakkuti.
besides the minnu,

of the

women are,
is

wreaths of red and

red and black beads.

also worn.

Nowadays
Tattooing

the gold gnattu of the Nayars

is

popular.

Even males have a

crescent and a dot

tattooed on the forehead, the corresponding

mark

in

females being a line from the nasal pit upwards.

Among
shell,

the devices tattooed on the arms are the conch

TANDAN

lotus, snake, discus, etc.

In their food and drink the

Tandans resemble the

Iluvans.

The

priests

of the

Tandans are
is

called

Tanda

Kuruppus, and they are also the caste barbers.

chief deity

The
whose

of the

Tandans

Bhadrakali,

at

Mandaikkad, Cranganore, and Sarkkaray, At the last place, a offerings are regularly made.
shrines at

Tandan

is

the priest.

The

chief days for the worship

of this deity are Bharani asterism in

March and

Patta-

mudayam

in April.

November

is

a particularly religious
falls
is

month, and the day on which the Kartikay star

exclusively devoted to worship.

The

January
Pogala.

is

another religious occasion,

is

Sunday in and on that day

first

cooked food

offered to the rising sun.

This

is

called

Maruta, or
If

the spirit

of smallpox, receives

special worship.

member

of the caste dies of this

disease, a small shed

his

is

erected in his

memory
to

either at

home

or near the local Bhadrakali shrine, and offer-

ings of sweetmeats and toddy are

made
is

him on the

28th of

Makaram

(January- February).

Chitragupta, the

accountant of Yama, the god of death,

the full-moon day in April-May.

worshipped on
is

Ancestor worship
in July.
is

performed on the new-moon day

kettu,

A girl's tali-tying ceremony, which

takes place

called kazhuttu-

when she is between seven and The bridegroom is a relative called Machchampi. The Kuruppu receives a money present of 2 J fanams for every tali tied in his presence. Though more than one girl may go through the ceremony in the
twelve years old.

same pandal
groom.

(booth), each should have a separate bride-

The relations between

the bride and bridegroom

are dissolved by the father of the former paying the latter

sixteen rasi fanams.

aunt or

The daughter of a man's paternal maternal uncle may be claimed as murappen or

TANDAN
lawful
bride.

12

The sambandham,
if

or

actual

marriage,

takes place after a girl has reached puberty.

is

family

regarded as out-caste,

she has not previously gone

through the tali-tying ceremony.

Only the
the
rest

eldest

member

of a

family

is

cremated,
ten

being buried.

Death pollution
is

lasts for

days.

The

anniversary of a death

celebrated at the

sea-shore, where

cooked

{Sesamtim)
the sea.

is

offered to

mixed with gingelly the departed, and thrown into

food,
is

Tandan.^The Tandan
of a Tiyan tara (village),

the hereditary headman

and is a Tiyan by caste. He is appointed by the senior Rani of the Zamorin's family, or by some local Raja in territories outside the jurisdiction
of the Zamorin.
in

The Tandan

is

the principal person

the decision of caste disputes.

He

is

expected to

assist at the tali-tying, puberty,

marriage and pregnancy

caste.

ceremonies of members of the

mission
is

His formal per-

required before the carpenter can cut

down

the
tied

areca palm, with which the shed in which the

is

tali is

constructed.

In cases of divorce, his functions are

is built,

important.

When a new house

a house-warming

ceremony takes place, at which the Tandan officiates. Fowls are sacrificed, and the right leg is the Tandan's
perquisite.

He

is

many

affairs

within

man of importance, not his own caste, but also in

dies,
it is

only in
those of

other castes.

Thus, when a Nayar

the Tandan's

duty to get the body burnt. He controls the washerman and barber of the tara, and can withdraw their services when they are most needed. He officiates, moreover, at
marriages of the artisan classes.
indicates one

Tangalan.A sub-division of Paraiyan. The word who may not stand near, in reference to

their belonging to the polluting classes.

13

TELAGA

Tangedu.Tanged u or Tangedla {Cassia auriculata)

has been recorded as an exogamous sept of

Kapu and

Padma

Sale.

The bark
fruits),

of this shrub

is

one of the most

like

valuable Indian tanning agents, and

is,

myrabolams

{Terminalia
dyes.

used

in the

manufacture of indigenous

Tantuvayan

(thread

wearer)

An

occupational

name used by various weaving castes. The name, meaning those who Tapodhanlu.

believe in self-mortification as wealth, adopted by

some

Telugu mendicants.

See Muttan. Tartharol. The name, recorded by

Tarakan.

Dr.
is

W. H.

R.

Rivers,* of a division of the Todas.

Tartal

also given

by various writers as a division of

this tribe.
t as a

Tarwad.
kathayam

Defined by Mr. Wigram

common

marumak-

family, consisting of all the descendants in the

female line of one

female ancestor.
for

Tassan.A Malayalam synonym

Dasari.

the Telugu

Tattan. The
Teivaliol.

goldsmith section of the Tamil and

Malayalam Kammalans.

The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers,* of a division of the Todas. Telaga. "The Telagas," Mr. H. A. Stuart
" are a

writes,^

Telugu caste of

cultivators,

who were

formerly
of Telin-

soldiers in the armies of the

Hindu sovereigns
for the

gana.

name, for it is easy to see that the Telugu soldiers might come to be regarded as the Telugus or Telagas par excellence.

This may perhaps account

The

sub-divisions returned under this

there has been

*

name show that some confusion between the Telaeas

1906.

The Todas,

t Malabar

Law and Custom,

X Madras Census Report, 1891.

TELAGA
proper, and persons
castes.

14

who

are

members of other Telugu

The Telagas

are Vaishnavites, and have Brah-

mans

for their priests.

Their customs closely resemble

those of the Kapus.

to drink liquor.

They eat flesh, but are not allowed They are usually farmers now, but

many

still

serve as soldiers, though their further recruit-

ment has recently been stopped. Their common titles are Naidu and Dora." In a note on the Telagas and Vantaris (strong men),
it

is

suggested that they should be classed with the

reasons: "(i)
this
is

Kapus, of which caste they are an offshoot

lowing

for the fol-

Members
(2)

of the three classes

admit that

so

a collation of the intiperulu

or septs shows that the same names recur among the three classes (3) all three interdine, and intermarriage between them is not rare. A poor Telaga or Vantari
;

often gives his daughter in marriage to a rich

Kapu.

The Telagas and Vantaris and will have a Brahman for

selves

are

highly

Brahmanised,

their guru, and get them-

branded

at

his

hands.

content with a Satani or Jangam.

differ in their

Kapu is generally Though they do not

from the Kapus,

marriage and funeral

rites

they usually marry their girls before puberty,

remarriage and divorce are disallowed.
invariably a cultivator
;

and widow

Kapu

is

a Vantari was in olden days

a sepoy, and, as such,

owned inam
which

(rent-free)

lands.

Even now he has

(ordinarily

a prejudice against ploughing jirayati

lands,

assessed)
to
do.

Kapu

has

no

objection

Similarly,

a Telaga takes pride in

taking service under a Zamindar, but, unlike the Vantari,

he

will

plough any land.

Kapu women

will fetch their

water, and carry meals to the fields for their fathers and husbands. The women of the other classes affect the gosha system, and the men carry their own food, and fetch

own

15

TELLI
or,
if

water for domestic purposes,

well-to-do,

employ

Kapus for these services. It may be added that rich Kapus often exhibit a tendency to pass as Telagas." Telikula.The Telikulas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Telugu oil-presser
caste,

which should not be confused with Tellakula, a

for Tsakala, or

synonym
or

with

Telli,

a caste of Oriya
for

oil-pressers."

Telikula

is

a synonym

the Ganiga
oil

Gandla caste of
:

oil-pressers,

derived from the

(gingelly

Sesamum
refer

indicum), whereas the

to

names Ganiga
the

and Gandla
Circars, the

the oil-mill.
is

In
in

Northern
to

name
known
i.e.,

Telikula

used

preference

Ganiga or Gandla, and the

country are
are Onteddu,
oil-mill,

oil-pressers in that part of the

as Telikula-vandlu.

The

Telikulas

use a single bullock for working the

whereas,

among

the Ganigas, there are both

Onteddu and Rendeddu

sections,

which employ one and

two bullocks respectively.

Tellakula (white clan). Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, as a synonym for Tsakala. According to the Rev. J. Cain,* the Tellakulas are Telugu washermen
(Tsakalas), who,
in

consequence of having obtained

in

employment as peons
Telli.The country, whose

selves to be superior to

Government offices, feel themother members of their caste.

is

Tellis are the oil-pressers of the Oriya

caste

name

derived from telo,

oil.

They

are apparently divided into three

endogamous

sections,

named Holodia,

Bolodia,
is

and Khadi.
said to have

The
been

original occupation of the

Holodias

the cultivation and sale of turmeric.

carry turmeric and other

They may not

on the back

articles for sale

of bullocks, and consequently use carts as a

medium

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

TELLI
of transport thereof.

And
The

it

is

further contrary to their

caste rules even to assist in loading or unloading packs

carried by bullocks.

Bolodias receive their

name
for

from the

fact

that they carry produce in the form of

oil-seeds, etc.,

on pack bullocks, bolodo being Oriya

in
oil-mills,

bullock.

The Khadis
oils

are mainly engaged in expressing

various
carried

and

this

occupation

is

also

on by some members of the other sections. All Tellis seem to belong to one gotra, called Karthikeswara.

The

caste

title

is

Sahu.

In social position the

(oil-pressers), are

Tellis, unlike the

Tamil Vaniyans
five castes

on

a par with the agricultural castes, and are one of the

panchapatako, or
Badhoyis.

from which individuals are

selected to decide serious issues which arise

among

the

The headman
assisted

of the Tellis

is

called Behara,
in

and he
It
is

is

by a Bhollobaya, and

some

places

apparently by another officer called Pento.

considered by the Tellis as a breach of caste

If

rules to sail in a boat or ship.

a cow dies with a rope

it

round
fication

its

neck,

or on the spot where

is

tethered,

the family which

owned

it

is

under pollution

until puri-

has been effected by means of a pilgrimage, or

in

by bathing
bulls.

a sacred

river.

The Holodias

will not rear

at their houses, and do not castrate their Male calves are disposed of by sale as speedily Those Holodias who are illiterate make the as possible. mark (nisani) of a ball of turmeric paste as a substitute In like manner, the for their autograph on documents. nisanis of the Bolodias and Khadis respectively are the leather belt of a bullock and curved pole of the oilAmong nisanis used by other Oriya castes, the mill.

male calves

following

may be noted

Korono

(writer caste), style,

trident.

Ravulo (temple servants),

TELUGU
sickle.
fire-

Bavuri (basket-makers and earth-diggers),

Dhoba (washermen)
wood.

fork used for collecting

Brahman, ring of dharba grass, such as

on ceremonial occasions.

is

worn

In their marriage ceremonies, the Tellis observe the

standard Oriya type, with a few variations.

before the wedding, two

On

the day

young married women carry two new pots painted white on their heads. To support
up
to

the pots thereon, a single cloth, with the two ends rolled

form a head-pad, must be used.

married
basket, and

The two women,

carrying a

accompanied by another

woman

new winnowing
proceed, to
shell

mokkuto (forehead chaplet), the accompaniment of the music of a chank

and

pipes, to a temple, whereat they worship.

girls,

On

their

way home, the two

is

according to the custom of

other Oriyas castes, go to seven houses, at each of which

water

poured into their

pots.

During the marriage

ceremony, after the ends of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom have been tied together, they exchange myra-

bolams

Terminalia

fruits)

and areca

nuts.

Until the

close of the ceremonies, they

(pond) or

river, and, in

may not plunge into a tank bathing, may not wet the head.

and follow the Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, but some are Smartas, and all worship Takuranis (village deities). Telugu.Telugu or Telaga is used as a linguistic
Tellis are Paramarthos,

Most of the

term indicating a person who speaks that language.

has,

It

at

recent times of

census, been
classes,
e.g,,

returned as a

sub-division

of

various

Agasa,

Balija,

Kumbara, Uppara. Further, Telugu Vellala appears as a synonym of Velama, and Telugu
Banajiga, Bedar,

Bestha, Devanga, Holeya,

Rachewar,

Tsakala,

and

Chetti as a

synonym of Saluppan.

VIl-2

TEN

Ten
Holeyas.
yachi or

(honey).

Ten

or Jen has been recorded as a

sub-division or

exogamous sept of jungle Kurumbasand

Some Irulas style themselves Ten PadaiTen Vanniyan, Padaiyachi and Vanniyan being
Pallis.

title

and synonym of the

Tendisai (southern country).

sion of Vellalas in the

Recorded as

a divi-

Tene

(millet

Madura and Coimbatore districts. Setaria italica). An exogamous

sept of Holeya.

(cocoanut palm). The name of a section who tap the cocoanut for extracting toddy. Tennam.Tennam (cocoanut) or Tennanjanar (cocoanut tappers) is recorded as the occupational name

Tengina

of Halepaiks,

Tenkayala (cocoanut) occurs as an exogamous sept of Yanadi, and the equivalent Tennang as a tree or kothu of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans.
of Shanan.

Tennilainadu.

territorial sub-division of Kalian.

Terkattiyar
Kalian, Maravan,
into
it is

(southerner).

term

applied

to

Agamudaiyan, and other immigrants At Mayavaram, for example, the Tanjore applied to Kalians, Agamudaiyans, and Valaiyans.
district.

Tertal.

A division of Toda.
Chaliyans,

Teruvan.A synonym of the Malabar who are so called because, unlike most of the
castes, they
live in streets (teru).

west coast

Tevadiyal (servant of god). Deva-dasis. Tevan (god) occurs

The Tamil name

as a
title

for

of Maravans.

Teyyambadi.A

section of Ambalavasis or temple

servants in Malabar, the

members

of which dance and

sing in Bhagavati temples, and perform a song called

nagapattu (song in honour of serpents) in private houses,

which

is

supposed to be effective

in

procuring offspring.*

* Gazetteer of Malabar.

19

THANDA PULAYAN
meaning
rope,
is

Thadla.Thadla

or Thalia,

an

exogamous sept of Devanga and Kama Sale. Thakur.About a hundred members of this caste are returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as belonging to a Bombay caste of genealogists and cultivators.
It is

recorded, in the

Bombay
of

Gazetteer, that

Thakurs are idle and them till and twist woollen threads for blankets, they live chiefly by begging and ballad singing. At times they perform plays representing events mentioned in the Purans and Ramayan, and showing wooden puppets moved by
of unclean habits.

" inferior in rank to Marathas, the

Though some

strings."

Thalakokala
of Devanga.

(female cloths).

An exogamous sept
sept or

Thalam

(palmyra palm).
(sword bean

An exogamous

illam of Kanikar.

Thamballa

Canavalia ensiformis).

An exogamous

sept of Tsakalas,

members of which

will

not eat the bean.

Thamburi.A
Muhammadans,
marry wtih them.

class of people in

Mysore, who are

dress like Lambadis, but do not inter{See Lambadi.)

Thanda Pulayan.
Thanda Pulayans
Pulayans,

For the
in

following note,

am
The

indebted to Mr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Aiyar.*

constitute

a small

division

of the

who
is

dwell

South Malabar and Cochin.

The name

given to them because of the garment

worn by the females, made of the leaves of a sedge,

called thanda (apparently Scirpus articulatus),

which are

cut into lengths,

waist so that

woven at one end, and tied round the they hang down below the knees. The
I,

Monograph Eth. Survey, Cochin No.

VII-2 B

1905.

THANDA PULAYAN
following story
is

20

told with regard to the origin of this

costume.
in those

A
He

certain high-caste

man, who owned lands

parts,

chanced to sow seeds, and plant vegeto find that not a trace of

tables.

was surprised

was to be seen on the to clearing up the mystery, he kept a close watch during the night, and saw certain
what he sowed or planted With a view following day.

human

beings, stark naked,

come out
a

of a hole.

They
caught.

were pursued, and a

man and

woman were

Impressed with a sense of shame at their wretched condition, the high-caste man threw his upper garment
to the male, but,
for

having nothing to give as a covering

her.

the woman, threw some thanda leaves over are also called

The Thanda Pulayans

leafy

Kuzhi Pulayans,

as they were found emerging from a pit (kuzhi).

The

garment
to

is

said to be fast going out of fashion, as

Mappillas, and others

who own
cloths.

the Pulayans, compel

to the

them

wear cotton

According

Rev.

W. J.

Richards, a division of the Pulayans,

who

are called

Kanna
better,

Pulayans, and found near Alleppey, wear rather

and more
of the

artistically

made aprons.*
is

The
origin

following

legend

current

regarding
south,

the

Thanda Pulayans.

In the

the

Pulayans are divided into

sections.

the eastern

and western

The former were

the slaves of Duryodhana,

and the latter were attached to the Pandus. These formed the two rival parties in the war of the Mahabaratha, and the defeat of Duryodhana was the cause of
their degradation.

The Thanda Pulayans appear

slaves of the soil
till

to

have been the

1854,

Even now,

their

condition has not undergone

when they were emancipated. much

Ind. Ant., IX, 1880.

il
material improvement.

THANDA PULAYAN
they are
left

Though

more

to

work for farmers or landlords for If they run a daily wage of paddy (unhusked rice). away, they are brought back, and punished. There is a custom that, when a farmer or landlord wants a few Pulayans to work in the fields, he obtains their services on payment of fifteen to twenty rupees to them, or
themselves, they
still

to their master.

When

a Pulayan's services are thus

obtained, he works

for his

new master

for

two edangalis

of paddy a day.

They can

obtain their liberation on the

return of the purchase-money, which they can never

hope to earn.
will

Having no property which they can

claim as their own, and conscious perhaps that their lot

be the same wherever they go, they remain cheerful

and contented, drudging on from day to day, and have no inclination to emigrate to places where they can get higher wages. The Cherumars of Palghat, on the contrary,

enjoy more freedom.

to the

Many go

to the

Wynad,

and some
has been

Kolar gold-fields, where they receive

a good money-wage.
said,

bits of land.

The Thanda Pulayans work, as for some landlord, who allows them small The trees thereon belong to the master,

but they are allowed to enjoy their produce during their

residence there.

When

not required by the master,

they can work where they like. They have to work for him for six months, and sometimes throughout the year.

They have little to do after the crop has been garnered. They work in the rice-fields, pumping water, erecting bunds (mud embankments), weeding, transplanting, and reaping. Men, women, and children may be seen
working together.
After a day's hard work, in the sun
or rain, they receive their wages, which they take to the

nearest shop, called mattupitica (exchange shop), where

they receive

salt, chillies, etc., in

exchange

for

a portion

THANDA PULAYAN

22
is

of the paddy, of which the remainder

master's
field

cooked.

The

must be guarded at night against the encroachment of cattle, and the depredations of thieves and wild beasts. They keep awake by shouting aloud, singing in a dull monotone, or beating a drum. Given a
drink of toddy, the Pulayans will work for any length of
time.
It is

not

offences.
is

If

uncommon to see them thrashed for slight man is thrashed with a thanda garment, he

so
is

much

disgraced in the eyes of his fellowmen, that

he

not admitted into their society.

Some improve
to

their condition

by becoming converts
spirits of

Christianity.

Others believe that the

displeased,
if

the departed would be

they became Christians.

The Thanda Pulayan community is divided into exogamous illams, and marriage between members of the same illam is forbidden. Their habitations are
called matams,

which are miserable huts, supported on

sometimes
in the

wooden

posts,

middle of a paddy

field,

with walls of reeds, bamboo mats or mud, and thatched

with grass or cocoanut leaves.

few earthen pots,

constitute their

bamboo
property.

vessels,

and cocoanut
to

shells

They

are denied admission to the markets, and

must stand at a distance

Pulayan
girls

make
is

their purchases or sales.

are

married

either

before or after

attaining puberty, but there

is

special ceremony,

which
thanda

performed

for
is

every
called

girl

during her seventh or eighth

year.

This
It

thanda

kalyanam,

or

marriage.

consists in having the girl dressed at

an
for

auspicious hour in the leafy garment by a

rally a relative, or, in her absence,

woman, gene-

by one selected

the purpose.

The

relations

and friends are entertained

fish

at a feast of curry

and

rice,

from the backwater,

is

and toddy.

Prior to this ceremony, the girl

destitute

of clothing, except for a strip of areca bark.

23

THANDA PULAYAN

At the marriage ceremony, the tali (marriage badge) is made of a piece of a conch shell ( Turbine lla rapa), which She is is tied on the bride's neck at an auspicious hour. some paddy, gives her and taken before her landlord, who
all

the cocoanuts on the tree, beneath which she happens

to kneel.

When

the time has

come

for

her to be taken

to the hut of the bridegroom,

one of her uncles, taking

her by the hand, gives her into the charge of one of her
husband's uncles.

On

the third morning, her paternal

and maternal uncles visit her at the hut of the bridegroom, by whom they are entertained. They then return, with the bride and bridegroom, to the home of the former, where the newly-married couple stay for three days. To ascertain whether a marriage will be a happy one,
a conch shell
predicts
is

spun round.
;

If

it

falls to

the north,

it

good fortune
;

if

to the east or west, the

omens

are favourable

if

to the south, very unfavourable.

The Thanda Pulayans

tribal assemblies, the

follow the

of inheritance (from father to son).

makkathayam law They have their

members of which meet together on important occasions, as when a woman is charged with adultery, or when there is a theft case among them. All the members are more or less of equal status, and no superior is recognised. They swear by the sun, raising " their hands, and saying By the sun I did not." Other oaths are " May my eyes perish "or " May my head be
cut off by lightning."

Every kind of sickness is attributed to the influence of some demon, with whom a magician can communicate, and discover a means of liberation. The magician, when called in professionally, lights a fire, and seats himself beside it. He then sings, mutters some mantrams
(prayers),

and makes a discordant noise on his iron plate (kokkara). The man or woman, who is possessed by

THANDA PULAYAN
the demon, begins to
is

[24

made

to

make unconscious movements, and speak the truth. The demon, receiving
him or her free. A urasikotukkuka, is sometimes
from the hut, a
leaf,

offerings of fowls, sheep, etc., sets

form of ceremonial, called

performed.

At a place

far distant

on which the blood of a fowl has been made to fall, is spread on the ground. On a smaller leaf, chunam (lime) and turmeric are placed. The person who first on these becomes possessed by the dem6n, and
the individual who was previously under
In the event of sickness, the sorcerer
hut.
is

sets eyes

sets free

its

influence.

invited to the

He

arrives in the evening,

and

is

entertained with

food, toddy,

and

betel.

He then takes a tender cocoanut,

some powdered
leaf.

flower of the areca palm, and

rice,

which
is

he covers over with a palm

Outside the
circle,
is

The
is

sick person

placed in front thereof, and a circle

drawn round him.

circle,

an iron stylus

is

stuck in the ground.

The demon
and makes

supposed to be confined within the

I

the patient cry out "

am
me,"

in pai (influence
etc.

of the ghost) and

he

is

beating

With the
departure.

promise of a fowl or sheep, or offerings thereof on the

spot,

demon Sometimes, when

the
tulsi

is

persuaded to take

its

the sorcerer visits a house of sickness,

a rice-pan containing three betel leaves, areca nuts,

paddy,

[Ocimzim sanchmt), sacred ashes, conch and

shells,
is

cowry i^Cyprcea monetd)

placed in the yard.

The

sorcerer

sits

in

front

of the pan, and begins to

in his hands,

worship the demon, holding the shells

and
then
it,

turning to the four points of the compass.

He

observes the omens, and, taking his iron plate, strikes

while he chants the names of terrible demons, Mullva,

Karinkali,

Aiyinar,

and

Villi,

and

utters incantations.

This

is

varied by dancing, to the music of the iron plate,

till

sometimes from evening

noon on the following day.

THANDA PULAYAN.

25

THANDA PULAYAN

.The sick person works himself up into the belief that he has committed some great sin, and proceeds to make
confession,
is

when a small money

fine

is

inflicted,

which

spent on toddy for those

who
in

are assembled.

The

Thanda Pulayans
certain

practice maranakriyas, or sacrifices to

demons, to help them

to

bringing about the death

of an

enemy

or other person.

Sometimes
leaf,

affliction is

supposed
in the

be brought about by the enmity of those

who

have got incantations written on a palm

sorcerer

and buried
well.

ground near a house by the side of a

is

called in to counteract the evil charm,

which

he digs up, and destroys.

When
another
thrice

member
in
it

of the tribe has died an unnatural

death, a man, with a fowl and sword in his hands, places

man

a pit which has been dug, and walks

After an hour or two, the
to a distance,

round

with a torch.
pit,

man

is

taken out of the

and goes

where

certain ceremonies are performed.

The Thanda Pulayans worship

mile.

the gods of Brah-

manical temples at a distance of nearly a quarter of a

stone

is

set

up

in the ground,

on which they

place tender cocoanuts and a few puttans (Cochin coins).

temple servant takes these to the

priest,

who sends
flowers.

in return some sandal paste, holy They worship, as has been already

water,
hinted,

and

demons, and

also the spirits of their ancestors,

figures of males

by which small brass

and females representing the pretas

(ghosts) are supposed to be possessed.

They

worship,

among

others, Kandakarnan, Kodunkali, Bhairavan, and

pretas,

Arukola
a

who

are lodged in small huts, and repre-

sented by stones.
festival,

In the

which

lasts for

May, they celebrate Chrysanthemum several days.

month

of

and thumba (apparently Leucas aspera) flowers are used in the performance of worship, and paddy, beaten rice,

THANDA PULAYAN
tender cocoanuts, toddy,

26
etc.,

are offered up.

There

is

good by men and women, who on

liberally in toddy.

deal of singing, drum-beating and devil-dancing

this

occasion

indulge

The Pandavas, whom

are
favourite
deities.

they

call

Anju

Thamburakkal,

They

devise

various plans for warding off the evil influence of demons.

Some,

for

example, wear

rolls

of palm

leaf,

with incanta-

tions written on them, round their necks.

Others hang

baskets in

the

rice fields,

containing peace offerings

to the gods, and pray for the protection of the crop. Wherever there is a dense forest, Matan and Kali are supposed to dwell, and are worshipped. From the end of November to April, which is the slack season, the Thanda Pulayans go about dancing from hut to hut, and

collecting

money
is

to purchase fowls, etc., for offerings.

Club-dancing

their favourite

amusement, and

is

often

indulged in at night by the light of a blazing

dancers, club in hand,

fire.

The

go round in concentric circles, keeping time to the songs which they sing, striking each other's clubs, now bending to ward off a blow on the legs,
or rising to protect the head.

The dead
all

are buried, and lighted torches are set up

round the grave, on to which the relations of the dead person throw three handfuls of rice. Near it, squares
are

made

in rice flour, in

each of which a leaf with

is

rice

flour

and paddy, and a lighted torch or wick

chief mourner,

placed.

The

who should be

the son or nephew,

carrying a pot of water, goes several times round the

grave, and breaks the pot

over the spot where the

head

rests.

A
to

few grains of rice are placed at the four

is

corners of the grave, and a pebble

laid

on

it,

with

mantrams

keep

off jackals,

from molesting people.

and to prevent the spirit Every morning the chief mourner

rice,

goes to the grave, and makes offerings of boiled

27
gingelly

THATHAN
seeds,

{Sesamum indicum)

and karuka

grass.

the fourteenth day, he has an oil-bath, and, on the following day, the Pulayans of the village (kara) have a

On

feast,

with singing and beating of drums.

is

On

the six-

teenth day, which

chief
fed,

pulakuli or day of purification, the

balls,

mourner makes offerings of rice

the guests are

and make a present of small coin

to the songster

who

has entertained them.

Similar offerings of rice balls are

made to
day

the spirit of the deceased person on the

new-moon

in the

month

of Kartigam.

lution, the chief

mourner has to

During the period of polcook his own food. The

spirits of deceased ancestors are called

Chavar (the dead),

and are said to manifest themselves in dreams, especially

to near relations,

who speak

in

the morning of what

they have seen during the night.

They even say

that

they have held conversation with the deceased.

The

Rev.
little

W.

J.

Richards informs us that he once saw "a

for

temple, about the size of a large rabbit-hutch, in

which was a plank

tors to

the spirits of the deceased ances-

come and
the

rest

upon.

The

spirits are

supposed
taken as

to fish in

backwaters,

and the phosphorescence,

is

sometimes seen on the surface of the water,

an indication of their presence."*

The Thanda Pulayans

will not eat

with the Ulladans

or Parayans, but stand at a distance of ninety feet from

Brahmans and other high-caste

of stature and dark-skinned.

people.

They

are short

Like the Cherumans, the

women adorn

their ears, necks,

arms and fingers with

masses of cheap jewellery.

Thappata (drum). An exogamous sept of Odde. Thathan (a Vaishnavite mendicant). The equiva-

lent of the

Telugu Dasari.
Ind. Ant,, IX. 1880.

THATICHETTU

28
sept

Thatichettu (palmyra palm).An exogamous

of

Kama

Sale and Odde.

Thavadadari.
vans (priests
tulsi

The name of a section of the Valluwho wear

a necklace of

of the Paraiyans),

beads (thavadam, necklace, dhari, wearer). The tulsi or basil Ocimum sanctum) is a very sacred plant ( with Hindus, and bead necklaces or rosaries are made

from
as

woody stem. Thelu (scorpion). Thelu and Thela are recorded exogamous septs of Padma Sale and Madiga. The
its

Canarese equivalent Chelu occurs as a sept of Kuruba.

Thenige Buvva.
offer food

of Madigas, who (buvva) to the god in a dish or tray (thenige)

A sub-division

at marriages.

Thikka Thippa

(simpleton).

(rubbish

A sub-division of Kuruba. heap). An exogamous sept

districts of the

of

Kama
a

Sale.

Thogatnalai Korava.
thief class in

Recorded* as a synonym of
Madras
be noted
is

the southern

Presidency.

In

a recent note on the Koravas, Mr. F.

fact to

Fawcett writes that " a

gang,

that people

such as the members of the well-known Thogamalai

who

are always
all.

called

Koravas by the
are

police,

are not Koravas at

They

simply a criminal

community, into which outsiders are admitted, who give

their

women

in

marriage outside the caste, and

who adopt

children of other castes."

Thogaru
Kamma,

(bitter).

An

exogamous sept of Musu

Thoka (tail). An exogamous sept of Yerukala. Thonda Cephalendra indicd). An exogamous sept
(

of

Musu Kamma, and

* F. S. Mullaly,

gotra of Janappans,

members of

Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.

29

TIGALA
or leaves of the thonda

which abstain from using the

plant.

fruit

Thumma
sept of

(babul

Acacia arabicd).
Sale.

An exogamous
bark,

Mala and Padma

The

pods, and

leaves of the babul tree are used by tanners in the

preparation of hides and skins, or as a dye.

Thumu
Thupa
of Kuruba.

(iron

measure

for

measuring grain).

An

exogamous sept of Mutracha.

(ghl, clarified butter).

An

exogamous sept

ThurpU
Yanadi.

(eastern).

A
is

sub-division of Yerukala and

Thuta (hole).
Census

An exogamous sept of Devanga.

summed up, in the Madras "a Canarese synonym for the

Tigala. Tigala
;

Report, 1901, as

Tamil Palli applied also by the Canarese people to any Tamil Sudras of the lower castes." In parts of the Mysore country, the Tamil language is called Tigalu, and the Canarese Madhva Brahmans speak of Tamil

Smarta Brahmans as Tigalaru. Some of the Tigalas, who have settled in Mysore, have forgotten their mother-tongue, and speak only Canarese,
while others,
still

e.g.^

those

who live round about

between the

Bangalore,

speak Tamil.

In their type of cranium they occupy

a position intermediate
Pallis

dolichocephalic

and the sub-brachy cephalic Canarese classes. The difference in the type of cranium of the Tigalas and Tamil Pallis is clearly brought by the following
tabular statements of their cephalic indices
a.
:

Tigala
68 69
70
71

TIGALA
72

73

74
75

76
77

78

^^

79 80 81
82

83 84
b.

Palli

64
65 66 67

68
69
70
71 72

73

74
75

76
77

78
79

80

The

Tigalas are kitchen and market gardeners, and

cuhivate the betel vine.

divisions,

They apparently have

three

called Ulli (garlic or onions), Ele (leaf),

and

Arava (Tamil). Among the Ulli Tigalas, several subdivisions, and septs or budas named after deities or
prominent members of the
caste, exist, e.g.
:

31
I.

TIGALA

Lakkamma
Tota devaru (garden god).

Dodda devaru (big Dodda Narasayya. Dodda Nanjappa.

II.

or chief god).

Ellamma
Narasayya.

Muddanna.
III.

Sidde devaru.
is

The
ditary,

Tigalas have a headman, whose office

here-

and who

is

assisted

by a caste servant called

at a

Mudre.

Council meetings are usually held

fixed

mara katte or mudre goni mara katte, because those summoned by the Mudre assemble beneath
spot, called goni

a goni [Ficus mysorensis)

platform
sacred,
is

tree,

round which a stone

erected.

The
sit

tree

and

platform

being

no one may go there on wearing shoes or sandals.

of council

The members
Like
the

on a woollen blanket spread

the

before the tree.

Pallis

or

Vanniyans,

Tigalas

call

themselves Agni Vanni, and claim to be descended from

the fire-born hero Agni Banniraya.

In connection with

the Tigalas
it

who have
'
'

settled in the

Bombay

Presidency,

is

noted * that

they are a branch of the Mysore

Tigalas,

who

are

Tamil

Palli

emigrants from

the

Madras Presidency, and,

riya origin."

like the Palli, claim a

Kshat-

The

Tigalas possess a manuscript, said

to be a

at Conjeeveram (Kanchi), from which the following extracts are taken. " This is a Kanchi sasana published by Aswaththa Narayanswami,

copy of a sasana

who was induced

Conjeeveram.

to

do so by the god Varadaraja of

is

This sasana

written to acquaint the

descendants of the Mahapurusha Agni Banniraya with

Monograph, Eth. Sun'ey, Bombay, No. 93, Tigala, 1907.

TIKKE

32

the origin, doings, and gotra of their ancestor Banniraya.

This Banniraya sprang from

fire,

and so

is

much beloved

by Vishnu the many-armed, the many-eyed, and the bearer of the chank and chakram, and who is no other than Narayana, the lord of all the worlds great and
small,
.

and the originator of the Vedas and Vedanta

.

All those

who

see

or worship this sasana

Agni Banniraya, who obtained boons from the Trimurthis, Devatas, and Rishis, and who is the ancestor of the Tigalas, will be prosperous, and have plenty of grain and children. Those who speak lightly of this caste will become subject to the curses of Banniraya, Trimurthis, Rishis, and Devas. The glory The keeping of this sasana is great, and is as follows
relating to
:

will enable the Tigalas and worshipping of the Karnataka country to obtain the merit of sura-

of this

purana

padavi (the state of Devas), merit of doing puja to a

thousand lingams, a lakh of cow

gifts,

and a hundred

kannikadanams

(gifts

of virgins for marriage)."

The

sasana is said to have been brought to the Canarese country because of a quarrel between the Pallis and
the Tigalas at the time
of a Tigala

marriage.

The

were prevented from bringing the The sasana biruthus (insignia), and displaying them. was brought by the Tigalas, at an expenditure of Rs. 215, which sum was subsequently recovered from
Tigalas
the Pallis.

various

Tigala occurs further as the name of a sub-division

of Holeya.

Tikke

(gem).

Ti (fire) Tinda

A gotra of Kurni. Kollan.A sub-division of Kollan. A sub-division of Kanisan.

(polluting).

Tinda Kuruppu, meaning a teacher who cannot approach, is a synonym of the Kavutiyan barber caste.

33

TIRUMALPAD
black-

Tiperum
smiths.

(tl, fire).

A sub-division of Kollan

Tiragati Gantlavallu (wandering bell hunters). Stated, in the Manual of the Vizagapatam district, to repair hand-mills, catch antelopes, and sell the skins In hunting, they use lights and bells. thereof.
Tirlasetti
(the

name

of

Balija

Chetti).

An
as

exogamous sept of Yanadi.

Tirumalpad.^Tirumalpad has been summed up

*'

one of the four divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore. The term, in its literal sense, conveys the idea of those

who

wait before kinors.

pads were commanders

In mediaeval times the Tirumal of armies." By Mr. Wigram *

Tirumalpad
In the
**

is

defined as a

member

of a Royal Family.
it

Madras Census Report,

a
so-called

1891,

is

stated that

there are two Tirumalpads, one a Samanta, and the Kshatriya.

other

The

former

observes

customs and manners exactly similar to Eradis and Nedungadis. In fact, these are all more or less interchangeable terms, members of the same family calling
themselves
indifferently

Eradi

or

Tirumalpad.
sacred
thread,

The

Kshatriya Tirumalpad wears the

the rites he performs are similar to

and those of Brahmans,

whose dress he has

like

also adopted.

He

has,

however,

and sambandham separately. His females take Nambudiri consorts by preference, but may have husbands of their own caste. Their
Nayars,
tali-kettu

inheritance

is

in

the female

line,

as

among Nayars
of this
caste

and

Samantas.

Generally

the

females

furnish

wives to

Nambudiris.

The touch
is

of these

females does not pollute a Nambudiri as does that of

Nayars and Samantas, and, what

more, Nambudiris

Malabar Law and Custom,

vn-3

tirumalpAd
may
eat their food.

34

The

females are called

Namba-

shtadiri."

I
'

For the following note on Tambans and Tirumalpads, am indebted to the Travancore Census Report, 1901. The Tampans and Tirumalpats come under the cate-

gory of Malabar Kshatriyas.

contraction of
ruling people.
ity

The word Tampan

at

is

Tampuran, and

one time denoted a

When

they were divested of that author-

by the

fallen

Svarupam, they are said to have from the status of Tampuraris to Tampans. Their
Ilayetattu
is

chief seat

the

Vaikam

taluk.
all.

seem

to

have ruled

at

The Tirumalpats do not The word Tirumulpatu

There
is

indicates those that wait before kings.

an old

Sanskrit verse, which describes eight classes of Kshatriyas

as occupying Kerala from very early times, namely (i)

Bhupala or Maha Raja, such as those of Travancore and Cochin, (2) Rajaka or Rajas, such as those of Mavelikara

and Kotungallur, (3) Kosi or Koiltampuran, (4) Puravan or Tampan, (5) Sripurogama or Tirumulpat, (6) Bhandari
or Pantarattil, (7)

Audvahika or Tirumalpat,
this list
it

(8)

Cheta or

Samanta.

From

may be

seen that two classes

of Tirumulpats are mentioned,

namely,

Sripurogamas

Audvahikas who perform Udvaha or wedding ceremony for

who

are the waiters at the Raja's palace, and the

certain castes.

Both these, however, are

in their

identical people,

though varying
chief
seats

traditional

occupations.
Shertallay

The
and

of

the

Tirumulpats

are

Tiruvalla."

The Tampans and Tirumulpats

of
castes,

are, for all

purposes

identical

with other

Malabar

Kshatriyas.

Every Tampan in Travancore is related to every other Tampan, and all are included within one circle of death and birth pollution. Their manners and customs, too,
are exactly like those of other Kshatriyas.

They

are

35

TIRUVALLUVAN

invested with the sacred thread at the sixteenth year of

age,

and

recite the Gayatri

is

The Nambutiri
ceremony,
the

(hymn) ten times thrice a day. the family priest, and (death) pollution

lasts for eleven days.

The Kettukalyanam,

or tali-tying

may be performed between the seventh and fourteenth year of age. The tali is tied by the
while the Namputiris
recite

Aryappattar,

the

Vedic

hymns.

Their consorts are usually Namputiris,

sometimes East Coast Brahmans.

Like

all

and the Malabar

Kshatriyas, they follow the marumakkathayam system Tampans and of inheritance (through the female line).

Tirumulpats are often the personal attendants of the Travancore Maharajas,

fidelity

whom

they serve with characteristic

further perform

and devotion.

The Tirumulpats

the tali-tying ceremony of the Nayar aristocracy.

The names

of the Tirumulpats and

classes of

same as those of other

Tampans are the Kshatriyas. The title

Varma is uniformly added to their names. A few families among these, who once had ruling authority, have the
titular

suffix

Bhandarattil,

which

is

corrupted

into

Pantarattil.

The Tampans

call

themselves in documents

Koviladhikarikal, as they once had authority in kovils or

palaces.

Tiruman
Kalian.

(holy deer).

An

exogamous
in

section of

Tirumudi
are usually

(holy knot).

Recorded,

the Madras

Census Report, 1901, as "bricklayers, whose women prostitutes found chiefly in Salem and
;

Coimbatore.

They are either Vettuvans or Kaikolans. Kaikolan women, when they are dedicated to the temple,

are supposed to be united in wedlock with the deity.

Tiruvalluvan.^A
to the Valluva caste.
VII-3 B

sub-division of Valluvan.
is

Tiru-

valluvar, the author of the Kural,

said to

have belonged

TIRU-VILAKKU-

36

NAGARATTAR
Tiru-vilakku-nagarattar (dwellers in the city ot A name assumed by Vaniyans (oilholy lamps).

pressers).

Tiyadi. A synonym
Ambalavasis (see Unni).

of the Tiyattunni section of

Tiyan.The
and Travancore.

Tiyans, and Izhuvans or Iluvans, are

the Malayalam toddy-drawing castes of Malabar, Cochin,

The
is

following

note,

except where

otherwise indicated,

taken from an account of the

Tiyans of Malabar by Mr. F. Fawcett.

The Tiyans
population.

in

Malabar number, according to the

figures for the Izhuvans

census returns, 512,063, or 19*3 per cent, of the total

The corresponding

are 101,638, or 3*8 per cent. The Tiyans have been * summed up as the middle class of the west coast, who
cultivate

the ground, take service as domestics, and

and professions anything but of which they have an utter abhorrence.

follow trades

soldiering,

The marumakkatayam system

the female
line),

(inheritance through

which obtains

in

North Malabar, has

favoured temporary connections between European

men

and Tiyan women, the children belonging to the mother's tarvad. Children bred under these conditions, European
influence continuing, are often as fair as Europeans.
is

It

recorded, in the Report of the Malabar Marriage

Com-

mission, 1894, that " in the early days of British rule, the

Tiyan women incurred no

social disgrace
last

by consorting
if

with Europeans, and, up to the

generation,
lover, the

the

Sudra
girl

girl

could boast of her

Brahman

Tiyan

could show more substantial benefits from her alliance

with a white

man

of the ruling race.

Happily, the pro-

gress of education, and the growth of a wholesome public

* Lieutenant-General E. F. Burton.

An

Indian Olio.

Z1
opinion, have

tlYAJ^

made shameful

the position of a European's

concubine

and both races have thus been saved from a

equally demoralising to each."

mode of life
is

On this point,
" It

Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer writes as follows.*

true that there
is

mentally in

an elevation both physically and the progeny of such a parentage. On making

this,
I

enquiries about

learn from a respectable

is

and edu-

cated Tiyan gentleman that this union

looked upon

with contempt by the respectable class of people, and

by the orthodox community.

such

am

further informed that

women and

children, with their families, are

under

a ban, and that respectable Tiya gentlemen who have

married the daughters of European parentage are not
allowed to enjoy the privileges of the caste.
I

There

are,

hear,

several such instances in Calicut, Tellicherry,

and Cannanore.
It is

Women

of respectable families do not

enter into such connection with Europeans."

commonly supposed vans came from Ceylon. It

that the Tiyans

is

recorded, in

and Izhuthe South

Canara Manual, that "it is well known that both before and after the Christian era there were invasions and occupations of the northern part of Ceylon by the races
then inhabiting Southern India, and Malabar tradition
tells

us that

some of these Dravidians migrated again

northwards to Travancore and
tree {tengina mara),
Iravars,

from iram or Ceylon

other parts of the west coast of India, bringing with

them the cocoanut or southern

being known as Tivars (islanders) or

and which

names have since been

altered to Tiyars

and

Ilavars.

Dr. Caldwell derives Iram from the Sanskrit Simhala

through the Pali Sihala by the omission of the

It is
*
t

initial S."

noted by Bishop Caldwell

Monograph Elhnog. Survey of The Tinnevelly Shanars, 1849.

t that

there are traces of

No.
lo, Izhuvas, 1905.

the Cochin State,

TIYAN
a

38
origin of the Iluvans and Shanars, Shanar (or
title

common

Shener), for instance, being a

of honour amongst

the Travancore Ilavars.

there
is

And

it is

further recorded* that

a tradition that the Shanars

came

originally from

Ceylon. The Izhuvans are supposed to derive their caste name from Izha dwipa (island) or Simhala dwipa
(both denoting
Ceylon).
In a

Tamil

Puranic work,

quoted by Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer, mention is made of a King Ilia of Ceylon, who went to Chidambaram in the

Tamil country of Southern India, where a religious discussion took place between the Buddhist priests and the Saivite devotee Manickavachakar in the presence of King
Ilia,

with the result that he was converted to the Saivite

faith.

From him the Iluvans are said to be descended. The Tiyans are always styled Izhuvan in documents
or

concerning land, in which the Zamorin, or some Brah-

man

Tiyans look

Nayar grandee, appears as landlord. The down on the Izhuvans, and repudiate the Yet they cannot but submit to be called relationship. Izhuvan in their documents, for their Nayar or Brahman landlord will not let them have the land to cultivate,
unless they

do

so.

It is

a custom of the country for a

man

of a superior caste to pretend complete ignorance

of the caste of an individual lower in the social scale.

Thus,
tribes,

in

the
is

Wynad, where

there are several jungle

one

accustomed to hear a man of superior caste

pretending that he does not

know a Paniyan from a

Kurumba, and
saying
that
"
is

deliberately miscalling one or the other,

This Paniyan," when he knows perfectly well

a Kurumba., It is quite possible, therefore, he that, though Tiyans are written down as Izhuvans,
the two were
not

supposed

to

be

identical.

State

Madras Census Report, 1871.

39
regulations keep the Izhuvans of Cochin
in a position of

TIYAN
and Travancore and in Malabar

marked

social inferiority,

they are altogether unlettered and uncultured. On the other hand, the Tiyans of Malabar provide Magistrates,

Sub- Judges, and other officials to serve His Majesty's Government. It may be noted that, in 1907, a Tiya lady matriculate was entertained as a clerk in the Tellicherry
post-office.

must be made, to bring the reader to a comprehension of the custom surrounding mattu, a word signifying change, i.e., change of cloth, which is of sufficient importance to

A divagation

or

woman

is

demand explanation. When a man outcasted, the washerwoman (or man) and
is

the barber of the community (and no other

available)

are prohibited from performing their important parts in the ceremonies connected with birth, death, and menstruation.

person

who

is

in
;

a condition of impurity
is

is

under the same conditions

casted.

he or she

temporarily out-

This applies to Nambutiris and Nayars, as well

as to the Tiyans.

Now

the

washerwoman

is

invariably

of the Tiyan caste.

There are Mannans, whose hereditary occupation is washing clothes for Nambutiris and Nayars, but, for the most part, the washerwoman who washes for the Nayar lady is of the Tiyan caste. A

woman

is

under pollution
death of a

after giving birth to

a child,

after the

member

of her tarvad, and during

menstruation.

And

the pollution must be removed at

the end of the prescribed period, or she remains an outcaste

a very
This

serious thing

for her.

The

impurity

is

removed by receiving a clean cloth from the washerwoman, and giving in exchange her own cloth to be
washed.
is

mattu, and,
is

be

it

noted,

the cloth

which gives mattu

one belonging to the washerwoman,

not to the person to be purified.

The washerwoman

tlYAl^
gives her
cally,

4d

own

cloth to effect the purification.

Theoreti-

the Tiyan has the power to give or withhold mattu,

;

and thus keep any one out of caste in a state of impurity but it is a privilege which is seldom if ever exercised. Yet it is one which he admittedly holds, and is thus
in a position to exercise considerable control over the

Nambutiri and Nayar communities.

It is

odd that

it

is

not a soiled cloth washed and returned to the person

which gives

purification, but

one of the washerwoman's

own
than

cloths.
lies in

So the mattu may have a deeper meaning mere change of cloth, dressing in a clean
This mattu
is

one, and giving the soiled one to a person of inferior

caste to wash.

second

in

importance to

no custom.
after birth

It must be done on the last and death ceremonies, and menstruation, or

day of pollution
It
is

the person concerned

remains outcasted.

note-

worthy that the Izhuvans know nothing of mattu.

An
Tiyan

Izhuvan

will eat rice

cooked by a Tiyan, but a

will not eat rice

cooked by an Izhuvan
will

a circumA

stance pointing to the inferiority of the

Izhuvan.

Nayar, as well as a Tiyan,

partake of almost any

form of food or drink, which

Mappilla

is

prepared even by a

(Malabar

Muhammadan),
line is

who

is

deemed
which

inferior to both.

But the

drawn

at rice,

must be prepared by one of equal caste or

superior.

class, or

by a

An

Izhuvan, partaking of rice at a Tiyan's

it

house, must eat

in a

verandah

he cannot do so

in the

house, as that would be defilement to the Tiyan.

Not

only must the Izhuvan eat the rice in the verandah,

but he must wash the plates, and clean up the place

where he has
objection
to

eaten.

Again, an Izhuvan could have no

Further,

drinking from a Tiyan's well.

there

is

practically

no

mixture

in

the distribution of

Tiyans and Izhuvans.

Where

there are Izhuvans there

4i
are no Tiyans, and vice versa.

tlYAl4
[In a photograph of a

group of Izhuvan females of Palghat eating their meal, which was sent to me, they are all in a kneeling posture, with the buttocks supported on the heels. They
are said
in

assume the same attitude when engaged grinding and winnowing grain, and other occupato

tions,

with a resultant thickening of the skin over the

knees.]
Differences, which might well

come under

the head-

ing marriage,

may be

considered here, for the purpose of

comparison between the Tiyans and Izhuvans.

the preliminaries to the marriage ceremony

During
the

among

Tiyans, the date of the marriage having been fixed in

the

presence of the representatives of the bride and

is

bridegroom, the following formula

repeated by the

Tandan

or

headman

of the bride's party.

it

Translated as
"

accurately as

possible,

runs thus.

The

tara
;

and
the

changati of both sides having met and consulted

the star and porutham

astrologer having fixed an auspicious day after examining

;

permission having been obtained

from the

tara,

the relations, the illam and kulam, the

father, uncle,

and the brothers, and from the eight and four (twelve illams) and the six and four (ten kiriyams) the conji and adayalam ceremonies and the four tazhus
having been performed,
let

me

perform the kanjikudi

ceremony
. .
. .

for the

marriage of

with

....
is

...

the

son

of
in

daughter of

....

the presence of muperium."

variations here and there,

This formula, with slight

a solemn declaration,

repeated at every Tiyan marIt

is

riage

in

South Malabar.
ritual survive

giving validity to the union, although, in the

way

that

custom and
terms used

long after their original

signifi-

cance has been forgotten, the meaning of

is

many

of the

altogether unknown.

What,

for instance,

TIYAN
is

42

the meaning of

muperium

No

one can

tell.

But

a few of the terms are explainable.

was the smallest unit in the ancient government system, which, for want of a better term, we may style feudal. It was not exactly a village, for the Each tara had its Nayar chieftain, people lived apart. and also its Tiyan chief or Tandan, its astrologer, its washerman, its goldsmith, and other useful people, each serving the community for the sake of small advantages. Each tara was its own world.
Tara.
tara

The

Changati

(friend).

The

friends

of

both

parties

which negotiated the marriage. Porutham (agreement). Examination of the horoscopes of the boy and girl makes it possible to ascertain
whether there
union
will
is

agreement between the two, and the

to

be propitious.

Illam.

Here intended

mean

the father's family.

Kulam.

The name,
illams,

derived from kula a branch,

here denotes the mother's family.

Twelve

ten kiriyams.

The word

illam,

now
is

used exclusively

for

the residence of a Nambutiri,

in

supposed to have been used

of a person of any caste.
find support in the

days of old for the house

this supposition
is

And
that a

said to

Tiyan coming from the south is often greeted in South Canara. Thus, a Malabar Tiyan, travelling to the celebrated temple at South Canara, your illam and kiriyam?"
in

way

Gokarnam
used
in

is

at

once asked

"

What
own

is

He

has heard these terms

or

the

foregoing

formula during his

another's marriage ceremony, but attached no

to them.

meaning

To the man
One

of South Canara they have genuine

meaning.

should be able to answer the question

satisfactorily,

If

and thus give a proper account of himself. he cannot, he gets neither food nor water from the

43

TIYAN
holds good, to

South Canara Tiyan.

extent,
in

This also

some

the case

of a southern Tiyan visiting the

northern parts of the Cherakal taluk of Malabar.

The

ten illams of South Malabar are as follows

Padayan Kudi.

Tala Kodan.
Nellika

{Phyllanthus

Kan nan.
Varakat.

Emblicd).

Paraka or Varaka.
Ala.

Kytat

>

Puzhampayi or BavuJ
or

inferior.

Ten Kudi

Tenan Kudi.

The

illams of

North Malabar are said

[

to

be

Nellika.
Pullanhi.

Padayam Kudi. Tenan Kudi.

Vangeri.

Manan
|

Kudi.

Koyikkalan.

Vilakkan Kudi.

Marriage

is

strictly

forbidden between two persons

belonging to the same

illam.

The

bride and bridegroom

must belong

to different illams.

In fact, the illams are

of the illams were allowed

exogamous.

Members of some
and

Thus, the men of the Varakat illam (Varaka Tiyans) were in the old days percertain privileges
dignities.

mitted to travel in a mancheel (a hammock-cot slung on

a pole).

They were allowed

this privilege of higher caste

people, which was prohibited to the Tiyans of other

illams.

But, should one of them,

when
it

travelling in a

mancheel, happen to see a Rajah or a Nayar, he was

obliged to hang one of his legs out of
in

token of sub-

mission. The Varaka Tiyans were further allowed to wear gold jewels on the neck, to don silken cloths, to fasten a sword round the waist, and to carry a shield.

The sword was made

round the waist
the
hilt

of thin pliable

steel,

and worn

like a belt, the point being fastened to

through a small hole near the point.

man,

intending to

damage

another, might

make an apparently

'riYAN
friendly call

44

on him,

his]^body loosely covered with a cloth,

and

to

all

appearances unarmed.

In less than a second,

waist,

he could unfasten the sword round his

other down. the Varakat
to
illam.

and cut the

The well-known Mannanar belonged to Those who know Malabar will recall
institution

mind the benevolent but strange

which he

initiated.
tiri

He

provided a comfortable

home

for

Nambuand
per-

women who were thrown

in

out of caste, and thus in the

to every misery

ordinary course of events

doomed
life.

degradation to be found

On

being outcasted,

the funeral ceremonies of Nambutiri

women were

formed by her own people, and she became dead to them. She went to the Mannanar, and her birth ceremonies

were performed, so that she might begin

state of purity.
If,

life

anew
sister.

in

on
if

arrival,

she entered by the

of the

left It

door, she
is is

was

his wife,

by the front door, his

said that,

when

their chief,

Mannanar

Aramana,
in

destitute of heirs,

the Tiyans of Kolattanad go

procession to the Kurumattur Nambutiri (the chief of the

Peringallur Brahmans) and
to be adopted as sister of

demand a Brahman virgin Mannanar, who follows the

This demand,
it

marumakkatayam
is said,

rule of succession.

used to be granted by the Nambutiris assembling

at a meeting,

and selecting a maiden

to

be given to the

Tiyans.

Kiriyam

is

said to be a corrupt form of the Sanskrit

word griham (house), but this seems rather fanciful. There are said to have been about two kiriyams for each village. The names of only three are known to me, viz., Karumana, Kaita, and Kampathi. There is a village called Karumana, near the temple of Lakshmipuram in South Canara. Karumana is applied as a term to
signify a

Tiyan during the ordinary devil-dancing

in

temples,

when an

oracular utterance

is

delivered.

The

45
oracle always addresses the Tiyan as

TIYAN

"my

Karumana,'
is

not as "
in

my

Tiyan."

The

only other use of the word

Karumana acharam
Other outward and

(the customs of the Tiyans).

visible differences

between Tiyan

and Izhuvan marriages are these.

Tiyan bridegroom, dressed as
if

The South Malabar

for a wrestling match,
loins, carries

with his cloth tied tight about his

a sword

and

shield,

and

is

escorted by two companions similarly

equipped, dancing their way along.

not carry a sword under any circumstances.

feature of his

The Izhuvan does The chief

a singing match.

wedding ceremony

is

open the door song, assumes the form of a contest between the parties of the bridegroom and bride. The story of Krishna and his wife Rukmini is supposed to be alluded to. We have
This, called the vatil-tura-pattu, or

seen

it all

under slightly different colour at Conjeeveram.

Krishna asks Rukmini to open the door, and admit him.

She

refuses, thinking

he has been gallivanting with some

;

other lady.

He

beseeches

she refuses.

He

explains,

and at length she yields. The song is more or less extempore, and each 'side must be ready with an immediate
answer.

The

side

which
is

is

reduced to the extremity

of having no answer
I

beaten and under ignominy.

pass on to the subject of personal adornment of the

:

Tiyans

(a)
1.

North Malabar, Males

horizontal dab

made with white ashes on

and
chest,

either side of the forehead

and on

the outside of each shoulder.

2.

Two

gold ear-rings (kadakkan) in each ear.

hanging from the sheath of and fastened with a boss. Two tambak (copper, brass and silver) rings on
silver chain

his knife,

the ring finger of the

left

hand.

TIYAN
3.

46

gold kadakkan in each ear, and an iron

ring on the ring finger of the
left

hand.

4.

A
A

thorn in each ear (another was similarly

ornamented).
5.

Not married.

gold ear-ring in each ear.

the
little

An
hand.

iron ring

on

finger of the

left

Two silver
from
finger of the

rings,

in

which

is

set a piece of hair

an elephant's
right hand.

tail,

on the

little

few individuals wore brass rings, and some had

ear-rings, in

which a red stone was

in little cylindrical

worn by some

Amulets were cases on a string, to

set.

protect the wearer against enemies, the evil eye, or devils.

One man wore

a silver girdle, to which an amulet in

it

a case was fastened, underneath his cloth, so that

not in view to the public.

was

One

individual only

is

noted

as having been tattooed, with a circular

his glabella.

mark just above arms of good many, and The a the abdomen

of a few, bore cicatrices from branding, apparently for the purpose of making them strong and relieving pains.
{b)

South Malabar, Males.

country
parts,

In the

the

waist cloth

is

always

worn above the knee. About a third of the individuals examined wore ear-rings. The ears of all were pierced. Those who were without ear-rings had no scruples about wearing them, but were too poor to buy them.
1

Blue spot tattooed over the glabella.

Silver

2.

amulet-case,

containing

fifteen

gold

fanams, at the waist.

He

said that he kept

the coins in the receptacle for security, but

I

think

it

was

for

good

luck.

3.

Ear-ring (kadakkan) in each ear.

copper

amulet-case, containing a yantram to keep

off devils, at the waist.

47
4.

TIYAN

Four silver amulet-cases, containing yantrams on a copper sheet for curing some ailment,
at the waist.

5.

Two

gold kadakkans in each ear.

white

spot over the glabella.

(c)

North Malabar, Females.

In olden days, the

women

used to wear coloured and

striped cloths round the waist,

The

breast

was not covered.

to

and hanging to the knees. The body above the waist

was not allowed

be covered, except during the period

of death pollution.
colour to be seen,

Nowadays, white is generally the and the body is seldom covered above
one may
towns.
say,

the waist

never
in

except (and then only

sometimes)

the

The
:

Izhuvan

women

in

tightly
late,

Malabar always wear blue cloths just one cloth rolled round the waist, and hanging to the knees. Of
they have taken to wearing also a blue cloth drawn

tight over the breast.

Ornaments.
ear-rings,

The

thodu,
is

which

is

worn by Tiyan women,

called kathila

not a Tiyan ornament.

now sometimes The

and ananthod, are the Tiyan

or lead are used
to

ornaments, and look like strings of gold beads with

pendants.
stretch

Discs of white metal

and keep open the dilated lobes of the ears, in which gold ornaments are worn when necessary or possible. Venetian sequins, real or imitation, known in
for neck ornaments. Malabar proverb that There is a one need not look for an insect's burrow in amada, meaning that you cannot

Malabar as amada, are largely used

find

anything vile

in

a worthy person.
In

Turning now
between a Tiyan

to the subject of marriage.

the

ordinary course of things, a marriage would not be

girl

made

of South Malabar and a Tiyan

for the reason that the children

man

of

North Malabar,

TIYAN

48

of such a marriage would inherit no property from the

family of either parent.

The husband would have no

his
family,

share in the property of

which

devolves

through the
in

women

nor would the wife have any share

is

that of her family, which

passed on through the

So there would be nothing for the children. But, on the other hand, marriage between a girl of the north and a man of the south is a different thing. The children would inherit from both parents. As a rule, Tiyans of the north marry in the north, and those of the south in
men.
the south.

was generally admitted that it was formerly the custom among the Tiyans in South Malabar for several brothers in fact all of them to share one wife. Two existing instances of this custom were recorded.
It

The arrangement of a marriage, and the ceremonial which will now be described, though pertaining strictly
to the Calicut taluk of

South Malabar, are

sufficiently

representative of a Tiyan marriage anywhere.

is,

There

that, in North Malabar, females through obtains, and the wife where inheritance

however, this difference,

invariably resides in her

own tarwad

or family home,
girl's

there
In

is

never any stipulation concerning a

is

dowry.

South Malabar, where inheritance

through the
as a rule

males, and where the wife lives in her husband's house,

the dowry in money, jewels, or furniture,

settled beforehand,

is

and must be handed over on the wedding day. In the Calicut taluk, we find an exception to this general rule of South Malabar, where the subject of the dowry is not usually mentioned. In North
Malabar,
in the
gifts of

jewels are

made

in

proportion as the

bride's people are wealthy

is

way

of a

gift,

and generous. What is given and forms no feature in the

marital agreement.

TIYA WOMAN.

49

TIYAN

The first
is

step to be taken in connection with marriage

girl, in

examination of the horoscopes of the boy and

order to ascertain whether their union will be one of

happiness or the reverse.

should be present
(a)

While

this is

being done by

the Panikkar (Malabar astrologer), the following persons

:

On
1.

the part of the bridegroom

tara.

Tandan, or chief of the

2.

Father, or other elder in the family.

3.

Uncle,

i.e.,

the mother's brother.

In Malabar the word

uncle means maternal uncle.

4.
5.

Sisters'

husbands.
friends or companions.

Four or more

6.

Any number

of relations and friends.

(d)

On
1

the part of the bride

Tandan of her
Uncle.

tara.

2.

Father, or other guardian.

3.
4.
5.

Four or more

friends.

The

astrologer of her tara.

6.

Friends and relations.

girl's

The ceremony must be performed at the house of the family. Her father's consent is necessary, but his
is

presence

not essential at this or the two subsequent

in

ceremonies

connection with
noted,
is

the

marriage.

The

Tandan,

it

may be

the caste governmental head

in all matters affecting his

own

caste
is

and the
is

artisans.

He

is

a Tiyan, and his

office,

which

authorised by the
hereditary.

local Rajah, or rather

by his senior Rani,

In exceptional cases, however,

the hereditary right

may
else.

be interrupted by the Rani appointing some one

The Tandan
when a

of the tara

is

required to assist at every

at

ceremony connected with marriage,

girl attains

the

puberty, at that of tying the

ceremony tali, and

vu-4

TIYAN
at the fifth

50

and seventh
is

months of pregnancy.

His

formal permission
cut

down

required before the carpenter can the areca palm, with which the little shed in
tali
is

which the

tied

is

constructed.

In

cases of di-

vorce, his functions are important.

is

When

new house
and

built,

there must be a house-warming ceremony, at

officiates.

which the Tandan

the right leg
is

Fowls are
affairs

sacrificed,

the Tandan's perquisite.

He

is

man

of importance, not only in

caste,

many

within his

but also in those of other castes.

dies,
it

own Thus, when a

Nayar
burnt.
tara,

is

the

Tandan's duty to get the body

washerman and barber of the and can withdraw their services when they are
controls the

He

most needed.
blacksmiths.

He

officiates,

moreover, at marriages of

the artisan class

carpenters, braziers, goldsmiths and

group of

taras forms

what

is

called a desam, the

is

koyma

or "sovereignty" of which
It
is

represented by a

Nayar tarwad.

through the head or Karnavan

tarwad that the Tandan
like.

(really the chieftain) of this

approaches the Raja

in

matters of appeal, and the

The Tandan
control,

some extent under his guidance and but he must provide the Tandan with a bodyis

to

guard of two Nayars on occasions of marriages.

old days,
it

In the

Tandans of the taras within the rule of the Zamorin were always appointed by The term Tandan must not be conhis senior Rani.
the

may be mentioned,

founded with the Tandars, a people of the Palghat taluk,

who appear

to

be

allied to the Izhuvans.

These Tandars

observe the custom of paternal polyandry, while the

Izhuvans abhor

it.

The procedure observed in the examination of horoThe Tandan of the bride's tara scopes is as follows.
gives a grass or palmyra palm leaf mat to the astrologer

TIYAN
seats for the bridegroom's

to

sit

on,

and supplies mats or

stool,
sit

party.

The common
on.

sleeping mat of wild pine leaves,

or a

wooden

must, on no account, be given for the

It

astrologer to

may be day

or night

when

the

ceremony takes place, but, whatever the hour may be, a lamp having five, seven, nine, or eleven cotton wicks,
must be burning
wife puts
it

in front of the astrologer.

its

The Tandan's
passes
it

in

place.

Then

the boy's uncle hands

over the boy's horoscope to his Tandan,

to the girl's

who

on

Tandan.

The

girl's father

hands her horo-

scope to their Tandan, who, when he has received them

both, passes

them on

to the astrologer.

The two

horo-

scopes should agree on twenty-one points

a
it

require-

ment which might prove awkward, were

balance in favour of beneficent influences

not that a
generally

is

allowed to admit of the marriage taking place.

In the

case of agreement, the boy's uncle, through his Tandan,

then pays two fanams * (eight annas)

one
is

for

each

horoscope
ment, the

to the astrologer.
girl's

When

there

disagree-

uncle pays the money.

(which have been privately

tive owners.

The horoscopes examined beforehand to make

sure of no disagreement) are returned to their respec-

After the examination of the horoscope,

there

is is

a feast with plenty of sweetmeats.

The

next

item

the conjee (rice gruel) ceremony, at which the

:

following should be present

(a)
1.

On

the part of the boy

some one representing him.
sisters.

Father, his brother, or

2.

Husbands of
Uncle.

all

married

3.
4.

Tandan of

his tara.
friends.

5.

Neighbours and

fanam

is

a small gold coin, worth about four annas, which was formerly
is

current in Southern India, but

no longer

in circulation.

VII-4 B

TIYAN
(d)
T.

52

On

the part of the girl

Uncle.
Relations of married sisters.

2.

3.

Relations of married brothers.

4.
5.

Tandan

of her tara.

Astrologer of her tara.

Relations and friends.

6.

The horoscopes are again formally examined by the astrologer, who announces that their agreement augurs a happy wedded life. The boy's uncle pays him two fanams. The girl's uncle takes the two horoscopes,
which have just been tied together, from the astrologer,

and hands them to the Tandan of the girl's tara, who passes them on to the Tandan of the boy's tara. They The astrologer are handed by him to the boy's uncle. then writes on a palmyra leaf a note for each party to the marriage, stating the auspicious day and hour for the
final

ceremony, the hour at which the bride should leave

her house, and the hour for her arrival at the house of
the bridegroom.

The

following

programme

is

then gone

through.
door,
is

In the verandah, facing east, before the front

it

spread an ordinary sleeping mat, over

a grass

mat, and over that a plain white cloth which has been

washed and

is

not a

new

one.
:

On

the floor close by,

the following articles are placed

A
which
is
;

lamp, having an odd

number of

cotton wicks,
it

kept

lighted

whatever the hour of day

may be

measure, called nazhi,

made

of jak tree {Artorice,

carpus integrifolid) wood,

filled to

overflowing with

and placed on a

flat

bell-metal plate (talika)

A
folded,

plain white cloth,

washed but not new, neatly

to the right (south)

and placed on the metal plate

;

of the rice

5^

TIYAN

A
filled

small bell-metal vessel (kindi), having no handle,

with water.
is

The lamp
little

placed on the south side of the mat,

it

the plate next to

(to the north),

left

and the kindi

at a

distance to the

(the north).
east.

sit

on the mat always face the

The people who The mat having

mentioned are

been spread, the various

articles

just

brought from the central room of the house by three

women, who

set

them

in their places.

The Tandan's

wife carries the lamp, the eldest

bell-mctal plate,

woman of the house the and some other woman the kindi. The
and
If the

Tandan

of the boy's tara, the boy's sister's husband,

sit

on the mat covered with a cloth. boy has two brothers-in-law, both sit on the mat,
a friend then
exclusion of the friend.

to the

The

senior

woman

of the house

then hands three plates of rice conjee to the

the girl's tara,

Tandan

of

who

places

them

in

front of the three

persons seated on the mat.

To

the right of each plate,

is

little

jaggery (unrefined sugar)

leaf.

placed on a piece of

plantain

Each of those seated takes about a spoonful of conjee in his right hand. The Tandan repeats the has already which been given, and asks " May formula, He answers his question by the conjee be drunk"?
little

drinking some of the conjee, and eating a

All three then partake of the conjee

jaggery.
after

and jaggery,

which they
removed.
then

rise

from the mat, and the plates and mat are

place
is

The

cleaned,

put down, while betel

sit

is

and the mats are again distributed. The two Tandans

girl's

on the mat.

The

Tandan

picks up a bundle
to the

of about twenty-five betel leaves,

boy's Tandan.

and gives half

giving the other four.

The Tandans exchange betel leaves, each The boy's Tandan then folds four
in four betel leaves,
"

fanams (one rupee)

to the girl's

which he hands

Tandan, saying

May

the conjee ceremony

TIYAN
be performed
" ?

54

The Tandans

again exchange betel

to all the

leaves as before, and distribute

them

castemen
girl.

present, beginning with the uncles of the boy and

The proceedings

verandah are now over. The next part of the ceremony takes place in the middle room of the house, where the mats, lamp, and other articles are
in the

arranged as before.

The two Tandans

girl

sit

on the mat
left,

with the boy on the right and the

east.

on the

facing

The

boy's uncle stands in front of the Tandans,

facing west, and the girl's uncle behind them, facing east.

The

boy's father gives to the boy's uncle two

new

plain

white cloths, with twenty-one fanams (Rs. 5-4) placed on them. When presenting them, he says " Let the Adaya-

1am be performed
thrice " Let

"

three times, and the girl's uncle says

me

receive the Adayalam."

again exchange betel leaves,

the castemen.

The Tandans and distribute them among

and more
betel.

Then

follows a feast,

The

date of the wedding has

in

now

to be fixed.

They

congregate

the middle

Tandans

sit

on the mat.

room once more, and the The girl's Tandan shares a

bundle of betel leaves with the boy's Tandan, who, taking therefrom four leaves, places two rupees on them, and
gives them to the
plies this
girl's

Tandan.

The

boy's party sup-

When
and

money, which is a perquisite of the Tandan. handing over the leaves and the coins, the boy's
says

Tandan

"On ...

....
Tandan

(the bride

and four women will girl, and you must prepare the food
other
replies " If

(naming a date) and bridegroom), and friends, come. Then you must give us the
.

....

for that day."

The

you bring six cloths and fortytwo fanams (Rs. 10-8) as kanam, and two fanams for the

muchenan

(the girl's father's sister's son), the girl will be

The cloths should be of a kind called enna kacha, each four cubits in length, but they are not now
sent to you."

55
procurable.

TIYAN

Kanam
is

is

a term used in land tenures, for

in

which there
former

no precise equivalent

English.

It

is

a kind of mortgage paid by a tenant to a landlord.

is liable to eviction

The

by the

latter,

when

he obtains

better terms for his land from another tenant

a condition

modern growth breeding much mischief and bad blood. But, when a tenant is evicted, he is entitled, according to law, to the value of certain improvements on the land,
of

including eight annas for each tree which he has planted.

The kanam is paid by the boy's sister Tandan addresses his brother-in-law or
in the

or sisters.

His

brothers-in-law

words

"On
him
or

....
in the day,

(mentioning a date), you

with Rs. 10-8 as kanam,"

must come early

and gives

them

four

betel

leaves.

Those

assembled then disperse.

The

boy's

people

may

not

go

to the girl's

house before the day appointed

for the

marriage.

The next

item in connection with a marriage

is

the

issue of invitations to the wedding.

The

senior

women
mat,

of the boy's house, and the Tandan, invite a few friends

to assemble at the

house of the bridegroom.

The

lamp, and other articles are placed in the middle room.

The bridegroom (manavalan)

friend

sits

on the mat, with a

on either side of him.

He

has previously bathed,

and horizontal daubs of sandal paste have been placed on

his forehead, breast,

and arms.

He

wears a new

cloth,

which has not been washed.

H is

Tandan has adorned

him with a gold

bracelet on his right wrist, a knife with

a gold or silver handle at the waist, and a gold or silver

waist-belt or girdle over the loin-cloth.

The

bracelet

must have an ornamental pattern, as plain bracelets are not worn by men. The girdle is in the form of a chain.
Besides these things, he must wear ear-rings, and he

should have rings on his fingers.

His

sister

who pays

TIYAN
the

56
dresses in the

kanam
silk,

same

style,

but her cloths

may
good

be of

white without a pattern in the border, and she

wrists.
first

wears gold bracelets on both

All enjoy a

meal, and then set out, and visit

the house of the

Tandan.

He

and

his wife
if

walk

in front, followed

by the

boy's elder sisters,

he has any.

Then comes

the bride-

groom with a

friend before

women
there
is

bringing up the rear.

and behind him, with a few At the Tandan's house

five,

another meal, and then three,

visited,

or seven

houses are
in person.

and

invitation to the

wedding given
thfen over,
all

The

proceedings for the day are

and, after three days, the brother-in-law, uncle, and

others receive invitations.

On
first

the occasion of the marriage ceremony, the barber

shaves the bridegroom's head, leaving the usual

is

forelock on the crown, which

never

cut.

He

per-

forms the operation in a

house, and a plantain leaf
fall

little
is

shed to the east of the

placed so that the hair

sits

may

on

it.

As a

rule,
is

the barber

in

front of the
latter, sitting

person whose hair he

shaving, while the

cross-legged on the ground, bends forward.

the bridegroom
sits

But,

on

on a low wooden this occasion, stool. Close by are a lamp and a measure of rice on a plantain leaf. The barber also shaves the two friends of the bridegroom (changathis), and receives
a fanam and the rice for his trouble.

The

three youths

then bathe, smear themselves with sandal paste, and

proceed to dress.
the
loins a

The bridegroom must wear round Round white cloth, new and unwashed.
from 14 to 21 cubits
in front
silk

the top of the loin cloth he wears a narrow waist-band

(kacha) of

silk,

in length,

with the

ends hanging
is

and behind.

Over the shoulders

thrown a

lace

handkerchief.

He

puts

in

his

ears gold ear-rings, round the neck

a necklace called

57

TIYAN

chakra (wheel) mala,* on the right wrist a gold bracelet, gold rings on the fingers, a gold or silver chain round

and a gold or silver-handled knife with a sheath The two companions are dressed in of the same metal. much the same way, but they wear neither necklace nor
the loins,
bracelet.
please.

The women wear

Sisters of the

as

many ornaments
silk cloth (virali)

as they

bridegroom must wear bracelets

on the

on both

wrists,

a necklace, and a

shoulders.

The bracelet worn by men is called vala, and must be made of one piece of metal. Those worn by women are called kadakam, and must be made in two
pieces.

When
his

all

are ready, mats, and other things are

in the

once more placed

middle room, and the bridesit

groom and
at

two companions

on the mats.

They

once

rise,

and proceed

to the little

shed which has

and again seat themselves been on the mats, which, with the other articles, have been
erected in the front yard,

brought thither from the middle room.

Then the Tandan

gives betel to the bridegroom and his two companions,

who must chew

on their heads.
then

it.

The Tandan's The Tandan

wife, the elder

woman

of the house, and the bridegroom's sisters sprinkle rice

gives a sword to the

bridegroom and each of his companions.

starts.

The

procession

In front walk two Nayars supplied by the

Koyma of the desam

(represented by the Nayar landlord).

Then come the Tandan and a few elders, followed by the Tandan's wife and some of the elder women, the bridegroom with his two companions, his sisters, and finally the general crowd. As the procession moves slowly on, there is much dancing, and swinging of swords and
shields.
* Other

At the
kinds of

bride's house, the party

is

received by
avil

necklaces are the

mullapu (jasmine flower) mala,

(beaten rice) mala, so called from the shape of the links, mani mala or bead necklace,

and pavirham

(coral) mala.

These are

all

worn by women.

TIYAN
the wife of the

58

Tandan

of the tara holding a lighted of the

family with

lamp,

the oldest

woman

a plate

containing a measure of rice and a folded cloth, and

another woman,
water.

who may be
little

a friend, with a kindi of

rice

on the heads of the The bridegroom sits on a party as they- enter the yard. mat, close to which the lamp and other articles are set.
sprinkle a

They

The
is

bride's

Tandan takes charge of the swords,

and a hearty meal partaken
of.

betel
six

distributed,

The

cloths,
reality

which the bridegroom is required to bring are in three double cloths, one of which is for the use of
It is

the bride.

the privilege of the bridegroom's sisters

to dress her.
for

and the Tandan's wife

tied
in

Her

waist-cloth

is
is

a peculiar

way

the occasion, and

she

enveloped from head to foot in a silken cloth, leaving The bridegroom, after his arrival only the eyes visible.
at the bride's house, has to put

on a peculiar turban of

conical shape,

made

of a

stiff

towel-like material, tied

round with a

silk

handkerchief.
little

The bridegroom's

sister

leads the bride to the

shed (pandal)

in the yard,

and
the

seats her behind the bridegroom.

The kanam, and

remaining four cloths are then given by the bridegroom's

a
silk

sister to the bride's

mother, and they, having tied

handkerchief across the body like a Brahman's

thread, stand behind the bridegroom, the

right

mother

to the

and the

sister to the left.

The
it,

latter

says three

times " Let the

bride's mother,

kanam be

given," and hands^it to the

who, as she receives

says thrice " Let

at

me

receive the kanam,"

The mother

once hands

it

over to her husband, or the senior male

family.

member

of the

The Tandan

then places plantain leaves, for

use as plates, before the bridegroom and his two companions, and, facing the bridegroom, holds a vessel of

cooked

rice in front of him.

The

bride's mother, standing

59

TIYAN

behind him, serves out thrice some rice out of the pot on to the leaf in front of the bridegroom, and the Tandan
does the same for his two companions.
thin biscuits), sugar,
rice

The

bride's

mother then mixes some plantains, pappadams (large

and ghi

(clarified

butter) with the

offers the food

on the bridegroom's
times.

leaf-plate,
will not,
lips,

and

to

him three
it.

She

however, allow him to

taste

and removed by the washerwomen. The bridegroom's sister has the same The rice, which has thus been play with the bride.
It is

taken from his

made a

feature of the ceremony,

is

called ayini.

few

days prior to the marriage, two small bundles of betel

leaves, each containing areca nuts, half a
leaves,

dozen tobacco and two fanams are given by the bridegroom to

chieftain of the

the

Nayar
escort.

desam as

his fee for furnishing

an

In return for these offerings, he gives a

new
rice,

cloth to the bridegroom.

Three measures of raw

ten or

twelve pappadams, plantains, a cocoanut, and

some dry uncooked curry-stuff are given by the bridegroom to each of the Nayars provided as escort on
the eve
of the

marriage.

When

they arrive on the

scene on the wedding day, they are given some beaten

rice, rice

cakes, cocoanuts,

plantains,

arrack

(spirit).

When

the bride's

and a drink of parents and relations

come

vided,

ceremony, the same escort is proand the same presents are given. Just as the bridegroom and all are ready to leave, the bride's father's
for the Vathil
sister's

son called the machunan,

steps

forward,

and

demands two fanams from the bridegroom's party in return for permission to take away the bride. He gets his money, and the party starts for the bridegroom's
house, after rice has been sprinkled over the heads of the contracting couple, the sisters of the

bridegroom

leading

the

bride.

The

swords,

which

have

been

TlYAJ^

60

returned by the Tandan, are again used in flourishing

and dancing
It is

e7t

route.

a prevalent custom throughout Southern India

first

that a girl's father's sister's son has the

right to her

hand

in

marriage.

This obtains not only among the

but
for

Dravidian peoples,

also

among Brahmans.
girl,

The
means

Malayalam
nephew.
called
first

word

son-in-law (marumakan)

If

a stranger should marry a

nephew.

he also is But the unmarried nephew, having the

girl,

admitted right to the

must be paid eight annas,

or two fanams, before he will allow her to be taken away.

The argument
forty-two

is

said to be as follows.

sister

pays
wife.

fanams

as

kanam

for

her brother's
is

When

the product,

i.e.,

a daughter,

transferred to a

stranger,

the son claims

compensation on his mother's

investment at the same rate as that at which a cocoanut

tree
is

valued
first

eight

annas.

has the

right to a girl,

At all events, the nephew and must be compensated

another.

before she can be taken

away by

At the bridegroom's house, the party is received by the wife of the Tandan and the lady of the house. Following the bride should come her parents and other
relations,

two Nayars representing the

chieftain,

and the
rice

Tandan

of his tara.

The

formalities with

mats and

are gone through as before.

Rice

is

sprinkled over the

all

heads, the

Tandan

receives the swords, and

sit

in

the shed.
bride by

ceremony is repeated for the The the bridegroom's mother and sisters.
ayini rice

The

happy pair then proceed to the inner room of the house, where sweetmeats are served to them. Then is observed, as a rule, the asaram or gift ceremony.

Relations

are expected to give 10 1

fanams (Rs. 25-4), but the

gift to 2

poorest of them are allowed to reduce the

fanams (Rs. 5-4), and

the others give according to their

6r

TIYAN

means.
est.

gifts

supposed to be repaid with interThe Tandan sees that a regular account of all the is made out, and handed over to the bridegroom,

These

gifts are

and receives eight annas

ant

for his trouble.

The

account-

who

prepares the accounts, and the person

who

tests the

genuineness of the coins, each receives a bundle

of betel leaves, four areca nuts, and two tobacco leaves.

Betel leaves, areca nuts, and tobacco, are also given to

each giver of

gifts.

After

this,

there

is

the vatil or

house ceremony.

Two

large bundles of betel leaves are

prepared, each of which contains a thousand or fifteen

and with them are placed forty or fifty tobacco leaves, and seventy to a hundred areca nuts. The bride's Tandan pays two or four rupees as vatil
hundred
leaves,

kanam to the Tandan of the bridegroom, who hands the money to the bridegroom's father. The bridegroom then
places one bundle of betel leaves, with half the tobacco

and the other and they are distributed by the before her mother, Tandan of the girl's tara and his wife among the men and women who are present. Sweetmeats are then distributed, and the marriage ceremony is concluded. A formal visit must be made subsequently by the women and areca
nuts, before the bride's father,

of the bride's house to the bridegroom's, and

is

returned
paid by

by the bride and bridegroom.

brother's wives, the wife of the
tions.

The

first visit is

a party consisting of the bride's mother, her uncle's and

Tandan, and other

rela-

They are expected to bring with them plenty of

for general distribution.

sweetmeats and bread

the return visit
is

When

made by

the bride and bridegroom, the

relations

sister of the latter,

and other

and

friends, should

accompany them, and they should take with them a lot of betel leaves, areca nuts, tobacco, and sweetmeats. This exchange of visits does not, however, complete those

TIYAN
which are de rigueur.
festivals,

62
For, at the next

Onam
visit

and Vishu
the house
first

the newly married couple should

of the bride's family.

harvest,

Onam

is

the beginning of the

year.

and Vishu the agricultural new

On

these

him the inevitable and presents a new cloth to the parents When of the bride and every one else in the house. the annual Tiruvathira festival takes place between the betrothal and marriage ceremonies, the bridegroom is expected to send to the temple, through his Tandan and
occasions, the bridegroom takes with
betel leaves,

one of

his

own

relations, a quantity of ripe

and unripe

plantains.

The ceremonies which have been

described differ

considerably from those of the Tiyans of North Malabar,

where the marumakkatayam law of inheritance obtains.

These are very simple

at a time.

affairs.

In the Calicut taluk, a

But,

man
is

can marry only one wife

when

a wife

barren, a leper, or suffering

from incurable disease, her husband may, with her formal A bride may be of any permission, marry another wife. Where there is no stipulation as to dowry, it is a age.

many jewels as the bridegroom can afford. Widows may remarry. Divorce is admissible, when the grounds for it are And, when we find that incompatibility of sufficient. temper is among these, it is safe to say that it is fairly
point of honour to give the girl as

easy of accomplishment.
fact,

No
it

specific reason need, in

is

be assigned.

When

the

man who
all

wishes to

get rid of his wife, he must pay her

her expenses

towards the marriage, as assessed by persons of the

caste

who

fill

the role of mediators.

He

has to give up

jewels received from his wife's family, and must, in

cases,

some

pay the discarded wife something on account of

her loss of virginity

a circumstance, which might

make

63
it

TIYAN
If the

difficult

for

her to obtain another husband.

wife wishes to get rid of her husband, she must pay up

all

his

expenses towards the marriage.

The

party found

to be in the wrong must pay a fee of five to twenty rupees to the Tandan and all present, the relations The amount is distributed then and there. excepted.

The procedure to be adopted The Tandans of both follows.

and sometimes the
wife, the

in

effecting divorce

is

as

sides, uncles at the

and

relations,

fathers,

assemble

house of the

Tandan, or one of the relations. To the left of a burning lamp are placed two small wooden stools. On
laid a small towel with four fanams (one up in a corner of it, and another towel with a little rice and four fanams tied up in it. Close by is the other stool, on which the wife's uncle stretches a single

one of these are

rupee) tied

thread taken from his

own

cloth.

The husband
sister's
is

carries

this stool to the gate, and says three times to the wife's

brother, father, or uncle

niece's) matrimonial

"

Your

(daughter's or

connection

severed."

He

then

blows away the thread, throws the stool down, and departs for ever. This little ceremony cannot be

performed
the cloths

at the

husband's house, as

it

would involve

perpetual banishment from his

own
It is

house.
the

go

to the

Tandans.
it

The coins in uncle who gives

these

cloths,

because

was he who received the two

cloths at

the conjee ceremony.

A
for

marriage cannot be
four days from the

dissolved unless both parties agree.

A
this

girl

is

under pollution
of the
first

commencement

menstrual period.

During

time she must keep to the north side of the house, where she sleeps on a grass mat of a particular kind, in a

room festooned with garlands of young cocoanut leaves. Round the mat is a narrow ridge made of paddy (unhusked rice), rice, and flowers of the cocoanut and

TIYAN
areca palms.

64

kept burning, near which are placed the various articles already described in connection
is

lamp

Another girl keeps her company and sleeps with her, but she must not touch any other person, She further must not see the sky, and woe tree or plant.
with marriage.
betide her
diet
if

she catches sight of a crow or

strictly vegetarian,

cat.

Her

must be

without

salt,

tamarinds,

or

chillies.

She

is

armed against
seated on a

evil spirits

with an iron

knife carried on her person, or placed on the mat.

On

the

first

day, she

is

wooden

stool in the yard

to the east of the house.

is

cut in front of her.

The fresh spathe of a cocoanut The bunch of blossoms is placed

perpendicular lines of
line at the top
is

in

a copper pot painted with

(lime),

chunam
bottom.
and,
if

and a horizontal

and
it is

The

spathe of an areca palm

similarly treated,

the contents of both spathes are plentiful,

fertility.

regarded as a good augury of

girl's

The

wife of the

uncle,

or,

if

she

is

married, her husband's sister

oil

pours some gingelly (Sesamum)

over her head, on the

Failing

top of which a gold fanam has been placed.

such relations, the wife of the Tandan

officiates.

The

operation is repeated by two other women, relatives if possible. The oil is poured from a little cup made

from a leaf of the jak tree (^Artocarpus integrifolid),

flows

over
in

the

forehead,
It
is

fanam
falls

dish.

and is received with the a good omen if the coin

Rice
a
is

with the obverse upwards.

cooked with
other

jaggery,

and given
thereof,

to

the

girl.

The

women
themgirl
is

partake
selves.

and

then

have
oil is

feast

by

The

anointing with

the only bath the

has until the fourth day.

On

the third day, she

not

allowed to eat rice

in

any form, but she may partake of

form of cakes.

any other grain

husband's

in the

Her

uncle's wife,

sister,

and other

relations, give her presents

TIYA WOMAN.

65
of cakes and bread.

TIYAN
night, the mattu, or

During the

cloth-changing ceremony, takes place.

First of

all,

the

washerman comes along with the washerwoman, carrying two washed cloths. In the front yard of the house a lamp with an odd number of wicks is burning. In a

bamboo basket
another
leaf,

are a small measure (edangali) of paddy

heaped up on a plantain
piece of turmeric, a

leaf, a measure of rice on two separate quarter measures thereof, a

little

straw, a piece of coir (cocoanut

fibre), and a cocoanut. As soon as he enters, the washerman, using the straw and coir skilfully, makes a bundle of the contents of the basket, and places it near

the lamp, which

is

standing on

a wooden

stool.

A
by

cocoanut
the stool.

is

cut in half,

and placed, half on each

rolls

side,

Thereon
rice

is

set a flat bell-metal dish, contain-

ing a

little

and seven

of betel leaves and

received the

areca nuts.

The washerwoman, having

it

mattu from the woman, places

to

on

his

head and proceeds

sing a song,

at the

conclusion of which he says

solemnly

three times "

Let

me

place the mattu."

is

He

then places the cloths on the bundle, which

stool.

on the

and four other women, have by this time emerged from the middle room of the house, carrying a lighted lamp, a plate with a measure
girl's

The

uncle's wife,

of

rice,

and a kindi as

before.
silk

The
cloth,

uncle's wife, having

covered her breast with a

and wearing

all

her

ornaments, leads the other four

thrice

women

as they walk

round the mattu.

She then
lifts

places a fanam (or a

four-anna piece) on the mattu,

all,

the stool, bundle and

with one hand on the mattu and the other below the

and leads the procession of the women, with the lamp and other articles, to the room where the girl has been sleeping. She deposits her burden near the
stool,

spot where the girl has laid her head.

vii-5

general feast

TIYAN

66

then takes place, and the washerman appropriates the

fanam, and the paddy and rice spread in the yard.

So

ends the third day of these strange observances.

with some ceremonial.

On

the fourth day, the girl bathes in a neighbouring pool,

Before she leaves the house,

the washerman fixes in the ground a branch of a certain

tree, to

the top and bottom of which he ties the two

line of thin coir

ends of a long

rope or yarn.

This

is

sup-

posed to represent the bow of KsLma, the Indian Cupid.

He
it,

erects a miniature temple-like structure of

young

cocoanut leaves, with the stems of young plantains near

by the side of the pool.

Close to

it,

he places a

burning lamp, and a small quantity of

each on a separate plantain
leaf.

rice

and paddy,
sets

Near them he
leaf,

a cocoanut, which has been blackened with charcoal,

on some
another

rice

spread on a plantain

a cocoanut
rice,

reddened with turmeric and chunam on raw

and

on

leaf,

containing

fried

paddy.*

He

further deposits a few plantains,

nuts.

Before the

girl

and two other cocoaleaves the house, clad in one

night,

of the cloths brought

well

on the previous
oil,

she

is

rubbed
f

all

over with

and the
are

four

or six
treated.

women

who accompany

her

similarly

Leading the way, they are followed by a number of women to the pool, where the girl and her companions
bathe.
pool,

After the bath, they stand by the side of the

facing east

and holding lighted cotton-wicks

in

their hands,

times,

and go round the miniature temple three throwing the wicks into it. The washerman

again breaks out into song, accompanying himself by

* Ordinarily, paddy
is

partly boiled before

it

is

pounded to remove the husk.

any

Raw

rice

is

obtained by pounding the paddy, which has not undergone

boiling,

t There must in

all

be

five

or seven females.

6;
striking a bell-metal plate with a stick.
finished,

TIYAN

When

he has

and gone through a little more business on his own account, the girl's husband or brother (if she is unmarried) appears on the scene. He holds aloft the coir string, under the lower end of which a cocoanut has
been placed on the ground.
times

The

girl

passes three

forwards

and backwards without

touching

it.

Two

cotton wicks, lighted at both ends, are laid on the

cocoanut, and the girl should cut the wicks and the

cocoanut through, completely severing them, with one

blow of a strong knife or chopper.

the

If

she

is

successful,

omen

is

considered good.

then bathes a second time.

The girl, with her As she comes out

party,

of the

water, she kicks out backwards like a mule,

and sends

the stem with the single cocoanut attached flying into

the water with her right foot.
is

then brought, and she

is

clad

The second mattu cloth in it. Then she is full

She
is

dressed and ornamented and led back to the house with

a silk canopy over her head.

taken to the
eat.

middle room, and cakes and rice are given to her to

feast

is

then held.

The

girl

has so far been purified

as regards most affairs of

life,

but she cannot touch any

cooking-vessel

until

she has undergone yet another

ceremony.

This takes place on the seventh or ninth

the
first

day

after until

appearance of the menses.

girl is

Every
oil

day

then the

rubbed with gingelly

in the kitchen.
rice,

and

turmeric.
piled,

Three ordinary earthenware cooking-pots are

one above the other, most pot contains cooked

The upperone
rice

the middle

boiled with jaggery, and the lowest curry.

The

pots

must be new, and are marked with perpendicular daubs of chunam. Seated on a low wooden stool to the west
of the pots, the
girl,

facing the east, touches each pot

with a knife.
VII-5 B

When

the

first

of

all

these menstruation

TIYAN

68

ceremonies has taken place at the house of the girl's husband, her mother brings some cakes on this last day.
If
it

has been

performed at her

father's

house, her
are distri-

husband's sister should bring the cakes.

They
is

buted
of.

among

all

present, and a small meal

first,

partaken

All the expenses of the

and seventh or ninth

day ceremonies, are borne by the people of the house, who may be those of the family of the girl's father or
husband.

The expenses

of the ceremonial of the fourth

day are defrayed by the

performed

girl's

husband

if

they have been

at her father's house,

and

vice versa.
it

The young

wife has an easy time of

until the fifth

month of her pregnancy, when she must again submit to becoming the subject for ceremonial. Then takes place the Belikala, for the purpose of appeasing some of the

many malignant
for the

spirits,

who

are

unceasing

in

their

attempts to destroy infants in the womb.

This consists
in

most part of

offerings,

which are repeated

the seventh month. of the

They are performed by members Mannan (washerman) and Panan (exorcists and
At the commencement
thereof,
like
is

devil-dancers) castes.

there

is

feast.

structure, in

shape something

Muhammadan

taboot, * about five feet in height,

It
is

erected in the front yard of the house.

made

of

stems of young plantain

leaves of

trees,

and festooned

with

young cocoanut palms. The floor of the little edifice, and the ground outside it to the west, are strewn with charcoal made from paddy husk, on which are made
magic squares of white rice flour, intermingled with red, green, and yellow, each colour being compounded with
specified substances.

The

squares are not always the

same, but are prepared for each occasion, so as to suit

* the

The taboot is a model tomb of Husain, which

of a
is

Muhammadan mausoleum,

intended to represent

carried io procession during the

Moharram

festival.

69
the particular spirit which
is

TIYAN
be invoked and appeased.
six

to

The

pregnant fvoman,

with

female companions,

leaves the middle

room of the house, carrying the usual lamp and other articles, and they walk seven times round
Before completing the
it

the edifice.

last

round,

each

throws into
west of
it,

a burning wick.

facing east,
spirit in

They then stand to the and sit down. The Mannans

sticks.

invoke the

song, accompanied by the clang of

metal plates beaten with

used.

Drums must

not be

devil-dancing go on more and by morning some of the most nervous of the women, overcome by the spirit, go into fits. The fees for the devil-dancing are paid by the pregnant
or less
all

The music and weird

night,

woman's

father.

Last of

all,

a live cock

is

held against
formulae)
If

the forehead of the

woman, mantrams (magical

is
is

are repeated, and rice

thrown over her head.

cut
off,

she

should have a

fit,

the head of the cock

and the
cock
is

blood offered to the

demon
She

spirit.

If,

however, she
the

does not suffer from

simply removed alive.

undue excitement,
is left

in

peace for the next

father's house, at

two months, when she goes to her

which there
ceremony.

is

more devil-dancing

at

another Belikala

The fees are paid by the woman's husband. They vary from five to thirty-two rupees, according to
the cost of the edifice which
is

erected,

and the quality

devils

of the dancing.

The

invocation of

some of the

requires specially trained dancers

fees.

who must be
at the

paid high

On

the morning following the dance, the tamarind

juice drinking

ceremony takes place

house of

the

woman's

father.

The

fees in connection with this

are debited to the husband.

auspicious moment, the husband and two

Taking advantage of an companions

bathe

in

the early morning, and

the husband wearing a necklace.

make a neat toilette, They then go to the

TIYAN
nearest tamarind,

yo
and pluck three small
in a

leafy twigs,
sister

which they bring to the house.

The husband's
little

pounds the leaves

in the front yard.

mortar in a
juice
is

shed or pandal

The

then strained through a

new double
sisters.

cloth eight cubits in length

If

he has no

sisters, this

by the husband's should be done by his

is

and

his wife's mothers.

in

Rice conjee

then prepared

which the tamarind juice has been mixed. The husband, and his two companions, sit under the pandal, where the usual lamp and other articles have

w ith water,

been placed, with the wife behind him.

spoon.

Her

brother

then feeds him thrice with the conjee from a small gold

The husband's sister feeds the wife in manner. One of the three twigs is planted by
husband
in

like

the

the front yard, and his wife waters

is

it

every

day

until the child

born.

In the ninth month, the

husband's sister presents his wife with a

couple

of

pounds of cummin seed and jaggery.

The woman

who

brings this

little

gift

should be given some cakes

and sweetmeats.

During pregnancy, a woman always

spirits.

wears an amulet concealed within a cylindrical tube on

her neck, to protect her against malignant

The young
where she
child
is

wife's child

is

born

at her father's house,

is

under the care of her mother.

When

the

born, the brother of the newly

made mother goes

If

out into the yard, and strikes the ground three times with the stem of a dry cocoanut palm
boy, he emits a long
as he does so.
leaf.

the child

is

drawn out ku-u-u-u

in

high falsetto

It is

then the duty of the brother and

the midwife to go and inform the father of the event.

The midwife
child
girl,
is

receives from

him her

fee,

and a present
If

of a cloth, and other presents from his sisters.

the
if

a boy, the brother receives a cloth, and,

plate,

a cloth and a bell-metal

71

TIYAN
it,

The event
This
is

of the birth of a child carries with

as in

the case of death, pollution to every one in the house.

removed by ceremonies on the third day, and wholly by further ceremonies on the ninth or eleventh day, whichever happens to be the more auspicious a Tuesday for example. Any one coming to the house before the first ceremonies have taken place must bathe and wash his or her cloth to remove Any one visiting the house after the first, the pollution.
partially

but before the second ceremony, need not bathe, but

cannot eat any food in the house.

The men

of the

household can get no

rice at

home

until after the

second

ceremony has been performed, and they are consequently

compelled to board elsewhere for the time being.

washerwoman carries out the purification rites, assisted by a barber woman. First of all, the floors of all the
rooms are smeared with cow-dung.
are given to the washerwoman.
All clothes in use
their

The women rub

bodies

all

over with

oil,

and the washerwoman brings

sprinkles a mix-

mattu

for

them.

The barber woman

ture of cow's milk and karuka grass leaves over the women, who then go to a pool and bathe. When the milk is about to be sprinkled, the usual lamp, rice on

a metal plate, and kindi of water are produced. barber

also

The

woman

takes the rice and one fanam, and receives

some cocoanut and gingelly {Sesamtim) oil. Much the same things are given to the washerwoman. The second ceremony is just like the first, but, even after
its

completion, the

women

of the house cannot touch

any cooking-vessels
of the

until after the fifteenth day.

pots, as at the

The
time

ceremony of touching the cooking

first

menstrual period,

is

then performed.

These

three purificatory ceremonies must be performed after

every birth.

TIYAN

72
the twenty-seventh or fortieth day after the birth

On

of a child, the mother and the infant are taken back to

the husband's house, and cow's milk
is

for

the

first

time
the

given

to

the

child.

This

event,

which has
articles

all

solemnity of a regular function, takes place in the middle

room, where the lamp, mat and other

arranged.

have been
father's

The

child's

paternal

grandfather,

elder brother, or other senior

man

administers the milk,

is

which has been

mouth.
given to

boiled.

gold bracelet
to
fall

dipped

in

it,

and the drops of milk are made

into the child's

in

As
it

this

is

being done, the celebrant whispers

the child's right ear the

in the sixth

name which will be month. The eldest son

formally
is

always

named
the

after the paternal grandfather,

and the second after

is

father.

In like manner, the eldest girl

named

own mother. opportunity to make

after its
articles to the infant.

Relations and

friends

take this

presents of bracelets and other

feast is then held.

After the

ceremony

is

over, the parents of the child's

mother have

to send about half a

bag of

rice flour

mixed with jaggery

a child's food conIt is

to her husband's house.

For the
sists

first

six

months of

its life,

of nature's fount and cow's milk.

then, before
first

the sixth
time.

month

is

over, given boiled rice for the

The ceremony
its

takes place either in the middle

room of
sits

father's house, or at

a temple.

The

child's

grandfather, or the eldest male

member

of the family,

on a mat, and takes the child

a
little rice

in his lap.
its

With a
relations
first

gold ring he applies honey three times to

mouth, and

then gives

it

three times.

Female

who

are present follow his example, giving the child

rice.

honey, and then

Several

women, with

the lighted

lamp and other articles, carry the child into the yard, to show it the sky. They go round a cocoanut tree, and

73
stand before the
front

TIYAN

door, facing west.

An

elder

among
calls

the

women

of the house stands at the front door,

it

to

name of the child three times, and asks come inside. The relations give little presents
out the
is

of

ornaments, and there

It will

a feast.
child's
it

be observed that even a

life

is

not

entirely free from ceremonial.

it

When

has grown up,

when it has lived its course on earth, is the subject of still more ceremonial long after All these affairs involve some expenditure, it is dead. but the one which literally runs away with money is The others are not extravagances, nor are marriage.
undergoes more of
it,

and,

they as costly as might be implied from the continual

feasting of a large

number of people.

We

must not

think of these feasts as of a banquet at the Carlton,

but as simple

affairs, at

which simple people are content

fare.
it is
it

with simple though pleasing

When

a child

is

provided by nature with teeth,

the subject of a

little
its

ceremony,

during which

is

expected to disclose

natural propensities.

The

usual

mat and other

tion a large
knife,

articles are arranged,

and there are

in addi-

flat

bell-metal plate containing a rice cake, a

a palmyra leaf grantham (book), a cocoanut, and

a gold ornament.

The

child

is let

loose,
If
it

and allowed

to
it
;

pick out anything from the plate.

will

takes the cake,

be greedy

if the

knife,
;

brave
if

if

the book, learned

if

the cocoanut, a landlord

and,

the gold ornament, rich.

A
The

child's

head

is

shaved

in the third or fifth year.

is

barber,

who

performs the operation,

is

allowed to

take away the rice which, with the lamp,

also receives a

at hand.

He
of

fanam and a new

cloth.

The people

the child's mother bring rice cakes.

The

last

day of the Dasara

life
is

festival in the fifth

year
the

of a child's

that

on which instruction

in

TIYAN
alphabet begins.

74

teacher,

who has been

selected with

care, or a lucky person holds the child's right hand,

makes
which

it

trace the fifty-one letters

and of the Malayalam

alphabet on raw rice spread on a plate.

is

The

fore-finger,

the one used in offering water to the souls of

the dead and in other parts of the death ceremonies, must

not be used for tracing the

letters,

but
it.

is

placed above

the middle finger, merely to steady

reason, a doctor,
fore-finger.

For the same

when making up a pill, will not use the When, later on, the child goes to the village
one by one on
its

school, the fifty-one letters are written

tongue with a gold

letter is

style,

if

one

is

available.

As each
it.

formed, the child has to repeat the sound of

The

lobes of both a child's ears are bored with a

golden pin or a thorn.

The

helix of the ear

is

not bored

for the purpose of inserting ornaments in it, but is sometimes bored as a remedy for disease, e.g., hernia.

Everywhere
ear bored.

else in

Southern India,

it

is

common

for
left

people of almost every class to have the helix of the

ceremony must be performed before a The Tiyan tali is usually of gold, girl attains puberty. and worth about half-a-crown. It is not the one which is worn in every day life, but the one which is used in

The

tali-tying

the

Throughout Southern India, the tali is the ordinary symbol of marriage among Hindus, and it is even worn by Syrian In Malabar, and the Native States of Christians.
ceremony
about
to

be

described.

Cochin and Travancore,

which a
she
is

it is

a symbol of marriage, with

girl

is

ceremoniously adorned, as a rule before

affianced.

The ceremony
tali
is is

occupies three days, on

the last of which the

tied.

On

the

first

day, a
it

shed or pandal

erected in the front yard.

is

Within

similar structure

prepared with the leaves of an areca

75
palm, which has been cut

TIYAN
at

down

an auspicious moment,
tara.

and with the formal sanction of the Tandan of the

This inner pandal
is
is

tastefully decorated with pictures

and

flowers.

It

important to note that this

until

little

pandal must not be begun

the

first

day of the

ceremony.

On

this day, the carpenter of the tara brings

a low wooden

seat, rather

long and narrow,

made from

the pala tree {Alsionia scholaris), which must be cut at

an auspicious moment, for which he receives one fanam. This seat is called mana.* A grass mat is spread in the
middle room of the house, with a white cloth over
it,

on

which the mana

is

placed.

lamp, vessel of water, and

the usual paraphernalia are arranged

to the south close by.

on the ground

When

these preliminaries have

been completed, the girl is brought by the uncle's wife to In front of her, a the pandal, and seated on a stool.

and other things which are a feature in all ceremonials, and a measure of paddy are placed on the ground, a gold fanam is put on her head, and over it
lamp,
gingelly
forehead,
oil
it

is

poured.

As

the

coin
It
is

falls

from

the

is

caught

in

a cup.
girl is

important which

side falls uppermost.

for bathing,

The

then taken to a pool

and returns to the pandal. She is conducted to the middle room of the house in procession, with a silk canopy over her head and women carrying lamps, etc. She is confined in this room, which is decorated in the

manner described when speaking of the menstruation ceremony, until the third day. She sleeps on a mat, surrounded by a little ridge of rice and paddy, cocoanut and areca palm flowers, and near her head is a copper pot marked with vertical daubs of white. The blacksmith
of the tara brings a
little

stick,

called charathkot, with

* Manavalan

= bridegroom

Manavati

= bride.

TIYAN
an iron blade
at

76

one end, which

an arrow of Kama.

supposed to represent This the girl keeps constantly at

is

her side, and carries in

her hand

when compelled by
in

nature to leave the room.

While confined
fish,

the room,
or see any
the third

she

is

not allowed to eat

flesh,

or

salt,

animals, especially a cat, dog, or crow.

day, the
tali is

On

prepared on the spot by the village golduncle gives him the gold, which he

smith.
melts,

The

girl's

and works at in the pandal at an auspicious moment. The paddy and rice, which, with the lamp and vessel of water, have been in evidence during the operations, are
given to the goldsmith, with a fanam for his labour.

A
is

weaver brings two

new

cloths, of a particular kind called

girl's
is

mantra-kodi, for which the

uncle pays.

One
is

worn by the

girl,

and the mana

covered with the other.

richly

The

girl is

taken to bathe, and, after the bath,

dressed and ornamented, and brought

in procession,

with

a canopy over her head, to the house, where she is conducted to the inner room. The mana is then placed, with the cloth near it, on a grass mat in the inner pandal.

The
girl,

uncle's wife sits on the mat,

carries

and the uncle

lifts

the

her three

times

round the pandal, and

astrologer,

deposits her in his wife's lap.

present, indicates the
tied.

The moment when

gives
called

who

is

the

tali

should be

The

girl's father
little

from him a
time).

rice,

him a fanam, and receives muhurtham (auspicious

When

the psychological

moment has

arrived he
is

sprinkles the rice on the girl's head, saying "It

time."

The
wife.

tali is

then tied round the

girl's
tali

neck by the uncle's

is

At the upper end of the

a ring, through
is

which the thread passes.

the purpose
is

The

thread which

used for

drawn from the cloth with which the mana has been covered. [It is odd that there are some families

of Nayars,

who

are not allowed to use a

tali

with a ring

77
to receive the
string,
in

TIYAN
are
therefore

and
tali

obliged to

make a
tali

hole

the

itself.]

has

been tied

on the

girl's

neck, a

As soon as the number of

King Nala and Every

boys burst into song, praising Ganapathi (the elephant

god), and descriptive of the marriage of

Damayanti, or of Sri

Krishna and Rukmani.

one joins

and the song ends with shouts and hurrahs. mock feeding ceremony is then carried out. Three
in,

plantain leaves are spread in front of the girl in the

pandal, and
rice,

plantains,

and pappadams are spread

thereon.
girl

The
The

uncle's wife offers

some of each

to the
it

three times, but does not allow her to touch

lips.

with

her

girl is

then taken to a temple, to invoke

the God's blessing.

The

description which has just been given

is

is

that

of the ceremony which

performed,

if

the girl has not

been affianced.
it is

If

a husband has been arranged for her,

tali,

he who

ties

the

and

his sister takes the place

is

of the uncle's wife.

Otherwise the ceremony

that,

the
the

same,

with this difference, however,

ties the tali,

when

husband
girl

there can be no divorce, and the

cannot remarry

in the

event of his death.

In North, as in South Malabar, the tali-tying cere-

mony

is

always performed before puberty, and occupies

four days.

This

is

the orthodox procedure.

The

girl
is

wears a cloth provided by the washer woman.

She

taken from the middle room of the house to the yard,

and there seated on a plank of pala wood. Placed in front of her are a small measure of rice and paddy, a washed white cloth, and a small bell-metal vessel (kindi)
on a bell-metal
plate.

The

barber pours cocoanut water

on her head, on which a silver and copper coin have been placed. One of her relations then pours water
from a vessel containing some raw rice over her head,

TIYAN

yS

using two halves of a cocoanut as a spout. The girl is then taken back to the middle room, where she remains
for three days.

There

is

a feast in the evening.

is

On

the fourth day, a pandal

erected in the front yard,

and decorated.
bouring pool,

The

girl is

taken to bathe at a neigh-

preceded by

women

carrying a lamp,

a kindi of water, and other things which have been

already described.

forms puja to

During her absence, the barber perGanapathi in the pandal. After bathing,
in
half,

she cuts a cocoanut

with a
silk

and returns

in procession,

canopy over her head, amid music and singing, and enters the middle room of the house. The barber

woman

ties

a gold ornament (netti pattam) on her fore-

head, which she marks with sandal paste, and blackens

her eyes with eye-salve.

The

uncle's wife, preceded

articles,

by

women
pandal.

bearing a lamp and other

carries the

mana, covered with

places the

cloth, from the middle room to the She walks three times round the pandal, and

mana on

a grass mat, over which has been

girl will

spread some paddy and some rice where the put her
etc.,

foot.

The women who have

round
it,

carried the lamp,

return to the room, and escort the girl to the pandal.

thrice

and takes her seat on the mana. The barber hands her a little rice, which she throws on the lighted lamp, and articles which have been

She walks

used

in the

puja to Ganapathi, and on the post support-

ing the south-west corner of the pandal.

This post

should be of pala wood, or have a twig of that tree tied

to
it
it.

More

rice is

handed

to the girl,

and she throws

rice,
girl.

to the

cardinal points of the compass, to the earth,

and to the sky.

small earthen pot containing

is

a cocoanut, betel, and areca nuts,

placed near the

Into this a variety of articles, each tied up separately in

a piece of plantain

leaf,

are placed.

These

consist of a

79
gold coin,
charcoal,

TIYAN
rice,

a silver coin,

salt,

paddy,
leaf

turmeric,

and pieces of an old cadjan

from the thatch

then covered

of the house.

The mouth

of the pot

is

over with a plantain leaf tied with string.

sprinkles rice three times over the pot,
in the leaf,

The

girl

makes a hole
which
is

and picks out one of the

destiny.

articles,

examined as an augur of her

thrown away.

Betel leaves and

areca nuts are then passed twice round her head, and

She next

twists off a cocoanut from a

bunch hanging

at a corner of the pandal.

Then

follows

the presentation

of cloths

called mantra-kodi.

These

must be new, and of a particular kind. Each of her relations throws one of these cloths over the girl's head.
Half of them (perhaps ten or twelve) go to the barber, who, at this point, pours cocoanut water from the leaf
of a banyan tree on her head, on which a silver and

copper coin have been placed.

asked whether
it is

The
tali,

astrologer

is

then

time to

tie

the

and

replies three

times in the affirmative.

tali
it

strung on a thread to
girl's

round the

neck.

The barber woman hands the the girl's uncle's wife, who ties The barber woman then pours
Three times the water
oil,

water on the

girl's

hands.

is

flung upwards, and then to the east, west, south, and

north.

cotton wick, steeped in

is

then twisted

round a piece of bamboo, and stuck on a young cocoanut. The girl is asked if she sees the sun, looks at the lighted
wick, and says that she does.

She

is

then taken to a
etc.

cocoanut

tree,

preceded by the lamp,

She walks
is

three times round the tree, and pours water over the
root.

The ceremony

is

now

concluded, and the girl

marched back

to the middle room.

A variation
in

of the tali-tying ceremony, as performed

may be

Chavakad on the coast between Calicut and Cochin, briefly described, because it possesses some

TIYAN
interesting features.
It is

80
always done by the intended

husband, or some one representing him.

of the tara, with the permission of the
called Avakasi), cuts

Seven days

prior to the beginning of the ceremony, the carpenter

Tandan

(here

down an

areca palm, and fixes part

of

it

as the south-east post of the booth, at which the

tali will

be

tied.

On

the sixth day, the girl

is

formally

installed in the

middle room of the house.

The

carpenter
is

brings a

mana

of pala wood, the cost of which

it.

paid by

the father, and does puja to

arrive.

The bridegroom's
is

party

lamp

is

lighted in the booth, which

at this

Near the lamp are placed a measure of paddy, half a measure (nazhi) of rice, a looking-glass, a kindi of water, and a wooden cheppu (a rude vessel with a sliding cover). The wives of the Tandan and uncle, together with some other women, bring the girl, and seat her on the mana. The uncle's wife parts her hair, and places a gold fanam on her crown. The Tandan's wife then pours a little oil on it over a leaf of the jak tree three times. The other women do the same. The girl is then taken to a pool, and bathed. Before her return, the mana should be placed ready for her in the middle room of the house. In the evening there is a feast. On the day but one
time partly, but not entirely,
ready.
following, the
tali is tied.
is

made

The

last

post of the booth

is

put up, and

tying day.

it

completed and decorated on the

spread on the
floor,

tali-

put in

it.

A A
On

lamp, looking-glass, and other things are

grass mat
is

and a

kambli (blanket) and a whitewashed cloth are placed

over
it.

either side of

it

is

placed a pillow.

The

bridegroom and his party wait in an adjoining house, for they must not appear on the scene until the psychological
tara,

moment

arrives.

The Tandan
first,

of the bridegroom's

with a fe^ friends, comes

and hands over two

<

8
cloths

TIYAN
to the bride's

and ten rupees eight annas

Tandan.

The
She

girl is

dressed in one of these cloths, and led to the

booth, the bridegroom's sister holding her by the hand.

on the mana, which has been brought, and placed on the cloth, by her uncle. The bridegroom comes in
sits

procession, carried on his uncle's shoulders.

still

The

girl is

a child, and he

is

only a few years her senior.

the right side of the

His
wife

uncle puts him

down on

girl, after

walking thrice round the booth.

sits close to her,

The

girl's uncle's

on the other

side,

on the mana.
if it is

Her
in
tali

father asks the astrologer three times

the proper

time to

tie

the

tali,

and

is

answered thrice
ties

the

affirmative.

the

girl's

Then the boy bridegroom neck. The boy and girl sing Then

the

on

out a chorus in

praise of Ganapathi,

and end up with three loud shouts

the boy seats himself on the ground,

and hurrahs.

outside the pillow.

The

girl is
is

taken inside the house,

and, after a general feast,

brought back, and seated on

the mana, and rice and flowers are sprinkled.

is paid to the uncle's son, as at Calicut.

No money
bride-

The boy

groom pays

eight annas to his sister for leading the

bride by the hand.

When

the marriage has been

done

by proxy, the boy bridegroom is selected from a tarwad He stays at the girl's into which the girl might marry. fourth day, the boy and days, and, on for three the house
girl are

taken to a temple.
is

A formal

divorce

is

effected,

and the boy

It will

taken away.

not be worth while to attempt a description of

the marriage ceremony of the Tiyans of North Malabar,

because there

is

none, or next to none.

including even the

There the

Tiyans and

all classes,

Muhammadan
The
Either

Mappillas, follow the rule of marumakkatayam, or inheri-

tance through

females from

uncle to nephew.

children have no right to their father's property.

vii-6

TIYAN
party

82

may annul

the

marital
;

union at
and, as
its

will,

without
is

awarding any compensation

easy and simple, so
is

infraction
is

its

institution.

Nor

there any
It

rigid inquiry as to the antecedents of either party.

is

an

affair

of mutual arrangement, attended with

little

formality.

Proceeding to the

girl's

house, accompanied

by a few
mother.

friends, the intending

husband takes with him

a couple of cloths, one for the

and the other for her In parts of North Malabar, the Tiyan women
girl,

wear an ornament called

childhood, but the chittu

chittu (ring) in a hole bored in

the top of the helix of each ear.

is

The

holes are bored in

not worn until the girl forms

a marital union with a man.

the occasion, the

The

chittus are

made on They

the spot at the time, in the marriage pandal erected for

girl's

uncle providing the gold.

life,

are never removed during

distress.

except in cases of dire

equivalent to having
that, in

"To

sell

chittu"
It is

is

become a pauper.

supposed

olden days, the

marriage ceremonies lasted over seven days, and were

subsequently reduced to seven meals, or three and a half
days, and then to one day.

Now the bridegroom

remains

the
his

first

night at the bride's house, and then takes her to

home.

Before they leave, a cocoanut, the outer husk

is

of which has been removed,

placed on a stool of pala

it

wood, and one of the bridegroom's party must smash

with his
fist.

more orthodox in North Malabar observe the formality of examining horoscopes, and a ceremony equivalent to the conjee-drinking cereof the

Some

mony which

has been described, called achara kaliana,

in the

and the payment of kanam

connection with fanams

shape of forty-one
In
that

fanams, instead of forty-two as in South Malabar.

it

may be noted

the old

gold fanam

is

reckoned as worth four annas, whereas

five silver or velli

fanams make a rupee.

Everywhere

83
in rural

TIYAN

Malabar, calculations are

:

made

in

terms of

velli

fanams thus

lo pice (A" of an anna)

5 vellis

velli.

rupee.

Bazaar men, and those

who

sell their

small stock at the

weekly markets
in vellis.

all

about the country, arrange their prices

of a Tiyan

When
person

the death

is

expected,

all

the

relations draw near, and await the fateful moment.

The

who

is

about to die
it is

is

laid

on the

floor of the

middle room, for

will

inauspicious to die on a cot.

We

suppose that the dying

man

is

a parent and a land-

Each of the sons and daughters gives him a little conjee water, just before he passes away. At the moment
lord.

of death,

all

the

the alarm of

women bawl out in lamentations, giving death. The Cheruman serfs in the fields
and
yell

join in the chorus,

out an unintelligible formula

of their own.

Absent

relations are all formally invited.

From

the houses of the son's wife and daughter's husband

fruits,

are sent quantities of jak

unripe plantains, and

cocoanuts, as death

gifts.

One

half of the husks of the

left

cocoanuts

is

removed, and the other half

on the

shell.

After the cremation or burial, these articles are distributed

among

those present by the Tandan,

who
is

receives an
extinct,

extra share for his trouble.

When

life

the

body is placed with the head to the south, and the thumbs and big toes are tied together. It is then taken
out into the yard, washed, bathed
cloth,
is

in oil,

dressed in a

new

and brought ack

to the middle room.

cocoanut

cut in two, and the two halves, with a lighted wick on

each,

are placed at the head and foot. The houseowner spreads a cotton cloth over the corpse, and all the relations, and friends, do the same. Any one who wishes to place a silk cloth on the corpse may

vn-6 B

TIYAN
do
so,
is

84
but he must cover
it

with a cotton cloth.

The

body

then removed for burial or cremation, and placed

It is

near the grave or funeral pyre.

the rural rule that

elderly persons and karnavans of tarwads are cremated,

and others buried.

as his perquisite,

The
all

barber,

perform the purificatory

covering the corpse.

rites,

whose function now removes, and

it is

to

retains

the cloths, except the last three

As
it

it is

being borne away to the

place of burial or cremation, water mixed with

is

cow-dung

sprinkled behind

in

the yard.
is

The

eldest son,

who

succeeds to the property and

ral

responsible for the fune-

ceremonies, then tears crosswise a piece of the cloth

which has been placed over the corpse by the people of

the house, and ties
it

round

his forehead.

He

holds one

end of the cloth while the barber holds the other, and
tears off the piece.

The barber then

cuts three holes in

the remainder of

this cloth

covering the body, over the

mouth, navel, and pubes.

All

little

water and rice are

slit

poured over a gold fanam through the

over the mouth.

sons, grandoffer

who

observe the death pollution,

i.e.,

sons, nephews,

younger brothers and cousins,

water

and

rice in the

same manner, and walk three times round

the grave or pyre.

The barber then breaks

a pot of

water over the grave.

No

other ceremonial

is

observed

on

this day,

not be eaten.
is

kept at

on which, and during the night, rice must If the body has been cremated, a watch the burning ground for five days by Panans,
all

who
who

beat drums

night to scare

away the

evil spirits
all
is

which haunt such

spots.

Early on the second day,

are under pollution are shaved.

The

operation
it

commenced, a lighted lamp, a measure of rice and paddy on a plantain leaf must be at hand. The paddy and rice are
is

attended with some ceremonial, and, before

a perquisite of the barber.

Those who have been shaved

Ss
bathe,

TIYAN

and then follows the crow-feeding ceremony.

boiled in a bell-metal vessel over a hearth pre-

Rice

is

pared with three young cocoanuts.

The

eldest son,

who

tore the cloth of succession from the corpse,

rice into

makes the

two

little balls,

places

and

offers

them

to the spirit

them on a plantain leaf, of the departed by pouring

grass.

libations of water

on them over a blade of karuka

by crows.
until

Men and women who

same.

are under pollution then do the

The
is

rice balls are eaten

This

little

ceremony
to an end.

performed

daily

the

eleventh or

thirteenth day,

when

the period of death pollution

If the

eleventh day happens to

fall

comes on a

Tuesday or Friday, or on any inauspicious day, the period

is

extended to the thirteenth day.

is

When

the period of
in
is

death pollution

partly in

one month, and partly

another, another death in the house within the year

expected.
the
fifth

Preceding the sanchayanam, which occupies

is

day, there

the lamp-watching on the previous

night.
little

In the south-east corner of the middle room, a

is

paddy

heaped up, and on

it is

placed a bell-metal

plate with an iron

wicks on
close to

it.

it

is

lamp having five or seven lighted Under the lamp is a little cow-dung, and The lamp a bunch of cocoanut flowers.
until
it

must be kept burning

following day.
I

is

extinguished on the

n the case of the death of a male, his

niece watches the lamp, and in that of a female her

daughter, lying near

is

it

on a grass mat.
to the

The sanchayanam
house
suffer

the

first
it

stage in the removal of death pollution, and,

over, all

until

is

who come

from

pollution,

and cannot enter

their

own house

or partake

of any food without bathing previously.

When

the body

has been cremated, the fragments of calcined bones are

collected from the ashes,
sea, or, if this
is

and carried

in procession to the

far

away, into a

river.

The members

of

TIYAN

86
all

the family under pollution then rub their bodies

over

with

oil,

and the barber sprinkles a mixture of cow's

milk over their heads, using a blade of karuka grass as

They then bathe, and the eldest son alone observes mattu. The crow-feeding ceremony follows, and, when this is over, the three cocoanuts which were
a spout.

used as a hearth are thrown away.

vessel filled with water
is

large bell-metal

before the door of the

still

now placed in the front yard house. The barber carries the
it

burning lamp from the middle room, and sets

on the ground near the pot of water.

are under pollution

The women who

come from the middle room, each

carrying a lighted wick, walk thrice round the pot, and

throw the wicks into the water.

others deposit a few pies therein.
lights a

The woman who has

pot,

watched the lamp puts four annas into the

and the

The
lamp

eldest son
is

now

wick from the iron lamp which

it

about to be

extinguished, and with

lights a

in the

middle

The barber then dips the iron lamp in the water, and picks out the money as his perquisite. The water The bell-metal is poured on the roots of a cocoanut tree. vessel becomes the property of the woman who watched
room.
the lamp, but she cannot take
it

away

until she leaves

the house after the pula-kuli ceremony.

When

the lamp

has been extinguished, a woman, hired for the occasion,

is

seated on a cocoanut leaf in the front yard.

oil

The

Tandan pours
receives a leaves
little

on her head three times, and she betel and two annas. She rises, and
without
Betel

the

place

turning back,
is

taking the

pollution with her.

then distributed.

Those
and

who

provided the death gifts on the day of the death

this

must on

day bring with them a bag of

in

rice,

about four rupees

money.

They have

also to give
is first

eight annas to the barber.

A folded

handkerchief

8;
presented to the-^barber,
receives

TIYAN
formally returns
it,

who

and
the

instead

of

it

the

eight annas.
pula-kuli

Before
is is

people disperse,
Pula-kuli,

the day of the

settled.

or
for

washing away the

First of

pollution,

the

final

ceremony
a death

putting off the unpleasant consequences of

all,

in a family.
all

the

members thereof
oil.

rub themselves

over with

oil,

and are sprinkled by

the barber with cow's milk and gingelly

bathe.

They then

The

barber outlines the figure of a

man

or

woman, according
flour

to the sex of the deceased, with rice

to the south, in the
is

and turmeric powder, the head

middle room of the house.

The
is

figure

covered with
rice

two paddy are heaped.

plantain leaves, on each of which a

little

and

Over all

spread a

new

cloth,
it.

with a

basket containing three measures of paddy upon

eldest son (the heir) sits facing the south,

The

and with a
repeats the

nazhi measures out the paddy, which he casts to the

south, east,

and west

not

the north.

He

performance, using the fingers of the

as to form a cup as a measure.

left

hand closed so
first

Then, closing the

and fourth fingers firmly with the thumb, using the left hand, he measures some paddy in the same manner with the two extended fingers. Rice is treated in the same
way.

A
in

nazhi of paddy, with a lighted wick over

in a basket.
left
it

it,

is

then placed
nazhi
his

The
passes

eldest son
it

takes

the

hand,

behind his body,

it

and, receiving
basket.

with his right hand, replaces

is

in
it

the

The wick

extinguished by sprinkling
figure

with

water three times.

floor
is

At the head of the

on the

placed a clean cloth

the

washerman's mattu.
In the four corchillies,
is

It is folded,

and within the

it

folds are three nazhis of rice.

is

On

the top of

a cocoanut

placed.

ners a piece of charcoal, a

little salt,

a few

and a

gold fanam are

tied.

The

eldest son,

who

always the

tiyah
protagonist in
cloth with
all

sa
the ceremonies after death,
contents,
lifts

the

all its
it

places

it

on

his

head, and
loins,

touches with

his forehead, ears,

each side and

knees and toes.

turmeric powder

He
is

does this three times.

The

plan-

tain leaves are then

removed from the

figure.

A little

taken from the outline, and rubbed

on the forehead of the eldest son. He then bows thrice to the figure, crossing his legs and arms so that the right hand holds the left ear, and the left the right ear, and
touches the ground with the elbow-joints.
to
It is

no joke

do

this.

All this time, the eldest son wears round

his forehead the strip torn

from the cloth which covered

the corpse.

There

is

nothing more to be done in the

middle room for the present, and the eldest son goes out
into the yard,

crows.

and cooks the rice for the final feed to the Three nazhis of this rice must be pounded and

prepared for cooking by the woman who watched the lamp on the fourth night after death. Having cooked
the rice, the eldest son brings
it

into the middle room,

and mixes

it

with

some unrefined
balls,

sugar, plantains

and

pappadams, making two

one large and one small.

leaf.

Each
puja

of these he places on a plantain

is

done to them, and offerings of

rice

Then some are made over

and

a gold fanam.
yard, or, in

The

balls are given to

the crows in the

some

cases, taken to the sea or a river,

cast into the water.

articles

When this course is adopted, various

party.

must be kept ready ere the return of the

These comprise a new pot containing water, a branch

of areca blossoms,

mango

leaves, a kindi containing a

little salt

gold fanam or gold ring, a

and

rice,

each tied

up

in

a piece of cloth, and a few

is

chillies.
leaf,

The mouth

of the pot

There are also two

wood.

and secured. stools, made of pala and mango The eldest son sits on one of these, and places

covered with a plantain

89
his feet

tlYAN
he does not touch the
is

on the

other, so that
in the pot

ground.
leaves

The water

sprinkled with

mango

by the barber to the north, south, east and The remainder of the west, and on the head of the son. water is then poured over his head. The barber then

him with cocoanut water, this time using areca blossoms, and makes him sip a little thereof. The barber makes a hole in the plantain leaf, and picks out the contents. The eldest son bathes, and after the bath
sprinkles

there

is

a presentation of

gifts.
first

The

barber, sitting in

the verandah beside the son,

gives to each person

rice,

under pollution a
eat.

little

salt

and raw
little

which they

He

then gives them a

betel

leaf

and a small

piece of areca nut, and receives in return a quarter of an

anna.

The

eldest

son chews the betel which he has

received, and

spits into a spittoon held

it

by the barber,

whose property
cloth to

becomes.

has been presented with a

Then to the barber, who new mat to sit on and new

wear before he seats himself in the verandah, are given an ear-ring such as is worn by Tiyan women, a
a white cotton cloth, and a few annas.
is

silk cloth,

If

the

deceased has been cremated he

and,
if

given six fanams,

buried, five fanams as the fee for his priestly

offices.

On

an occasion of

this kind, several barbers,

male and female, turn up in the hope of receiving All who help during the various stages of presents.
the ceremonial
are
treated
in

much

the same way,

fee.

but the senior barber alone receives the officiating

It is

odd that the barbers of the four surrounding

villages are entitled to receive gifts of

money.
to eat

new cloths and Those under death pollution are forbidden fish or flesh, chew betel, or partake of jaggery.
is

The

restriction

removed on the pula-kuli day.

removal
is

The
is

last act for their

as follows.

The barber

TIYAN

90

required to eat some jaggery, and drink

some

conjee.

After
sit

this,

the eldest son, the Tandan, and a neighbour,

in the

on a mat spread
then over.
is

middle of the house, and

jaggery.

formally
kuli
is

partake of conjee and

The

pula-

It

a sacred duty to a deceased person

who was

one of importance, for example the head of a family, to have a silver image of him made, and arrange for

some temple, where it will receive its share of puja (worship), and offerings of food and The new-moon day of the months Karkitakam water. (July- August), Tulam (October-November), and Kumit

being deposited

in

bham (February-March) is generally selected for doing The temples at Tirunelli in Wynad and Tirunathis. vayi, which are among the oldest in Malabar, were generally the resting-places of these images, but now some of the well-to-do deposit them much further afield,
even
at

Benares and Ramesvaram.

silver

image

is

presented to the local Siva temple, where, for a consi-

done every new-moon day. On each of these days, mantrams are supposed to be repeated a thousand times. When the image has been the object
deration, puja
is

of these
to
It

mantrams sixteen thousand times, it is supposed have become eligible for final deposit in a temple. is this image which rests in the temple at Tirunavayi,

or elsewhere.

An
the

annual sradh ceremony

is

performed

for the

sake

of the spirit of the deceased, at which crows are fed in

manner already described, and relations are fed. On the night of this day, some sweetmeats or cakes, such as the deceased was fond of during life, are offered to the spirit. A lamp is placed on a stool, and lighted in the middle room of the house, with a kindi of water and a young cocoanut near it. The cakes or sweetmeats

91
are placed in front of the stool.

TIYAN
Children sprinkle rice

over

it,

and the door

is

shut for a quarter of an hour.

The

individual

who

feeds the crows should partake of

fish or flesh,
is

only one meal, without

on the previous day.

or

Another ceremony, which

of
the

necessary for the repose

dead,

is

called
spirit.

badha-velichatu-variethal,
It

bringing out the

cannot be performed
After that,

until

at least a year after death, for during

spirit
is

that period the

it may be The ceremony resembles the nelikala pregnancy ceremony. The perSome little girls formers are Panans or washermen. are seated in front of a booth in the yard. The celebrant

in

a sort of purgatory.
it

invoked, and

will

answer questions.

of the rite sings, invoking the spirit of the deceased.

becomes possessed by the spirit, and, it is said, talks and acts just like the deceased, calling the children, relations and friends by name, talking of the past, and giving commands for the
Late at night, one of the
girls

future conduct of the living

members

of the family.

After

this,

the spirit

is

severed from earthly trammels,

and attains heavenly bliss. The wood used for the purpose of cremation is that of a mango tree, which must be cut down after the death.
sandalwood and cuscus (grass) roots are someIn these days, when the times added to the pyre.
little

important and interesting features of ceremonial are

fast

disappearing,

it is

not surprising that dried cakes of

cow-dung are superseding the mango wood. Among other ceremonies, there is one called kutti puja, which is performed when a newly built house is taken charge of. Vastu Purusha is the name of the supreme being which, lying on its back with its head to
the north-east and legs to the south-west, supports the
earth.

Or

rather the earth

is

but a small portion of this

TIYAN
vast body.
vessels,

92
Forests are
its its

tiny hairs, oceans breath.

its

blood-

and the wind

In this

body are

fifty-three deities,

who

are liable to disturbance

is

when

the surface of the earth

dug,

when

trees are felled,

foundations

laid,

and a house

built.

These angry beings

be untimely deaths,

must be propitiated, or there

poverty,
is

will

and sickness among

the inmates.

The ceremony

performed in the following manner.

square with

fifty-three

columns

is

made with

rice flour in the

is filled

middle

room
it,

of the house,

and each column

with yellow,
placed over

red, and black powder.

plantain leaf
set

is

and a few measures of paddy are

on the top of the

leaf.

On

this is placed

another

leaf,

with various kinds

it.

of grain, plantains, cocoanuts, and jaggery on

carpenter,

The
and

who

is

the architect and builder of the house,

lights,

then performs puja with flowers, incense and

the troublesome imp-spirit Gulikan
is is

propitiated with

toddy and arrack, and a fowl which

him.

decapitated for

carpenters, masons, and round the house, breaking cocoanuts on the walls and doors, and howling in order to
all

Then

the

workmen

coolies

walk

thrice

drive

away

all

evil

spirits

which may by chance be

this,

lurking about the place.

After

they are

all

fed until

they cry out

"

We

are satisfied, and want no more."

They

and other presents, and the chief feature of the ceremony takes place. This is the formal handing over of the house by the carpenter. He hands
are given cloths
it

over to a third person, and never directly to the owner.

is

It

not always easy to find a third

person

who
is

is

willing to undertake the responsibility,

and who
is

at the

same time

suitable for the Gulikan

who

dispossessed

of the house, and pursues

him henceforth, following him

who first receives charge of the house. He should be a man who brings luck, cheerful and contented, having a

93
family,

TIYAN

and not labouring under any disorder or sickness There is, or was a few years ago, an old Nayar of body. living not far from Calicut, who was much sought after to fulfil the functions of third person on these occasions,

and

all

the houses he received prospered.

is

The

third

person

generally a

presents of cloths,

He wears When the

this

one of

poor man, who is bribed with money and rice, to undertake the job. the new cloths during the ceremony.
the middle

carpenter's ceremonies have been completed,

man is taken to made to stand facing

tain leaf
cloth.

room

of the house, and

the door, with each foot on a plan-

Pieces of the thatch are tied to the four corners

of his
it

He

shuts the door, opens

it,

and shuts

again.

The

carpenter calls from without, asking him

whether he has taken charge of the house.

evasively "
all

He

replies

Have
?

the carpenters and

If

workmen

received

their

wages

they have,

take charge of the

house."
for, if

The

carpenter does not answer the question,

he did so, the mischief would be transferred to him through the house-owner. So he says " I did not ask you about my wages. Have you taken charge of
the house
?"

" otherwise not."

The man The

inside answers as before, adding

carpenter again says "

did not

ask you about

my

wages.

Answer me

straight.
?"

you, or have you not taken charge of the house

Have The

man

inside replies "

have taken charge of the house,"

and opens the door. Taking in his hands the plantain leaves on which he stood, he runs away as fast as he can without looking back. This he must not do on any account. The people pelt him with plantains, and hoot at him as he runs, and water mingled with cow-dung is
sprinkled in his path.

After

all this,

cow's milk

is

boiled

with a
takes,

little

rice in the

house, of which every one parhis house.

and the owner assumes charge of

TIYAN
In the
families of

94
pre- British days,

a few of the

well-to-do

Tiyans lived

in

houses of the kind called

nalapura (four houses), having an open quadrangle in

the centre.
But, for the most part, the Tiyans
lived in a one-roomed Nowadays, the kala pura usually consists thatched hut. of two rooms, east and west. Toddy-drawing, and every thing connected with the

of the Nayars and Nambutiris

slaves

manufacture and sale of arrack (country liquor) and unrefined sugar, form the orthodox occupation of the
Tiyan.
in all

But members of the community are to be found classes of society, and in practically all professions

and walks of life. It is interesting lo find that the head of a Tiyan family in North Malabar bears the title Cherayi Panikar, conferred on the family in the old days

by a former Zamorin. A title of this kind was given Even in those only to one specially proficient in arms. Tiyan physicians, bone-setters, astrolodays there were
gers, diviners,
It is

and

sorcerers.

easy to identify the toddy-tapper by the indu-

rated skin of the palms, fingers, inner side of the forearms,

and the
nalia,

instep.

The

business of toddy -tapping involves

expert climbing, while carrying a considerable parapher-

with no adventitious aid other than can be got out

of a soft

grummet

of coir to keep the feet near together,

while the hands, with the arms extended, grasp the palm
tree.

The

profession
I

is

rarely

adopted before the age

very hard work.

of eighteen, but

have seen a man who said he began

old.
It
is

when he was twelve years

tapper can work about

fifteen trees,

each of which

he has to climb three times a day.

districts of the

In the northern

Madras Presidency, among the Telugu

is

population, the toddy-drawers use a ladder about eight

or nine feet in length, which

placed against the tree,

95
to avoid climbing a third or a fourth of
act of climbing up or down, they
it.

TIYAN
While
in the

make use

of a wide band,

which is and round the tree. This band is easily fastened with The back is protected by a piece of a toggle and eye.
thick soft leather.
It

passed round the body at the small of the back,

gives great assistance

in

climbing,

which

it

makes

easy.

All over the southernmost portion

of the peninsula,

among

the Shanans and Tiyans, the

They climb up and using arms, only the grummet and down with their hands on the feet. The Tiyan toddy-tapper's equipment consists
ladder and waist-band are unknown.
of a short-handled hatchet, about seven inches square, of
thin iron, sheathed in a
waist-belt

wooden

case,

and fastened

to a

which

is

composed hung a small pot of gummy substance obtained

aichil

of several strings of coir yarn, to

by bruising the leaves of the

holding a couple of gallons,
the areca palm,
is

plant.

vessel

made out
bringing

of the spathe of

used

for
is

down

the toddy.

Tucked

into the waist-belt

is

either end, which

a bone loaded with lead at used for tapping the palm to bring

out the juice.

A man

one of these bones unicolor), which had such virtue that, according to its owner, it would fetch palm juice out of any tree. The
garb of the tapper
at

any price the femur of a sambar {Cervus

sell at

once refused to

work

consists of a short cloth round

the loins, and (always during the rains, and often at

other times) a head-covering somewhat pointed in shape,

made

of the leaves of the cocoanut

as in a clinker-built boat,

palm placed together or of a rounded shape, made

out of the spathe of the areca palm.

The toddy-tapper

should go through the show of reverence by touching the cocoanut tree with the right hand, and then applying his hand to the forehead, every time he prepares to

climb a tree.

TIYAN

96

In connection with toddy-drawing, the following note " The tapper and occurs in the Gazetteer of Malabar.

the toddy shopkeeper are generally partners, the former

renting
the
trees,

paying the

tree-tax,
latter.

and

selling

the toddy at fixed prices to the

shopkeeper pays both rent and

his servant

tax,

Sometimes the and the tapper is

trees are

paid by the bottle.

The

rented

half yearly,

and the

rent

varies

Re. 1-8-0 per tree.

they

They

are

fit

between Re. i and for tapping as soon as

come
for

into bearing, but four years later

and

in

the

succeeding decade are most productive.

They are seldom

the year, and the

tapped
process,

more

than six
it

months
life

in

though

shortens the

of the tree, improves

the yield of nuts in the rest of the year.

outfit
is

The

tapper's
in

neither

costly

nor elaborate.

knife

wooden case, a bone weighted with lead (the leg bone of a sambhur for choice), a few pots, and two small rings of
rope with which to climb complete the
tale.

Operations
its

begin when the spathe

is
is

still

enclosed by

sheath.

Once a day the spathe

thin slice
is

gently bruised on either side

with the bone, and on the third and following days a

cut off the end twice a day.

On

the fifteenth

day drawing begins, and the bruising

ceases.

Sheath
the ends

and spathe are swathed

are
still

for the

greater part of their

;

length in a thick covering of leaves or fibre

cut off twice or three times a day, but, after

each operation, are smeared with a paste made of leaves

and water with the

object,

it

is

said, of

keeping the sap

from oozing through the wound and rotting the spathe.

The

leaves used for this purpose are those of the dechal

or vetti tree, which are said to

be one and the same

British Cochin,

(Aporosa Lindleyana)
the tree does not

but in

where

grow, backwater

mud

is

utilised.

Round

the space between the end of the sheath and the

97
thick covering of leaves a single leaf is bound,

TIYAN
and through

this the sap bleeds into a pot fastened below.

is

The

pot

emptied once a day

in the

morning.

The

yield of sap

varies with the quality of the tree

and the season of the In the hot months the trees give on an average year. about a bottle a day, in the monsoon and succeeding months as much as three bottles. In the gardens along
the backwaters, south of Chettuvayi, Messrs. Parry

& Co.

consider that in a good year they should get a daily

average of three bottles or half a gallon of toddy per A bottle of toddy sells for three or four pies." tree.
In connection with the coir industry,
it

is

noted, in

the

Gazetteer

of

Malabar,

that " the

husks

of the

cocoanuts are buried

in pits as

near as possible to the

left

waterline of rivers, backwaters and creeks, and are

to soak for six months, a year, or even eighteen

months The colour of the yarn, and the longer the better. thereby the quality, depends very much on the water in which the husks are steeped. It should be running

water, and,

if

possible, fresh water.

at first

If

the water be

salt,

the yarn
climate
it

may

be almost white, but in a

soon becomes discoloured

damp and blotchy. As

pits,

soon as the husks are taken out of the

beaten out with short sticks by 1
.

the fibre

is

iyattis

(Tiyan females)

and women of the Vettuvan caste. It is dried in the sun for twelve hours, and is then ready for sale to native
merchants at Calicut and Cochin,
with the European firms.

who

in their turn deal

The
in

fibre is twisted into

yarn

by Tiyattis and other women, and

greater part of the coir

in
is

that form the

made

Malabar

exported from

Cochin to

all

parts of the

world, but chiefly to the

United Kingdom and Germany."

has been said that " in North Malabar the preparation of coir is a regular cottage industry of the most
It

V11-7

TIYAN
typical kind.

98

Throughout the

year,

wherever one goes,

one hears the noise of the women hammering out the fibre, and sees them taking, in the evening, that part of it which they have rolled into yarn to the nearest
little

wayside shop, to be exchanged for

etc.

salt,

chillies,

paddy,

But, in the north of the district, nothing

is

of the kind goes on, and the coir

as fuel."
It

commonly used

has been already stated that marumakkatayam, or

is

inheritance through nephews,

the invariable rule in

North Malabar, being followed even by the Muhammadan Mappillas. In South Malabar, where the Tiyans
do not observe marumakkatayam, the property devolves through the sons. All sons share alike. Daughters
have no share.
exists in

The practice of polyandry, which still Malabar among the Tiyans (and other classes),
Although theoretiit is

and which was probably once general, tends to prevent

dispersion of the family property.
cally all sons share the property of their father,

the

eldest son

who succeeds

to possession

and management
in the

of the tarwad property.

The

others are entitled to

maintenance only, so long as they remain

tarwad house.
article of diet.
It is

same

the

same among the Izhuvans.

is

Beef, as in the case of all Hindus,

forbidden as an

The staple food is rice with fish curry. The common beverage is conjee, but this is being supplanted by tea, coffee, lemonade, and soda-water.

loin-cloth,

which should not reach to the knees,

is

with a Madras handkerchief on the shoulders,

of females.

the

orthodox dress of the males, and a double loin-cloth that

Women
waist,

were not allowed to wear anything

above the

except

when under death

pollution.

Any

colour might be worn, but white and blue are most

common.

ring,

composed of hollow gold beads,

called

99
mani-kathila,
ear.
is

TIYAN

the proper ornament for a Tiyan woman's

Twenty

or thirty, with a pendant in the middle,

might be worn.

Gold or

silver bracelets could

be worn.

Hollow
of their

silver bracelets
first child.

were worn by

girls until the birth

Tiyan women

But times have changed, and nowadays wear the ornaments which, strictly speak-

Nayar and Brahman women. Their mode of tying the hair, and even their dress, which
ing, appertain to
is

inclined to follow the fashion of the Christians,

has

changed.

In olden days, a Tiyan

for a

woman

could

wear

an ornament appropriate

Nayar on a special occasion, but only with the permission of the Nayar landlord, obtained through the Tandan, on payment of a fee. In North Malabar a good round oath is upon Perumal
Iswaran, the

Malabar

it

God of the is common

is

shrine at Kotiyur.
to

In South

swear

by

Kodungallur

Bhagavati, or by Guruvayur Appan,

local deities.

The Tandan
decide
rule,
all

the principal person in the tara, to

In South Malabar, he
is,

caste disputes.

as a

appointed by the senior Rani of the Zamorin.

fee of

anything up to loi fanams (Rs. 25-4-0) must be

paid to this lady,

there
to
is

when she appoints a Tandan.

difficulty,
it is

When
referred

a problem of any special

her for decision.

In territories other than those

within the power of the Zamorin, the local Raja appoints

the Tandan, and gives the
final

decision in special cases.

As we have

Tiyan is always to some extent subordinate to a Nayar overlord, but he is not bound to any particular one. He can go where he likes, and reside anywhere, and is not bound to any particular chief, as is the Nayar. It is noted by General *" E. F. Burton, in connection with bygone days, that
seen, the

An

Indian Olio.

VII-7 B

TIYAN
"such was the

lOO
insolent pride of caste

that the

next

(and very respectable) class of Hindus, the Teers, were not allowed to come near the Nairs, under penalty of

being cut

down by

the sword, always naked

and ready."
I

In connection with the religion of the Tiyans,

may

commence with an

old tradition, which

is

no doubt from

Once upon a time there were seven heavenly damsels, who used to bathe every day before dawn in a lake situated in a forest. Siva found this out,
a Brahmanic source.

and appeared as a

fire

on the bank,

at

which the

girls

warmed themselves. Having thus made all of them mothers. Seven

born, and Siva presented

lured them, the

beautiful boys

God
were

them

to Parvati,

them as if they were her mount Kailasa, and employed

brought the toddy at the
for the

own

sons.
in

who treated They were taken to

Daily they

preparing toddy for

the mysterious and wonderful Sakti worship.

moment when
one.
in

it

was required
all

golden pot.

Parvati embraced the boys

at

once, and they

became
to

On

a certain day,

this

boy sent the sacred toddy

charge of a Brahman,

who

became curious
liquid.
it,

know the
and
filled

virtues of the mysterious

As he

rested on a

river

he drank a

little,

bank thinking about the vessel up with water.

Then he reached Kailasa

too late for the daily worship.

Siva was angry, and ordered the Saunika boy (Parvati's

name for him) to be brought before him. But the boy had been told what had happened, and cut off the head of the Brahman, who had confessed to him. Seeing the
boy coming along carrying a Brahman's head, Siva was astonished, and commanded him to approach nearer. The boy explained that it was not a heinous crime to cut
off the

head of one who had prevented the Sakti worship.

Siva said that the killing of a Brahman was the worst of

crimes,

and put the perpetrator out of

caste.

He

would

lol

TlYAN

not listen to the boy,

Sakti worship

who replied that whoever prevented was a Chandala, and condemned him.
for

The boy asked

remain out of

death at Siva's hands.

The

request
to

pleased the God,

who

forgave him.

The boy had

caste,

but was initiated into the mysteries

of Sakti worship as the surest means of salvation, and to

him was given the exclusive privilege of performing Sakti worship with liquor. He was commanded to follow, and imitate the Brahmans in everything, except in the matter
of repeating the sacred mantrams.

By tantrams
first

(signs

with the hands) he eventually obtained the merit of

making puja with mantrams.

It
is

He

was the
all

Tiyan.

pretty safe

to

say that

the ideas of the

Tiyans connected with pure Hinduism

of the Vedas
little

and

the

Hinduism
see very
is

of tradition, of which
in

we

in

Southern India, and which

Malabar

more

perverted in confused ideas than

perhaps elsewhere,

those relating to re-birth, karma, pilgrimages to Benares and distant temples are borrowed from the Brahmans,
In the ceremonies which have been described, notably in

those connected with marriage and death,

the expression of

we have seen

many Hindu

ideas.

relates to offerings to the dead.

Not so is all that That is the common

is

property of

all

the children of men.

in

A
is

main feature

the religion of the Tiyan

that

it

largely connected with Sakti worship.

Some Brahto

mans indulge

therein, but they are unable, like the Tiyans,

it,

to use arrack in connection with

use, instead of this requisite,

and are obliged

milk or honey.

Siva, not

exactly a Vedic entity, and Sakti, are supposed to be

the two primordial and

eternal

principles

in

nature.

Sakti

is,

perhaps, more properly the vital energy, and

life

Sakti worship the worship of the

principle in nature.

We

are not considering the abstract

meaning of the term

TIYAN
Sakti
;

02

nor are

we now

thinking of the Siva of Monier

Williams or

We are in Malabar, where is in almost hopeless confuVedas the Hinduism of the sion, and mingled with animism and nearly every other
Max
Miiller.

kind of primitive religious idea.

all

It is

not therefore at
like a

an easy task to represent

in

words anything
follow,
in

rational conception of what the religion of the Tiyan

really
is.

The poor and ignorant

a blind

Hinduism as they know it and feel it. Their Hinduism is very largely imbued with the lower
ignorant way,
cult,

which, with a tinge of Hinduism, varied in extent

is

here and there,

at large
all

really the

religion

of the

people

over Southern India.

of
it.

The Tiyans have

of
all
is

large

share

To

the

actions
if

evil

and
ills

other spirits are attributable most,

life.

not

of the
far

The higher Hinduism and joys of Nevertheless, we find among them them.
of

above
un-

the worship

the

obscure
is

and

mysterious
in

Sakti,

which,

fortunately,

practiced

secret.

Nobody

seems

to
it.

be

in the least
fact,
it.

proud of having anything to do with

to

In

they are rather ashamed to say anything

speak,

about

Those who, so

go

in

for

it

are

obliged to undergo preliminary purificatory ceremonies,

before the great mystery can be communicated to them.

The mantram, which

preceptor)
"
in

is

whispered by the guru (religious

of the

the

ear

devotee

is

said

to

be

Brahma aham, Vishnu aham, Bhairavu aham

I

" (I

am

Brahma,
in

am

Vishnu,
is

am

Bhairavan).

It is

believed

that each individual

a spark of the divinity.

Having

him the

potentiality of the

Supreme Being, he can

There
is

develop, and attain godhood.

of caste in Sakti worship.

no distinction
to

The devotees may belong

I

the highest or to the lowest castes, though

doubt very
it.

much whether

the Nambutiri Brahmans indulge in

I03

TIYAN
and drink together
participate
is

The

novices, of whatever caste, eat

during the period of puja.

in the secret rites.

Men and women

solemn oath

taken that the

mystery of Sakti

will

not be revealed, except with the

permission of the guru, or on the death-bed.

of the goddess (for Sakti
principle)
is

The spirit

thought of as the female

must be withdrawn from the body of the Sakti worshipper when he is at the point of death. A lamp is
lighted

beside

him.

few leaves of the

rice,

tulsi

plant

and a lighted wick are given to the dying man. Holding these things, he makes three passes over his body from head to foot, and,
sancium), a
little

{Ocimum

as

it

were, transfers the spirit to the next man, at the

same time communicating his wishes about continuing the worship, and so on. When a man dies before this
separation or transfer has been accomplished, a

Brahman

must be
spirit.

called

in,

who, with a silver image representing

the deceased, makes symbolic transference of the Sakti

It

must be done somehow, or the soul of the

It
is

deceased cannot attain salvation.

said that, like

many

other things in this land, Sakti worship has underlofty ideas

gone degeneration, that such

and feelings as

may have once pervaded

it

have more or

less disappeared,

and that the residue is not very edifying. Be this as it may, in every tara there is a Bhagavati temple for Tiyans, where Tiyans officiate as priests. The Komaram (oracle)
of the Bhagavati temple
is

clothed in red, and embellished

with red sandal paste mixed with turmeric.

is

Bhagavati

always associated with various jungle

spirits or gods,

whose Komarams always wear black. There is no daily worship in Tiyan temples, with the exception of a few in the neighbourhood of Cannanore. But there is an
annual celebration of puja during the mannalam (forty
day) period,

commencing on the

first

of the month

TIYAN

104

Vrischikam (15th November). Lamps are lighted, and worship is begun on this day, and continued for forty
days.

At

its

conclusion, the jungle gods retire to the

jungle until the next year.

death in the family of a

of the

Komaram
rites.

involves,

believe,

some postponement
to

The

period

is

supposed

be

first

part of the

functional activity of the earth,

which ends somewhere

during this period that

about the 21st of June.

Sakti worship
is

It

is

carried on.

The

temple of Subramania at Palni in the

district is

a favourite objective for

Madura Tiyan pilgrims. The

subject of pilgrimages to this temple has been touched

on

in

my
is

note on the Nayars [see Nayar).

The Bhagaon the

vati

temple at

Kodungallur

in

Cochin

territory

coast

another favourite place of pilgrimage

among

the Tiyans. of Brahmans,

All classes of people, with the exception

Everyone under a vow, proceeding to the festival, which takes place in February or March, carries with him a cock, which is beheaded at the shrine. Under the Perumals, pilgrimage to Kodungallur was somewhat compulsory. This temple was a fruitful source of revenue to the State,
undertake this
pilgrimage.
for not only the Tiyans, but the fisherman

and artisan
in

castes had their

own temple

in

every tara

the land,

and the Muppan

the

Komaram

of each

temple was

under an obligation to contribute yearly gifts to the temple at Kodungallur. Rent for the temple lands was
a mere pepper-corn rent as acknowledgment of sovereign right. Rent might not
set at a

nominal figure

be paid

in

times of trouble, but the gifts eked out of

It is

superstition were unfailing.

fore, that

not surprising, there-

learning and advancement

among

the inferior
the

castes did not receive

rulers of those days.

much encouragement from

I05

TIYAN
is

The temple may be

more

of Kotiyur in North Malabar

also a
it

shrine to which Tiyans

said that

make

pilgrimage.

Indeed,

they follow Hinduism generally

is

in

rather a low form, and that Sakti worship

peculiarly theirs than others',

perhaps

owing

to their being

able to use arrack, a product of the palm,

of their

and therefore

own

particular metier.

The

highest merit in

Sakti can be reached only through arrack.

The

Sakti

goddess, Bhagavati, the Tiyans look upon as their

own

guardian

spirit.

As

instancing the mixture and confusion of religious

it

ideas in Malabar,

may be mentioned
in

that Mappillas

have been known to indulge

Sakti

worship, and
offerings
at

Tiyans to

have made vows, and given

Mappilla mosques and Christian churches.

Vows

to the

made by people of It is not uncommon to present the almost every caste. first fruit of a jak tree, or the milk of a cow when it brings
well-known mosque at
are
forth
its first calf,

Mambram

to the local

Tangal or Mappilla
personage

priest.

In many, perhaps in most Tiyan houses, offerings

are

made annually Kunnath Nayar, and

and magic,

to

bygone

to his friend
It is

and

disciple

named Kunhi
in

Rayan, a Mappilla.
witchcraft

probable that they excelled

but, according to the story, the

Nayar worshipped the kite until he obtained command and control over all the snakes in the land. The
offerings are

made

in

order to prevent accidents from

will also give children to the

snakes.
family,

The snake god

and promote domestic prosperity.

believed to

Men

without

offspring worship him.

child are

Leprosy and the death of a be the consequence of killing a

snake.

There are Mappilla devotees of Kunnath Nayar and Kunhi Rayan, who exhibit snakes in a box, and
collect alms.

There

is

a snake mosque near Manarghat,

TIYAN

06
which has
its

at the foot of theNilgiri hills,

annual

festival.

The alms

are collected ostensibly for this mosque.

is

An
return

interesting story, which

the legendary account

of the exodus of the artisans from Malabar, and their

with

the Tiyans,
in

is

narrated by the Panans.

five

There were,

olden times,

recognised classes,

which includes the Asaris (carpenters), Musaris (workers in bell-metal), Thattans (goldsmiths), and Perin-Kollans
(blacksmiths).
individual

The

fifth

class

is

unknown.

When

an

of the artisan classes dies, the

Panan of

the tara must bring a death gift to the house, which

consists of cocoanuts

and jak

fruits or plantains.

The

Panan places the gift in the yard and repeats a long formula, which he has learnt by heart. It is very likely that he knows little or nothing of its meaning. But he reels it off, and at its conclusion the gifts are accepted. The same formula is also always repeated among the carpenters, goldsmiths, and blacksmiths during wedding and tali-tying ceremonies. It relates how the artisans deserted the land of Cheraman Perumal, and sought an asylum in the country of the Izhuvans with the island king, and how the Perumal sent the Panan to bring them back. Every one knows this old story, and believes it firmly. It must be learnt by heart, and the Panan gives it in the yard when a member of the artisan
classes
dies.

Ihe

story

is

to

the

following effect.

During the four Yugams, Kreta, Treta, Dwapara, and

Kali,

many kings reigned over

and was obliged
to

the

earth.

Parasu

Raman

destroyed the Kshatriya kings on twenty-one

occasions,

make atonement

in

expiatory ceremonies.

He

worshipped Varuna,

the

ocean god, and recovered from the sea a hundred and

sixty

kathams of

land, consisting of

Kolanad

{?),

Venad

(Travancore),

Kanya Kumari (Cape Comorin), Cheranad,

I07

TIYAN

and Malayalam up
malai
land,
hills.

Changala Vazhi beyond the AnaiCheraman Perumal was the ruler of this
to

in

which were the four

at Tiruvanja

Kolam.

was One day, Veluthedan * Chiraman

castes.

His

capital

was washing the Perumal's cloths in a tank. He beat the cloths on a stone which was flat on the ground,
and held one of the cloths
going to the tank to bathe
called out
"
!

in

his hand.

girl

of

the carpenter caste, Ayyesvari by name, was just then

after her

monthly period.
is

She
to

Ho Kammal.t

That

not the

way

wash cloths. Put a small stone under one end of your washing stone, so as to make it slope a little. Then hold both ends of the cloth in your hand, and beat the
middle of the cloth on the stone."
did
so,

The Veluthedan
and the cloths
"

and found that he washed

better,

were whiter.

The Perumal asked him Were you not " washing the cloths before ? Who washed them to-day ?

"To which
to-day

the Veluthedan replied

"Oh! Tamburan
your slave

(chief or lord),

a carpenter girl instructed

how

to

wash

cloths properly.

May

Perumal be

pleased to order the girl to be given to your slave as his

wife."

Perumal then said " To whatever caste she may belong, you may take her by force, and will not lose your caste." Having received the king's permission,
Veluthedan Chiraman concealed himself near the carpenter's

house, and,

when the

girl

opened the door

to

sweep

the yard at dawn, he seized her, and carried her off to his
house.

Carpenter Sankaran of Tiruvanja Kalam went to

the Perumal, and complained that Veluthedan

Kammal

had carried away his daughter, and disgraced him.

He

asked the Perumal whether he would give him an armed guard to rescue her. To which the Perumal replied " I
*

The washerman of

the Nambutiris and Nayars

is

called Veluthedan.

t Nayars are addressed as

Kammal by

Tiyans and artisans.

TIYAN

loS

will not help either party fight

it

with armed men.

You must

Then the five classes of artisans consulted one another, and made common cause. The Panans, Perin Malayans, and Chen (red) Koravans The Ven Thachans, Velans, joined the artisans.
out

among

yourselves."

Paravans, Vettuvans, Kanisan Panikars, and the Pandi

Pulluvans of Vellalanad joined the other

was war
defeated.

for

twelve years.

There In the end, the artisans were

side.

They said among themselves

away our daughter.
families,

"

We have

been

defeated by the fourteenth caste of Veluthedan Nayar,

who

carried

Let us leave this

the

country."

So 7,764

with
left

women and
was beyond

children, tied

up their mats, and

Cheraman Perumal's

country, and went to Izhuva land, which

it.

They went

before the Izhuva king (island king),

and told him their story. Now Cheraman Perumal used to be shaved every fifteen days. When the barber
(Velakathalavan) was sent
(razor),
for,

he came without his knife

it.

as his

wife

had buried

He

said

"Oh!

Tamburan, have mercy on your slave. Your slave's knife was given to the blacksmith to be mended, and he He gave me this piece of iron, took it away with him. saying If you want the knife made ready for use, you must come to the Izhuva land for it, and we will mend it on our return." So Perumal had to go without shaving, and his hair grew like a Rishi's. As there were neither
'*

carpenters nor smiths to

make implements,
;

agriculture

was almost
goldsmiths,

at

a standstill
tali-tying

and,

as

there

were
not

no
be

the

ceremonies

could

performed.
for

Nor could

the rice-giving ceremony be done,

Then Cheraman Perumal to send the Mannan (washerman of the Tiyans), who was included in the fourteenth caste, and the Panan, who belonged to the
want
of the " neck-rings."

obtained advice,

and resolved

I09
eleventh caste.

TIYAN
to each of

The Perumal gave

them a

thousand fanams, and told them to go to the Izhuva

country,

and bring back the Kammalans

(artisans).

They wandered over various countries, stopping wherever The Panan, being clever, was able they found a house. The to live by his wits, and spent no money of his own. his all money. spent They Mannan, on the contrary, passed Ramapuri, and reached Trichivampuri. Then the Mannan asked the Panan for a loan, which was refused. On Friday at noon, the Mannan left the Panan, saying " The Panan is no companion for the Mannan."

He

returned to the Perumal and reported his failure, and

the Panan's refusal to lend him money.

The Panan
and
at last

went

on, crossing rivers, canals,

and

ferries,

reached the
reception hall.

Izhuva king's country.

He

entered the

At

that

who had
had put
wearing.

just finished
it

moment, the king's goldsmith, making a golden crown for him,

on his own head, to test its suitability for The Panan thought he was the king, and made obeisance to him. The Kammalans recognised
him.

He

discovered his mistake too

late,

for

he had

addressed the goldsmith as Tamburan.

the Panans,

So, to this day,

when addressing goldsmiths, say Tamburan. The Panan told the Kammalans of his mission, but they refused to return unless full reparation was made for the
girl,

abduction of the carpenter

abilities

and certain

social dis-

were removed. The 7,764 families of Kammalans

asked the Izhuva king his advice, and he said that they
should not go away.

So the Kammalans

sent the

Panan

back, and gave him the following presents, in order to

demonstrate to the Perumal that they were circumstances

:

in

comfortable

Gold valam-piri
right shoulder)
;

(a

sort of string

worn over the

TIYAN

lO

Silver edam-piri (a similar sort of string

worn on

the

left

shoulder)

Gold netti-pattam

(to

be tied on the forehead)

Gold bracelet Gold ornament

for the hair.

word to the Perumal that they would not return, unless they were given a girl in place of the carpenter's daughter, who had been abducted, and At the same certain privileges were granted to them. Panan that they would share the promised time, they So the their privileges with him, if he was successful.
sent

The Kammalans

Panan returned, and appeared before the Perumal, who asked him where the Kammalans were. The Panan removed his gold cap, and put it under his arm, and replied that they were prosperous, and not anxious to
return.

Saying

so,

he placed before the Perumal the

rich presents given

by the Kammalans, and told the

king that they would not return, unless they were given
a
girl

and certain concessions.

Panan to go back, and invite on their own terms. He said they would catch the first girl they met on the way to his palace, and all their demands were granted. The Panan arrived again in the Izhuva country, and told the Kammalans what the Perumal had said. They went to the Izhuva king, and
obtained his permission to return to their

Ihe Perumal told the the Kammalans to return

own

country.

Then they caught an Izhuva boy, and confined him. The king asked them why they did so. They replied
that they had lived for twelve years * as his subjects,

and would never recognise any other king, so they wanted the Izhuva boy to represent him.
consented.

The king

When

they started, the boy began to cry.

The number twelve, so significant in Malabar.

1 1

TIYAN

name Thomma (Thomas), was taken The Kammalans to accompany and protect the boy. travelled to their own country, and appeared before Cheraman Perumal. On the way, they found a girl of

Nasrani,* by

the Variar caste plucking flowers, and caught her by the

hand.

All the five classes claimed her.

At

last

it

was

resolved to unite her with the Izhuva boy, their Tandan,

who

represented their king, and treat her as their

his promise,

sister.

Cheraman Perumal confirmed

the following privileges to the
1.

and granted
:

Kammalans

2.

3.

To make ceilings for their houses. To make upstairs houses to live in. To put up single staircases, consisting
which notches are
cut, or

of one
alter-

pole, in

pegs are stuck

nately, for the feet.

4.
5.

To have a gate -house. To perform the tali-tying

a booth having
stool,
;

ceremonies of their
supports
;

girls

in

four

posts or

to

place within it, on a and the Ramayana

girl's

a looking-glass with a handle,

silk cloth

and to place a

on the

head.
6.

To do
!

arpu at the conclusion of the tali-tying

ceremony (Vel
7.

Arpu

is

yelled out by the boys).

To

cook

rice in

copper vessels on occasions of

marriage and other ceremonies, and to serve sugar and

pappadams
8.

at their feasts.

To

hold

the

umbrella

and taza

(a sort of

umbrella), which are carried in front of processions.

9.

10.

To clap hands, and dance. To keep milch-cows for their own

use.

Permission was further granted for the

to

Kammalans

wear the following ornaments.

* Nasrani (Nazarene)

is

a terpi for Christians on the west coast.

TIYAN
1.

"2
Netti-pattam,

worn on the forehead during the

tali-tying
2.

ceremony.

Ananthovi, a ear ornament

named

after

Anan-

dan, the endless, the serpent on which Vishnu reposes.

The
is

serpent

is

sometimes represented with

circle,

its tail in its

mouth, forming a

an endless

figure.

Ananthovi

the central pendant of the ear-ring

worn by Tiyan
It

women among their

kathila (ordinary gold ear-rings).

It is

resembles a serpent in form.

worn by men of the

Tiyan and 3. Waist zone or

4.
5.

artisan castes

on special occasions.

girdle.

Bracelets.

Anklet with two knobs, formed of two pieces

Puli-mothiram, or tiger's claws mounted in gold,
children.

screwed together.
6.

worn by
7.

Podippu, a knot of cotton-thread at the end of

the string on which coins are

8.

hung as ornaments. Kalanchi, a gold knob above the podippu, which

Necklace.

represents a flower.
9.

10.

Edakam and
set

madkam-tali, neck ornaments, in

one of which are

11.

twenty-one stones.

Cotton thread above the gold thread on the

conferred
like

neck.

upon the family (Tiruvarankath) of the Panan who brought back He wore all his ornaments, and made the Kammalans.
privileges
his obeisance to the
off his

The Perumal

Perumal.

He

had, however, taken

gold cap.
let
it

The Perumal

said "

What you have

the privilege
blessed

removed,

be removed."

So he

lost

of wearing a gold cap.

The Perumal

the

Kammalans, and they returned

to their villages.

They

made a

separate house for the Izhuva boy and the Variar

113
girl,

TIYAN

and maintained them. The Izhuva boy, who was Tiyan to come to Malabar, brought with him the the cocoanut, and retained the right to cultivate and use
first
it.

To

this day, the

people of the serf castes

mans, Kanakans, and the like

use

CheruVarian

the word

when addressing
from the Variar

Tiyans, in reference to their descent

girl.

The orthodox number

five.

of classes of

Kammalans

is

But the artisans do not admit the workers

According to them, the

in

leather as of their guild,

classes.

and say there are only four fifth class was composed
did not return to Malabar
in

of the copper-smiths,

who

with the others, but remained

less,

Izhuva land.

Neverthe-

they always speak of themselves as the Aiyen kudi

or five-house

Kammalans.
a variant of the legend of the exodus, told
is

There

is

by the Asaris (carpenters), which

Their version of the story
is

worth narrating.
themselves,

repeated

among

and not by the Panan,

ceremony.

at every

marriage and tali-tying

They

identify the village of the Perumal's

washerman as Kanipayyur.
Nambutiri
is,

This

is

the

name

of a

Nambutiri's illam in the Ponani taluk of Malabar.

it

The

may be mentioned,

considered to be

the highest extant authority in architecture.

Disputed

points relating to this subject are referred to him,

and his decision is final, and accepted by all carpenters and house-builders. The washerman's stone is said to have been lying flat in the water. The girl Ayyesvari was
also of Kanipayyur,
story.

and was carried off as in the former But there was no request for an armed guard to

rescue her.
the

The Perumal

was, instead, asked to

make

washerman marry her, and thus avoid disgrace. consented to do so, and all the 7,764 families of the
classes of

He
five

Kammalans assembled

for the

wedding.

An

vii-8

TIYAN
immense
booth,

14

was The washerman and his party were fed sumperected. But the booth had been so constructed that tuously. So the it could be made to collapse instantaneously. Kammalans went quietly outside, and, at a given signal, the booth collapsed, and crushed to death the washerman and his friends. After this, the Kammalans fled, and remained one year, eight months and eleven days in the Izhuva country. Negotiations were carried on through the Izhuva king, and the Kammalans returned under his guarantee that their demands would be complied with. The Izhuva king sent his own men and the Nasrani to The story of the exodus and the capital of the Perumal. the return was inscribed on granite stone with solemn rites, and in the presence of witnesses. This was buried at the northern gate of the Tiruvanchakulam temple on Friday, the eighth of the month of Kanni. It was resolved that, in any case of doubt, the stone should be And it was only after all this had been done unearthed. Izhuva king's envoy returned to him. that the Then the Kammalans came back to Malabar. According
supported

on

granite

pillars,

to the

carpenters,

the

copper-smiths did not return.

families

They

say that eighteen

of Asaris

remained

behind.

Some of these

returned long afterwards, but they

were not allowed to rejoin the caste. They are known as Puzhi Tachan, or sand carpenters, and Patinettanmar,
or the

eighteen

people.

There are

four families of

this class

now
is

living at or near Parpangadi.

They

are

carpenters, but the Asaris treat

them

as outcastes.

There
Pattar

yet another variant of the story of the

is

exodus, which

obviously of recent manufacture, for a

We

Brahman is brought in, and gives cunning advice. know that the Pattars are comparatively new comers

in Malabar.

115

TIYAN

The Tiyans have recently been summed up as " The Tiyas have always been characterised follows.*
and enterprising habits. A large percentage of them are engaged in various agricultural pursuits, and some of the most profitable industries of Malabar have from time out of mind been in their hands. They are exclusively engaged in making toddy and distilling arrack. Many of them are professional weavers, the Malabar mundu being a common kind of cloth made by them. The various industries connected
by
their persevering

with cocoanut cultivation are also successfully carried on

by the Tiyas.
(crude sugar)

is

For example, the manufacture of jaggery an industry in which a considerable

are profitably

number of the Tiyas

hereditary occupations,

engaged.
is

The
their

preparation of coir from cocoanut fibre

one of

and

this is

done almost wholly

by their

women

at

home.

They

are very skilful in the

manufacture of coir matting and allied industries.

mercial pursuits are also

ComApart

common among
taste,

them.

from their agricultural and industrial inclinations, the

Tiyas give evidence of a literary
dable in a people

which

is

commen-

who

are living under conditions which

life.

are anything but conducive to literary

They have
physicians
;

among them good

well versed in

Sanskrit scholars, whose contribu-

tions have enriched the

Malayalam

literature

Hindu systems

of medicine

and

well-

known
gress

astrologers,

who

are also clever mathematicians.

In British Malabar, they have

in education.

made

considerable pro-

In recent years, there

has been

gaining ground

among

the Tiyas a movement, which

has

for its object the social

and material improvement

rightly

of the community.

Their leaders have very

Indian Review, Oct. 1906.

TII-8 B

TIVORO

Ii6

given a prominent place to industry in their schemes of Organisations for the purpose progress and reform.
of educating the

members

of the

importance of increased
formed.

industrial

community on the efforts have been

of the

The

success which has attended the Industrial

Exhibition conducted by the

members

community
it

at Quilon, in 1905, has induced them to make nent annual event. Some of their young

a perma-

men have

Japan to study certain industries, and, on their return, they hope to resuscitate the dying local

been sent

to

industries,

and to enter

into

fresh fields of industry

awaiting development.

Factories for the manufacture

of coir matting and allied articles have been established

by the Tiyas
Tellicherry

in

some
laid

parts of Travancore

and Cochin."
In the
fol-

In 1906, the foundation stone of a Tiya temple at

was

with great ceremony.

lowing year, a very successful Industrial Exhibition was

held at Cannanore under the auspices of the Sri Narayan

Dharma

Paripalana

Yogam.

Still

more

recently,

it

was

resolved to collect subscriptions for the establishment

of a hostel
for

the use of Tiya youths

who come from

in the

other places to Tellicherry for educational purposes.

Tiyoro.

The Tiyoros are described,

They have
Torai,

Madras
also

Census

Report, 1901, as " Oriya fishermen,

four

who

make
It

lotus-leaf platters.

endogamous
a corruption

sections, viz.,

Ghodai, Artia, and Kulodondia."

has been suggested that the caste

name

is

of the Sanskrit tivara, a hunter.

(See Risley, Tribes and

Castes of Bengal, Tiyar.)

Toda. Quite recently, my friend

as the result of a prolonged stay

Dr.

W. H.

Rivers,

on the Nilgiris, has published * an exhaustive account of the sociology and

The Todas.
1906.

<

A
r.
'.A

O
J <

li;
religion of this exceptionally interesting tribe,
ing,

tODA
number807
shall,

according

to

the

latest

census

returns,
I

individuals, which inhabits the Nilgiri plateau.

therefore, content myself with recording the

rambling

notes

made by myself during occasional visits to Ootacamund and Paikara, supplemented by extracts from the
book
just referred to,

and the writings of Harkness and

a large-horned race of semiits

other pioneers of the Nilgiris.

The Todas maintain

(butter

domesticated buffaloes, on whose milk and

products
to

and

ney)"*

they

still

depend

largely,

though
It

less extent

than in bygone days before the establishment

bazar, for existence.
is

of the

Ootacamund
**

has been

said that

a Toda's worldly wealth

judged by the
in

number

of buffaloes he

owns.

Witness the story

connection with the recent

visit to

India of His Royal

Highness the Prince of Wales. A clergyman, who has done mission work among the Todas, generally
illustrates Bible tales

through the medium of a magichuts.

lantern.

One

chilly afternoon, the

come out of humouring like

their

Todas declined to Thinking they required

gentleman threw
impress the

children, the reverend

on the screen a picture of the Prince of Wales, explaining

the object of his tour, and, thinking to

Todas, added
is

'

The

Prince

is

exceedingly wealthy, and

'

bringing out a retinue of two hundred people.'

Yes,

yes,' said

an old man, wagging his head sagely,

"

but

how

many buffaloes is he bringing ? The Todas lead for the most

life.

part a simple pastoral

But
or

have met with more than one

man who had

have heard of

served,

who was

still

serving Government in the

modest capacity of a

forest guard,

and

Ney = ghi

or clarified butter.

TOD A
Others

Il8

who had been employed, not with conspicuous The Todas consider it success, on planters' estates.
beneath their
Collector of the
dignity
to

cultivate

land.

former

Nilgiris granted

them some acres of

but they leased the

land for the cultivation of potatoes,

land to the

Badagas, and the privilege was cancelled.

it is

In connection with the Todas' objection to work,

recorded that when, on one occasion, a mistake about

some buffaloes committed an old Toda was found impossible to induce him to work with the convicts, and the authorities, unwilling to resort
the ownership of
to
jail,
it

to hard remedies,

were compelled to save appearances

by making him an overseer. The daily life of a Toda woman has been summed up as lounging about the mad or mand (Toda settlement), buttering and curling her
hair,

and cooking.

The women have been

described

and menial-like timidity of When Europeans (who are greeted as swami or god) come to a mand, the women crawl out of their huts, and chant a monotothe generality of the sex in the plains.

as free from the ungracious

nous song,

all

the time clamouring for tips (inam).

the children are so trained that they clamour for

till it is

Even money

forthcoming.

As a
I

rule,

the

Todas have no

objection to Europeans entering into their huts, but on

more than one occasion

take

have been politely asked to

my
J.

boots off before crawling in on the stomach, so

as not to desecrate the dwelling-place.

Writing

in 1868,

Dr.

Shortt

makes a sweeping statement

that "

most

of the
it is

women have been debauched by

Europeans, who,

sad to observe, have introduced diseases to which

these innocent tribes were once strangers, and which are

slowly but no less surely sapping their once hardy and

vigorous constitutions.

1 he

effects of

intemperance and

disease (syphilis) combined are becoming

more and more

'

19

TODA

apparent in the shaken and decrepit appearance which

at

the

present day
is,

these tribes

possess."

Fact

it

undoubtedly

and proved both by hospital and naked-

eye evidence, that syphilis has been introduced among

the Todas by contact with the outside world, and they
attribute the stunted
rising

growth of some members of the

generation,

as

compared

with

the

splendid
It

physique of the lusty veterans, to the results thereof.

is

an oft-repeated statement that the

in

women show an
In connection

absence of any sense of decency

exposing their naked

persons in the presence of strangers.

with the question of the morality of the

Dr. Rivers
writes that "

Toda women,

the low sexual morality of the

Todas is not limited in its scope to the relations within the Toda community. Conflicting views are held by
those

who know

the Nilgiri

hills

as to the relations of the

Todas with the other inhabitants, and especially with the train of natives which the European immigration to the
hills

has brought in
is that, in

its

wake.

The

general opinion on

Todas is as low as it well could be, but it is a question whether this opinion is not too much based on the behaviour of the inhabitants of one or two villages [e.g., the one commonly known as School or Sylk's mand] near the European settlements, and I think it is probable that the larger part of the Todas remain more uncontaminated
the hills
this respect, the morality of the

than
I

is

generally supposed."

came across one Toda who, with several other members of the tribe, was selected on account of fine physique for exhibition at Barnum's show in Europe, America and Australia some years ago, and still retained
a smattering of English, talking fondly of elephant Jumbo).
his hill
'

Shumbu

'

(the

For some time after his return to abode, a tall white hat was the admiration of his

TOD A
fellow tribesmen.

120

To

this

man

finger-prints

came as no
both
in

novelty, since

his

impressions were recorded

England and America.

Writing
the
in 1870,*

Colonel

W. Ross King

stated that

Todas had

just so
is

much knowledge

of the speech

of their vassals as

demanded by the most ordinary

write,

requirements.

At the present day, a few

and many

converse fluently in Tamil.

mission has extended
its

The

Nilgiri

C.M.S. Tamil

sphere of work to the Todas,

temptation to narrate a Toda

and

cannot

resist the

version of the story of Dives and Lazarus.

say that once upon a time a rich
died.

The English man and a poor man

was a great
sacrificed.

At the

funeral of the rich man, there

tamasha

(spectacle),

and many buffaloes were

But, for the funeral of the poor man, neither music nor
buffaloes were provided.

the next world the

The English believe that in poor man was as well off as the rich
dies,
it is

man
ing

so that,

when any one

of no use spend-

money on the

funeral ceremonies.

Two

mission

schools have been established, one at Ootacamund, the

other near Paikara.

At the

latter

have seen a number

of children of both sexes reading elementary Tamil and

English, and doing simple arithmetic.

A
velly,

few years ago a Toda boy was baptised at Tinneand remained there for instruction. It was hoped
In 1907, five

that he would return to the hills as

his people. t

an evangelist among young Toda women were

baptised at the C.M.S.

"

Mission chapel, Ootacamund.

They were

clothed in white, with a white cloth over

their

heads, such as the

number

Native Christians wear. of Christian Badagas had assembled to witness

the ceremony, and join in the service."

Aboriginal Tribes of the Nilgiri
Hills.

t Madras Diocesan Magaiinc, November, 1907.

._..

TO DA.

TODA

The
features,

typical

Toda man

is

above medium height, well

proportioned and stalwart, with leptorhine nose, regular

and perfect

teeth.

The nose

is,

as noted

by

Dr. Rivers, sometimes distinctly rounded in profile.

An

attempt has been made to connect the Todas with the and, amid a crowd of them collected together lost tribes at a funeral, there is no difficulty in picking out individuals, whose features would find for them a ready place as actors on the Ober Ammergau stage, either in leading or subordinate parts. The principal characteristic, which
;

at

once distinguishes the Toda from the other tribes of

is

the Nilgiris,
system.

the development of the pilous (hairy)

is

The

following

a typical case, extracted from

in

my

notes.

Beard luxuriant, hair of head parted

middle, and hanging in curls over forehead and back of

neck.

Hair thickly developed on chest and abdomen,

latter.

with median strip of dense hairs on the

thick

Hair

over upper and lower ends of shoulder-blades,

;

thinner over rest of back

well developed on extensor

surface of upper arms, and both surfaces of forearms

very .thick on extensor surfaces of the

latter.

Hair

abundant on both surfaces of legs

of thighs and round knee-cap.

thickest

on outer side

Dense

beard-like

mass

of hair beneath gluteal region (buttocks).

Superciliary

brow ridges very prominent.

Eyebrows united across middle line by thick tuft of hairs. A dense growth of long straight hairs directed outwards on helix of both ears,
on the helix of the South Indian bonnet monkey {Macacus
sinicus).

bearing a striking resemblance to the hairy development

The
all

profuse hairy development

is

by some
milk."

Todas

attributed to their drinking "too

much
on

Nearly
forming
shoulder.

the

men have one

growths

or

more

raised cicatrices,

nodulous

(keloids)

the

right

These

scars are produced by burning the skin

TOD A

122

with red-hot sticks of Litscsa Wightiana (the sacred fireThe Todas believe that the branding enables stick).

them
Dr.

to

milk the buffaloes with perfect ease, or as

it,

Rivers puts

that

it

cures the pain caused by

the fatigue of milking.

"

The

marks," he says,
old, at

" are

made when a boy

is

about twelve years

which age

he begins to milk the buffaloes." About the fifth month of a woman's first pregnancy, on the new-moon day, she

goes through a ceremony, in which she brands herself, or is branded by another woman, by means of a rag
rolled up,

dipped

in oil

and

lighted, with a dot

on the
wrist.

carpo-metacarpal joint of each

thumb and on each

The women

are lighter in colour than the men, and

the colour of the

cafd-au-lait tint.

body has been aptly described as of a The skin of the female children and

voung adults is often of a warm copper hue. Some of the young women, with their raven-black hair dressed in glossy ringlets, and bright glistening eyes, are distinctly good-looking, but both good looks and complexion are short-lived, and the women speedily degenerate into uncomely hags. As in Maori land, so in Toda land,
one finds a race of superb

men coupled

to

hideous
girls,

women,
fair

and, with the exception of the

is

young

the

sex

their

Both men and women cover bodies with a white mantle with blue and red lines,
the male sex.

called putkuli,

which

is

purchased in the Ootacamund

decorated with embroidery

bazar,

and

is

sometimes

worked by the Toda women. The odour of the person of the Todas, caused by the rancid butter which they
apply to the mantle as a preservative reagent, or with

which they anoint

their bodies,

is

quite characteristic.

With a view
accompanied

to testing his sense of smell, long after

I

our return from Paikara,

blindfolded a friend

who had
his nose

me

thither,

and presented before

TODA WOMAN.

123

TODA

a cloth, which he at once recognised as having something

to

do with the Todas.

In former times, a

Badaga could be

at

once picked

out from the other tribes of the Nilgiri plateau by his

At the present day, some Toda elders and important members of the community {e.g., monegars or headmen) have adopted this form of headThe men who were engaged as guides by Dr. gear. Rivers and myself donned the turban in honour of their
wearing a turban.
appointment.

Toda
puberty.

females are tattooed after they have reached

I

have seen several multiparae,

in

whom

the

absence of tattoo marks was explained either on the ground that they were too poor to afford the expense
of the operation, or that they were always suckling or

pregnant

conditions,
free

they

said,

in

would not be

from danger.

which the operation The dots and circles,

are

of which the simple devices are

out with lamp-black
the pattern
is

made up,*

made

into a paste with water,

marked and

Toda woman with the The system of tattooing and spines of Berberis aristata. decoration of females with ornaments is summed up in
pricked in by a
the following cases
I.
:

Aged

22.
left

Has one
hand.

child.

Tattooed with three

silver
;

dots on back of

Wears

necklet orna-

mented with Arcot two-anna pieces thread and silver armlets ornamented with cowry {Cyprcea monetd) shells thread armlet ornamented with on right upper arm cowries on left forearm brass ring on left ring finger
; ;

silver rings

on right middle and ring

fingers.

Lobes

of ears pierced.

Ear-rings removed owing to grand-

mother's death.

* See Madras

Museum

Bull., IV, 1896, pi.

XII.

TODA
2.

li4

Aged
hand,

28.

Tattooed with a single dot on chin

rings and dots on chest, outer side of upper arms, back

of

left

below calves, above ankles, and across

dorsum of feet. Wears thread armlet ornamented with young cowries on right forearm thread armlet and two heavy ornamental brass armlets on left upper arm ornamental brass bangle and glass bead bracelet on left two steel rings on wrist brass ring on left little finger bead necklet ornamented with cowries. left ring finger
;
; ; ;

3.

Aged

35.

Tattooed

like the

preceding, with

the addition of an elaborate device of rings and dots on

the back.
4.

Aged

35.

Linen bound round elbow

joint,

to

prevent chafing of heavy brass armlets.

Cicatrices of

sores in front of elbow joint, produced by armlets.

5.

Aged

23.

Has one
are
the

child.

Tattooed only below

calves,

and above ankles.

following

The
amined
:

more

important physical

measurements of the Toda men,

Av.
CM.
Stature

whom
Max.
CM.
1

have ex-

Min.
CM.
157-6
i8-2
i3'3

169-8
19*4
...

86 -8
20*4
15-2

Cephalic length

Do.

breadth
index

14-2

Do.

73 '3

81

-3

687
4-6

Nasal height

47
3-6

4-9
3-8

Do. breadth

3 '4
70-

Do. index

74-9

79*9
is

Allowing that the cephalic index

a good criterion

of racial or tribal purity, the following analysis of the

Toda

indices
69
70
71

is

very striking

72

73

74
75

76
77

78

J
125

TOD A

79

80
81

4
Todas was my Saher's
at

A thing of exceeding joy to the

to

hand-dynamometer, the fame of which spread from mand

mand, and which was circulated among the crowd

funerals.

Great was the disgust of the assembled males,

on a certain day, when the record of hand-grip for the

morning (y^ lbs.) was carried off by a big-boned female, who became the unlovely heroine of the moment. The
largest

English feminine hand-grip,

is

recorded

in

my
of

laboratory note-book,
fine

only 66

lbs.

One Toda man,

lbs.,

physique, not satisfied with his grip of 98

went

into training,

and fed himself up

for a

few days.
lbs.,

Thus

prepared, he returned to accomplish 103

of

the result

more

skilful

manipulation of the machine rather than

of a liberal dietary of butter-milk.

The

routine

Toda

dietary

is

said to be

made up

of

the following articles, to which must be added strong

drinks purchased at the toddy shops
(a)
(d)
(c)
:

Rice boiled in whey.

Rice and jaggery (crude sugar) boiled in water.

Broth or curry made of vegetables purchased

wild

in

the bazar,

vegetables and

pot-herbs,

which,
often be

together with ground orchids, the Todas

may

seen rooting up with a sharp-pointed digging-stick on

Average 73.

TODA
the hill-sides.

126

The Todas scornfully deny the use of aphrodisiacs, but both men and women admit that they take salep misri boiled in milk, to make them strong. Salep misri is made from the tubers (testicles de chiens)
of various species of Eulophia and Habenaria belonging
to the natural order Orchideae.

The indigenous
the following
(i)
:

edible plants

and pot-herbs include

Cnicus

Wallichii

(thistle).

The

roots

and
into

flower-stalks are stripped of their bark,

and made
nettle).

soup or curry.
(2)

Girardinia hete7'ophylla (Nilgiri

The
fibre

tender leafy shoots of vigorously growing plants are

gathered, crushed by beating with a stick to destroy the
stinging hairs, and
of this plant, which

made
is

into

soup or curry.

The
is

cultivated near the mands,

used
in

for stitching the putkuli,

with steel needles purchased

the bazar

in lieu

of the more primitive form.

fibre,

In the

preparation of the

the bark

is

thrown into a pot of

After a

boiling water, to which ashes have been added.

few hours' boiling, the bark

extracted.
(3)

is

taken out and the fibre

Tender shoots of bamboos eaten

Alternant hera
sessilts.

in the

form

of curry.
(4)

^
)

Stellaria media.

Amarantus spinosus. Amarantus polygonoides.

er

s.

The
eaten

following

list

of plants, of which the fruits are

by the Todas, has been brought together by

:

Mr. K. Rangachari
of this tree

Eugenia Arnottiana.
fruit
is

The dark purple juice of the

women
for painting

used by Toda

beauty spots on their faces.

127

TODA

Rubus ellipticus. Rubus molucanus. Rubus lasiocarpus.

Wild raspberry.

Fragaria nilgerrensis, wild strawberry. El^agmis latifolia. Said by Dr. Mason to make excellent tarts and jellies.
Gaultheria fragrantissima.

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, hill gooseberry. Loranthus neelgherrensis. \

7 r w lomceroiaes. J Loranthus

Parasitic

on

trees.

Elesocarpus oblongus.

ElcBOcarpus Munronii.
Berberis aristata.
\
)
^'

Berberis nepalensis.

Solanum nigrum.
Vaccinium Leschenaultii. Vaccinium nilgherrense.
Toddalia aculeata.
Ceropegia pusilla.

To

which may be added mushrooms.

the botanical and

A list containing
trees, shrubs, etc.,
life,

Toda names
in their

of

used by the Todas

is

ordinary

or in their ceremonial,

given by Dr. Rivers.*

days, obtained by the

Fire

is,

in

these advanced

Todas

in their

dwelling huts for domestic purposes from

to be operated on with

matches.

The men who came

my
for

measuring instruments had no hesitation in asking

a match, and lighting the cheroots which

were

amongst them, before they left the Paikara bungalow dining-room. Within the precincts of the
distributed

dairy temple the use of matches

is

is

forbidden,

and

fire

kindled with the aid of two dry sticks of Litscea

Ot. <U, Appendix IV, 738.

TODA
Wightiana.

128

Of

these
is

one,

terminating

in

a blunt

convex extremity,
about 2^"

about

2' 3"

long

the other, with

a hemispherical cavity scooped out close to one end,

in length.

little

nick or slot

is

cut on

the edge of the shorter stick, and connected with the

hole in which the spindle stick
this slot the dust collects, and,
is

made

to revolve.

"In

remaining in an undisturbed

heap, seemingly acts as a muffle to retain the friction-

heat until

it

reaches a sufficiently high temperature,

Into

when
fits,

the wood-powder becomes incandescent."*

the cavity in the short stick the end of the longer stick
so as to allow of easy play.

The

smaller stick

is

placed on the ground, and held tight by firm pressure

of the great toe, applied to the end furthest from the
cavity,
is

into

which a

little

finely
is

powdered charcoal

inserted.

The

larger stick
"

then twisted vigorously,

" like a chocolate muller

(Tylor) between the palms of

the hands by two men, turn and turn about, until the

charcoal begins to glow.

Fire, thus
(ti),

made,

is

said to be

used at the sacred dairy

the dairy houses of ordinary

In an account

mands, and
of a

at the cremation of males.

Toda green funeral, t Mr. Walhouse notes that "when the pile was completed, fire was obtained by
This was done mysof obtaining
fire is

rubbing two dry sticks together.

teriously

and apart,

for

such a mode

looked upon as something secret and sacred."

funeral of a female,
lighting the pyre.
I

At the

provided a box of tandstickors for

fire-stick,

which was
It

in current

use

in

a dairy, was polluted and rendered useless by

the touch of

my Brahman

assistant

is

recorded

by HarknessJ that a Brahman was not only refused

Royal Magazine, August 1901. f Ind. Ant., Ill, 1874. X Description of a singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the summit of the Neilgherry Hills, 1832.
R. Bache.

t-'

X <

O
H

129

TODA
actually driven
it

admission to a

some boys,
approach.
of

Toda dairy, but who rushed out of

It is

away by when they heard him

noted by Dr. Rivers that " several kinds

wood

are used for the fire-sticks, the

{^Litscea

Toda names
latifolia),

of

these being kiaz or keadj

IVigkHana),

mors

{Michelia Nilagirica), parskuti i^Eloeagnus

and

main {Cinnamomtwt Wightii)." He states further that, whenever fire is made for a sacred purpose, the firesticks must be of the wood which the Todas call kiaz or
'*

keadj, except in the tesherot

mony
is

for the office of palol)

ceremony (qualifying cerein which the wood of muli

ceremony (ordination ceremony of a dairyman), " the assistant makes fire by friction, and lights a fire of mulli wood, at which the candidate warms
used.
niroditi

At the

himself."

It

is

also recorded

by Dr. Rivers that

" in

some Toda villages, a stone is kept, called tutm{ikal, which was used at one time for making fire by striking
it

with a piece of iron."

The abode

of the

(village or hamlet),

Todas is called a mad or mand which is composed of huts, dairy

I

temple, and cattle-pen, and has been so well described

by Dr.
account.

Shortt,"^ that

cannot do better than quote his

says,
" usually

"

Each mand," he

comprises

about

five buildings or huts,

three of which are used as

dwellings, one as a dairy,

the calves at night.

of oval

and the other for sheltering These huts form a peculiar kind
construction,

pent-shaped

[half- barrel- shaped]

usually lo feet high, i8 feet long,

and 9

feet broad.

The

entrance

or

doorway
in

and 18 inches
door or gate
solid slab or
;

measures 32 inches in height width, and is not provided with any

is

but the entrance

closed by

means of a

plank of wood from 4 to 6 inches thick,

op.

cit,

VII-9

TODA
and of
sufficient

130

dimensions to entirely block up the

is

entrance.

This sliding door

inside the hut,

and so
as to
other

arranged and fixed on two stout stakes buried in the

earth,

be

easily

and standing to the height of 2J to 3 moved to and fro. There are

for the free ingress
itself is

feet,

no

openings or outlets of any kind, either for the escape of

smoke, or
air.

and egress of atmospheric

of such small dimensions

The doorway

that, to effect

fours,

an entrance, one has to go down on all and even then much wriggling is necessary before
is

an entrance
ance,

effected.

The houses
bamboos

are neat in appear-

and are

built

of

closely laid together,

fastened with rattan, and covered with thatch, which

Each building has an end walling before and behind, composed of solid blocks of
renders them water-tight.

wood, and the sides are covered in by the pent-roofing,

which slopes down to the ground.

of a hut

The

front wall or

planking contains the entrance or doorway.

is

The

inside

high

in

from 8 to 15 feet square, and is sufficiently the middle to admit of a tall man moving about

with comfort.
pial

On

one side there

is

a raised platform or

formed of

clay,

about two feet high, and covered

used as a sleeping place.

with sambar (deer) or buffalo skins, or sometimes with

a mat.

This platform
is

is

On

the opposite side

fire place,

and a

slight elevation,

on which the cooking utensils are placed.

from
floor to roof,

In this part

of the building, faggots of firewood are seen piled up

and secured

in their place

by loops of
is

rattan.

Here
is

also the rice-pounder or pestle

fixed.

The

mortar

formed by a hole dug

in

the ground,

and hardened by constant use. The other household goods consist of three or four brass dishes or plates, several bamboo measures, and some7 to 9 inches deep,

times a hatchet.

Each hut

or dwelling

is

surrounded

131

TOD A

by an enclosure or wall formed of loose stones piled up two or three feet high [with openings too narrow to
permit of a buffalo entering through
is
it].

The

dairy

sometimes a building

slightly larger than the others,

and usually contains two compartments separated by a

centre planking.
for

One

part of the dairy

is

a store-house

ghee, milk and curds, contained in separate vessels.

outer apartment forms the dwelling place of the
priest.

The
dairy

The doorways
dwelling
level,

of the dairy are smaller

huts.

than those of the

the dairy
place.
it

The

flooring
is

of

is

and

at

one end there

a
all

fire-

Two

or three milk pails or pots are

that
at

usually contains.

The

dairy

is

usually situated

some little distance from the habitations. The huts where the calves are kept are simple buildings, somewhat
like

the dwelling

huts.

In the vicinity of the

mands

are the cattle-pens or tuels[tu], which are circular

enclosures

surrounded by a loose stone

wall,

with a

single entrance

guarded by powerful

stakes.

In these,

the herds of buffaloes are kept at night.

possesses a herd

of these animals."

It

Each mand is noted by

Dr. Rivers that " in the immediate

village there are usually well-worn paths,

neighbourhood of a by which the

village

is

approached, and some of these paths or kalvol

receive special names.

Some may

not be traversed by

women.

Within the village there are also certain recogOne,

the path by which the dairy
;

nised paths, of which two are specially important.

the punetkalvol,
is

man
the

goes from his dairy to milk or tend the buffaloes

other
is

the majvatitthkalvol, the path which the

women

must use when going

to the dairy to receive butter-milk

(maj) from the dairy man.

Women

are not allowed to

it,

go to the dairy or to other places connected with

at appointed times,
VII-9 B

except

when they

receive buttermilk."

TODA

132

In addition to the dairies which in form resemble the dweUino-huts, the Todas keep up as dairy-temples certain

curious conical edifices, of which there are said to be four

on the

Muttanad mand, near The last was Kotagiri, near Sholur, and at Mudimand. out of repair a few years ago, but was, I was informed, going to be rebuilt shortly. It is suggested by Dr.
Nilgiri plateau, viz., at the

Rivers as probable that in

many

cases a dairy, originally

of the conical form, has been rebuilt in the

the dwelling-hut, owing to the difficulty

of reconstruction in the older shape.

same form as and extra labour

edifice at the
is

The

Muttanad mand
cathedral.
It

(or Nodrs), at the top of the Sigur ghat,

known to members

of the

Ootacamund Hunt as the Toda

tall

has a circular stone base and a

flat

conical

thatched roof crowned with a large

stone,

and

is

surrounded by a circular stone

within the sacred edifice was

wall.

To

penetrate

forbidden, but

we were

informed that
ratus,

it

contained milking vessels, dairy appain the guise of a

and a swami
is

copper

bell (mani).

The dairyman

known

as the varzhal or wursol.

In
I

front of the cattle-pen

of the

neighbouring mand,
I

noticed a grass-covered mound, which,

sacred.

was

told,
it,

is

The mound contains nothing buried

it,

within

but

the bodies of the dead are placed near the

and earth from

mound

is

placed on the corpse before

to the burning-ground.

it is removed "dry the buffalo is funerals" At

said to be slain near the

mound.
'*

It

has been suggested

is

by Colonel Marshall * that the

a true

boa or boath [poh.]

not

Toda

building, but

may be

the bethel of some tribe

contemporaneous with, and cognate to the Todas, which,

taking refuge, like them, on these
presence."
hills,

died out in their

Phrenologist

among

the Todas, 1873.

<

X <
'J

<

133

TODA

Despite the hypothesis of Dr. Rivers that the Todas

more of the races of Malabar, their origin is buried among th. secrets of the past. So too is the history of the ancient builders of cairns and barrows on the Nilgiri plateau, which were explored by Mr. Breeks when Commissioner of the Nilgiris.* The
are derived from one or

bulk of the Breeks' collection

is

now preserved

in the

Madras Museum, and includes a large

in pottery, quite unlike

series of articles

anything known from other parts

this series,

of Southern India.

Concerning
"

Mr. R. Bruce

Foote writes as
are
tall jars,

follows. t

The most

striking objects

many-storied cylinders, of varying diameter

fashioned to rest upon
soil,

with round or conical bases,

pottery ring-stands, or to be stuck into soft

like the

amphorae of classical times.

These jars were surmounted

by domed

lids.

On

these lids stood or sat figures of the

most varied kind of men, or animals, much more rarely of

inanimate objects, but
all

modelled

in

the rudest and

most grotesque

style.

Grotesque and downright ugly

as are these figures, yet those representing

men and

women

are extremely interesting from the light they

civilization their

makers had attained to, for they illustrate the fashion of the garments as also of the ornaments they wore, and of the arms or implements carried by them. The animals they had domesticated, those they chased, and others that they
throw upon the stage of
probably worshipped, are
all

indicated.

Many

figures

of their domestic animals, especially their buffaloes

sheep, are decorated with garlands and bells, and

and

show

much

ornamentation, which seems to indicate that they

in

were painted over, a custom which yet prevails

*
J.

many

W.

Breeks.

Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the

Nilgiris, 1873,

t Catalogue of the Prehistoric Antiquities,

Government Museum, Madras, 1901.

TOD A
parts."

134

Among

the most interesting figures are those

of heavily bearded
buffaloes

men

riding

on horses, and big-horned

and migra-

which might have been modelled from the Toda

round the neck.

buffaloes of to-day, and, like these, at funerals

tion ceremonies, bear a bell

Two

forms of Toda dairy have so far been noticed.

ti

But there remains a third kind, called the

the

mand, con"

cerning which Dr. Rivers writes as follows.

is

The

ti

name

of an institution, which comprises a herd of

buffaloes, with a

number of dairies and grazing

palol,

districts,

tended by a dairy-man priest called

ant called kaltmokh.

with an assist-

Each
is

dairy, with its

accompanying
ti

buildings and pasturage,

called a
ti

ti

mad, or

village.

The

buffaloes belonging to a

are of two kinds, distin-

guished as persiner and punir.

The former
The
its

are the
ti

sacred buffaloes, and the elaborate ceremonial of the

dairy
is

concerned with their milk.

punir corre-

spond
village

in

some respects
and
their

to

the putiir of the ordinary

dairy,

milk

and

products are

largely for the personal use

and

profit of the palol,

are not treated with any special ceremony.

and During the

whole time he holds

office,

the palol

may

not visit his

home
is

or any other ordinary village, though he

ti

may

visit

another

village.

Any
at the

business with the outside world

done either through the kaltmokh, or with people who

to visit

come
river,

him

ti.

If the palol

has to cross a

he

may

not pass by a bridge, but must use a ford,

and

it

appears that he

may

only use certain fords.

if

The
his

palol

must be

celibate, and,
is

married, he must leave

his wife,

who

in

most cases also the wife of

I

brother or brothers."

visited the

ti

mand

near Paikara

by appointment, and, on
the two palols, well-built
clad in black cloths, and

arrival near the

mand, found
fifty,

men aged

about thirty and

two kaltmokhs, youths aged

135

TODA

about eight and ten, naked save for a loin-cloth, seated on

As a mark of respect Todas who accompanied me arranged their putkulis so that the right arm was laid bare, and one of them, who was wearing a turban, removed it. A long palaver ensued in consequence of the palols demanding ten rupees to cover the expenses
the ground, awaiting our arrival.
to the palols, the three

of the purificatory ceremonies, which, they maintained,

would be necessary
graphing
palols,
it.

if I

desecrated the

mand by

photo-

Eventually, however, under promise of a

far smaller sum, the dwelling-hut was photographed, with

kaltmokhs, and a domestic cat seated

in front

of

it.

In connection with the palol being forbidden to cross

a river by a bridge,

it

may be

noted that the river which

is

flows past the Paikara

bungalow

regarded as sacred

by the Todas, and, for fear of mishap from arousing the

wrath of the river god, a pregnant Toda
venture to cross
it.

woman

will not

The Todas

will not

use the river

it

water for any purpose, and they do not touch

they have to ford
it.

unless
it,

Even on reaching the when they walk over the Paikara bridge, they take their hand out of the putkuli as a mark of respect. Concerning the origin of the Paikara river, a grotesque legend

They then walk through opposite bank, bow their heads.

and,

was narrated to us. Many years ago, the story goes, two Todas, uncle and nephew, went out to gather honey. After walking for a few miles they separated, and The uncle was proceeded in different directions. unsuccessful in the search, but the more fortunate nephew secured two kandis (bamboo measures) of honey.
This,

with a view to keeping

it

all

for

himself,

he

secreted in a crevice

among

the rocks, with the excep-

tion of a very small quantity,

which he made

his uncle

believe

was the

entire product of his search.

On

the

TODA
following day, the

136

to the spot where found, to his and disappointment, the honey was hidden, that the honey was leaking through the bottom of the bamboo measures, which were transformed into two

nephew went alone

snakes.

Terrified at the sight thereof, he ran away, but

the snakes pursued

him (may be they were hamadryads,

which have the reputation of pursuing

nigricollis)

human

beings).

After running a few minutes, he espied a hare {Lepus

running across his course, and, by a skilful Mistaking it manoeuvre, threw his body-cloth over it. for a man, the snakes followed in pursuit of the hare,
which, being very
sun,
fleet

of foot,

managed

to reach the
reptiles.

which became obscured by the hoods of the

fully

This

accounts for the solar eclipse.

vessels,

The

honey,
into

which leaked out of the

the Paikara
river.

became converted

In connection with the migrations of the herds of

buffaloes,

Dr. Rivers writes as follows.

it

"At

certain

seasons of the year,

is

customary that the buffaloes

ti

both of the village and the

place to another.

should migrate from one

village buffaloes are
;

Sometimes the
all

accompanied by

the inhabitants of the village

some-

times the buffaloes are only accompanied by their dairy-

man and one

or

chief reasons for these

more male assistants. There are two movements of the buffaloes, of

is

which the most urgent

places migrations

....
is
still

the necessity for

new grazing-

The
sacred,

that certain villages

other chief reason for the and dairies, formerly

are visited
for

important and

ceremonial

purposes, or out of respect to ancient custom."

For the

following note on a buffalo migration which he

across,
I

am

indebted to Mr. H. C. Wilson.

came "During

the annual migration of buffaloes to the Kundahs, and

when they were approaching the

bridle-path leading from

FIGURES FROM NILGIRI CAIRNS.

137

TODA

Avalanche

to Sispara,

witnessed an interesting custom.

The Toda family had come to a halt on the far side of the path the females seated themselves on the grass, and
;

awaited the passing of the sacred herd.

This herd,

which had travelled by a recognised route across country, has to cross the bridle-path some two or three hundred
yards above the Avalanche-Sispara sign-post.
ordinary and sacred herd were on the

Both the
together.

move

The

former passed up the Sispara path, while the latter

line,

crossed in a

and proceeded

slightly

down

the

hill,

eventually crossing the stream and

up

through

the

sholas over the steep hills on the opposite side of the

As soon as the sacred herd had crossed the bridle-path, the Toda men, having put down all their household utensils, went to where the women and girls
valley.

were

and carried them, one by one, over the place where the buffaloes had passed, depositing them
sitting,

on the path above.

One

of the

men

told

me

that the

females are not allowed to walk over the track covered

by the sacred herd, and have to be carried whenever

is

it

necessary to cross

it.

This herd has a recognised

is

tract

when

migrating, and

led

by the old buffaloes,

who appear to know The tenure under which lands are held by the Todas is summed up as follows by Mr. R. S. Benson in his
the exact way."
report on the revenue settlement of the Nilgiris, 1885.

and notably Mr. Sullivan, strongly advocated the claim of the Todas to the absolute
settlers,

"

The earliest

proprietary right to the plateau [as lords of the soil]

but another school, led by Mr. Lushington, has strongly

combated these views, and apparently regarded the Todas as merely occupiers under the ryotwari system in
force generally in the Presidency.

From the earliest times

the Todas have received from the cultivating Badagas

TODA

13S

an offering or tribute, called gudu or basket] of grain, partly in compensation for the land taken up by the latter for cultivation, and so rendered unfit for grazing
purposes, but chiefly as an offering to secure the favour,
or avert the

displeasure of the Todas, who,

like the

Kurumbas
herds.

{q.v.\ are believed

by the Badagas to have

also

necromantic powers over their health and that of their

The European

settlers

bought land

in

Ootacamund from them, and to this day the Government pays them the sum of Rs. 150 per mensem, as compensation for interference with the enjoyment of their
pastoral rights in

and about Ootacamund.

in the

Their posiit

tion was, however, always a matter of dispute, until

was

finally laid

down

despatch of the Court of

It

Directors, dated 2 ist January, 1843.

was then decided

prescrip-

that the

Todas possessed nothing more than a

tive right to enjoy the privilege of pasturing their herds,

on payment of a small tax, on the State lands. Court desired that they should be secured from
ference by
settlers
in

The
inter-

the enjoyment of their mands,

and

of

their

spots

appropriated

to

religious

rites.

Accordingly pattas were issued, granting to each

three bullahs (11*46 acres) of land.

mand
nine
con-

In 1863 Mr. Grant

obtained permission to
bullahs (34'38 acres) to

make a fresh allotment of each mand on the express

be used
for

dition that the land should

pasturage only, and

it

that no right to sell the land or the

wood on

should be

thereby conveyed.

It

may be added

that the so-called

Toda
tion

lands are

property
is

now regarded as the inalienable common of the Toda community, and unauthorised aliena-

checked by the imposition of a penal rate of

assessment (G.O., i8th April 1882).

of frequent occurrence.

Up

to the date

of this order, however, alienations by sale or lease were

It

remains to be seen whether

139

TOD A

the present orders and subordinate staff will be more adequate than those that went before to check the
practices referred to."

Toda

lands,

With the view of protecting the Government took up the management of

Todas over which the

these lands in 1893, and framed rules, under the Forest

Act, for their management, the rights of the

them being
following
1. is

in

no way affected by the

:

rules of

an abstract

No

person shall

fell,

girdle,

mark,

lop, uproot,

or burn, or strip off the bark or leaves from, or otherwise

damage any

tree

growing on the said

lands, or

remove the

timber, or collect the natural produce of such trees or

lands, or quarry or collect stone, lime, gravel, earth or

manure upon such

kraals

lands, or

break up such lands

for cul-

tivation, or erect buildings of

;

any description, or cattle and no person or persons, other than the Todas
graze
is

named
to

in the patta concerned, shall

cattle,

sheep,

or goats

upon such

lands,

unless he
Nilgiris,

authorised so

do by the Collector of

or

some person

empowered by him.
2.

The

Collector

may
fire

select

any of the said lands to

be placed under special

3.

protection.

No No
All

person shall hunt, beat for game, or shoot in person shall at any time set nets, traps, or
lands.

such lands without a license from the Collector.

4.

snares for
5.

game on such
Todas
in

the Nilgiri district shall, in respect

of their

own

patta lands,

be exempt from the operation

fuel

of the above rules, and shall be at liberty to graze their

remove domestic requirements, and to

buffaloes,

own

to

and

grass

for their

collect

such lands.

They

shall likewise be entitled to,

honey or wax upon and shall

receive free permits for building or repairing their

mands

and temples.

TODA
6.

140

The

Collector shall have power to issue annual

permits for the cultivation of grass land only in

pattas

Toda

by Todas themselves, free of charge, or otherwise as Government may, from time to time, direct but no Toda shall be at liberty to permit any person, except a
;

Toda, to
lands.

cultivate,

or assist in the cultivation of such

In 1905, the

Todas petitioned Government against

the prohibition by the local Forest authorities of the

burning of grass on the downs, issued on the ground of

danger

to the sholas

(wooded ravines or groves).

This

was claimed by the Todas to cattle were Government deteriorating for want of good fodder. ruled that the grass on the plateau has been burnt by the inhabitants at pleasure for many years without any appreciable damage to forest growth, and the practice
yearly burning of the grass

improve

it,

and they maintained that their

should not be disturbed.

Concerning the

social organisation of the

Todas, Mr.
classes,

Breeks states that they are "divided into two

which cannot intermarry,

viz.,

Devalyal and TarserzhUL

class,

The
in

first

class

consists of
to

Peiki
;

corresponding

some respects
Peiki

Brahmans

the second of the four

remaining classes the Pekkan, Kuttan, Kenna, and Todi.

zhal,

woman may not go to the village of the Tarseralthough the women of the latter may visit Peikis."
class

names given by Mr. Breeks were readily recognised by the Todas whom I interviewed, but they gave Terthal (comprising superior Peikis) and Tarthal as the names of the divisions. They told me that, when
a Terthal
she
is

The

woman
it.

visits

her friends at a Tarthal mand,

not allowed to enter the mand, but must stop at

a distance from
butter-milk, but,

Todas as a rule cook their rice in when a Terthal woman pays a visit to

141

TOD A
for

Tarthal mand, rice

is

cooked

her in water.

When

Tarthal

woman visits

at a Terthal

mand, she

is

permitted

to enter into the mand, and food is cooked for her in butterThe restrictions which are imposed on Terthal milk. women are said to be due to the fact that on one occasion

a Terthal woman, on a visit at a Tarthal mand, folded up a cloth, and placed it under her putkuli as if it was a baby.

When

food was served, she asked for some for the child,
it,

and on receiving
degrade
all

exhibited the cloth.

The

Tarthals,

not appreciating the mild joke, accordingly agreed to

Terthal women.

According to Dr. Rivers,

is

" the fundamental feature of the social organisation

the

division of the

community into two perfectly distinct groups, the Tartharol and the Teivaliol [=D^valy^l of There is a certain amount of specialisation of Breeks].
function, certain

grades of the priesthood being

of the Teivaliol.

filled

only by

members

The

Tartharol and

Teivaliol are two

endogamous

divisions of the

Toda

people.

Each of these primary divisions is sub-divided into a number of secondary divisions [clans]. These are exogamous. Each class possesses a group of villages, and takes its name from the chief of these villages,
Etudmad.

The
a
girl

Tartharol are divided into twelve clans,

has reached the age of puberty, she goes
in

the Teivaliol into six clans or madol."

When

through an initiatory ceremony,

of strong physique takes part.

which a Toda man

of these splendid

One

specimens of human muscularity was introduced to

me

on the occasion of a phonograph

bungalow.

recital at the

Paikara

Concerning the system of polyandry as carried out by

the Todas, Dr. Rivers writes as follows.
"

The Todas

have long been noted as a polyandrous people, and the

institution of

polyandry

is

still

in full

working order

TODA
among them.
it is

142

When

the girl becomes the wife of a boy,

usually understood that she

becomes

also the wife

of his brothers.

In nearly every case at the present time,

and in recent generations, the husbands of a

woman

are

own

brothers.

In a few cases, though not brothers, they

are of the same clan.

Very rarely do they belong to One of the most interesting features of different clans. polyandry is the method by which it is arranged Toda

who

shall

be regarded as the father of a

child.
is

For
the

all

social

and

legal purposes, the father of a child

man

who performs

a certain ceremony about the seventh

month of pregnancy,
arrow are given to

which an imitation bow and the woman. When the husbands are
in

own

brothers, the eldest brother usually gives the

is

bow

and arrow, and

regarded as

the father of the child, though, so long

as the brothers live together, the other brothers are also

fathers.
It
is

in the cases

in

which the
arranged
arrow,

husbands are not

own brothers that the ceremony becomes

In these cases,
it is

of real social importance.

that one of the husbands shall give the

bow and

and
till

this

man

is

the father, not only of the child born

all

shortly afterwards, but also of

succeeding children,

another husband performs the essential ceremony.

is

Fatherhood

determined so essentially by this cerehas been dead for several years

mony
is

that a

man who

regarded as the father of any children born by his

if is

widow,

There
of the
it is

no other man has given the bow and arrow. no doubt that, in former times, the polyandry
infanticide,
still

Todas was associated with female

though strenuously denied.

probable that the latter custom

exists to
is

and some

extent,

There

reason to

believe that

women
are

are
still

now more
in

plentiful

than formerly,

though they
increase,

distinct

however, in the number of

minority. Any women does not

143

TODA

appear to have led to any great diminution of polyandrous marriages, but polyandry is often combined with
polygyny.

Two
in

more wives seems to be a growing custom that one brother should give the bow and arrow to one wife, and another
brother to another wife."

or more brothers may have two or common. In such marriages, however, it

The pregnancy ceremony referred to above is called pursutpimi, or bow (and arrow) we touch. According
to

the

account given to

me by

several

independent

witnesses, the

woman

proceeds, accompanied by

members
seventh
with
sits

of the tribe, on a

new moon-day
become the
if

in the fifth or

month
the

of her pregnancy, to a shola,

is

where she

man who

to

father of her child near a

kiaz tree (^Eugenia Arnottiana).

father of the

The man

asks the

he may bring the bow, and, on obtaining his consent, goes in search of a shrub {Sopkora glauca), from a twig of which he makes a mimic bow.

woman

The arrow

is

represented by a blade of grass called nark

(Andropogon Sckcenanihus).
niche has been cut in

Meanwhile a triangular the kiaz tree, in which a lighted

seats herself in front of the

lamp

is

placed.

The woman

lamp, and, on the return of the man, asks thrice "

Whose

whom, or to which mand does the child belong? The bow and arrow are handed to the woman, who raises them to her
is

bow

is it ? "

or "

What

it ? "

meaning

to

head, touches her forehead with them, and places

them

near the tree.

the child
is

From this moment the lawful father of the man from whom she has received the

bow and

arrow.

He
rice,

places on the ground at the foot

of the tree

some

various kinds of grain,

salt tied in a cloth.

chillies,

jaggery (crude sugar), and

present then leave,

All those

except the
till

man and woman, who

remain near the tree

about six o'clock in the evening,

TODA
when they

144
return to the mand.

The time

is

determined,

Ootacamund, by the opening of the flowers of Onothera tetraptera (evening primrose), a garden escape called by the Todas aru mani pQv (six o'clock flower), which opens towards evening.* It may
in the vicinity of

be noted
ture

thai, at the

second funeral of a male, a minia-

bow

and three arrows are burnt with various other

years ago (1902), the Todas, in a petition to

articles within the stone circle (azaram).

A few

Government, prayed for special legislation to legalise their marriages on the lines of the Malabar Marriage
Act.

The Government was

of opinion that legislation

was unnecessary, and that it was open to such of the Todas as were willing to sign the declaration prescribed by section 10 of the Marriage Act III of 1872 to contract
legal marriages under the provision of that Act.

The

Treasury Deputy Collector of the Nilgiris was appointed No marriage has been Registrar of Toda marriages.
registered up to the present time.

The practice of infanticide among the Todas is best summed up in the words of an aged Toda during an
interview with Colonel Marshall.f
"
I

was a

little

boy
was

when Mr.

Sullivan (the

first

English pioneer of the

In those days
it

Nilgiris) visited these mountains.

the custom to

kill

children, but the practice has long

died out, and

now one never

hears of

it.

don't

know

whether
every

was wrong or not to kill them, but we were very poor, and could not support our children. Now
it

one has a mantle (putkuli), but formerly there

was only one for the whole family. We did not kill them to please any god, but because it was our custom. The mother never nursed the child, and the parents did
*
I

have seen
cit.

this plant

growing on the grass in front of the Paikara bungalovr.

t 0/,

-J

o A O
X
2-1

z
<:

<

145
not
kill
it.

TODA
could
it

Do you
who

think

we
it

kill

it

ourselves?

Those
killed
it

tell lies

say

we

laid

down

before the open-

ing of the buffalo-pen, so that

might be run over and

in buffalo's milk.

by the animals.
nonsense that

We

never did such things, and

it

is

all

we drowned
;

Boys were never killed only girls not those who were that would be a sin but, when sickly and deformed or in some families two girls, those one girl, had we
;

that followed were killed.

to
its

An

old
it

woman (kelachi)
was born, and

used
close

take the child immediately

nostrils,

and mouth with a cloth thus here pantomimic action. It would shortly droop its head, and go to sleep. We then buried it in the ground. The
ears,

kelachi got a present of four annas for the deed."

old

The
at the

man's remark about the cattle-pen refers to the

Malagasy custom of placing a new-born child

to see

entrance to a cattle-pen, and then driving the cattle over

it,

whether they would trample on

it

or not.*
that the

The Missionary Metz f bears out the statement Toda babies were killed by suffocation.

At the census, 1901, 453 male and 354 female Todas were returned. In a note on the proportion of
the sexes
that " all

among the Todas, Mr. R. C. Punnett states J who have studied the Todas are agreed upon

the frequency of the practice (of infanticide) in earlier

times.

Marshall, writing in 1872, refers to the large

of

amount

female

infanticide

in

former

years,

but

expresses his conviction that the practice had by that

time died out.

assurance only.
assurance,
* Ellis.

Marshall's evidence

is

that

of native

Dr.

Rivers,

who

received the

same

is

disinclined to place

much

confidence in

History of Madagascar.

t Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills.

X Proc.

By

German

missionary, 1856,

Cambridge Philosoph.

Soc,

XH,

1904.

VU-IO

TOD A

146

native veracity with reference to this point, and, in view

of the lack of encouragement which the practice receives

from

tlie

Indian

Government,

this

is

not altogether

surprising.

The

supposition of female infanticide, by

accounting for the great disproportion in the numbers

of the sexes, brings the Todas into harmony with what
is

known
(i)

of the rest of mankind."

:

In summarising his

conclusions, Mr. Punnett notes that

Among

the Todas, males predominate greatly

over females.
(2)

This preponderance
prevalent.

is

doubtless due to the

is

practice of female infanticide,

which

probably

still

to

some extent
(3)

The numerical preponderance

of the males has

been steadily sinking during recent years, owing probably to the check which foreign intercourse has imposed

upon female
In

infanticide.

connection with the

death ceremonies of the

Todas, Dr.
is

Rivers notes that " soon after death the

for the

body
this

burnt,

and the general name

is

ceremony on
funeral.

occasion
interval,

etvainolkedr, the

first

day
in

After an

which may vary greatly

is

length, a second

ceremony
occasion.

performed, connected with certain relics of

first

the deceased which have been preserved from the

The
is

Toda

name

for

this

second funeral

ceremony
*

marvainolkedr, the second day funeral, or

again which day funeral.'

to
all,

The

funeral ceremonies are

open

and

visitors are often invited

by the Todas.

In consequence, the funeral rites are better known, and

have been more frequently described than any other

features of

Toda

ceremonial.

Like nearly every

institu-

tion of the Todas, however, they

have become known to Europeans under their Badaga names. The first funeral is called by the Badagas base kedu, the fresh or green

147
funeral,

TODA
funeral
'

and the term

'

green

has

not

only-

become the generally recognised European inhabitants of the Nilgiri

widely

name among the

hills,

but has been

adopted
is

in

anthropological

literature.

The

by the Badagas bara kedu, the dry funeral,' and this term also has been generally adopted." The various forms of the funeral ceremonies
second funeral
*

called

are discussed in detail by Dr. Rivers, and

to describe those at

it

must

suffice

which we have been present as eye-

witnesses.

had the opportunity of witnessing the second funeral of a woman who had died from smallpox two
I

months previously.

On

downs about five miles ducted by a Toda guide to the margin of a dense shola, where we found two groups seated apart, consisting of (a) women, girls, and brown-haired female babies, round a camp fire (d) men, boys, and male babies, carried, with
;

mand on the open from Ootacamund, we were conarrival at a

marked signs of paternal affection, by their fathers. In a few minutes a murmuring sound commenced in the Working themselves up to centre of the female group. the necessary pitch, some of the women (near relatives of the deceased) commenced to cry freely, and the
wailing and lachrymation gradually spread round the
circle, until all,

except

little

girls

and babies who were

grief.

too young to be affected, were weeping and mourning,

some

for fashion, others

from genuine

In carrying

out the orthodox form of mourning, the

women

a good cry to themselves, and then, as their

had emotions
first

became more
partners with

intense,

whom

went round the circle, selecting to share companionship in grief.

itself

Gradually the group resolved

into
in

couplets
contact,

of

mourners, each pair with their heads

YII-IO B

and

giving expression to their emotions in unison.

Before

TODA
separating to select a

148

new

partner, each couple saluted

by bowing the head, and raising thereto the feet of the [I have seen women other, covered by the putkuli.
rapidly recover from the outward manifestations of grief,

and clamour

for

money.]

From time to time the company men and now

of mourners was reinforced by late arrivals from distant

mands, and, as each detachment, now of

of

women, came
fail

in

could not

to

view across the open downs, one be reminded of the gathering of

the clans

on some Highland moor.

The resemblance

was heightened by the distant sound as of pipers, produced by the Kota band (with two police constables in attendance), composed of four Kotas, who made
a weird noise with drums and flutes as they near the scene of action.

drew

The

band, on arrival, took

mourning women. As each detachment arrived, the women, recognising their relatives, came forward and saluted them in the manner customary among Todas by falling at their feet, and placing first the right and then the left foot on their

up a position

close to the

head.

Shortly after the arrival of the

band,

signals

were exchanged, by waving of putkulis, between the assembled throng and a small detachment of men some
distance
off.

general

move was made,

and

impromptu procession formed, with

in the middle,

men

in front,

an band

and women bringing up the rear. A halt was made opposite a narrow gap leading into the shola

men and women

girls
for

sat apart as

before

and the band

walked round, discoursing unsweet music.

party of

went

off to

bring

fire

from the spot just vacated

but recourse was

use in the coming ceremonial,

finally

had to a box of matches

At

this

by one of our party. stage we noticed a woman go up to the eldest

lent

son of the deceased,

who was

seated apart from the

149

TOt)A

other men, and would not be comforted in spite of her

efforts to console him.

within the shola, the

summons from assembled Toda men and ourselves

receipt of a

On

swarmed

into

it

clear space

round a big

by a narrow track leading to a small tree, from a hole cut at the base

of which an elderly of the dead

Toda produced a

piece of the skull

woman, wrapped round with long tresses It now became the men's turn to exhibit of her hair. active signs of grief, and all of one accord commenced Amid the scene of lamentation, to weep and mourn. the hair was slowly unwrapt from off the skull, and
burned
in

an iron

ladle,

from which a smell as of incense

arose.

bamboo

pot of ghi was produced, with which

the skull was reverently anointed, and placed in a cloth

spread on the ground.

To

this relic

of the deceased

the throng of men, amid a scene of wild excitement,

made obeisance by kneeling down

it

before

it,

and touching
with
the

with their foreheads.

witness this stage

The

females were not permitted

proceedings,

to

of the

exception of one or two near relatives of the departed

one,
tree.

who supported themselves sobbing against the The ceremonial concluded, the fragment of skull,
in the cloth,

was carried Mnto the open, where, as men and boys had previously done, women and girls made obeisance to it. A procession was then again formed, and marched on until a place was reached, where were two stone-walled kraals, large and small. Around the former the men, and within the latter the women, took up their position, the men engaging in chit-chat, and the women in mourning, which after a
wrapt
time ceased, and they too engaged
party of men, carrying the skull,
in
still

conversation.
in the cloth,

A
set

out for a neighbouring shola, where a kedu of several other dead Todas was being celebrated
;

and a long

TOD A

150

pause ensued, broken eventually by the arrival of the other funeral party, the men advancing in several
lines,

with arms linked, and crying out U, hah

in regular time.

U, hah,
it

hah

This party brought with

pieces

of the skulls of a
placed, wrapt
in

woman and two men, which were

on the ground, saluted, and mourned over by the assembled multitude. At this stage a small party of Kotas arrived, and took up their
cloths,

position on a neighbouring
for the carcase of the buffalo
slain.
hill

hill,

waiting, vulture-like,
to

which was shortly

off

be

Several young
search

men now went

across the

in

of buffaloes,

and speedily re-appeared,

them with sticks. As soon as the beasts approached a swampy marsh at the foot of the hill on which the expectant crowd of men was gathered together, two young men of athletic build, throwing off their putkulis, made a rush down the hill, and tried to
driving five buffaloes before
seize

one of the buffaloes by the horns, with the result

that one of

them was promptly thrown. The buffalo escaping, one of the remaining four was quickly caught by the horns, and, with arms interlocked, the men brought it down on its knees, amid a general scuffle. In spite of marked objection and strenuous resistance on
the part of the animal
of sticks
freely

a barren cow

it

was, by

means
hill,

applied,

slowly dragged

up the

preceded by the Kota band, and with a Toda youth

pulling at
its tail.

Arrived at the open space between the

kraals, the buffalo,

by

this

time thoroughly exasperated,

and with blood pouring from its nostrils, had a cloth put on its back, and was despatched by a blow on the poll
with an axe deftly wielded by a young and muscular man. On this occasion no one was badly hurt by the
sacrificial

cow, though one

man was

seen washing his

legs in the

swamp

after the preliminary struggle with

TODA

But Colonel Ross- King narrates how he saw a man receive a dangerous wound in the neck from a
the beast.
thrust of the horn,

which ripped open a wide gash from

the
ear.

the collar-bone
buffalo,
rites,

to

With the death of the

the last scene, which terminated the strange

;

commenced

men, women, and children pressing

forward and jostling one another in their eagerness to

salute the

dead beast by placing their hands between its and weeping and mourning in pairs the facial expression of grief being mimicked when tears refused to
horns,
;

flow spontaneously.

The ceremonial connected

with the

final

burning of

the relics and burial of the ashes at the stone circle

(azaram) are described in detail by Dr. Rivers.

few days after the ceremony just described,

was

invited to be present at the funeral of a

young
I

girl

who

had died of smallpox

there, in

five

days previously.

proceeded

accordingly to the scene of the recent ceremony, and

company with a

small gathering of

Todas from

the neighbouring mands, awaited the arrival of the funeral

cortege, the approach of

which was announced by the

Slowly the procession
the corpse, covered by a

advancing strains of Kota music.

came over the brow of the

cloth,

hill

on a rude ladder-like

bier,

borne on the shoulders

;

of four men, followed by two

carried

Kota musicians the mother hidden within a sack relatives and men carrying
;

bags of

rice

and jaggery, and bundles of wood of the

for the

kiaz tree

{Eugenia Arnottiana)

funeral pyre.

Arrived opposite a small hut, which had been specially

built for the ceremonial, the corpse
bier, laid

was removed from the

hut,

on the ground, face upwards, outside the

and saluted by men, women, and children, with the same manifestations of grief as on the previous occasion. Soon
the

men moved away

to a short distance,

and engaged

TODA
in quiet conversation,

152

leaving the females to continue

inourninfT round the corpse, interrupted from time to time

by the
first

arrival of

detachments from distant mands, whose

duty was to salute the dead body.

collecting together

near female relative of the dead child

inside the hut,

Meanwhile a was busily engaged

in

a basket

small

measures of
girl's

rice,

jaggery, sago, honey-comb, and the

simple toys, which were subsequently to be burned

with the corpse.

The mourning

ceasing after a time,

the corpse was placed inside the hut, and followed by

who there continued to weep over it. A detachment of men and boys, who had set out in search of the buffaloes which were to be sacrificed, now
the near relatives,

returned driving before them three cows, which escaped

from their pursuers to rejoin the main herd.

long

pause ensued, and, after a very prolonged drive, three

more cows were guided into a marshy swamp, where one of them was caught by the horns, and dragged reluctantly, but with little show of fight, to the strains of Kota drum and flute, in front of the hut, where it was promptly despatched by a blow on the poll. The
corpse was

now brought from

its feet

within the hut, and placed,

face upwards, with

resting on the forehead of

the buffalo, whose neck was decorated with a silver

chain, such as
bell

worn by Todas round the loins, as no was available, and the horns were smeared with
is

butter.

Then

followed frantic manifestations of grief,

amid which the unhappy mother fainted. Mourning over, the corpse was made to go through a form of ceremony, resembling that which is performed during
pregnancy with the first child. A small boy, three years old, was selected from among the relatives of the dead
girl,

and taken by

his father in search of a certain grass

{Andropogon

Schcenanthus) and a twig of

shrub

153

TODA
the
spot

(Sopkora glauca), which

were brought to

where the corpse was lying. The mother of the dead child then withdrew one of its hands from the putkuli,
and the boy placed the grass and twig in the hand, and limes, plantains, rice, jaggery, honey-comb, and butter in the pocket of the putkuli, which was then stitched with needle and thread in a circular pattern.

The
Thus

boy's father then took off his son's putkuli, and

it

replaced

so

as

to

cover him

from head to

foot.

covered, the boy remained outside the hut

till

the

morning of the morrow, watched through the night by near relatives of himself and his dead bride. [On the occasion of the funeral of an unmarried lad, a girl is in like manner selected, covered with her putkuli from
head to
etc.,

to

and a metal vessel filled with jaggery, rice, be subsequently burnt on the funeral pyre, placed
foot,

for

a short time within the folds of the putkuli.

till

Thus

covered, the girl remains

next morning, watched

relatives.

through the dreary hours of the night by

The same ceremony is performed married woman who has not borne
the

over the corpse of a

children, the

husband

acting as such for the last time, in the vain hope that

woman may produce

issue in heaven.]

The corpse

was borne away

the newly

to the burning-ground within the shola,

and, after removal of

some

of the hair by the mother of

wedded

boy, burned, with face upwards,

amid

the music of the Kota band, the groans of the assembled

crowd squatting on the ground, and the genuine grief of the nearest relatives. The burning concluded, a

was removed from the ashes, and handed over to the recently made mother-in-law of the dead girl, and wrapped up with the hair in the bark of
portion of the skull

the tud tree {Meliosma pungens).

second buffalo,

which, properly speaking, should have been slain before

TODA

154

the corpse was burnt, was then sacrificed, and rice and jaggery were distributed among the crowd, which
dispersed, leaving behind the youthful

widower and

his

custodians, who, after daybreak, partook of a meal of the boy's mother rice, and returned to their mands
;

takino- with her the skull

and hair

to her

mand, where

it

would remain

until the celebration of

is

the second funeral.

No

attention
left

paid to the ashes after cremation, and

they are

to be scattered

by the winds.
the open downs not

A
far

further opportunity offered itself to be present at

the funeral of an elderly

woman on
The

from Paikara,

in

connection with which certain details

corpse was, at the time of

possess

some

interest.

our arrival, laid out on a rude bier within an improvised

arbour covered with leaves and open at each end, and tended by some of the female relatives. At some little
distance,

a conclave of
us,

Toda men, who

in

rose of one

accord to greet

was squatting

circle,

among

whom
the

were many

venerable white-turbaned elders of

joking, and speech-making by

tribe,

protected from the scorching sun by palm-leaf

umbrellas.

Amid much
it

the veterans,

was decided that, as the eldest son of the deceased woman was dead, leaving a widow, this
daughter-in-law should be
united to the

second son,
wife.

and that they should

live

together as

man and

On

the announcement of the decision, the bridegroom-

elect saluted the principal

Todas present by placing

his

head on their

feet,

which were

sometimes concealed

within the ample folds of the putkuli.

At the
I

funeral of

a married woman,

three ceremonies must,

was

told,

be performed,
in-law, viz.
(i)
:

if

possible,

by a daughter or daughter-

Tying a

leafy

branch

of

the

tiviri

shrub

{Atylosia Candolleand) in the putkuli of the corpse;

155
(2)

TOD A
and cowry
;

Tying

balls of thread

shells

on the

arm

of the corpse, just above the elbow

(3) Setting fire to the funeral pyre, which was, on the present occasion, done by lighting a rag fed with

ghi with a match.

The

buffalo capture took place

amid the usual excite;

ment, and with freedom from accident

and,

later

in

the day, the stalwart buffalo catchers turned up at the

travellers'

bungalow

for a

pourboire in return, as they

fight.

said, for treating us to

a good

The

beasts selected
calf. As now removed

for sacrifice

were a full-grown cow and a young

they were dragged near to the corpse,

from the arbour, butter was smeared over the horns, and

was subsequently removed by Kotas, in whose custody, it was said, it was The death-blow, or to remain till the next day funeral.
a
bell tied

round the neck.

The

bell

rather series of blows, having been delivered with the

butt end of an axe, the feet of the corpse

were placed
[It is

at

the

mouth

of the buffalo.
is

In the case of a male corpse,

the right hand

made

to clasp the horns.

recorded

by Dr. Rivers

that, at the funeral of

a male,

men dance
tall pole,

after the buffalo is killed.

In the dancing a

called tadri or tadrsi,

decorated with cowry

in

shells,

is

used.]

The customary mourning

clad
in

couples concluded,
carried

the corpse,

four

cloths,

was

on the

stretcher to a clear space in the neighbouring shola,

and

placed by the side of the funeral pyre, which had been

rapidly piled up.
colour,

The innermost

and similar to that

was black in worn by a palol. Next to it

cloth

came a putkuli decorated with blue and red embroideiy, outside which again was a plain white cloth covered over by a red cotton cloth of European manufacture. Seated by the side of the pyre, near to which I was courteously invited to take a seat on the stump of a rhododendron.

TODA
was an

156
elderly relative of the

dead woman, who, while

in the

watching the ceremonial, was placidly engaged

manufacture of a holly walking-stick with the aid of a

glass scraper.

The

proceedings were watched on behalf

Government by a forest guard, and a police constable who, with marked affectation, held his handkerchief to The corpse was his nose throughout the ceremonial. decorated with brass rings, and within the putkuli were stowed jaggery, a scroll of paper adorned with cowry shells, snuff and tobacco, cocoanuts, biscuits, various kinds A of grain, ghi, honey, and a tin-framed looking-glass. long purse, containing a silver Japanese yen and an Arcot rupee of the East India Company, was tied up in the These preliminaries concluded, putkuli close to the feet. the corpse was hoisted up, and swung three times over the now burning pyre, above which a mimic bier, made The body was then stripped of slender twigs, was held.
of of
its

jewelry, and a lock of hair cut off by the daughter-

in-law for preservation, together with a

skull.
I

fragment of the
is

was

told that,

when

the corpse

swung over

the pyre, the dead person goes to the dead).

"

amnodr

(the world of

In this connection.

Dr. Rivers writes that

it would seem as if this ceremony of swinging the body over the fire was directly connected with the removal of

the objects of value.

The swinging over

fire
;

the

fire

would

be symbolic of

its

destruction by

and

this symbolic

burning has the great advantage that the objects of value

are not consumed, and are available for use another time.

This
but
it

is is

probably the real explanation of the ceremony,

not the explanation given by the

Todas themyears, a

selves.

They say

that long ago, about

400

man

supposed to be dead was put on the funeral pyre, and,

revived by the heat, he was found to be alive, and was
able to walk

away from the

funeral place.

In consequence

157
of
this,

TODA
body should always be
it is

the rule was

made

that the
fire

swung three times over the

thereon."

before

finally

placed

[Colonel Marshall narrates the story that a

revived from what was thought his death-

Toda who had

bed, has been observed parading about, very proud and

distinguished looking, wearing the finery with which he

had been bedecked

for his

own

funeral,

and which he

would be permitted to carry till he really departed this life.] As soon as the pyre was fairly ablaze, the mourners,
with the exception of some of the female relatives,
shola,
left

the

and the men, congregating on the summit of a neighbouring hill, invoked their god. Four men, seized, apparently in imitation of the Kota Devadi, with divine
frenzy,

began

to

shiver and
fro

gesticulate wildly,

while

running blindly to and

fists.

with closed eyes and shaking

and offer an explanation of an extraordinary phenomenon, which had appeared in the form of a gigantic figure, which
disappeared as suddenly as
it

They then began

to talk in Malayalam,

appeared.

At the annual

ceremony of walking through fire (hot ashes) in that year, two factions arose owing to some dissension, and two sets
of ashes were used.

This seems to have annoyed the gods,

ruin.

and those concerned were threatened with speedy

But the whole story was very vague.

The

possession by

some Todas of a smattering of Malayalam is explained by the fact that, when grazing their buffaloes on the northern and western slopes of the Nilgiris, they come
in contact

with Malayalam-speaking people from the

district.

neighbouring Malabar

At the

funeral of a

man

(a leper), the corpse

was

placed in front of the entrance to a circle of loose stones

about a yard and a half

buffalo sacrifice, a

in diameter,

which had been

Just before the

specially constructed for the occasion.

man

of the Paiki clan standing near

TODA
the head of the corpse,
cane,
side, "

158

dug a hole in the ground with a and asked a Kenna who was standing on the other
Puzhut, Kenna," * shall
I

throw the earth?

"

three
some

times.

To which the Kenna,

thrice.

answering, replied

Puzhut

throw the earth

the miniature kraal.

The

Paiki then threw

earth three times over the corpse, and three times into

the circle

suggested by Dr. Rivers that was made to do duty for a buffalo pen, as the funeral was held at a place where there was no tu (pen), from the entrance of which earth could be dug up.
It is

Several examples of laments relating to the virtues

and

life

of the deceased,

which are sung or recited

in the

course of the funeral ceremonies, are given by Dr. Rivers.

On

the occasion of the reproduction of a lament in

my

phonograph, two young

bitterly.

women were

seen to be crying

The

selection of the particular

it

lament was

unfortunate, as

had been sung at their

father's funeral.

The

reproduction of the recitation of a dead person's

sins at a

Badaga funeral quickly restored them

to

state of cheerfulness.

The

following petition to the Collector of the Nilgiris

sacrifice

on the subject of buffalo

sign of the times,

may be quoted
:

as a

when

the

Todas employ

petition-

writers to express their grievances

"

According to our religious custom

for the long

period,

we

are bringing forward of our killing buffaloes

But, in last year,
said place,

without any irregular way.

late Collector

when

the

ordered to

came to see the the Todas first not

in

by that he

to

keep the buffaloes

to
clear

without feeding
to
kill

the kraal,

and second he ordered

each

for

every day, and

to

away the

buffaloes,

and not
*

keep the buffaloes without food.

throw earth ?"
Rivers.

" Puzhutkina Shall

159

TOD A
his orders,

We
lent

did our

work according to an ample one. was order

,

and

this excel,

Now

this

a chief

of the Todas, son of

a deceased Toda, the above

village, joined

man

joined with the moniagar of

and,

together,

dealing with

bribes,

now they
on
us,

arose
also,

against us,

and doing

this great troubles

and

by

this great trouble,

one day Mr.

came

for

shooting snapes (snipe) by that side.

By chance one
leg.

grazing buffalo came to him, push him by his horns

very forcely, and wounded him on his

of another gentleman

By

the help

who came

with him he escaped,

or he would have die at the moment.

Now

the said

moniagar and

joined together, want to finish the

funeral to his late father on the i8th instant.

For

this

purpose they are going to shut the buffaloes without

food in the kraal on the i8th instant at lo o'clock.
are going to
kill

They

the buffaloes on the 19th instant at

4 o'clock god.

in the

evening.

But

this

is

a great sin against

That is, let them leave the buffaloes in the grazing place, and ask them to catch and kill them at the same moment. And also your honour cannot ordered them to keep them in the kraal without food. And, if they will desire
this way.

But we beg your honour

to

kill

the buffaloes in this way, these buffaloes will

us,

come on
coming
anxious.
to

and also on the other peoples one who, see funs on those day, will kill them all by his
so

And

we

the Todas begs your honour to

enquire them before the i8th, the said funeral ceremony

commencing, and not to grant the above orders to

them."

Whit Monday
of

at

Paikara was given up to an

exhibition

sports and

games,

whereof the most

exciting and interesting

was a burlesque representation of a Toda funeral by boys and girls. A Toda, who was

TODA
fond of his
little

60

joke, applied the term pacchai

flies

kedu

(green funeral) to the corpses of the

entrapped by

a viscous catch'em-alive-oh on the bungalow table.

the

To
shrill

mock

funeral rites arrived a party of youths, as from

a distant mand,

and

crying out

U,

hah,

in

mimicry

of their elders.

The

lad

who was

to play the
off

leading part

of sacrificial

buffalo,

stripping

his

putkuli, disappeared
hillock.

from sight over the brow of a low

Above

this

eminence

his

bent and

uplifted

upper extremities shortly appeared as representatives of

the buffalo horns.

At sight

rush of small boys to

was a wild catch him, and a mimic struggle

thereof, there

took place, while the buffalo was dragged, amid good-

and shouting, to the spot where the corpse should have been. This spot was, in the absence of a pseudo-dead body or stage dummy, indicated by a group of little girls, who had sat chatting
tempered
scuffling,

kicks,

together

till

the boy-beast arrived,

when they touched

in

foreheads, and went, with due solemnity, through the

orthodox
buffalo

observance of
slain

mourning

couples.

The

by a smart tap on the back of the head with a cloth, which did duty for an axe. As soon as the convulsive movements and twitchings of the death

was

struggle were over, the buffalo, without waiting for an

encore, retired behind the hillock once more, in order
that the rough

and tumble on came

in

fight,

which was evidently

the chief charm of the game, might be repeated.

buffalo

The
and

boy
last

later

second

in

flat

race,

he was
looking

seen protecting us from a mischievous-

member of his herd, which was grazing on the main -road. Toda buffaloes, it may be noted, are not at all popular with members of the Ootacamund Hunt, as
both horses and riders from time to time receive injuries

from their horns, when they come in

collision.

l6l

TODA

While the funeral game was In progress, the men showed off their prowess at a game (eln),* corresponding
to the English tip-cat,

which

is

epidemic at a certain
It
is

season in the London bye-streets.

played with a

bat like a broomstick, and a cylindrical piece of

wood
the

pointed at both ends.

The

latter is
bat.

propped up against

a stone, and struck with the

stone,
it is

As

it

flies off

hit to

a distance with the bat, and caught (or

fields.

missed) by the out

At the Muttanad mand, we were treated

exhibition of games.
flat

to a further

In one of these, called narthpimi, a

slab of stone

is

supported horizontally on two other

slabs fixed perpendicularly in the

ground so as to form a

narrow tunnel, through which a

wriggle his body with
difficulty.

man

can just manage to

take part in

Two men

the game, one stationing himself at a distance of about

thirty yards, the other about sixty yards

from the tunnel.

runs as hard as
'

The

front

man, throwing
to

off his mantle,

*

he can to the tunnel, pursued by the

object
is

scratch

man, whose
sport,

touch the other man's feet before he has

squeezed himself through the tunnel.

Another

which we witnessed, consists of trial of strength with a heavy globular stone, the object being to raise it up to
the shoulder
;

but a strong, well-built-man

entrusted with slaying the funeral buffalo

it

he who was
failed to raise

higher than the pit of the stomach, though straining

his

muscles

in the attempt.

A splendidly
lusty,

made veteran
in

assured

me

that,

when young and

he was able to

accomplish the

feat,

and spoke sadly of degeneration

the physique of the younger

members of the tribe. Mr. Breeks mentions that the Todas play a game

resembling puss-in-the-corner, called karialapimi, which

a Badaga name.

* Called by Breeks ilata, [which, Dr. Rivers suggests,

is

VIl-II

TOD A
was not included
our
benefit.
in the

162

programme of

sports got up for

Dr. Rivers writes that "the Todas, and

especially the children, often play with

ations of objects from practical

life.

mimic representNear the villages 1

have seen small

artificial

buffalo-pens and fireplaces

made

I have, on several occasions, in sport." young children playing with long and short pieces of twigs representing buffaloes and their calves, and going solemnly through the various incidents in Todas, both old and the daily life of these animals.

by the children
across

come

young,

may

constantly be seen twisting flexible twigs

into representations of buffaloes' heads

and horns.
:

Of Toda

songs, the following have been collected

is

Sunshine

increasing.

Mist

is

fast

gathering.

Rain may come.

gathering.

Thunder

roars.

Clouds are

Rain

is

pouring.

Oh, powerful god,

Wind and rain have combined. may everything prosper

!

May May

charity increase

the buffaloes

become pregnant
calves.

See that the buffaloes have See that the barren

women have

children.

Go and

god of the land. Keygamor, Eygamor (names of buffaloes). Evening is approaching. The buffaloes
tell this

to the

are

coming.

The calves also have returned. The buffaloes are saluted. The dairy-man beats the calves with

his stick.

Milk has been offered to the bell. It is growing dark. This is a buffalo with beautiful horns.

A buffalo A buffalo

stupidly given

brought to

away by the Badaga. the Kandal mand.

63

TOD A

Innerovya (name of

buffalo).
is

Like this buffalo there

Like him there

no other.

Parkur (name of a Toda).

is

no man.

The sun
Rain
is

is

shining.

coming.
falling.

Tears are

The wind is blowing. The trees are in flower. The nose is burning.

He He He He He
I

is is
is

coming, holding up his umbrella. coming, wearing a good body-cloth.

coming, wearing a good under-cloth.
is

(the palol)
is

coming, wearing a black cloth.

coming, holding his walking-stick of palai

wood.

have a god.

What
to cry,
!

is

to

become of me

am inclined Oh, my child

I

my
See.

heart being heavy.

It is still crying.

Do

not cry.

Thuree.

Thuree.

Be
!

quiet.

A robust bull buffallo. Ach Ach A big buffalo not intended for killing.
Is leading the

Ach Ach
! ! !

cow

buffalo.

Two
Song

or three

men

are

Ah Ah driving Ah Ah
!

it.

in honour of the arrival of the

Mahardni-

Regent of Mysore at Ootacamund.

All

we Todas go

to her house,

and dance before

her.

She gives us fifteen rupees. She comes near our women, and talks to them. She gives cloths to us. Next day we take milk, eight bottles in the
morning, four in the evening.

Month by month she pays

us for our milk.

She goes back to Mysore, and, when she goes, wc stand in a row before her.
VII-II B

TODA
The women
Boys and

164

She gives us presents

cloths

cut their hair,

and three rupees. and stand before her.

Marriage Song.
girls are singing.

Much money are they spending. To the girl her father is giving five buffaloes. The husband tells his wife that she must curl
hair.

her

If

her hair

is

curled, all the people will rejoice.

The

buffalo

is slain,

and now we must

?

all

dance.

Why My
Go

are not

more people here

big, very big.
it.

More should

come.
buffalo
is

quickly and catch

The Todas
row.

are

all there.

They

are standing in a

Who
I

will run,
will

and catch the buffalo

first ?

To him
will

a present of five rupees be given.

go and catch it first. The Todas are all fighting. The Todas are all feasting. People give them rice.

The

buffalo

is

coming.

Two men

run to catch

it

by the neck.

Ten men
a kraal.

collect the buffaloes.

They pen them

in

At one

o'clock
is

we

take our food.

I

The
It

buffalo

running, and

hit

it

on the back
back to the

with a

stick.

swerves
path.

aside,

but

drive

it

Night comes, and we all dance. Next morning at ten o'clock we bring out the
buffalo,

and slay

it.

165

TODA
rice

At

four in the

white cloth,

morning we wrap and burn it.

and grain

in

At eleven we cut the hair of the boys and girls. At four in the morning the priest goes to the
temple
(dairy).

He

lights the lamp.

At eight he milks his buffaloes. He puts on no cloth. He places butter and ghi before the god. Then he grazes his buffaloes, and eats his

food.

Then he puts on his cloth. At three in the afternoon he goes again

temple.

to the

He He He

kindles a

fire,

and

lights the lamp.

it

puts milk in a chatty, and churns

into butter

with a cane.

mixes water with the butter-milk, and gives

temple.
lets

it

women to drink. He alone may sleep in the

to the

At

four in the

morning he

out the buffaloes to

graze.

At seven he milks them. The woman's house is down the hill. The priest must not go in unto the woman.

He may not marry. When he is twenty,

Another
is

he may not enter the temple.

made

priest in his stead.

The

religious institutions of the Todas, including the

elaborate dairy ritual, and their religion, are described

in full detail

by Dr. Rivers.
in

The Todas have been

to

some extent
Coimbatore

influenced by Hinduism, and

temples at Nanjengod
district,

some visit the Mysore, Karamadai in the

shrines,

and other

whereat they

worship, present votive offerings, and pray for offspring,

TODA
etc.
'

66
Breaks

Writing

in

1872,

Mr.

remarked
latterly

that

about Ootacamund, a few Todas have

begun

to imitate the religious practices of their native neigh-

bours.

Occasionally children's foreheads are marked

with the Siva spot, and

after

my

particular friend Kinniaven,

an absence of some days, returned with a shaven head from a visit to the temple of Siva at Nanjengudi."

man who came to my laboratory had down in long tails reaching below his

his hair

hanging

shoulders.
his wife,

He

had, he said, let

it

grow long because

had borne no

though

married

five years,

child.

child had,

however, recently been born, and, as soon as the second

funeral of a relation had been performed, he
to sacrifice his locks as

was going
notes
(in

a thank-offering at the Nanjengod

temple.

The

following extracts

from

my

will

serve to illustrate the practice of marking

some

instances apparently for beauty's sake) and shaving as

carried out at the present day.

Man, aged 28. Has just performed a ceremony White curved line painted across foreat the ti mand. head, and dots below outer ends thereof, on glabella, and Smeared with white across chest, over outside orbits. outer side of upper arms and left nipple, across knuckles and lower end of left ulna, and on lobes of ears. Painted on forehead as above. (2) Man, aged 21. Smeared over chest and upper eye lids. (3) Man, aged 35. White spot painted on forehead. Hair of head and beard cut (4) Man, aged 30. short owing to death of grandfather. Shock head of hair, cut very (5) Boy, aged 12. short all over owing to death of grandfather. Hair shaved on top, back and (6) Girl, aged 8.
(i)

sides

of head,

and

in

median

strip

from vertex to

forehead.

6;

TODUPUZHA VELLALA

(7)

Boy, aged

eyebrows.
in

White spot painted between Hair shaved on top and sides of head, and
6.

median

strip

from vertex to forehead.

Hair brought

forward
strip,

in fringe over forehead on either side of median and hanging down back of neck.

(8)

Male

child,

aged

18

months.

White spot

painted between eyebrows.

head.

Shaved on top and sides of

note,

Todupuzha
indebted to

Vellala.

For the following

Aiyar.
in

am

Mr.

N. Subramani
there are,

Besides the

two sections of the Vellala caste, inhabiting the mountainous Todupuzha taluk. These are the Tenkanchi and KumbaVellalas,

Nanchinad

Travancore,

konam Vellalas. The former are known by the popular name of Anjuttilkar, or the five hundred, and the latter
are designated Munnutilkar, or the three hundred, in

reference to the

number

of families

which originally

settled in the taluk.

Like the Nanchinad Vellalas, they

take the
prefix

title

of Pillai, and, in special cases, the honorific

Kanakku.
Vellalas appear to have dwelt origi-

The Tenkanchi

nally in the Tenkasi taluk of the Tinnevelly district,

to have emigrated, as the legend goes,

and

on account of

the

Vaduka ruler for the hand of a member The Vadakkumkur of their community in marriage. Rajas were ruling over Todupuzha at the time of their migration, and afforded them a safe asylum. The

demand

of a

Kumbakonam

Vellalas believe that they emigrated to

Travancore about the commencement of the Malabar era from Kumbakonam in the Tanjore district. Both
divisions speak Malayalam, but there are clear indications in their speech that their mother-tongue

was once
in

Tamil,

and they always use that language

writings.

their

ceremonial

The

Anjuttilkar

women have

TODUPUZHA VELLALA
wear the

68

adopted the dress and ornaments of the Nayars.

sections
tuft

Both

of hair in front, but the Munnutilleft

kar

women do

not tie the hair on the

side like the

Nayars and Anjuttilkars, but behind

Vellalas.

like

the

Pandi
a white

Nor do

the Anjuttilkar

women wear
fashion.

dress like the Tenkanchis, but a coloured cloth, sixteen

cubits in length, in orthodox

Tamil

Again,

while the Tenkanchi

women

largely resort to the todu

and other Nayar ornaments, the Kumbakonam women are more conservative, and wear only the pampadam and melidu, though they sometimes wear jewels, such
as the nagapata
Saivites,
in
tali

for the neck.

Both sections are

abstain from
flesh

the

sense

that

they

and

fish.

Their principal occupation

is

agriculture.

They
is

worship the two mountain deities Bhadrakali and Durga.

In the Kirikkot muri of the Karikkod proverty there

a temple dedicated to Siva or Unnamalanathar, with a

large

amount of property attached

functions.

to

it.

This belongs

to the Tenkanchi Vellalas,

and a Malayalam Brahman

performs the priestly

Vellalas have their
koil,

own

temples,

The Kumbakonam such as the Ankalamma

koil,
etc.,

Annamala matam, Virabhadran

besides the principal

and

worship,

gods

of

the

Hindu

pantheon, such minor deities as Virabhadran, Karuppan,

The priests of both sections are East Coast Brahmans, who live in the Todupuzha taluk. As their profession is regarded by
Bhairavan, Mariamman, and Muttaramman.
other Brahmans as degrading, they, especially in the case
of

Kumbakonam Vellalas, perform their stealthily. The headman of the Kumbakonam

the

duties
section

lives in the

Periyakulam taluk of the

Madura
is

district,

and, by his order, an image of Siva

their homes.

worshipped at

69

TODUPUZHA VELLALA

any ground, and, in There ancient days, widow remarriage was forbidden. is a legend that a woman of this caste, who was a friend
Divorce
is

not permitted on

of the daughter of a certain Vadakkumkur Rajah, was so ao-grieved at the news of her newly married husband's death that, at her intercession, the Rajah issued a If proclamation permitting the remarriage of widows.

no husband has been found

at

for

girl

before she reaches

puberty, certain propitiatory rites have to be performed,

which one of her female relations represents her. On the fourth day of the marriage ceremony, the bride and
bridegroom, before they bathe, rub each other's bodies
with
oil,

and, going to a large caldron containing water,

silver ring into
it,

throw a gold and

three times.
to

and pick them out

is

Inheritance of both sections

from father

son (makkathayam).

sambandham

alliance

does

not confer any rite of inheritance.

The names of both sections are such as are unknown among Nayars, e.g., Sivalingam, Arunachalam, Chidambaram, Arumukham. The Tenkanchis are considered to be higher in the social scale than the Kumbakonam
section, as they observe only twelve days'

death pollution,
for

whereas the
days.

latter

are under pollution

sixteen

The Tenkanchis may

left

enter the temple, and, like

side of

Nayars, stand on the

the

inner shrine,

whereas the

Kumbakonam

Vellalas

may

proceed only
butter-milk

as far as the balikkalpura, or out-house of the temple,

and
is

not

enter

the nalambalam.

Again,

freely received

by Brahmans from the Tenkanchis,

of the
will

but not from

members

Kumbakonam

section.

While Pandi Vellalas

Tenkanchis, or

not receive food from

the

give their daughters in

marriage to

them, the latter will not intermarry with the Nanchinad

Vellalas.

TOGATA

170
are Telugu weavers, most

Togata.The Togatas
numerous
poorer
in the

Cuddapah

district,

who manufacture

the

coarsest kind of cotton cloths, such as are

classes.

worn by the

They

are generally Vaishnavites, wear

the sacred thread, and have for their priests Vaishnava

Brahmans or
in 1807,

Satanis.

They

eat flesh,

and

their

widows

are allowed to remarry.

Writing concerning the Togatas

that

Buchanan states*

"widows cannot marry

kill

again,

but are not expected to

themselves.
births,
in

The
mar-

Panchanga, or village astrologer, attends at

riages, funerals, at the

ceremonies performed

honour

of their deceased parents,

and

at the building of a

new

house, and on each occasion gets a fee of one fanam, or

when a weaver wants to pray, he calls in a Satanana, who reads something in an unknown language, and gives the votary some holy
eight pence.

On

other occasions,

water, which he consecrates by pouring

it

on the head

of a small image that he carries about for the purpose."

As

regards their origin, some Togatas claim to be

sons of Chaudesvari,

who threw some

rice

on to the

fire,

from which sprang a host of warriors, whose descendants

Others give Puppandaja Rishi as the name of their ancestor. Concerning Chaudesvari, Mr. Francis
they are.
writes as follows.!

"Connected with the margosa

is

tree

{Melia Azadirachtd)
to reside in

the worship of Chaudesvari, the

goddess of the Togata caste of weavers.

She

is

supposed
itself,

margosa

trees,

and either the tree

or

a stone representing the goddess and placed at

is

its foot,

worshipped by the Togatas

at certain seasons,

such

as the

Telugu
largely
*

weaver castes
consist

Year Day. Apparently the other take no share in the ceremonies. They
of

New

animal

sacrifices.

Nevertheless,

Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar,

district.

t Gazetteer of the Anantapur

171
particular
class

TOGATA
called

of Brahmans,

Nandavarikula

Brahmans, take a prominent part in the festival. This name Nandavarikula is derived from the village of

Nandavaram

in

Kurnool, and doubtless

prevalent there about this sub-division.

many stories are The account

given at Tadpatri, where they are fairly numerous, is as Once upon a time, a king from Southern India follows.

went on a pilgrimage with

his wife to Benares.

While

there, he unwittingly incurred a nameless but heinous Horrified, he applied to some Brahmans pollution.

there to purify him, promising them half his

in return.

kingdom
this

They asked

for

some tangible record of

promise, and the king called upon the goddess Chaudesvari, who had a temple near by, to witness his oath. The purification was effected, and he departed home. Later on the Brahmans came south, and asked for the
fulfilment of his promise.

could not

The king declared that he remember having made any such undertaking.
accordingly went to Benares, and asked

The Brahmans
king's oaths.

Chaudesvari to come south, and bear witness to the

She agreed, on the usual condition that

of the

they should go in front, and not look back at her as she

same kind, they are said to have broken the condition. At Nandavaram they looked back, and the goddess instantly stopped, and
came.

As happens in other stories

remained immoveable.

A temple

was

built for her there,

and the Brahmans remained

and still take part in the worship of Chaudesvari which the Togatas inaugurate, even though she is not one of the Hindu pantheon, and delights in animal sacrifice. At Tadpatri
in the south,

other castes besides the Togatas help at the festival."

Though Chaudesvari
tamma, and other minor

is

the

patron

god of the

Togatas, they also worship Poleramma, Ellamma, Kodeities.

TOHALA
The

1^:2

original occupation

of the Togatas

is

said to

have been dyeing, but, at the present day, owing to the

depression in the hand-loom weaving industry, a large

number have taken to cultivation. Like many other Telugu castes, they have exogamous septs, of which the following are examples
:

Patha, old.

Gopalam, alms.
pillar.

Kambhapu,
Nili, indigo.

Samanthi,
indicum.

Chrysanthemum

Madaka, plough.
Bana, pot.
Jllakara,

Gurram, horse.
Perumal, a god.
seed.

cummin
food.

Bandari, treasurer
Gudditi.

Annam,

Mekala, goat.

Pujaris

(priests)

for

temple worship are always

elected from the Perumal sept, and caste messengers

from the Bandari sept, if they are represented in a Torches are generally carried, at processettlement.
sions,

by men of the Gudditi

sept.

Members

of the

Gurram The panchayat (village council) system is in vogue, but, in some places, a headman is selected, as occasion
requires.

sept are not allowed to ride on horseback.

In their marriage and funeral ceremonies, the

Togatas closely follow the Telugu standard Puranic form of ceremonial. The dead are buried in a recumbent
posture.

On

the last day of the death

rites,

the Satani

gives arrack (liquor) to the Togatas, as to the

Sales, in lieu of holy water (thirtham).

Padma

Tohala. Recorded,
traders in the

in the

1 901, as a small class of Oriya

hill

Madras Census Report, cultivators and petty

Ganjam Agency. Tolagari. Recorded, in the Madras Census Report,

as

1901,

sub-caste

of

Mutracha.

In

the

North

Arcot Manual the Tolagaris are described as a small

173
cultivating caste,

TOLKOLLAN

who were

formerly hunters, like the

Palayakkarans.

Tolar

(Wolf).

An

exogamous sept of Halepaik.

The equivalent Tolana occurs as a sept of Moger. Tolkollan.The Tolkollans or Tolans (skin people) are summed up in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as
"leather workers and dyers, and also gymnasts and They are also called Vatti teachers of gymnastics.

Kurup, Chaya Kurup, and Vil Kurup. Their title is Kurup." The Tolkollans are stated * to be " blacksmiths

by

caste,

who abandoned

their

hereditary trade for

leather work,

and they are chiefly employed by Mappillas. One peculiar custom in this caste is that two or more brothers may have one wife in common. Only those
in

good circumstances indulge

in the luxury of a private

wife.

The

following

information furnished

by

Mr.

S.

Vaidyanadha Aiyar, the headmaster of the School of

Commerce, Calicut, gives some information regarding leather work in Malabar {a) Boots and shoes of country make and English
:

pattern.
(d)
(c)

Harness making.
Native shoes (ceruppu).

These are of the special pattern peculiar to Malabar, and are largely used by all classes of the Hindu and Mappilla communities. The Arabs who visit this coast once a year purchase a considerable number to take back with them. The price Those with of a pair varies from Rs. 1-8-0 to Rs. 5. ornamental gold lace work cost from Rs. 10 to Rs. 50. These shoes are generally used by well-to-do Mappillas. White of egg is used to give a creaking sound to the shoes. This work is mainly done by Tholperunkollans
A.
Chatterton.

Monograph

on

Tanning and Working

in

Leather.

Madras, 1904.

TOLLAKKADAN
and Mappillas, and the

74

latter

show more

skill

in finish

and ornamental work.

(d) Knife sheaths.

Almost every Nayar, Tiyan

about a foot
in length,

and Mappilla
there
is

carries a knife

and

demand

for leather sheaths.

These are made

by Panans as well as by Tholperunkollans and Mappillas.

(e)

Leather baskets are also made, and are largely

(rice),

used as receptacles for carrying pepper, paddy

and

other grain.

(/) Winnowing fans are made of leather, and are used in pepper and paddy yards, etc.
()

Muttu ceruppu

(clogs) are leather shoes with

wooden
season."

soles.

These are

largely used during the rainy

Tollakkadan
his ears).

(one with a big hole

in

the lobes of

Taken,

at the census, 1901, as a sub-caste of

Shanan, as those returning the name, who are vendors

of husked rice in Madras, used the

Shanan

title

Nadan.

The equivalent Tollakadu was returned as a sub-division

of

Konga Vellala. Tol Mestri.A

sub-division of
is

Semman.

Tondaman. It
Report,
1

stated,

in

the Madras Census

90 1, that the Tondamans are "also called

{^.v.),

Sunnambukkaran

a Tamil caste of lime (chunam)

district.

burners found only in the Tinnevelly

said to be a branch of the

Kalians

They are who migrated to

Tinnevelly from Pudukkottai, or the Tondaman's country.

Its

members

are

now drummers and

pipers as well as

Brahmans are their purohits, but they are not allowed to go into Hindu temples. They will
lime-burners.
eat in the houses of Maravans.
It
is

Their

title

is

Sdlagan."
caste

noted, in the

same

report, that the

Semman

two sub-divisions, Tondaman and Tol-mestri, and men of the former take wives from the latter, but men
" has

75

TONTI
Tonda-

of the latter

may

not marry girls of the former."

man

is

the family

name

of the

Raja of Pudukkottai,

a Native State surrounded by the British districts of

Tanjore, Madura, and Trichinopoly.

The Raja
and

is

the

head of the Kalian caste.

distribution
is

Copper

coins, called

amman

kasu, are current only within the State,

their greatest

during Navaratri or Dusserah, when they

are issued to the people with a dole of rice every day

during the nine days of the

side

the word

" Vijaya,"

They bear on one meaning victory, or more

festival.

probably having reference to our

faithful

ally

Vijaya
first

Ragunatha Tondaman,
struck,
it

in

whose reign they were

is

said in 1761, after the surrender of Pondi-

cherry to the British.

Tondamandalam.The name
country.

of a sub-division

of Vellala, derived from Tondanadu, the ancient Pallava

of

Tonti.The Tontis are said to be cotton-weavers Bengal, who have settled in Ganjam.* The name
is

denotes threadmen, and the weaving of rough white

cloths

the traditional occupation of the caste.

All

Tontis belong to a single gotra

named

after

Kasyapa,

one of the seven important

and the priest of Parasurama. Various bamsams or exogamous septs, the names of some of which occur also as titles, exist,
rishis,
e.^.,

Biswalo, Dasso, Palo, Bono, Chondo, Parimaniko, Korono, Behara, and Mahapatro. The marriage and the fourth day of the marriage
is

death ceremonies conform to the standard Oriya type.

On

rites,

a Bhondari

(barber)

presented with some beaten rice and sugar-

candy

These are sold to those who have assembled, and the proceeds go to the Bhondari.
in a

new earthen

pot.

Cf. Tanti.

Kisley, Tribes

and Castes of Bengal.

TOPPA TALI

176
is

The

corpse of a dead person

instead
of,

washed

at the

burning

ground,

in

accordance with the

common
Vaniyans
tali

custom among

other castes, at the house.

Toppa
in the

Tali.

A name applied

to certain

North Arcot district, owing to the peculiar (marriage badge) which married women wear.

Torai. A

title

of various Oriya castes.

Toreya.The Toreyas are a Canarese class, living chiefly in the Tamil districts of Coimbatore and Salem. They are said to have been originally fishermen and
palanquin bearers, and the name
is

derived from turai,

a river ghat.

Most

of

them are

now

cultivators,

especially of the betel vine {Piper betle).

I

Those whom

examined

at

Coimbatore were earning their living

as betel and sugar-cane cultivators, vendors of tobacco, bakers, cloth merchants, contractors, petty traders, and
police constables.

By the Coimbatore Toreyas, mous divisions were returned

:

the following endoga-

Elai, leaf.

Betel cultivators.
lime.

Chunam,

Lime

burners.

Gazul, glass bangle. The Toreya caste is said to have originated from the bangles of Machyagandhi or Gandhavati, the daughter of a fisherman on the Jumna.

She was married to king Shantanu of Hastinapur, who was one of the ancestors of the heroes of the
Mahabharata.

Many exogamous
Belli, silver.

septs exist

among
:

the Toreyas,

of which the following are examples

May

not wear silver toe-rings.

of the sept, at times

Naga, snake.

The members

of marriage, worship ant-hills, which are the

home

of snakes.

Alwar or Garuda.

177

TOREYA

Chinnam, gold.
Kansugaje, small bronze
bells,

tied to the

legs

when
Vajjira,

dancing.

Urukathi, a kind of knife.

diamond.

Vasishta, a

Hindu

saint.

Mogila, clouds.

Onne

{Pterocarpus Marsupium).

Do

not

mark

their

foreheads with the juice from the trunk of this tree. Kuzhal, the flute played by shepherd boys and snake

charmers.

If

the sound thereof

is

heard during a meal,

what remains of the food should be thrown away.

Rakshasa, a giant.
festival in

Do

not celebrate the Dipavali

of,

honour of the victory over, and death

buffalo.

rakshasa.

Erumai,

The headman
under him an

of the caste

is

called

Ejaman, who has

officer

messenger bears the

offices are hereditary.

entitled Dalavayi. The caste name of Kondikar. These three The Ejaman presides at council

meetings which are held at the temple of the caste.

The

eldest

member

of each family

is

entitled to a seat
to a

on the
thereof

council.

Those who come

themselves

late

meeting

prostrate

before

the assembly.

Witnesses before the council have to take an oath, which

is

administered by the Kondikar.

He makes the witness

stand within a circle drawn on the ground, and makes him repeat the formula " Before God and the elders assembled, with the sky above and the earth beneath, I will state only the truth." The Kondikar then takes up a pinch of earth, and puts it on the head of the witness. For merely threatening to beat a person with shoes,
the offender has to feed twenty-five castemen.
takes the shoes in his hands he must feed
VII-I2
fifty,

If
if

he

and,

he

TOREYA
actually resorts

178
to beating with them, he

has to feed

hundred men. In addition, the culprit has to pay a small fine, and both parties have to be purified at A similar punishment is enforced for the temple.
beating,

or

threatening to beat with a broom.

is

adultery

the guilty person

For excommunicated, and is

admitted back into the caste only after the death of one of the parties concerned. He then has to feed a
large

number of castemen, or pay a money

fine,
is

and,

prostrating himself before the assembly, he

beaten

makes obeisance The Ejaman then to the Ejaman, and washes his feet. small piece of burning camphor in his purifies him by a
with a tamarind switch.
further

He

mouth.

When

a married

girl

reaches puberty, she

is

taken

to her father's house,

and her husband constructs a hut

with branches of Ficus glomerata.

of her confinement therein, the hut
the girl sets fire to
it.

On
is

the last day

is

pulled down, and

purified,

The house
them

and the

female relations go to the houses of the Ejaman and

caste

people, and invite

to be present at a cereis

monial.

small quantity of turmeric paste

all

stuck on

the doors of the houses of

relations

who

are invited.

The

and members of the caste carry betel, and other articles, on trays in procession through the streets. The girl is seated on a plank, and the trays are placed
in front of her.

Rice
is

flour, fruits, betel, etc.,

are tied in

her cloth, and she

of an unmarried
uncle.

taken into the house.

the hut
is

In the case

girl,

built

by her maternal

Marriage
to the

is

always celebrated at the house of the

is

bridegroom, as there

a legend that a Rajah belonging

son,

Toreya caste had a

elect,

who was taken

to the

house of his bride

and there murdered.

The

179

TOREYA

bridegroom's father and relations go to the house of the

bride,
etc.

and make presents of money,

cloths,
to,

ornaments,
five

They

also have to

make obeisance

and feed
(booths)

married

women

sumptuously.

Pandals

are

constructed at the houses of both the bride and bride-

groom.

Five married

women

go,

the contracting parties, to their houses,

there.

on behalf of each of and pound rice

On

the second day, five such

the
bride

women
and

fetch water

from a tank, and bathe

respectively.

bridegroom

The

ten

women

then go to the potter's

house, and bring five decorated pots.

Three of these are

taken to a tank, and

filled

with water.

On

the following

day, the bridegroom and his sister take the

two remaining

pots to the tank, and

fill

pots are placed in the pandal,

them with water. The five and represent the housebridegroom take twelve
flowers, etc., to the
cloth,

hold gods.

The

relations of the

kinds of ornaments, a

new

house of the Ejaman, and go with him to the bride's She is then bathed, and decked with finery. A house.

Brahman does puja (worship) and

or tinsel. of the

ties

on her forehead a

mandaikettu or bashingham (chaplet) made of gold leaf

She

is

then carried in procession to the house

bridegroom.

Meanwhile, the

Brahman

ties

mandaikettu on the forehead of the bridegroom, who puts on the sacred thread, and sits within the pandal,
holding a katar (dagger) in his hand, and closed in by a
screen.

The
The

bride goes thrice round this screen, and the

Brahman does puja and gives advice (upadesam) to the

couple.

screen

is

then lowered

slightly,

and the
bride's

bride and bridegroom garland each other.

The

parents place a few gingelly (Sesamum) seeds in the

hand of the bridegroom, and pour water thereon, saying

that their daughter belongs to him,

and

telling

him

to

take care of her.

VII-I2 B

The

tali,

after

being blessed by those

TOREYA
assembled,
is

80

given by the Brahman to the bridegroom,

on the bride's neck. removed, and the couple sit side by

ties
it

who
is

The
side.

screen

is

then
fire

The

sacred

lighted, their

hands are linked together, and the ends

of their cloths tied together.

and, placing their feet on
pole-star (Arundati).

They then

leave the pandal,

a grindstone,

look at the

Entering the pandal once more,

over their heads.

they

sit

therein,

and the elders bless them by throwing

rice coloured with turmeric

On

the

fourth day, they again

rice,

sit

within the pandal, and cooked

coloured white, red, yellow, green, and black, on

and nine lighted wicks on a tray are waved Five married men and women, holding a before them. string, stand round them in a circle, within which is the
five trays,

bride's brother with

a twig of pipal (Ficiis religiosa).

The bridegroom
rice

places his

hands together, and small

cakes are placed on the head, shoulders, bend of

the elbows and knees, and between the fingers of the

couple.
their

They are then hands, bow to the

bathed,

and,

taking betel

in

four corners of the earth.

The

bridegroom makes a

namam

(Vaishnavite sect mark), or

places vibhuti (sacred ashes) on the twelve posts of the

pandal, and the bride places a

little

cooked
is

rice

and

water before each post, to which camphor

puja done.

burnt,

and

They then

start for the bride's house, but

the bride's sister meets

them

at the entrance thereto,

and

will

not allow them to go in until she has extracted

a promise that their child shall marry hers.

proceeds to a tank, sowing some paddy
thither,
(rice)

The

bride

on the way

washes her husband's hands and

and brings back a pot of water, with which she Husband and feet.
Their hands are then cleaned, and the bride's

wife then feed each other with a small quantity of rice

and milk.

brother puts a gold ring on the finger of the bridegroom.

iSl

TOREYA
is

tray with betel leaves and areca nuts

brought, and

the bridegroom ties three handfuls thereof in his cloth.

The newly married couple then worship

at the temple.

On
and

the

fifth

day, they carry the earthen pots to a river,

and, on their return, five married

fed.

women

are worshipped
sureties

Five

men have

to

come forward as

for the

good behaviour of the couple, and declare before

it.

those assembled that they will hold themselves responsible for

In the evening the pair

oil

go

to the

bride's

house, and rub

in

over each other's head before bathing

turmeric water.

On

the following day they repair to

the house of the bridegroom.

The

corpse of a dead Toreya

is

placed in a pandal

constructed of cocoanut leaves and stems of the milk-

hedge {^Euphorbia Tirucalli).

Sect marks are placed on

the foreheads of the corpse and the widow.

The
those

son

of the deceased dons the sacred thread.

The

funeral

ceremonies
the Oddes.

resemble,

in
is

many
piled

particulars,

of

mound
a

up over the grave.

of

Paraiyan

places

small
in

twig

the

arka

plant

{Calotropis gigantea)

three corners

of the grave,

leaving out the north-east corner, and the son puts a small coin on each twig.

As he goes round

the grave

with a water-pot and fire-brand, his maternal uncle,

who

stands at the head of the grave, makes holes in the pot.

On

the third,

fifth,

seventh, or ninth day, the widow,

dressed in
flowers,
is

new

cloths,

and bedecked with ornaments and

taken to the burial-ground, with offerings

Five small stones, smeared with turmeric

of milk, ghl (clarified butter), tender cocoanut, sandal,

camphor,

etc.

and

lime,

are set up

worshipped.

head of the grave, and The widow goes thrice round the grave,
at the

and seats herself near the head thereof Her brother holds up her arms, and one of her husband's male

TOREYA

1^2

relations breaks her bangles.

She breaks, and throws

her

on the grave, with the flowers which adorn her. Her ornaments are removed, and she is covered with a
tali

cloth,

and taken to a

river,

where she

is

rubbed with

cow-dung and bathed.

to the

The son and

other relatives
articles.

go

temple with butter and other

puja,

Brah-

man does

and shuts the doors of the temple.

little

The
butter

son, with his

back to the temple, throws a

on the doors, which are then opened by the Brahman. This is done thrice. On the seventh day, pollution is

removed by sprinkling holy water, and the caste people are fed. A widow remains in seclusion (gosha) for three months. Sradh (memorial ceremony) is performed.

The Toreyas worship both Siva and Vishnu, but consider Ayodhya Raman as their special deity, and
sacrifice

sheep and fowls to Koriamma.

sub-division

Toreya.A
Nilgiris.

of the

Badagas of the
culti-

Tota

(garden).

Recorded as a sub-division of

vating Balijas, and an exogamous sept of Boya, Chenchu,

Vada Balija (or Mila), Mutracha and Bonthuk Savara. The equivalent Tota occurs as an exogamous sept of Kapu and Yanadi. Tota Devaru, or garden god, is the name of an exogamous sept of the Tigala gardeners and
cultivators.

Totakura {Amarantus gangeticus).'^An exogamous sept of Kamma.

Toththala or Tottadi. A sub-division of Velama. Toti.The Toti or Totti is one of the village communal servants. The name has been derived from tondu,
to dig, or tott, to

go round, as the Toti

is

the purveyor of

news, and has to

village council.

summon people The functions of

to appear before the

this useful

person to

183
the

TOTTIYAN
as follows
all

community have been summed up

official.*

by a

district

"

This individual has

the dirty

work of the
caste,

village allotted to him.

He

is

of the lowest

of

and hence makes no scruple of doing any manner work that he may be called upon to perform. The
like,

removal and sepulture of unclaimed dead bodies, the

cleansing of choultries, rest-houses and the
travellers carrying infectious diseases

where
In

might have halted,

and other gruesome duties are entrusted to him.

spite of all this, the Toti
is

one of the most trusted of

the humbler servants of the village community.

Conwhich

humble average between Rs.

sidering his

status
3

and

emoluments,
wonderful.
as
is

and Rs. 4 a month,

is

his honesty

with regard to pecuniary matters

He
done

may be when he

trusted with untold wealth,

is

often

the sole custodian of the revenue collections

of his village to the tune of several thousands at a time,

when on their way from Government Treasury."

the collecting officers to the

Testimony

is if

borne to the

industry of the Toti in the proverb that

you work
is

like

a Toti, you can enjoy the comforts of a king.

In

the

Madras Census Report,

1891, Toti

re-

turned as a sub-division of Chakkiliyan.

The
is

Toti of

Mysore
to

is

defined by Mr. L. Rice t as a menial

talari,

among

the village servants, a deputy

who

employed

watch the

crops from the growing

crop to the

granary.

Odiya Toti
country.

is

a Tamil synonym for Oriya Haddis

in municipalities in the

employed as scavengers

Tamil
Mr.

Tottiyan. In

the
that

Census
the

Report,

1901,
"

W.

Francis

writes

Tottiyans are

Telugu

Madras Mail, 1906.

t Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer.

TOTTIYAN
cultivators.

184

The

Tottiyans or

Kambalattans of the

Tanjore
live

district are,

however, said to be vagrants, and to

by pig-breeding, snake-charming, and begging.

the Tinnevelly Tottiyans

So

are the sub-division called Kattu Tottiyans in Tinnevelly.

The headman among

the

is

called

Mandai Periadanakkaran or Servaikaran.

Their

marriages are not celebrated in their houses, but in

pandals (booths) of green leaves erected for the purpose

However wealthy the couple may be, the only grain which they may eat at the wedding festivities is either cumbu {Pennisetum typhoideum) or horse-gram {Dolickos biflorus). The patron deities of the caste are Jakkamma and Bommakka, two women who committed sati. The morality of their women is loose. The custom of marrying boys to their paternal aunt's or maternal uncle's daughter, however old she may be, also
obtains,

on the village common.

and

in

such cases the bridegroom's father

is

said

to take

upon himself the duty of begetting children

Divorce
is

to his
freely

own

son.

easy,

and remarriage

is

allowed.

They

offer rice

and arrack (alcoholic liquor) to

will eat jackals,

their ancestors.
rats,

The Kattu Tottiyans

and the leavings of other people.

is

Tottiya

women

will not eat in

the houses of Brahmans, but no explana-

tion of this

forthcoming.

The men wear

silver anklets

on both

legs,

and also a bracelet upon one of the upper

bangles only on the
arm, instead of on

arms, both of which practices are uncommon, while the

women wear
both as usual.
to this caste.

left

Some
The

of the Zamindars in
caste title
is

Madura belong
At the

Nayakkan."

census, 1901, Kudulukkaran was returned as a sub-caste

of

Madura and Tinnevelly. The Urumikkaran, meaning those who play on the drum called urumi, are said to be Tottiyans in Madura and
the Tottiyans
in

Paraiyans elsewhere.

185
"

TOTTIYAN

The

Tottiyans or Kambalattans," Mr. H. A. Stuart

writes,* " are a caste of

Telugu

cultivators settled in

the

districts

of Madura,

Tinnevelly, Coimbatore and

Salem.

They

are probably the descendants of poligars

and soldiers of the Nayakkan kings of Vijayanagar, who conquered the Madura country about the beginning of the
sixteenth century.

As regards the

origin of their caste,

the Tottiyans say with pride that they are the descendants
of the eight thousand gopastris (milkmaids) of Krishna

a tradition which seems to indicate that their original occupation was connected with the rearing and keeping
of cattle.

The most

important sub-divisions are Kollar

and Erkollar, the Tamil form of the Telugu Golla and Yerragolla, which are now shepherd castes, though
probably they formerly had as
sheep.

much

to

do with

cattle as

Another large sub-division

I

is

Kille or Killavar,
kilari,

which

take to be a corruption of the Telugu

a herdman.

The

bride and bridegroom, too, are always

seated on bullock saddles.

thread.

They do

not wear the sacred

Most of them are Vaishnavites, some of whom employ Brahman priests, but the majority of them are guided by gurus of their own, called Kodangi Nayakkan. [It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that caste matters used to be settled by the Mettu Nayakkan or headman, and a Kodangi Nayakkan, or priest, so called because he carried a drum.] Each family has its own household deity, which appears to be a sort of
representation of departed relations, chiefly

women who
pile of their
life,

have burned themselves on the funeral

vestals.

husbands, or have led a chaste and continent

or died

Their

girls are
is

married after they have attained

maturity.

Adultery

no crime when committed within

Madras Census Report, 1891.

TOTTIYAN
the family
circle,

86

but a liaison with an outsider involves

It
is

expulsion from the caste.

said that their newly

married girls are even compelled to cohabit with their

husband's near relatives.
[It
is

further

said

to

be

believed that ill-luck will attend any refusal to do so,

and

that, so far

from any disgrace attaching to them

in

consequence, their priests compel them to keep up the

by any chance they are unwilling.*] The pongu tree {Pongamia glabra) is the sacred tree of Suttee was formerly very common, and the the caste. remarriage of widows is discouraged, if not actually The dead are generally burned. Both forbidden.
custom,
if

men and women

on
that

are supposed to practice magic, and are

generally.

account much dreaded by the people

especially noted
for their

power of curing snake-bites by means of mystical incantations, and the

are
original inventor of this

They

mode of treatment has been They are deified under the name Pambalamman. flesh. The majority speak Telugu in allowed to eat
their houses."

The

traditional story of the migration of the Tottidistrict is

is

yans to the Madura

people

given in several of the

still

Mackenzie manuscripts, and

of the caste.

repeated

by the

" Centuries ago, says this legend,

the Tottiyans
river.

lived to the

north of the Tungabhadra

The Muhammadans there tried to marry their women, and make them eat beef. So one fine night they The Muhammadans pursued fled southwards in a body.
them, and their path was blocked by a deep and rapid
river.

They had

just given themselves

up

for lost

when

a pongu (Pongamia glabra^ tree on either side of the

stream leant forward, and, meeting in the middle, made

Manual of the Madura

district.

8;

TOTTIYAN
soon

a bridge across

it.

Over

this they hurried, and, as

as they had passed, the trees stood erect once more, before the

Mussulmans could
in

similarly cross
still

by them.

The Tottiyans
tree,

consequence

reverence the pongu

and

their
its

marriage pandals (booths) are always

made from
service,

wood.

They

travelled

on

until they

came

to the city of Vijayanagar,

under whose king they took

Vijayanagar armies
*

and

it

was
to

in the train of the

that they

came

Madura."

The
social

Tottiyans are most numerous in the

districts,

Madura
in

and Tinnevelly
scale.

and include two grades

the

Of

these,

one consists of those who are

engaged
is

in cultivation,

made up

of those

and petty Zamindars. The other who wander about begging, and
classes there
is

doing menial work.

Between the two

the

neither interdining nor intermarriage.

In districts other

than Madura and Tinnevelly,

applied by Tamil-speaking castes to the Jogis,

name Tottiyan is who are

speak
to account

beggars and pig breeders, and,

Telugu.

like the Tottiyans,

is

The

following legend

current,

for the division of the Tottiyans into

two

sections.

They
ruler,

once gave a

girl in

marriage to a

Muhammadan

and
went

all

the Tottiyans followed

him.

large

number

to sleep

on one side of a

river,

while the rest crossed,

and went away.

from the former.
each other as
In the

The

latter are represented

today by the
is

respectable section, and the begging class

descended

To

this

day the Muhammadans and

Tottiyans of the Trichinopoly district are said to address

if

they were relations, and to be on terms

of unusual intimacy.

Madura

district,

the Tottiyans are apparently

viz.,

divided into three endogamous sections,

Vekkili,

* Gazetteer of the Madura

district.

TOTTIYAN

88
last is

Thokala, and Yerrakolla, of which the

inferior to the other two.

considered

Other names
there
Silla,

for the Vekkili

section are Kambalattar, or Raja Kambalattar.

places,
e.g.,

In

some
six

in

Tinnevelly,

seem
Kolla,

to

be

divisions,

Thokala, Chilla or

Narasilla,

Kanthikolla and Pala.

Of

these,

Pala

may

intermarry

with Chilla, but the other four are endogamous.

As

examples of exogamous septs occurring among the Yerrakollas

(lizard,

may be noted Chikala

(broom), and

Udama

Varamis), of which the latter also occurs as an

exogamous sept of the Kapus.

In the neighbourhood of Nellakota in the
district,

Madura
Karadi

the Yerrakollas have a group of seven septs

called
(bear),

Revala,

Gollavirappa,
Chila,

Kambli-nayudi,
Gelipithi.
all

Uduma,
is

and

Intermarriage

between these

forbidden, as they are

considered as

blood-relations,

and they must marry into a group of seven other septs called Gundagala, Busala, Manni,
Sukka, Alivirappa, Sikka, and Madha.
In a note on

The names

of

these septs are remembered by a system of mnemonics.

the Tottiyans

of the

Trichinopoly
as
follows.

district,

Mr.

F.

R.

Hemingway

writes

Three endogamous sub-divisions exist in the caste, namely, the Erra (red) Gollas or Pedda Inti (big family), the Nalla (black) Gollas or Chinna Inti (small family), and the Valus, who are also called Kudukuduppai Tottiyans.

"

The Valus

are said to be a restless class of beg-

gars and sorcerers.

The

red Gollas are, as a

rule, fairer

than the blacks

(whence

perhaps the names).

cloths,

The

women

of the former

wear white

while those of

the latter do not.

Again, they

tie their hair in different

ways, and their ornaments differ a good deal.

The

red

women black women wear

carry no emblem of marriage at

all,

while the

the

pottu.

The

reds allow their

89

TOTTIYAN

widows to remarry, but the blacks do not. Both sections have exogamous sections, called Kambalams the reds

is

fourteen,

and the blacks nine.

The
Each

reds are divided,

for purposes of caste discipline, into nine

nadus and the

under a
each nadu or

blacks into fourteen mandais.

village

headman

called the

Ur-Nayakan, and

mandai under a Pattakaran. The former decide petty The disputes, and the latter the more serious cases.
Pattakaran
is

treated

with

great

deference.

He

is

always saluted with clasped hands, ought never to look on a corpse, and is said to be allowed to consort with

any married woman of the caste." The Tottiyans are supposed to be one of the nine

Kambalam
version, are

(blanket) castes, which,

according to

one

yans,

made up of Kappiliyans, Anappans, TottiKurubas, Kummaras, Parivarams, Urumikkarans,

According
to

Mangalas, and Chakkiliyans.

another

Anappan, Tottiyan, Kolla Tottiyan, Kuruba, Kummara, Medara, Odde, and Chakkiliyan. At tribal council-meetings, repreversion, the nine castes are Kappiliyan,

sentatives of each of the nine

present.

But, for the

nine

Kambalams should be castes, some have substito have three

tuted nine septs.

The Vekkiliyans seem

headmen, called Mettu Nayakan, Kodia Nayakan, and Kambli Nayakan, of whom the first mentioned is the

on various ceremonial occasions, such as puberty and marriage rites,

priest

most important, and acts as

and the worship of Jakkamma and Bommakka. The Kambli Nayakan attends to the purification of
peccant
or

erring

members

of

the

community,

in
is
is

connection with which the head of a sheep or goat

taken into the house by the Kambli Nayakan.

noted,
'

It

in

the Gazetteer of the

Madura

district,

that

persons charged with offences are invited to prove

TOTTIYAN
their innocence

190

by undergoing

ordeals.

These are now

harmless enough, such as attempting to cook rice in a pot which has not been fired, but Turnbull says that
he saw the boiling
territory.

Pudukkottai Perhaps the most serious caste offence is

oil

ordeal in 18 13 in

adultery with a

man

of another community.

Turnbull

says that

women
is

convicted of this used to be sentenced

rigid

to be killed

by Chakkiliyans, but nowadays

the penalty."
caste
is

excom-

munication

The Kambalam
is

so called because, at caste

is

council meetings, a kambli (blanket)

spread, on which

placed a kalasam (brass vessel)

filled

with water, and

leaves,

containing

margosa (Melia Azadirachta)

Its

and

decorated with flowers.

leaves and a cocoanut.

mouth

is

closed by

mango

A
in the

correspondent writes to

me

that " the

Zamindars
belongs

western parts of Madura, and parts of Tinnevelly,

as

are

known

Kambala

Palayapat.
is

If

man
is

to a Zamindar's family, he

said to be

of the Raja
carried out
village,

Kambala
in
for the

caste.

The marriage ceremony

two temporary huts erected outside the

bridegroom, the other for the bride.
the marriage

one

The

tali is

tied round the bride's neck by an elderly female or male

belonging to the family.

with a
is

If

is

contracted

woman

of an inferior class, the bridegroom's hut

of,

not

made use

and he does not personally take part

in the

ceremony.

dagger

(kattar), or

rude sword,

is

sent

t)

represent him, and the

tali is tied in

the presence

thereof."

In a zamindari

suit, details

of which are published in

the Madras

Law

Reports, Vol. XVII, 1894, the Judge

that a dagger

found that the plaintiffs mother was married to the

plaintiff's father

in the

dagger form

is

used by the Saptur Zamindars,

who

are called Kattari

191

TOTTIYAN

Kamaya,
of the

in

the case of inequality in the caste or social

;

position of the bride

that,

though the customary

rites

Kambala caste were also performed, yet the use of the dagger was an essential addition and that, though she was of a different and inferior caste to that of the
;

plaintiffs father, yet that did not invalidate the marriage.

The

defendant's argument was that the dagger was used

Zamindar bridegroom as he did not attend in person, and that, by his non-attendance, there could have been no joining of hands, or other essential
to represent the
for constituting a valid marriage.

that the nuptial rites

argued were duly performed, the Zamindar

plaintiff

The

dagger was there merely as an ornament and that it was customary for people of the Zamindar's caste to have a dagger paraded on
being present
;
;

that the

the occasion of marriages.

The Judge

found that the

dagger was there

for the

purpose of indicating that the

of

two

ladies,

whom

the Zamindar married, were

an

inferior caste
It
is

and rank.
in

recorded,
that,

the

Gazetteer of the
attains
is

Madura
maturity,

district,

when

a Tottiyan girl

" she

is

kept in a separate hut, which

watched by

a Chakkiliyan.

Marriage

is

either infant or adult.

man

has the usual claim to his paternal aunt's daughter,

is

and so rigorously

this rule

followed

that

boys of

tender years are frequently married to grown women.

These

latter are

allowed to consort with their husband's

is

near relations, and the boy

held to be the father of

any children which may be born. Weddings last three days, and involve very numerous ceremonies. They
take place in a special pandal erected in the village, on
either side of

which are smaller pandals

for the bride

and

bridegroom.
of a red

Two uncommon

rites

are the slaughtering

ram without blemish, and marking the foreheads

TOTTIYAN
of the couple with
its

192
blood, and the

pursuit

by the

bridegroom,
pretends to

with a
flee,

bow and
is

arrow,

of a

man who
and bound.
shivers,

but

at length captured

The ram
this,

is first is

sprinkled with water, and,

held to be a

if it

as usual,
is

good omen.

The

bride-

seven kalams of kumbu {Pennisetum typhoideuni)^ and the couple may eat only this grain and horse-gram
price
until the

wedding

is

over.

bottu (marriage badge)

sister."

is

tied

round the bride's neck by the bridegroom's

gather

Concerning the marriage ceremonies of the Yerrakollas,

I

that,
is

be cooked.
betel leaves

Food

on the betrothal day, kumbu must given to seven people belonging

to seven different septs.

They

are then presented with

tied in a cloth,

and areca nuts and four annas

and the approaching marriage is announced. On the wedding day, the bride and bridegroom are seated on planks on the marriage dais, and milk is sprinkled over them by people of their own sex. A few hours later,
the bridegroom takes his seat in the pandal, whither the
bride
sits
is

brought

in the

by the side

She of the bridegroom, and the Mettu

uncle.

arms of her maternal

Nayakan

links together the little fingers of the contracttells

ing couple, and

them

to

exchange

rings.

This

is
is

the binding portion

tied

of the ceremony, and no bottu

round the bride's neck.

At a marriage among the

is

Vekkiliyans, two huts are constructed in an open space

outside the village, in front of which a pandal
erected,

supported by twelve posts, and roofed with leafy twigs

of the

pongu

tree

and Mimusops hexandra.

On

the

following day, the bride and bridegroom are conducted

to the huts, the bride being sometimes carried in the

arms of her maternal

heroes,

uncle.

who

are represented

They worship the ancestral by new cloths folded, and

sister ties the bottu

placed on a tray.

The bridegroom's

193

TOTTIYAN
hut,
in

on the

bride's

neck inside her

scattered.

front of

which

kumbu
groom

grain

is

Betel and a fanam (coin) are

placed in the bride's lap.

is

On

dressed up, and,

the third day the bridemounting a horse, goes,

pots,

accompanied by the marriage

the huts.

three times round

is

He

then enters the bride's hut, and she

carried in the arms of the cousins of the bridegroom

thrice

round the huts.

The

contracting couple then

sit

on planks, and the cousins, by order of the Mettu Nayakan, link their little fingers together. They then
enter the

bridegroom's
is

hut,

ceremony
This

performed.

Coming
it

and a mock ploughing out from the hut, they

take up a child, and carry

is,

three times round the huts.

done because, in former days, the Tottiyan bride and bridegroom had to remain in the
it

is

said,

marriage huts

till

a child was born, because the Mettu

that he

Nayakan was so busy

had no time to complete

the marriage ceremony until nearly a year had elapsed.

At a wedding among the nomad Tottiyans, a fowl is killed near the marriage (araveni) pots, and with its blood a mark is made on the foreheads of the bride and bridegroom on their entry into the booths. The Vekkiliyans sacrifice a goat or sheep instead of a fowl,

and

the

more advanced among them

substitute the breaking

of a cocoanut for the animal sacrifice. In connection with marriage, Mr.

that " the Tottiyans very
to a

Hemingway

writes

grown woman, and,

is

commonly marry a young boy as among the Konga Vellalas,

of a husband

the boy's father takes the duties

upon
are

himself until the boy

grown

up.

Married

women

allowed to
relations,

bestow their favours upon their husbands'

it

and

is

said to be

an understood thing that

if

man

should not enter his dwelling,

vn-13

he sees another's

slippers placed outside as a sign that the

owner of them

TOTTIYAN
is

194
Intercourse with

with the mistress of the house.

is,

men

of another caste

however, punished by expulsion,

girls
it

and widows and

killed."

unmarried

who go
is

astray are

severely dealt with.

Formerly,

said,

they

were

At a Tottiyan funeral, fire is carried to the burningground by a Chakkiliyan, and the pyre is lighted, not by the sons, but by the sammandhis (relations by
marriage).

The

Tottiyans of the

Madura

district

observe the

worship of ancestors,
of stones set up

who

are represented by a

number

somewhere within the

village boundaries.

According to Mr. Such places are called male. Hemingway, when a member of the caste dies, some of the bones are buried in this shed, along with a coin, and
a stone
in
is

planted on the spot.

circle.

The

stones are arranged

an irregular

The

circles of the Yerrakollas

are exceedingly simple, and recall to

mind those

of the

Nayadis of Malabar, but without the tree.

are set

The

stones

up

in

an open space close to the burning-ground.

is

When

a death occurs, a stone

erected

among
It

the

ashes of the deceased on the

last

day of the funeral

worshipped.
circle.
is

ceremonies

(karmandhiram),

and

immediately transferred to the ancestral

The

male of the Vekkiliyan section of the Tottiyans consists of a massive central wooden pillar, carved with male

and female human

figures, set

up

in a cavity in a

round

boulder, and covered over

by a conical canopy supported on pillars. When this canopy is set in motion, the central pillar appears to be shaking. This illusion, it is claimed, is due to the power of the ancestral gods. All round the central pillar, which is about ten feet
high, a

number of stones of
pillar

different sizes are set up.

The

central

represents

Jakkamma and

other

11

195

TOTTIYAN
stones
are

remote

ancestors.

representatives of

The surrounding those who have died

the

in recent times.

Like the Yerrakollas, the Vekkiliyans erect a stone on the karmandhiram day at the spot where the body was
cremated, but, instead of transferring
ancestral circle, they wait
till
it

at

once to the

the day of periodical male

worship, which, being an expensive ceremonial,

may

take place only once in twelve years.

is

If

the interval

long, the

number of stones representing those who

have died meanwhile

villages, and,

may be very
is

large.

News

of the

approaching male worship

pour

sent to the neighbouring

in,

on the appointed day, people of all castes bringing with them several hundred bulls.
sugar-cane.

The

hosts supply their guests with fodder, pots, and

c-f

a liberal allowance
the ceremonial.

Refusal to bestow

sugar-cane freely would involve failure of the object of

After the completion of the worship,
loose,

the bulls are

the male

let

and the animal which reaches

Its

first is

decorated, and held in reverence.

cloths,

owner is presented with The ceremony may be compared with that of selecting the
money,
etc.

king bull

the Kappiliyans. Self-cremation is said * to have been " habitually

among

practiced by Tottiya
British
;

widows in the times anterior to domination and great respect was always shown
of such as observed the custom.
(fire-torch

to the

memory

Small

tombs termed thipanjankovil

temple)

were

erected in their honour on the high-roads, and at these

oblations were once a year offered to the

manes of the

deceased heroines.

Sati
if

was

not,

however, compulsory
all

among them,

and,

a widow lived at
life,

times a perfectly

chaste and religious

she was honoured equally with

* Manual of the Madura

district.

VII-13B

TOTTIYAN
such as performed the
of the

196
rite."
It is

noted, in the Gazetteer

Madura

district,

common in the caste, Jakkamma and Bommayya, are who thus sacrificed themselves.
festival is held in their

was formerly very and the two caste goddesses,

that

"sati

deifications of

women

Every four years a

of the winning
betel

honour, one of the chief events

in

which

is

a bullock race.

The owner
god
is

animal receives a prize, and gets the

first

and nut

during the

feast.

The

caste

Perumal,

worshipped

in the

form of a curry-grinding

who is stone. The

story goes that,

when the Tottiyans were

fleeing to the

south, one of their

women

found her grinding-stone so

it

intolerably heavy that she threw

away.

It,

however,
it

re-appeared

in

her basket.

Thrown away

again,

once

more re-appeared, and she then realised god must be accompanying them."

that the caste

"do not recognise the superiority of Brahmans, or employ them as priests at marriages or funerals. They are deeply
Tottiyans," Mr.
writes,

"The

Hemingway

devoted to their

own caste Bommaka and Mallamma

sati

deities.

Some

of these are

(the spirits of

women who
tiger),

committed

long ago), Vlrakaran or Viramati (a

killed
in a fight

bridegroom who was

with a

Pattalamma (who helped them in their flight from the north), and Malai Tambiran, the god of ancestors. Muttalamma and Jakkamma are also found. Malai Tambiran is worshipped in the male. The Tottiyans
are

known

for their

witchcraft.

uncanny devotion to sorcery and All of them are supposed to possess unholy

powers, especially the Nalla Gollas, and they are

much

dreaded by their neighbours.

They do

not allow any

stranger to enter their villages with shoes on, or on

horseback, or holding up an umbrella, lest

their
if

god
any

should be offended.

It is

generally believed that,

TOTTIYAN MALE.

197

TSAKALA
illness or

one breaks

this rule,

he

will

be visited with

some other punishment." them a class of beggars called Pichiga vadu, concerning whose origin the following legend is narrated. There were, once upon a time, seven brothers and a sister belonging to the Irrivaru exogamous sept. The brothers went on a
pilgrimage to Benares, leaving their sister behind.
day, while she

The

Tottiyans have attached to

One

was bathing, a sacred bull (Nandi) left Her condiits sperm on her cloth, and she conceived. tion was noticed by her brothers on their return, and, suspecting her of immorality, they were about to excomBut they discovered some cows in calf municate her. and
six of the brothers
satisfied as to

as the result of parthenogenesis,

were
born,

the girl's innocence.

The

seventh,

however, required further proof.

it

After the child was

was

tied

to

a branch of a dead chilla tree

brother became a cripple, and his

{Strycknos potatorttm), which at once burst into leaf and

flower.

The doubting

descendants are called Pichiga varu, and those of the

baby Chilla varu.

Traivarnika (third Madras Census Report,

caste men).

Recorded,

in the

1901, as a section of

Komatis

(who claim to be Vaisyas, or members of the third caste of Manu), who follow the details of Brahmanical customs

more scrupulously than the others. They are described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as followers of the Ramanuja faith, who deal chiefly in gold and silver, and
ornaments made thereof.

Triputa {Ipotn^a
sept of Viramushti.

Turpethtim,

Indian jalap).

Tsakala.The Tsakalas, Sakalas, who derive their name from chaku (to
washermen of the Telugu country, and

or

Chakalas,

wash), are the

also act as torch

TSAKALA
and palanquin bearers.
Rev.
really

198
In the Census Report,
is

1901,

Tellakula (the white class)

J.

given as a synonym.
" Tellakulavandlu

The
are

Cain writes* that the

washermen who, in consequence of having obtained employment as peons (orderlies) in Government

themselves to be superior to their old caste
people.

offices, feel

In their

own towns or

villages they

acknowledge
they

themselves to be washermen, but

disclaim
all

in other places

such connection."
that,

It is

noted

in the

Kurnool

Manual (1886)
of

in

the

Cumbum

division,

"they

serve as palanquin-bearers, and are always at the mercy

Government officials, and are compelled to carry baggage for little or no wage. Some are Inamdars (landholders), while others work for wages. The ordinary Tsakalas are called Bana Tsakala, in contradistinction to the Guna or Velama Tsakala. Bana is the Telugu name for the large pot, which the washer-

men

use for boiling the clothes, t

The Guna Tsakalas

H. A. Stuart

are dyers.

In a note on the Velamas, Mr.

writes | that
Balijas,

"some

say they form a sub-division of the

but this they themselves most vehemently deny,

and the Balijas derisively call them Guni Sakalavandlu (hunchbacked washermen). The pride and jealousy of Hindu castes was amusingly illustrated by the Velamas of Kalahasti. The Deputy Tahsildar of that town was
desired
to

ascertain

the

origin

of

the

name Guni

Sakalavandlu, but, as soon as he asked the question, a

member

of the caste lodged a complaint of defamation

against him before the District Magistrate.

The

nickin

name appears
their

to have

been applied to them because

the northern districts

some

print chintz, and, carrying

goods

in

a bundle on their backs, walk stooping

t
district.

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

X Manual of the North Arcot

Ibid,

199
like a laden

TSAKALA
is

washerman.

This derivation
district,

more than
is

doubtful,

for, in

the Godavari
"

the

name

Guna

Sakalavandlu, guna being the large pot in which they

dye the

chintzes.

Like other Telugu castes, the Tsakalas have exoga-

among which chimala (ant) is of common occurrence. Members of the gummadi sept do not cultivate, or eat the fruit of Cucurbita maxima
septs or intiperu,

mous

(gummadi), and those of the magili pula gotra avoid

the
fruit

of

Pandanus

fascicularis.

In

like

manner,

sword beans ( Canavalia ensiformis) may not be eaten by those who belong to the thamballa gotra.

Among

the sub-divisions of the

earth),

caste

are

Reddi
are also

Bhumi (Reddi

Murikinati,

Pakanati (eastern

country), Desa, and Golkonda.

Of these, some
:

sub-divisions of other Telugu classes, as follows

Desa

or

Desur
or

Balija

Murikinati

Kapu. Murikinadu Kamsala,

Mangala.

Mangala,

Mala and Razu.

Pakanati

Balija, Golla,

Kamsala, Kapu, and Mala.

as a sub-

Reddi Bhumi

Mala,

At the

census, 1891,

Odde was recorded

and
it is

division of the Tsakalas,

noted in the Vizaga-

patam Manual (1869) that the Vadde or Odde Cakali wash clothes, and carry torches in that district. The name Odde Tsakala refers to Oriya-speaking washermen. Telugus call the Oriya country Odra or Odde desam and Oriyas Odra or Odde Vandlu. Like the Tamil Vannans, the Tsakalas prepare for
various castes torches for processional or other ceremonial
occasions,

and the face

cloth,

head of a corpse, are their perquisite.

and paddy piled up at the The Reddi Bhumi

and other sub-divisions wash the clothes of all classes, except Malas and Madigas, while the Desa and Golkonda

TSAKALA
sub-divisions will

iOO

wash
but

for

both Malas and Madigas,

in water,

provided that the clothes are steeped

and not
by the

handed washerman.
who,

to them,

left

therein, to be taken
its

Every

village has

families of washermen,

in return for their services, receive

an allowance of

grain once a year, and

may have

land allotted to them.

Whenever
it is

a goat or fowl has to be sacrificed to a deity,

the privilege of the Tsakala to cut off the head, or

wring the neck of the animal.

When Kapu women go

on a

visit to

a distant village, they are accompanied by a

Tsakala.

At a Kapu wedding, a small party of Kapus,

oil,

taking with them some food and gingelly {Sesamum)

to obtain from

proceed in procession to the house of a Tsakala, in order

him a famework made of bamboo or sticks, over which cotton threads (dhornam) are wound, and the Ganga idol, which is kept in his custody. The food is presented to him, and some rice poured into his
cloth.

Receiving these things, he says that he cannot

find the

dhornam and

idol without

a torch-light, and

demands gingelly oil. This is given to him, and the Kapus return with the Tsakala carrying the dhornam and idol to the marriage house. The Tsakala is asked to tie the dhornam to the pandal (marriage booth) or roof of the house, and he demands some paddy (unhusked rice) which is heaped up on the ground. Standing thereon, he ties the dhornam. At a Panta Kapu wedding, the Ganga idol, together with a goat and kavadi (bamboo pole), with baskets of rice, cakes, betel leaves and areca nuts, is carried in procession to a pond or temple. The washerman, dressed up as a woman, heads the procession, and keeps on dancing and singing till
the destination
is

reached.

At the conclusion of the

ceremonial, he takes charge of the idol, and goes his

way.

Among

the Panta Reddis of the Tamil country,

20t the idol

is

TSAKALA

taken in procession by the washerman,

who

goes to every Reddi house, and receives a present of money. At a wedding among the Tdigas (Telugu
toddy-drawers), the brother of the bride
is

fantastically

dressed, with margosa {Melia Azadirachta) leaves in This kodangi his turban, and carries a bow and arrow.

(buffoon)

is

conducted

in procession to the

temple by a

few married women, and made to walk over cloths spread on the ground by the village washerman. The cloth

worn by a Kapu girl at the time of her first menstrual ceremony is the perquisite of the washerwoman.

The
is

tribal deity of the

Tsakalas

is

Madivalayya, in

whose honour

a feast, called Mailar or Mailar Pandaga,

festival.

held in January immediately after the Pongal

Small models of pots, slabs of stone such as are used for beating the wet clothes on, and other articles used in
their work,

are

made

in rice

and
fruits,

flour paste.

After

they have been worshipped,

etc.,

cooked vegetables,
is

are offered,
of
its

and a sheep or goat

is

sacrificed.

Some
a

blood

mixed with the

If this

food,

of which
etc.,

little

is

sprinkled over the pots,

stones,

used

during washing operations.

observed,
in the
it

ceremonial was not

is

believed that the

fire,

clothes,

when

boiling

water pot, would catch

and be ruined.

The

festival,

which

is

not observed by the Desa and Golkonda

is

Tsakalas, lasts for five or seven days, and

holiday.

a time of

At the

first

menstrual ceremony, the maternal uncle

of the girl has to erect a hut

made

of seven different

kinds of sticks, of which one must be from a Strychnos

Nux-vomica

tree.

The

details of the marriage

ceremony

are very similar to those of the Balijas and

Kammas.

The nam

distribution of pan-supari,
to the pandal

and the tying of the dhormust be carried out by an assistant

TSALLA OR CHALLA
headman
sheep
is

202

called

Gatamdar.

On

the

last day,

a goat or

sacrificed to the

marriage pots.

Liberal potations

who attend the wedding. have a caste Tsakalas beggar called Mailari, or The Patam, because he carries a brass plate (patam) with the
of toddy are given to those
figure of a deity

engraved on

it.

He

is

said to be a

Lingayat.

Tsalla or Challa
sept of Mala.

(butter-milk).

An

exogamous

Tsanda

or

Chanda
of

(tax

or

subscription).

An

exogamous sept

Kamma
his

and Medara.
description*
of the Tula-

Tulabharam.

In

bharam or Tulapurushadanam ceremony performed by the Maharajas of Travancore, Mr. Shungoony Menon explains that the latter word is a compound of three
Sanskrit words, tula (scales), purusha (man), and
(gift,

danam
he

particularly of a religious

character).

And
is

gives the following description of the ceremonial, for

the performance of which a

Tulamandapam

erected,

and the weighing and other On the eighth day "after worshipping rites performed. offerings, the Maharaja proceeds to the and making Tulamandapam, where, in the south-east corner, he is
wherein the scales are
set up,

sprinkled with
side room,

punyaham

water.

Then he goes

to the

where the 'nine grains' are sown in silver flower pots, where the acharya anoints him with nine Thence the Maharaja retires to the fresh-water kalasas.
palace,

changes clothes, wears certain jewels specially

the occasion, and, holding the State

made

for

sword
he

in his right

hand and the State shield

;

in his left,

proceeds to the pagoda

and, having presented a bull

flagstaff,

elephant at the foot of the great golden

and

History of Travancore, 1878.

203
silks,

TULABHARAM

gold coins, jewels and other rich offerings in the

interior,

re-enters the

he walks round by the Sevaimandapam, and Tulamandapam. He walks thrice round

it,

the scales, prostrates himself before

priests

bows before the

and elderly relatives, and obtains their sanction He then mounts to perform the Tulapurushadanam. Yama's and Surya's pratimas holding the western scale,
in his right

and

left

hand

respectively.

He

sits

facing

on a circular heavy plank cut out of fresh jack-wood (Artocarpus integrifolia), and covered with
to the east
silk.

He

repeats mantras

(prayers)

in

this position.

The

opposite or eastern scale then receives the gold,

in ingots,
till it

both coined and

not only attains equality

but touches the ground, and the scale occupied by the

Maharaja
and,

rises high.

The Maharaja then comes down,

east,

sitting

facing to the

places the gold, the

flowers,

Tulupurusha pratima and other pratimas, with

sandal paste,
etc.,

in

a basin of water, and, meditating

offers the contents

on Brahma or the Supreme Being, he

to

Brahmans

generically."

scale, one-fourth is divided

Of the gold placed in the among the priests who conremaining three-fourths

duct the ceremony, and the

are distributed
tion

among Brahmans.

For use

in

connec-

with the ceremony, gold coins, called tulabhara

kasu, are specially struck.

They bear on one

side the

Malayalam legend chank shell.

Sri

Padmanabha, and on the other a

ceremony as per-

In connection with the tulabharam

formed at the temple of Kali, the goddess of cholera and

small-pox at Cranganore in the Cochin State, Mr, T. K.

Gopal Panikkar writes as follows.* taken ill of any infectious disease, his
* Malabar and

"

When

man

is

relations generally

its

Folk, Madras, 1900,

TULABINA
pray to this goddess

204
for his recovery,

solemnly coveof a thula-

nanting to perform what goes by the

name

bharam ceremony.

The

process consists in placing the

patient in one of the scale-pans of a

huge balance, and

weighing him against gold or more generally pepper

(and sometimes other substances as well) deposited in
the other scale-pan.
is

Then

this

weight of the substance

is

offered to the

goddess.

This

to

be performed

right in front of the goddess in the temple yard."

In connection with weighing ceremonies,

it

may be

noted
of

that, at

Mulki

in

South Canara, there

is

is

a temple

Venkateswara,

which

maintained by

Konkani

Konkani Brahman, who is attached to the temple, becomes inspired almost daily between 10 and 1 1 A.M. immediately after puja (worship), and people
Brahmans.
consult him.

Some time ago,

a rich merchant (a Baniya

from Gujarat) consulted the inspired

to

man (Darsana)
his wife to

as

what steps should be taken to enable The Darsana told him safely delivered.
that he

be

to take a

vow

would present to the god of the temple

fruits,

silver,

sugar-candy, and date

his wife.

equal

in

weight to that of

This he

male

child.
five

was delivered of a The cost of the ceremonial is said to have

did,

and

his wife

been

thousand rupees.

Tulabina. The Tulabinas are a class of cottoncleaners, who are scattered over the Ganjam district, and
said to be

more numerous
is

in Cuttack.

It is

suggested
of a

that the

name

derived from tula,

the

beam

balance, and bina (or vina) a stringed musical instrument.

The apparatus used by them

rope so that
it is

in cleaning cotton,
is

which

bears a fanciful resemblance to a vina,

suspended by a

properly balanced, and the gut-string

thereof struck with a dumb-bell shaped implement, to

set
it

vibrating.

205

TURUVALAR

Tulasi {Octmum sanctum, sacred basil). A subThe tulsi division of Velama, and gotra of Komati. plant is planted in Hindu houses and worshipped by

women, and the wood

is

made

into beads for rosaries.

Tulukkar
applied to

(Turks).

Tamil

name sometimes

Muhammadans. Tuluva. Tulu, Tuluva, or Tuluvan occurs as the name of a sub-division of the Tamil Vellalas, and of the

Agasas, Billavas, Gaudas, Kumbaras, and other classes

in

South Canara.

The

equivalent

Tulumar

is

recorded

as a sub-caste of Mavilan, which speaks Tulu.

Concerning the Tuluva Vellalas, Mr, H. A. Stuart writes * that these are immigrants from the Tulu country,
a part of the modern district of South Canara.

Mr.

Nelson

is

of opinion that these are the original Vellalas,

invited to
its

who were

Tondamandalam after by the Chola king Adondai Chakravarti.f

conquest

Tunnaran
of Nayar.

(tailor).

An

occupational sub-division

Tupaki (gun) has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Balija, Kavarai, and
or

Tupakala.Tupakala

Yanadi.

Turaka. Recorded

as a sept of Kuruba.

It

is

further a Telugu name sometimes applied to Muhammadans. There is also a thief class, known as Bhattu

Turaka.

{See Bhatrazu.)

Turuvalar. Recorded in the Salem Manual as a caste name, by which some of the Vedans call themselves.

The Turuvalar are kudugirajati, a name

"

distinguished

as

the

Kattu-

derived from a custom

among

them which authorizes informal temporary matrimonial

arrangements."

Madras Census Report, 1891.

f Manual of the Madura

district.

UDASI

206 few members of this Central India sect of

Udasi.A

religious mendicants

and devotees have been returned at times of census. It is said to have been founded three hundred years ago by one Gopaldas.

Udaiya. Udaiya, meaning

well-to-do Lingayats and of

lord, is the title of

many

some

Jains,

and Udaiya or

Wodeiyar occurs as the name of a Lingayat sub-division of the Badagas of the Niligiri hills. The Maharajas of Mysore belong to the Wodeiyar dynasty, which was restored after the Muhammadan usurpation of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. The name of the present Maharaja is Sri Krishna Raja Wodeiyar Bahadur. Udaiyan. It is noted in the Madras Census Report. 1 89 1, that "the four Tamil castes Nattaman, Malaiman, Sudarman (or Suruthiman), and Udaiyan are closely
connected.
caste,

The
is

last is

probably a

title

rather than a

and

the

usual

agnomen

of the Nattamans,

Malaimans, and Sudarmans, as also of the potter caste

Nattaman means a man of the plains, Malaiman a man of the hills, and Sudarman one who Nattampadi is another form of does good, a hero.
(Kusavan).

Nattaman.

Tradition traces the descent of the three

castes from a certain

Chera king, who had three wives, by each of whom he had a son, and these were the ancestors of the three castes. There are other

Deva

Raja, a

stories,

but

all

agree in ascribing the origin of the castes

Chera dynasty. It seems probable that they are descendants of the Vedar soldiers of the Kongu country, who were induced to settle in the Additional eastern districts of the Chera kingdom.
to a single progenitor of the

evidence of the important position they once held

afforded by the
titles

is

Pandariyar, Pandarattar (custodians

of the treasury), which

some of them

still

use.

Some

of

them again

are locally styled Poligars (Palayakkaran) by

207
the

UDAIYAN
title

ordinary

ryots,

and

the

Kavalgar

is

not

infrequent."

In a note on the Udaiyans, Malaiyamans, Nattamans,

and Sudarmans of the Trichinopoly

district,

Hemingway
in

writes

as

follows.

"

Mr. F. R. Though, in the

castes,

Census Report, 1901, they are shown as separate

this
district

they

are

endogamous sub-divisions

namely the Udaiyans. The three sub-divisions are unanimous in saying that they
caste,

of one and the same

are the descendants of the three Paraiyan foster-daughters

whom became the wives in South Arcot, a certain Tirukkoyilur of king of the Daivika, who was warned that only by marrying these
of the poetess Auvaiyar, all of

women

could he save his family from disaster.

The

Chola, Pandya, and Chera kings were present at the wedding, and, on their blessing the bridegroom and his brides, they were themselves blessed by the poetess, to whom the Chera kingdom owes its unfailing rain, the Chola country its rice fields, and the Pandyan realm its The poorness of the last blessing is due to the cotton. fact that the Pandya king was slow to offer his good
wishes.

The

three
tie

sub-divisions

eat

together,

and

recognise the
intermarry.

of a

common
rest,

descent, but

do not
is

looked

The down upon by

section called Arisakkara

Nattaman

the

and may not intermarry

with any of them.

All have well-defined

sub-divisions, called kanis,

their different ancestors are

exogamous derived from places where

lived, e.g.,

supposed to have

Kolattur,

Kannanur, Ariyalur.
to

sacred threads at marriages and funerals, and

them have recently begun

put on some of wear them always. They

The Udaiyans

are generally cultivators, and, with the exception of the

Sudarmans, who are supposed to have a turn

are law-abiding citizens.

for crime,

One

section of the Sudarmans,

UDAIYAN
the

208
of Kapistalam in Tanjore, have a bad

Muppans

reputation for criminality.

before arranging a marriage,

A
it is

curious practice

is

that,

customary

for the bride's

party to go to the bridegroom's house, to dine with him,

by seeing how much he can eat. They allow a boy, whose suit for the hand of a girl within certain degrees of relationship is refused by her parents, to marry the girl, notwithstanding, by tying a tali (marriage emblem) round her neck. They also permit
and
test

his health

the betrothal of infants, the form observed being to present the child with a

new

cloth

and a mat, and to apply

funerals,
spit
it

sacred ashes to

its

forehead.

mourning party has

day, the

to

At their chew some rice and

the

out on

the return from the burning-ground, and, on the sixteenth

widow is made to worship a light, and to touch The Nattaman women do not, as a rule, a salt pot. cover their breasts. The lobes of their ears are very
distended, and they tattoo their chins and cheeks in the

Paraiyan fashion.
of their origin.

This

is

supposed to be

in recollection

The Malaiyaman women wear

their tali

on a golden wire instead of on a thread." "The Udaiyans," Mr. Francis writes,* are a caste, which is specially numerous in South Arcot. Most of them are cultivators, and in Kallakurchi many are also
money-lenders on a large
different titles in
scale.

They adopt numerous

an indiscriminate way, and four brothers have been known to call themselves respectively Nayak, They have three subPillai, Mudali, and Udaiyan.

divisions

Malaiyaman,
Some of the

Nattaman,

and

Sudarman
from one
turning

which

all

admit that they are descended

however, are

common

stock, will usually

dine together, but do not

intermarry.

caste,

now

* Gazetteer of the South Arcot

district.

209

udaiyan

vegetarians, and these will not only not eat with the
others, but will not let their girls

marry them.

They do
from

not, nevertheless, object to their sons taking brides

the meat-eating classes, and thus provide an interesting,

if

small, instance of the (on this coast)

uncommon

practice

of hypergamy.

In

all

general matters the ways of the

three sub-divisions are similar.

Sudarmans are uncomchiefly found in

mon

in this district,

and are stated to be

Trichinopoly and Tanjore.

The Udaiyans
first

say that the

three groups are the descendants of a king

ruled at Tirukkoyilur, the
of

who once
hilly

whom

took the

part of his father's country,

and so was

called Malaiyahis

man

the second the level tracts,

whence

name

Nattaman, and the third was the scholar of the family,

and learned in the holy books (srutas), and so was called Sudarman. These Udaiyans are the caste from which were drawn some of the kavalgars (watchmen) who, in
pre-British days, were appointed to perform police duties,

and keep the country clear of thieves

descendants of these men,

and some of the

who
still

are

known

to their

neighbours as poligars, and

influence, are

have considerable local

even now to be met with.

of the caste with the
is

The
Vepur

connection
(criminal)

of the

members

Paraiyans,

which

of course

confined

to

the

less
its

reputable sections among them, seems to have had

origin in the days

when they were

were their

still

head kavalgars,
entrusted,

and these
villages.
It

Paraiyans

talaiyaris,

under their orders, with police duties

in

the different

now

consists in acting as receivers of the

steal,

property these people

diverse ways

and

in protecting

them

in

finding and
It
is

feeing a vakil (law pleader)

for their defence, for instance

when they are

in trotible

with the

police.

commonly declared

that their

relations are sometimes of a closer nature,

V11-14

and that the

UDAIYAN

210

wives of Veppur Paraiyans

who

are in enforced retire-

ment are cared for by the Udaiyans. To this is popularly attributed the undoubted fact that these Paraiyans are
often

much

fairer in

complexion than other members of

in the South Arcot district on account of its being the only

that caste."

The
is
'

village of

Mangalam

chiefly interesting

village in the district

scale are

still

where regularly made.

in

buffalo sacrifices

on any
in

Buffaloes are dedicated

to

the

Kali shrine

Mangalam even by persons

districts,

and the village is commonly known as Maduvetti Mangalam, or buffalo-sacrificing Mangalam. When a man or any of
his belongings gets seriously sick,

the Salem, Tanjore and Trichinopoly

he consecrates an

animal to this shrine, and,

it is

if

the illness ends favourably,

sent to

its

fate at

the temple on the date of the

annual

sacrifice

(May-June).

When

the

buffalo

is is

dedicated, a piece of saffron-coloured cloth, in which

placed some small coin and a cadjan (palm) leaf containing an announcement of the dedication,
its
is

tied
it

to

horns, and

it

is

allowed to roam wherever

likes

through the

fields.

On

the day of the sacrifice, fourteen

of the best of the animals which have been dedicated and

brought to the temple are selected, and seven of them

are tied to an equal

number

of stone posts in front of

pujari
(priest),

the goddess'

shrine.

The

who

is

an

Udaiyan by caste, then walks down the line, and beheads them one after the other. The goddess is next taken round on a car, and, on her return to the temple, the
other seven buffaloes are similarly killed.

The animals

which are not selected are

into

sold,

and the proceeds paid

the temple treasury.

the temple, one of Kali,

at

There are two images in and the other, which is placed

of

the back of

the

shrine,

Mangalayachi.

The

21
latter

UDAIYAN
sacrifices,

goddess does not

approve of animal
are

and, while the

above ceremonies
in front

proceeding, a

blanket

is

hung

of her so that she

may

not

see them.'"*
It
is

noted by Bishop Whitehead that, a few years

ago, an untoward event occurred in connection with a

Pidari festival at a village in the Trichinopoly district.
"

The

festival

had commenced, and the pujari had tied

the kapu (cord dyed with turmeric) on his wrist,

when a

dispute arose between the trustees of the shrine, which

caused the

festival

to be stopped.

The

dispute could

not be settled, and the festival was suspended for three

years,

and,

during
the

all

that

time,

there could be no

marriages

among

Udaya caste, while

the poor pujari,

with the kapu on his wrist, had to remain the whole of

the three years in the temple, not daring to
Pidari in her wrath should slay him."
It is

go out

lest

recorded, in the

Madras Census Report,

1901,

that

*'

the Nattamans say they originally settled in South

Arcot, and then spread to Tanjore and Trichinopoly, and

finally to

Madura, and
fields,

this

theory

is

supported by the

fact that

they have fifteen exogamous sub-divisions called

kanis or

which are

all

named

after villages

(e.g.,

Ariyalur, Puththur) in the

first

three of these districts.

man

has a right to marry the daughter of his father's

if

sister,

and,

she

is

given to another man, the father's

time of her marriage, and this

sister

has to return to her father or brother the dowry

at the

which she received

is

man who had the claim upon the girl. The same custom occurs among the Kuravans and the Kalians. The eldest son in each family has to be named after the god of the village which gives its name to the
given to the
* Gazetteer of the South Arcot district.

vil-14 B

UDAIYAN

212

kani or sept to which the family belongs, and the child

is is

usually taken to that village to be named.

infant

Marriage
forbidden.

or

adult.

Widow

marriage

is

Brahmans are employed

for ceremonies, but these are

not received on terms of equality by other Brahmans.

Both cremation and burial are practised. The caste title eat with Nattamans.

Vellalas will
is

Udaiyan."
Pallis

Another
Jains.
i.e.,

title is

Nayinar, which

is

also used

by

and
",

There
the

is

a proverb

"

Nattumuththinal Nayinar

Nattaman ripens, he is a Nayinar. At the census, 1901, some Nattamans returned themselves as Natramiludaiyan, meaning the repository of chaste Tamil and Ur-Udaiyan (lord of a village) was given as Nattaman also occurs as a subtheir caste name.

when

division of the Pallis.

Under the name Nattamadi, the Nattamans are described in the Tanjore Manual as " peasant population.

Some

are ryotwari land-holders in their

own

right

and

possess large estates.

village,

The word

is

derived from nattam,

and

is

used

in three forms,

Nattamakkal, Nat-

tamar, and Nattamadi.

converts to the

considerable proportion are

Roman
In the

Catholic religion, and, in the

neighbourhood of Vallam, there are very few who profess

any other

faith."

Madura Manual,

the Nattamba-

diyans are further described as being " usually respectable

cultivators.

They

are said to have emigrated into the

Madura country not more than about eight years ago. They are an interesting class of Tamils, inasmuch as very many of them have adopted the Roman Catholic faith under the leadership of the Jesuit missionaries. They
are said to be a fine race physically
Vellalans.
;

finer

even than the

says that

They are also they came from

called Udaiyans,

and tradition

the Toreiyur nadu or district

in Tanjore,

from a village called Udeiyapaleiyam.

They

213

tJGRANI

are chiefly resident in the great zamindaris, and contrast

favourably with the Maravans, being very orderly, frugal,

and industrious."

Nattaman women will do cooly I am informed that work and carry food for their husbands when at work in the fields, but that Malaiman women will not do so. The Sudarmans are described, in the Madras Census
Report,
1

90 1, as

" cultivators chiefly

found in the

districts

of Tanjore and Trichinopoly.

They

are imitating the

Brahmans and Vellalas in their social customs, and some of them have left off eating meat, with the idea of raising
themselves in general estimation
;

but they nevertheless

eat in the houses of Kalians and Idaiyans.

Their

title

Muppan." Some Sudarmans, Agamudaiyans.

is

am

told,

have become

Uddari.A synonym

for the village Taliyari.

Uddu

(Pkaseolus Mungo).

An

exogamous sept of

Kappiliyan.

Udhdhandra.A
some Kurumos.

title

conferred by Zamindars on

meaning the lizard VaranuSy has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Boya, Kapu, Tottiyan, and Yanadi. Ugrani.A village servant in South Canara, appointed to watch the store-rooms (ugrana), e.cj., the
or Udumala,
village granary, treasury, or bhuta-sthana.

Uduma. Uduma

In 1907, the

powers of village
Ugrani,

policeman were conferred on the

a brass badge on his arm, with

who now wears

the words Village Police in the vernacular engraved on

it.

It is

the duty of the Ugrani to report the following

:

to the village magistrate

I.

The commission
robbery,

of grave crimes, such as theft,

dacoity,

house-breaking,
suicides, etc.

accidental

deaths,

tJLIYAKARAN
2.

214
existence of disputes in connection with

The

landed property, likely to give occasion to any fight or

rioting.
3.

The
The

arrival

of

Fakirs,

Bairagis,

or

other

strangers in the village.

4.

arrival or residence in the village of

any

person
5.

whom

the villagers suspect to be a bad character.

of mischief in respect of any

The commission

public property, such as roads, road avenues, bridges,

cattle pounds.

Government trees on unreserved lands, etc. Uliyakaran.-^A synonym, denoting menial servant,

of Parivaram.

Ulladan. It
Report,
in the
1

is

recorded, in the Travancore Census

90 1,

that " the Ullatans

and Nayatis are found

hills.

low country, as well as on the

At a remote

period,

certain Ullata families from the plains settled

themselves at Talpurakkotta near Sabarimala, and even

to-day pilgrims to
sacred.

Sabarimala consider this place as

In the low country, the offerings to the same

deities as the Ullatans

worship are offered by the Valans.

Hence the Ullatans were called by them Kochchuvalans. The place near Sabarimala where they once dwelt is known as Kochuvalakkuti, or the cottage of the Kochchuvalan.

Most of these Ullatans have

It
is

left this

place

for fear of wild beasts, and are

now straying
said

in the

woods

with no fixed abode.

that

they are the

descendants from a Nambutiri woman, who, on being

proclaimed an outcast, said Ullatana, meaning that (the

offence for which she

was

ostracised)

is

true.

[Accord-

ull, name is within, and otunnu, runs, and means one who runs away into the forest at the sight of a member of any of the higher castes.] They are good hunters, and experts in the collection of wax and other forest produce. A

ing to another derivation, the

derived from

215
curious marriage custom, prevalent
related by Dr. Day.
'

ULLADAN
among them,
ensconced.
is

thus

large round building

is

is

made
and

of leaves, and inside this the bride

eligible

All the

young men of the

this hut.

village then assemble,

form a ring round

his hands,

At a

short distance sits the

girl's father or the nearest male relative with

tom-tom in and a few more musical instruments complete

Presently the music begins.

the scene.

The young
This

men, each armed with a bamboo, commence dancing round

the hut, into which each of them thrusts his stick.

continues about an hour,

when

the owner of whichever

bamboo she
chiefly

seizes

becomes the fortunate husband of the

concealed bride.

feast

then follows.'*

They

subsist

on

fruits,

wild yams, and other forest products,

and eke out a wretched existence.

guns, they
It is

When armed

with

make

excellent sportsmen."

" subsist

noted by the Rev. S. Mateer f that the Ulladans chiefly on wild yams, arrowroot, and other

esculents,

which they
staff.

find

in the jungle,

and

for

the

grubbing up of which they are generally armed with a

long pointed

They

also further enjoy the fruits of

the chase, and are adepts in the use of the

arrow.

bow and

The arrow they use has an iron spear-head, and an Ulladan has been known to cut a wriggling cobra in They were claimed as the property half at the first shot. of celebrated hill temples, or great proprietors, who
exacted service of them, and sometimes sold their services
to Nairs, Syrians,

and

others.

few Ulladans

in the

low country say they or their fathers were stolen in childhood, and brought down as slaves."

At Kottayam

in

Travancore,

of Ulladans carrying cross-bows.

came across a party These were said to be

Cf. Nayadi.

f Native Life in Travancore, 1883.

ULLADAN
used
for
is

2l6
fish in rivers,

catching

lagoons, and tanks.

feet in length,
it

The

arrow

between two and three

at

and has

an iron hook

one end.

Attached to
is

is

a thin but

strong string, one end of which

tied to the hook, while

the other end passes through a small hole in the wooden

part of the arrow, and
is

fastened to the cross-bar of the

in length,

bow.

This string

is

about thirty feet

fish

and

serves not only to drag the captured

out of the water,

and land
lost.

it,

but also to prevent the arrow from being

origin of the cross-bow, which
tribe,
I

The

have not

found in the possession of any other

until the
it.

puzzled

me

The

word Firingi was mentioned in connection with use of this word would seem to indicate that the
is

cross-bow

a survival from the days of the Portuguese

coast, Firingi (a

on the west

Frank) or Parangi being

used by Natives for European or Portuguese.

For the following note on the Ulladans of the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna
Iyer.*
"

Their huts are situated

in the forest of the plains,

by the side of paddy

(rice) flats, or in

cocoanut gardens

remote from those of the members of the higher castes. Only Christian Moplahs are found in the neighbourhood.
Their huts are erected on short bamboo posts, the roof

and four sides of which are covered with plaited cocoanut leaves. A bamboo framework, of the same leaves, serves
the purpose of a door.

few plaited cocoanut leaves,

the only furniture,
at night.

and a mat of

their

own weaving, form

for

and serve as beds and keeping water

them

Their vessels

in

domestic use consist of a few earthen pots for cooking

in,

and a few shallow earthen

take their food.

dishes,

from which they drink water, and

Some

large pieces of the bark of the areca palm, containing

Monograph, Eth. Surrey, Coehin, No.

9, 1906.

ULLADAN
What
little

salt,

chillies,

etc.,

were also seen by me.

is

they possess as food and clothing

placed in small

baskets suspended from the framework of the roof by

means of wooden hooks.

"

The

caste assembly consists of the elderly

of the caste.

There

is

a headman,
is

and he has an assistant who

who known
is

called

members Muppan,

The headman
caste.

has to preside at
all

all

Ponamban. marriage and funeral

as

ceremonies, and to decide

disputes connected with the

The

caste assembly meets chiefly to deal with

cases of immorality.

before the

assembly.

The guilty parties are summoned The headman, who presides,

His

inquires into the matter, and, in the event of the accused

parties confessing their guilt, they are taken before

Highness the Raja, who is The male culprit is sometimes beaten or woman is given some water or the milk
cocoanut, and this
is

informed of the circumstances.

fined.

The
all sin.

of a green

supposed to set her free from

it

When

a fine

is

imposed,

is

sometimes spent on the

purchase of toddy, which

present.

is

shared

among

the castemen

The headman

gets a

few puthans (Cochin

coins) for his trouble.

" In religion, the

Ulladans are pure animists or

demon

worshippers.
are attributed

All cases of sickness, and other calamities,

to

the

malignant influence of demons,

to
propitiate.
all

whom

it

is

necessary

They worship

Kappiri, Thikutti, and Chathan,

of

whom

are repreroof

sented by a few stones placed under a thatched

called kottil.
rice,

Offerings of rice flour, sheep, fowls, toddy,

in

cocoanuts and plantains, are given on Fridays

Kanni (September-October). One of the castemen acts as Velichapad (oracle), and speaks as if by inspiration. He also casts out demons from the bodies
the

month

of

of

women who

are believed to be influenced by them.

ULLADAN

2l8

When

he resumes his former self, he takes half the offerings to himself, allowing the other half for dis-

They also worship the spirits of the departed members of their families, who, they think, sometimes appear to them in dreams, and ask them for whatever they want. They believe
tribution

among

the bystanders.

that, in the

event of their neglecting to give what

is

asked, these spirits will cause serious calamity to their

family.
"

The Ulladans

generally bury their dead in special

some of them bury the corpse The young are buried a few yards away from their huts.
places called chotala, but

deep
deep.

in the

ground, while the old ones are buried not so

The dead body is placed on a new piece of cloth spread on a bamboo bier, which is carried by the relatives The castemen of the neighbourhood, to the grave-yard.
including the
relations

and

friends

of the deceased,

accompany the

bier to the burial-ground,

and return

home

after bathing.

The members

of the family fast

for the night.

They

observe pollution for fifteen days,

and, on the morning of the sixteenth day, the Thalippan (barber priest) comes and cleans the huts and its surrounding, and sprinkles cow-dung mixed with water on

the
in

members

of the family as they return from bathing,

order that they

may be

freed from pollution.

It is

They

entertain their castemen on that day.

a custom

among the that, when

Ulladans,

Pulayas, and other low classes,

feast,

they are invited to a

they bring with

them some rice, curry stuffs, toddy, or a few annas to meet the expenses of the feast. Very often the above
obtained as a gift from the charitably disposed members of the higher castes. At the end of the year, a similar feast is given to the castemen. Among the
articles are

Ulladans, the

nephew

is

the chief mourner, for he usually

219

ULLADAN

succeeds to the property of the dead, and proves his

right of ownership
"

by acting as the chief mourner.

The

Ulladans on the sea-coast

make

boats,

and cut

timber.

Their brethren

in

the interior gather honey,

and
tors.

collect

minor

forest produce,

and

sell it

to contracin

During the agricultural season, they engage

of agricultural

every kind

work,

such as ploughing,

sowing, transplanting, reaping,

the cattle of the farmers.
of paddy (unhusked

etc.

They

also

graze

They

get a few annas worth

rice) for their labour.

For most of

the months in the year they are in a half-starving condition,

and resort to eating wild

roots,

and animals, which

or croco-

they can get hold of

diles).

{e.g., rats, tortoises, fish,

They know where

rats are to be found.

They

moving it so violently as to kill them there, or forcing them to come out, when they catch and kill them. Very often in the rural parts, both men and women are found with long poles ready to
thrust a long stick into their holes,

be thrust into any holes there

fence, or

may be by

the side of a

where bamboos are growing luxuriantly.

They

also catch crocodiles.

They

place the carcase of a fowl,

sheep, or other animal, on the bank of a canal, or by the

side of a tank
is

where crocodiles are

to be found.

Into

it

thrust a pointed piece of iron, fastened to a long cord.

When
into its
ing,

a crocodile comes out of the water to eat

it,

or

tries to get

away with it, the piece of iron is fixed firmly mouth, upon which the Ulladans, who are watchkill
it

approach and
catch fish by

with their clubs and knives.

bait,

They
water.

means of

They

are also very skilful

surface.

and by poisoning the in spearing fish swim-

ming near the

They

are

more trackers of game

than hunters, and very often accompany Moplahs,

who
all

go out hunting

to provide themselves with

meat of

kinds for feasts during their weddings.

The Ulladans

ULLl

^20

are engaged only as beaters.

For

this service,
in

they are

given meals during the wedding,

addition to three

annas worth of paddy

for

each beater.

They

are

armed
killed

with clubs, and seldom go with dogs, fearing that they

may

drive

away the game.

It
is

When

any animal

is

in hunting, the right side of

the back of the animal goes

to the

Government.
it,

given to the Forest Officer,

is

who

auctions

and the money obtained

sent to the

taluk treasury.

The

left

side of the back goes to the

member

of the party

who

shoots the animal.

He

also

The headman among the Ulladans also gets a share. The remainder of the carcase is equally divided among the members who have
gets the face with the tongue.

formed the party.

Should any dispute arise regarding

the division of the game, the

is

man who

shoots the animal

entrusted with the settlement of the dispute, and his

is

decision

final.

In cases where the hunting party

is

organised by the Moplahs, the Ulladans get wages and

meals

for their trouble.

is

In places where elephant pits are

dug, hunting

forbidden.

"As

regards their social status, the Ulladans, like

the Nayadis, form the Chandalas of the plains.

Their

approach to within a

radius of sixty-four feet pollutes

Brahmans, and
(Nayars).
roads, or

all

higher castes, including the Sudras

The Ulladans cannot walk along the public come to the bazaars. Nor can they approach

the precincts of any town or locality where the members

of higher castes reside.
fess to

The Pulayas and Parayas

It is
it

pro-

be polluted by them.

curious to note that

the Ullada
like the

women

consider

degrading to go to work
that their husbands

Pulaya woman.
for them."

They say

have to provide

Ulli (onions or garlic).

market-gardeners.

A sub-division of the Tigala

The

equivalent Ullipoyala occurs as

221

UNNI

an exogamous sept of Golla, and Ulligadda as a sept of Boyaand Korava.

Ulumban. It
Malabar
that "

is

recorded in

the

Gazetteer

of

an endogamous sub-caste (of Nayars) of

foreign origin are the

Ulumbans

or cowherds.

According

to one tradition, they

Dvaraka (Guzerat).
for the

were originally immigrants from Their original occupation still surlibation at the great

vives in the privileges of supplying ghee (clarified butter)

abhishegam or

annual

festival

at the jungle shrine of Kottiyur,

and of supplying and

in the

butter-

milk to the Tiruvangad temple at Tellicherry, which are

exercised by families of this caste
privilege of offering milk in
;

general

any temple without previous

ablution."
:

Uluvala (seeds of horse-gram Dolichos biflorus). An exogamous sept of Boya and Jogi. Ungara.-^Ungara and Ungarala, meaning rings, have been recorded as exogamous septs of Balija and
Kuruba.

Unittiri. Unittiri, or Unyatiri, meaning, it is said, venerable boy, has been recorded as a sub-division of

Samantam.
Report,
1

Unnittan appears,
title

in the

Travancore Census
is

90 1, as a

of Nayars, and
title

said to be

derived from unni, small, tan, a

of dignity.

Unnekankana.A
tie

sub-division of Kurubas,

who

a woollen thread (unne kankana) round the wrist at

times of marriage.

Unni. For the following note on the Unnis of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.
The word Unni, whatever
of the Ambalavasi group,
differ
its

significance
title

may have been

of four castes

of old, at present forms the

common

considerably in
as

whose manners and custom They are known, their details.

Brahmanis,
Tiyattunnis,

respectively,

Pushpakans,

UNNI
and Nattu
order.
krit

222
Pattars, their social precedence

being

in this

Pushpakan comes from pushpa, which in Sansmeans either a flower or menses. Brahmanis, more
are so

vulgarly

known as Pappinis, perform some of the priestly

named because they functions of the Brahmans

Sudra population of Travancore. Tiyattunnis, also known as Taiyampatis in British Malabar, are so
for the

called from the peculiar religious service they perform

some Hindu temples. Nattu Pattars are also known as Pattar Unnis and Karappuram Unnis. Unni means child, is used as and an honorific a term to denote the
in

male children of a Nambutiri's household.

The reason

why

these Ambalavasi castes

that they were looked

upon

as

came to be so called was more respectable than the

are said to be

Nayars, by

whom

the term must doubtless have been

made

use of at

first.

The Pushpakans

divided into three classes, namely Pushpakans,

assans, and Puppallis.

Nambi-

The

first

section live only as far

south as Evur in Central Travancore, and are called

Nambiyars in the north. The Nambiyassans live in Cochin and North Travancore, while the Puppallis There are no subare found only towards the south. divisions among the Brahmanis and Karappuramunnis. But the Tiyattunnis are divided into two classes, namely
the Tiyatinambiyans of the north,

who

are

generally

employed
proper,

in the

temples of Sastha,
are also

and Tiyattunnis
as

who perform

a similar function in the shrines of

Bhadrakali.

Women

known
have
in

Atovarammaout of the

mar and Kovillammamar.

Pushpakans are said
union of a Brahman
husband.
to

arisen

woman
set

her menses with her

apart,

Parasurama

them

and gave them

given
in

the occupation of making garlands in the temples of

Malabar.

Though

this

derivation

is

the

223

UNNI
easily believed that

Keralamahatmya,

it

may be more
any

Pushpakan
in flowers.

is

derived from the occupation of working

rate, is

Puppalli, at

thus derived, and,

as Palli signifies anything sacred, the caste

name arose

from the occupation of preparing garlands for deities. Nambiyassans, called also Nambiyars and Nambis, must have been, as also the Puppallis and Brahmanis, one In some places, Nambiyassans with the Pushpakans.
are

known

to

have

training schools.

and military The Brahmanis must have undergone

kept because of the religious

gymnasia

some degree

of degradation

songs which they sang during the marriages of the Nayars, while those who did not take part therein

became, as

it

were, a separate sept.

Another
is

tradition,

accounting for the origin of the caste,

that,

as in

primitive ages early marriages prevailed

among

the

Malayala

Brahmans,
married

the

family

of

the

Nambutiri

who

first

his

daughter

after

puberty

was

excommunicated, and gave origin to the Pushpakas. This is untrue, as, in Vedic times, adult marriage was the
rule,

and the Nambutiris

follow

in

this

respect

have been

known to Brahmans

a more primitive custom than the

of the east coast.

The

Tlyattunnis are said

to be the descendants of a

Siva to sing songs

in praise of Bhadrakali,

Bhuta or demon directed by and appease

her anger after the murder of Darika.

They must from

the

first

have formed a distinct section of the Ambalaare supposed to have

status

vasis.

The Karappuram Unnis

elevated to
their

been

present

by Cheraman
as,

Perumal, one of the rulers of ancient Kerala,

though
Peru-

belonging to the Sudra caste, they were obliged on one

occasion to perform Brahmanical service for him.

mal

is

believed to have permitted

call

them

to take the title

of Unni, and

themselves Pattar,

by which name

UNNI

224
in

East Coast Brahmans are known

Malabar.

Thus they

came to own the three names Nattu Pattar, Pattar Unni, and Karappuram Unni, Karappuram or Shertallay being
the territory where the sept received the above-mentioned
social elevation

from their sovereign.

in

of

them

reside

the taluks

Even now, many of Ambalapuzha and

Shertallay.

of a Pushpaka is variously known as pumatum, or padodakam, the last signifying pushpakam, a place where the water falls from the feet of the deity,

The house

on account of
of the

its

close proximity to the temple,

lies.

where

the daily avocation of the Pushpaka

Tiyattunnis and

Nattu Pattars

The houses are only known

by the name of bhavanam. As in the case of the Brahmans, the Pushpanis and Brahmanis cover their
bodies with a piece of cloth, carry an umbrella, and are

accompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out in public. The women have one more fold in their
dress

than the Nambutiris.

is

The neck ornament

of

and the ear ornament Bell-metal bangles are worn round the the katila. Female Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars do not wrists. wear the last, and are generally unaccompanied by Nayar
the cherutali-kuttam,

women

servant-maids

when they go

out.

Pushpakans are believed

for the

to be the

most

fitting caste

preparation of flower garlands to be used in

temples.
materials

They

also

assist

in

the preparation of the

for the

daily
in

offering.
old,

Nambiyassans were and

kalari or

instructors in
sia are

arms

days of

gymnaTheir
is

owned by them even

at the present day.

punyaha, or purificatory ceremony after pollution,

per-

formed by Pushpakans.
Kshatriyas to

Brahmani women sing

all

religious

songs on the occasion of marriage among

Nayars.
In

castes from

Kumaranallur

and other

225

UNNI
propitia-

BhagavatI shrines,
tory songs, while
of the inner
vessels,

women are employed to sing the men make garlands, sweep

the floor

court-yard and plinth, clean the temple

and carry the lamp when images are taken round

It
is

in procession.

only the

first

of these temple ser-

vices that the

out to

Pushpakas do, and their women never go marriage occasions. The word Tlyattu on sing
is

or Teyyatu

said to be a corruption of Daivamattu, or

dancing to please the deity.

they were degraded
service in the temples.

According to one

tradition,

from Pushpakas for undertaking

In more orthodox times, tiyattu
in

could be performed only

temples and Brahman houses,

but

now Sudras

also share the privilege of inviting the

Tiyattunnis to their homes for this purpose, though the

ceremony cannot be performed

previous punyaha.

in their

houses without a

The

rite is

extremely popular

when
are,

epidemic disease prevails.

Ganapati and Bhadrakali

as a preliminary measure, worshipped, to the accompani-

ment of musical instruments.

the noon,
it

As

this has to

be done

in

is

called uchchappattu, or

noon-day song.
is

In the evening, an image of Bhadrakali

drawn on the

ground with powders of

green and
that deity
red.

five colours, white, yellow, black,

At

night,

songs are sung in praise of

his followers.

by the Tiyattunni and

mem-

ber of the troupe then plays the part of Bhadrakali in the

act of

murdering the demon Darika, and,

in conclusion,

waves a torch before the inmates of the house, to ward off the evil eye, which is the most important item in the whole ceremony. The torch is believed to be given by

who is worshipped before the light is waved. The Karappuram Unnis, unlike the other septs of their class, are mostly- agriculturists. The Unnis are
Siva,
all

Smartas, but a partiality for Bhadrakali

VII-I5

is

manifested

by the Tiyattunnis and Brahmanis.

All social matters

UNNI
among
being,

226
the

Unnis

are

superintended

by Nambutiri
judges.

Brahmans,

but, in all that directly touches the social well-

their

own headmen

are the

Before

entering a Pushpaka's house for the observation of any

ceremony, the Nambutiris

of

insist

upon the performance

Ilayatus
is

punyaha.

Though
functions.

the superiority of

acknowledged, they are never employed by the Pushpakas

for

priestly

The

Ilayatus

are

believed

to

have once been the priests of the Nattu Pattars, though

men from their own sept The punyaha is, howare employed for this purpose. ever, performed through the agency of Nambutiris. The
at the present time

learned

priests of the

Nambiyassans, Tiyattunnis, and Brahmanis

are Ilayatus.

Adult marriage prevails, twelve being the earliest

age of a

girl

when she

ceases to be single.

On

the

evening of the day before the wedding, the bride has a

ceremonial bath, and performs the ceremony of growing
a jasmine shoot, the flowers of which she should
present as an offering to the deity.
cull

and

On

the marriage

day, the bridegroom's party arrives in procession at the

house of the
in

bride,

who

awaits them with her face

covered, and holding a brass mirror and garland of flowers

her hands.

Her

veil is

removed, and the contracting

couple gaze at each other.

At the auspicious hour

their
rites

hands are joined, and other items of the marriage

carried out.

In connection with a Pushpaka marriage, or tossing

of metal balls,
kaikottikali

ammana attam
or

the

circular

dance,

amusements indulged in. the Pushpakas in bygone days,

time, the marriage
tie
is

and yatrakali are among the Divorce was common among

but, at

the

present
it

usually permanent,

and

is

only after the

first

husband's death that

cloths
in

may

be

received from a

Malaysia Brahman

token of

227

UNNI

sambandham
Puppallis,

(alliance).

The Brahmanis, however, have

Nambiyassans,
follow

not given up the practice of divorce.

Pattar

Unnis,

and

Brahmanis

the

marumakkattayam system of inheritance (through the female line), while the Pushpakas and Tiyattunnis are makkattayis, and follow the law of inheritance from father to son. The offspring of a Brahmani by a Pushpaka woman are regarded as issue in a makkattayam family.

As

is

the custom

among

the Nambutiris, only the eldest

son marries, the other sons remaining as snatakas, and

contracting alliances

with Nayar women.

The

Illam

Nayars, however, do not give their

Unnis.

daughters to the

The

jatakarma, though not strictly proper,

is

ob-

served in modern days.

The namakarana
in the sixth

takes place,

along with the annaprasana,

birth.

month

after

The chaula is performed in the third year, though, among the Nattu Pattars, it is a preliminary ceremony before upanayana. The proper time for the
performance of the upanayana
is

between the eighth

and sixteenth fourteenth day

ten days

year.
after

Samavartana takes place on the

upanayana.
Pollution lasts for only

among
Ten

the Tiyattunnis, whereas the Brahmanis

observe twelve, and the Nattu Pattars thirteen days'

pollution.

gayatris (hymns) are allowed to be recited

thrice daily.

The Pushpakas

are

the

highest of

the threadto

wearing sections of the Ambalavasis,

their traditional origin as
social practices.

according

well as their religious

and

The

Pattar Unnis are the lowest, and

are only a step higher than the Kurukkals.

Consecrated

water and flowers are not given to them directly by the

temple

priest,

but they

may

stand on the right side of

the stone steps leading to the inner shrine. II-I5 B

This

is

the

UPPALAVAR
rule with
all

228

Ambalavasi

divisions.

Other Ambalavasis

do not receive food from the Unnis. These sections of the Unnis which have Ilayatus for their priests accept food from them. As the Pushpakas proper employonly Nambutiris for
freely

purificatory purposes, the

their houses,

latter

cook food

in

as

in

those of the

Muttatus.
It is

recorded by Mr.
(ti,

Logan*

that the Tiyattunnis

or Tiyadis

fire

attam, play) are " a class of pseudo-

Brahmans in Malabar, who derive their name from the ceremony of jumping through fire before temples."
Mr. Subramani Aiyar
"
I

writes,

in
is

this connection,

that

do not think Mr. Logan

fire.

quite right

when he
jumping
in the

describes the service

of the Tiyattunnis

as

through

It

is

dancing with lighted wicks

hands, to exorcise the genius representing the evil eye,

or as a propitiatory service in temples.
It

answers to

the pallippanna

and kolantullal of the Kaniyans. A figure of Bhadrakali is drawn on the ground with

powders of
in

different

the incarnate

Tiyattunnis.
two,

and the chief incidents of the deity are recited by the After this, some cocoanuts are broken in
colours,
life

and lighted wicks are then placed before the presiding deity if done in a temple as a propitiatory
service, or before
if

any particular individual or individuals,

the object

is

to free

him or them from the

effect of the

evil eye."
(salt workers). A synonym of Alavan. For the following note, I am mainly Uppara. indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Uppiliyan, Uppara, Uppara or Uppaliga, are different names for

Uppalavar

a class of people,

who

followed the

same

professional

* Marm^l of the Malabar

district.

229

UPPARA

occupation, the manufacture of salt (uppu), in various

parts of Southern India.

The Uppiliyans Hve

; ;

in

the

Tamil country, and speak Tamil the Upparas in the Telugu country, and speak Telugu while the Upparas inhabit the Mysore province and the districts bordering thereon, and speak Canarese. The Upparas are
described by Mr. H. A. Stuart* as

"a

caste of tank-

diggers and earth-workers, corresponding to the Uppiliyans of the

Tamil

districts.

They resemble

greatly the

Oddes (Voddas or Wudders) in appearance, customs, and manner of earning a living. Their traditional occupation
is,

as the

name

implies, manufacturing earth-salt.

They

profess to be Saivites and Vaishnavites, but practically

worship village deities, e.g., Sunkalamma, Timmappa, and Jambulamma." k is possible that the Uppiliyans, Upparas, and Upparas were originally a homogeneous
caste, the

members
parts

of which, in course of time, migrated

to

different

of

the

country,

and adopted
settled.

the

language of the locality in

causes,
caste,

which they

The

which may have led to the breaking up of the

are

not far to seek.

The

original occupation

thereof, according to the legendary story of its origin,

was tank, channel, and well digging. Southern India depended in days gone by, as at the present time, mainly on its agricultural produce, and people were required, then as now, to secure, conserve, and distribute
the water, which was essential for agricultural prosperity.

by Mr. V. Venkayya,t bear testimony to the energy displayed by former rulers in Southern India in having tanks, wells, and Uppiliyans, Upparas irrigation channels constructed.
Inscriptions, such as those quoted

or Upparas, are, at the present day, found

Manual of
t Archeeolog
the
:

all

over the

North Arcot

district.

Survey of India.

Annual Report, 1902-1903.

UPPARA
Madras
Presidency,
in

230
from Ganjam
in

the

north

to

Tinnevelley

the south.

From

early times they

indicated,

seem
been

to have, in addition to the

work already

engaged
of
forts,

in bricklaying, house-building, the construction

and every kind of earth-work.

concerning the
at

Telugu Upparas beginning of the nineteenth century, Buchanan

Writing
that "their proper occupation
walls,
is

the

states *

the building of

mud

especially

those

of

forts."

very

important

occupation of these people was the manufacture of earthsalt

was an important ingredient in the manufacture of gunpowder, " Throughout India," Dr. G. Oppert writes,t " saltpetre is found, and the Hindus are well acquainted with all its properit is even commonly prescribed as a medicine. ties India was famous for the exportation of saltpetre, and is
and
saltpetre, of

which the

latter

so.

The Dutch, when

in India,

traded especially

in this

article."

The Uppiliyans say that they are descended from a man who was created to provide salt for the table of
their god, but lost the favour of the deity because his

wife bartered the salt for

wrath he put his wife into

escaped through a hole

some glass bangles. In his the oven to kill her, but she

in the back.

As evidence

of the

truth of the story, they point to the facts that their

women wear no

glass bangles, and that

in

their ovens
its

always have a hole

them.

The

caste further traces

descent from a mythical individual,

whom
story

is

ascribed the

named Sagara, to digging of the Bay of Bengal. His

is

is

narrated in the Vishnu Purana, J and

briefly as

* Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar.

Ed., 1807.

On

the

Weapons, Army Organization, and

Political

Maxims of
1864.

the Ancient

Hindus, with special reference to gunpowder and fire-arms, Madras, 1880.

X Vids F. Hall's edition of

H. H. Wilson's Vishnu Purana,

III. 289-303.

231
follows.

UPPARA

Sagara was son of Bahu, who was overrun by

the Haihayas and Talajanghas, and consequently retired

to the forest, where, near the hermitage of

Muni Aurva,

one of his queens conceived.

her, so as to prevent her
child.

rival

queen poisoned
his

from being delivered of the

old,

Meanwhile, Bahu waxed

and

pregnant

wife prepared to ascend the funeral pyre with him.

But

the

Muni forbade

her, saying that

she was going to be

the mother of an universal emperor.

desisted from the desperate act,

She accordingly and a splendid boy was

born, and the poison expelled along with him.

The
to

Muni, on

this account,

gave him the name of Sagara,

meaning with poison.

As he grew

up, the boy

came

know of the
his

troubles of his father, and resolved to recover

kingdom.

He

put to death nearly the whole of

the

Haihayas, and

made

the others acknowledge his

suzerainty.

He

had two wives, by one of

whom

he had

a son named Asamanja, and by the other sixty thousand

sons.

He

subsequently performed the asvamedha or

a horse, which was guarded by his sons.

sacrifice of

The

animal was, however, carried

chasm

in the

earth.

off by some one into a his sons to commanded Sagara

search for the steed, and they traced him by the impressions of the hoofs to the chasm, which he

had entered.

and dug downwards, each Patala, they saw the horse wandering freely about, and at no great distance from it was Kapila Rishi, sitting in meditation. Exclaiming
it,

They proceeded to enlarge for a league. Coming to

"

This

is

the villain

who has

maliciously interrupted our

kill

sacrifice,

and stolen the horse,

for

him,

kill

him," they ran

towards him with uplifted weapons.

eyes,

The

Rishi raised his

and

an instant looked upon them, and they

became reduced
from him.

On

by the sacred flame that darted learning of the death of his sons, Sagara
to ashes

UPPARA
sent

^^i
to secure the animal.

Amsumat, the son of Asamanja,

He went by the deep path which his father and

ted

uncles

had

dug, and, arriving at the place where Kapila was, propitia-

him with an obeisance.

The

Rishi gave him the horse,

in conferring the

to be delivered to his father,

and

boon

which Amsumat prayed for, said that his grandson would bring down the divine Ganges, whose " waters shall wash
the bones and ashes of thy grandfather's sons," and raise

them

to swarga.

Sagara then completed

his sacrifice,

and, in affectionate

memory

of his sons, called the

chasm
of
at the

which they had dug Sagara.

This

is

still

the

name

the ocean, and especially of the Bay of Bengal

mouth of the Ganges, which, in accordance with the boon of Kapila, was brought down to earth by Amsumat's
grandson Bhagiratha, from
of Bhagirathi, which
it

whom

it

received the

name
is

retains to this day.

Such

the

story of the origin of the caste,

call
it

members

of which often

Sagara kula, or the family of Sagara.

In the

As

his

sons excavated the ocean, so they dig tanks, channels,

Mysore Census Reports, the Upparas are said to be called " Uppara in the eastern, Uppaliga in the southern, and Melu (west) Sakkre in the western districts. [Some explain that they work in salt, which is more essential than sugar, and that Mel Sakkare means superior sugar.] This caste is divided into the Telugu and Karnataka sub-divisions. The latter make earth-salt, while the former work as bricklayers and builders. The
wells, etc.

well-to-do section of the caste further undertake public

and some of them are good architects of ordinary Hindu houses, which do not call for much scientific precision. There are also agriculturists and
works on
contract,

labourers

among them."

the present day,

Madras Presidency, at some members of the caste are well and

In the
;

tank diggers, house-builders or bricklayers

others are

23^
agricultural labourers, or village servants.

UPPARA

few are
near

earth-work

contractors,

or,

as

at

Muthialpet

Conjeeveram, yarn dyers.

Some

are in the service of

Government

as police constables.

The women
rate at

are very

hard-working, and help their husbands at their work.

To

this fact

is is

said to be
fixed.

due the high

which the

bride-price

The

well-kept roads of the city

of Madras are the work of a colony of Upparas,

who

have settled there. The following curious custom is recorded by the Rev. J. Cain in a note* on the " A disturbtank-diggers of the Godavari district.
ance
in

little
I

camp

of

tank-diggers confirmed

statement which
in

heard at Masulipatam as to the manner

which the tank-diggers divide their wages.

They had

been repairing the bank of a tank, and been paid for

their

work, and, in apportioning the shares of each

labourer, a bitter dispute arose because one of the

had not received what she deemed her

enquiry,
it

fair

women amount. On

condition,

turned out that she was in an interesting and therefore could claim not only her own,

but also a share for the expected child.

overlooked, and,
portion, those

This had been

when she asserted her right to a double who had already received their money
fair

objected to part with any, although they acknowledged

that the claim

was By the Madras

and just."
it is

Salt Act, 1889,

enacted that any

person

who
removes any
salt

(a)

without or
;

in

excess of the

permits necessary by this Act

(d)

or

except for agricultural or building purposes,

excavates, collects or possesses salt-earth in any local

area where

it is

contraband

salt

or

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

UPPARA
(c)

234
manufactures contraband
salt in

any other way

;

than by excavating or collecting salt-earth

(ii)

or

purchases,
salt

obtains, possesses, sells or weighs

contraband

other than salt-earth, knowing or having

it

reason to believe
(e)

to be contraband

or
is

refines

saltpetre
;

without such license as

prescribed by the Act

(/")

or

attempts to commit, or within the meaning of

the Indian Penal

Code abets the commission

for

of any of

the above acts, shall on conviction be punishable

every such

offence with imprisonment for a term not exceeding six

months, or with
or with both.
It is noted,

fine

not exceeding five hundred rupees,

in the

Gazetteer of the Bellary

district,

that " at the time

when the Company came

consumed
caste,
in
it

into posses-

sion of the district, the salt

kinds, namely, the earth-salt
soils

was of two

manufactured from saline

and the marine salt made on the west coast. The latter was imported by the Lambadis and Korachas, who brought it up the
ghats by means of large droves of pack-bullocks.
earth-salt

by men of the Uppara

The

was made in what were known as modas, which were peculiar to the Ceded Districts, and were A heap of earth was piled especially common in Bellary. up, and on the top of it were hollowed out one or more
circular basins,

some

five feet in

diameter and two feet

deep.

From

the bottom of these basins, channels lined

(lime) ran

with chunam

down

to one or

more

reservoirs

similarly lined.

Salt-earth

was

collected in the places

where

it

effloresced naturally in the dry months,

and

taken to the

moda on

pack-buffaloes.

It

was thrown
through the

into the basins, and then a quantity of water was poured

upon

it.

The

brine so obtained flowed

235

UPPARA

channels at the bottom of the basins into the reservoirs.

From

these

it

was baled with

pans,

chatties (pots) into a set

of masonry

evaporating

plastered with chunam, where

into salt

it

by solar evaporation.
lixiviated,

and was left to be converted Each lot of salt-earth,

carefully
levelled

which was thus

was taken from the basins and

thrown outside them, and

this process constantly repeated

gradually raised the level of the

moda and

the basins,

which were perpetually being re-made on the top of it. Some of the modas gradually grew to be as much as twenty feet in height. When they became too high for the
up to their summits with comfort, they were abandoned, and others started elsebuffaloes to carry the salt-earth

where.

The

earth-salt

made

so good nor so strong as

manner was neither marine salt, but it was much

in this
cattle,

used by the poorer classes and for

interfered with the profits of the
poly,

and thus
salt

Government

mono-

which was established

it

in 1805.

As
its

early as 1806,

therefore,

was proposed

to prohibit

manufacture.

The

any such step were that it would inflict hardship upon the Upparas who made the salt, and upon the poorer classes who consumed it, and,
chief arguments against
for the next three quarters of a century, a

wearisome

correspondence dragged on regarding the course which

it

would be proper to pursue. In 1873, Mr. G. Thornhill, Member of the Board of Revenue, visited the Ceded
Districts, to see

how

matters stood.

He

reported that

was not possible to check the competition of the earthsalt with the Government marine salt by imposing an
it

modas were numerous and scattered. For similar reasons, and also because all the Upparas were very poor, a license-tax was out of the question. At the same time he calculated that the loss to Government due to the system was from eight to ten lakhs annually, and.
excise duty, as the

UPPARA

2.^6

seeing that Government salt was obtainable in Bellary as

cheaply as in other inland

districts,

he recommended that

the industry should be gradually suppressed.

Govern-

ment agreed, and ordered that the opening of new modas should be prohibited, and that those in existence should
be licensed, with reference to their productive capacity,

by annual increments until 1879, when the full duty leviable on sea-salt should be imposed on their entire produce. These measures, though they
at

rates to increase

checked the manufacture,

failed to entirely protect the

revenue, and, in 1876, the Madras Salt Commission and

recommending that the manufacture of earth-salt should be at once and entirely suppressed. The Government of India agreed, and in 1880 orders were given that the modas should all be
Board of Revenue concurred
in

destroyed, reasonable compensation being paid to their

owners.

The manufacture
tlie

of earth-salt in the district

is

now

entirely a thing of the past,

though

in

many

places

the remains of

modas may still be seen. Some of the Upparas, however, still go annually to the Nizam's Dominions in the dry season, and make earth-salt by Apparently they agree the old methods for sale there. with the Nizam's Government to pay a certain fee, oneold
is

fourth of which

paid in advance, for the privilege.

If

the season

is

sufficiently dry,
it is

they

make a

small profit,
is

but

if,

on the other hand,

wet, manufacture of the fee,

impostheir

sible,

and they

lose the

amount

and

labour as well." A good deal of saltpetre is still made by members of the caste in various parts of the Madras

Presidency
of the earth.

by

lixiviating

the

alkaline

efflorescence

For

this purpose,

licenses are obtained

annually from the Salt Department.

sold for

manure on

coffee estates,

Crude saltpetre is and also used in the

manufacture of fireworks.

237

UPPARA
and
living in different

Speaking
parts

different languages,

of the

country,

the

Uppiliyans, Upparas, and

Upparas do not intermarry, though, where they are found

close together, they interdine.

The caste recognises the authority of who are called Periyathanakaran, Ejaman,
assisted
in

its

headmen,

some

places,

for

etc., and are example Madras, by a

Jatibidda
caste
caste

who does the duties of peon or messenger, summoning members to a council-meeting, and so on. The usual punish(son

of the caste),

ments
fine,

inflicted

by a caste council are excommunication,

that,

and the giving of a caste dinner. I am informed among the Canarese Upparas, a woman found
is

guilty of adultery
hair
is

punished as follows.
is

lock of her

cut

off,

and she

bathed in cold water, and made

cow-dung water. She is then taken to the temple, where the pujari (priest) sprinkles holy water over her head. A fine is paid by her family. A man,
to drink a
little

who
his

is

proved guilty of a similar offence, has one side of

his

moustache and one of

is

eyebrows shaved

off,

and

the hair of his head

removed

in three parallel lines.

set
is

Seven small booths are constructed of straw, and

fire.

on
is

Through

this

the

man
I

has to pass.

He

then

plunged into a tank, and, after bathing therein, he

sprinkled with holy
water.

am

told

that a

woman

has also to go through the

fire ordeal.

Girls are married either before or after puberty, but

usually after.

Among

the Uppiliyans and Upparas,

it is

customary

for a

in marriage.

riage vary in

man to claim his paternal aunt's daughter The ceremonies in connection with maraccordance with the locality. Amongst
tali

the Uppiliyans of Madura, the

usually tied

(marriage badge)

is

to the bride's neck

by a special woman,
In

resident in her village, called Sirkari.

some places

it

UPPARA
is tied,

238

as

among some
sister.
is

other Tamil castes, by the bridethe

groom's

Telugu and Canarese by the bridegroom himself. By the Upparas of South Canara, the dhare marriage rite is performed, in which the father of the bride pours water
sections,
it

Among

tied

from a vessel over the united hands of the contracting

couple.
I

am

told that,

among some Canarese Upparas,

the bridegroom's head

shaved, and, after bathing, he puts on a double brass wire corresponding to the sacred
is

thread of the Brahmans, which he wears for

five

days.

Among
price,

the Telugu Upparas there are two sub-divisions,

called,

which are

according to the amount of the bride-

Yedu (seven) Madala and Padaharu (sixteen) Madala, a mada being equal to two rupees. Some say that mada refers to the modas (heaps of earth) used in former times. At a marriage among some Uppiliyans, it
is

customary

for the bride

and bridegroom

to sit inside

wall

made

of piled up water pots, with the ends of their

cloths tied together, while

some of the women present

pour water from the pots over their heads. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and I gather that,

among the Upparas,

and
vice versa.

a widow

may

only marry a widower,

In a note on the
district,

Uppiliyans of the Trichinopoly

Mr. F. R. Hemingway states that ''some of

the marriage ceremonies are peculiar.

They allow an unborn boy to be betrothed to his unborn cousin. The bride has to be asked in marriage a number of times,
before consent
is

given, lest

it

be thought that she

is

is

yielding too easily.

The marriage

performed at her
caste does not use

house,

lest

it

should be thought that her parents are

forcing her on the bridegroom.

The

the marriage pole or paligai pots.

Instead of the usual

turmeric threads, the wrists of the contracting couple are

239
tied together with wool.

UPPARA
among
the

curious custom

Tamil section is that, at the beginning of the ceremonies, both on the first and second day, three matrons wash their faces in turmeric water, and the bride and bride-

groom

are bathed with the water used by them.

They

also have unusual observances connected with a girl's

attainment of maturity.
his

husband may not look into

bride's

eyes until this occurs.

When

she has at

length attained maturity, the husband comes to his bride's

house with a sheep and some vegetables, and

former.

kills

the

His brother-in-law then marks

his forehead with

the sheep's blood.

milk,

The husband
out at his bride,
If

eats

some plantain and

is

and

spits

it

who

made

to stand

behind a screen.

the girl has attained maturity before

her marriage, the Tamil section of the caste

make

her

walk over seven wooden hoops on the wedding day.

The husband

has to give his formal consent to the

ceremony, and a washerman has to be present.

The
girl's

Telugus perform
first

this rite

on the

last

day of the

menstrual period, and her maternal uncle has to

be present.

The Uppiliyans

allow the remarriage of

widows and divorced women.

until

A
if

man may

not shave
so,

he marries a virgin, and,

all

he does not do

he

has to remain unshaved

his life."

Uppiliyans,

The dead are, as a rule, buried. who occupy a higher social

Among
is

the

position than

the Canarese and Telugu sections, death pollution

ob-

served for seven days.

of pollution
is

Among

the Upparas, the period

sixteen days.

Concerning the death ceremonies, Mr. Hemingway

writes as follows.
"

Widows
widow

of the Tamil section never

it

remove

their

tali,

but leave

till

it

drops

off of itself.
is

When
still

man

dies, his

is

made

to pretend he

alive,

and bathes him with

oil,

and puts garlands on

UPPARA
him.
If

240
a

man

is

to

be buried, the chief mourner

pretends to
final

dig the grave.

The karumantaram,

or

death
in

ceremony, of the

Tamil section consists

before

merely

taking some milk to an erukka {Calotropis

gigantea) shrub on the sixteenth evening, just

the jackals begin to howl.

They pour
'

it

over the shrub

to

with the help of a

(the

barber, saying

Go

Swarga

abode of Indra), and make your way to Kailasam

of the caste are Vaishnavites, and

(heaven).'

Some members
others Saivites.
In

some

places, the former are

branded

by their gurus, who are Vaishnava Brahmans.

also worship various village deities,

They

which vary accord-

ing to the place of residence.

1

In the Census Report,

89 1, the worship of Sunkalamma, Jambulamma,

is

and

Timmappa

noted.

It is stated by Mr. Hemingway that "the Uppiliyans have a caste god, named Karuvandaraya Bommadeva. He has no temple, but all the Uppiliyans in a village

join in offering

him an annual
is

sacrifice in

Tai (Januaryfirst

February), before the earth

in the

scraped for the

time

season for making saltpetre.

auriculata)
flowers

They use avaram

sand
in

{Cassia

and

river

this

worship.

They
sati.

also have three special caste goddesses,

called Tippanjal,

committed
visit

who are supposed to be women who They have also Brahman gurus, who
year,

them every

and bless their

that "
is

salt pits."

Concerning the caste organisation of the Uppiliyans,

Mr.

Hemingway
is

writes

when

a complaint

of a

caste offence

made, notice

sent to the Pattakkaran

(headman), and to the whole Uppiliyan community in

the neighbourhood, notifying the accusation
provisional expulsion of the accused.

and the

second notice

summons

the community to a panchayat (council), which

241
is

UPPU

presided over by at least two or three Pattakkarans,

the caste god being represented by some avaram flowers,

a pot of water, and margosa {Melia Azadirachta) leaves. If acquitted, the accused is made to touch the water pot
in

token of his innocence.

the

If

he

is

convicted, both he

and

complainant

are
if it

fined,

the

latter

for

the

purification of his house,

offence.

has been polluted by the

The purification is performed by a man of the Marudur Nadu called Rettai Vilakkukaran (man of two lights), who eats a meal in the polluted house, with his
hands held behind his back." It was recently noted that the Upparasare, as a
leads to bitter disputes
rule,

uneducated, and their ignorance of the three R's often

employers

in

among themselves and with Some years disbursing their wages.

backward
caste.

their

ago,

one of the Madras Missions opened a school

benefit of this

for the

In

1906,

the

Hindu

Educational Mission of Madras started a night and day

school,

Upparapalaiyam Arya Pathasala,

in the

Uppara-

palaiyam quarter of Madras.

There
Sanyasi

is

a Telugu proverb to the effect that one

like

is

ruined both ways,

an Uppara who has

turned

(ascetic), in reference to the fact that

is

he neither

follows his ancestral occupation, nor

tolerated in his

new calling. The Uppara occurs

usual caste
as a

title is

Chetti.

synonym of Kusa Holeya.

Balijas

Uppu
who
in

(salt).

A sub-division of

and Koravas,

which they carry about the country panniers on donkeys or bullocks. It is also an
trade in
salt,

occupational sub-division of Komati.

The

equivalent

Uppa

is

an exogamous sept of Kelasi.

Uppukottei
(salt-

occurs as a division of Maravan, Upputholuvaru

carriers) as

an exogamous sept of Odde, and Uppiri

(salt-earth) as a sept of
VII-I6

Kuruba.

URALI

242

Urali. In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Uralis are described as " a caste of agricultural labourers
found chiefly in the
districts of

Madura and Trichinopoly.

Like the from one
their

The word

Urali

means a
they

ruler of a village.

Ambalakkarans,

trace

descent

Mutturaja, and the only sub-division returned by any

number

is

Mutracha.

They

also assert that they

were
is

formerly employed as soldiers.

section of

In the

Wynad

there

Kurumbas, and it is not improbable that these Uralis of the Tamil country are an offshoot of the great Kurumba race.'" The Uralis are further summed up in the same report, as
called Urali
" agricultural labourers in

Kurumbas

Coimbatore, Trichinopoly, and

There seems to be some connection between the Uralis and the Ambalakkarans or Muttiriyans, Muttiriyan is a sub-division of both Urali and AmbalakMadura.
karan, and both of these are found in the

same
of

districts.

Perhaps
itself

the

Uralis

are

an

offshoot

the Tamil

Valaiyans, which by change of occupation has transformed

into
is

a distinct caste

{see

Ambalakkaran).

The

number of sub-divisions, called after the name of the tract or nadu in Trichinopoly which each inhabits. To get back into the caste, an excomcaste
split

up

into a

municated
elders,

man

has to

kill

a sheep or goat before the

and mark his forehead with the blood.

his house.
If the

He
this,

then

gives a feast to the assembly, and puts part of the food

on the roof of

crows eat

he

is

[Brahmans always put out same way, and judge whether they are acceptable or not by noting if the crows eat them or not.] Marriage is infant or adult. A man detected in an intrigue with an unmarried woman is fined, and has to marry her, and at the wedding his waist
received back into the caste.
portions of the sraddha offerings in the
string
is

tied

round her neck instead of a

tali.

The

243
well-to-do
priests,

URALI
Brahmans as

people of the caste employ

divorced

but others content themselves with their

own

elders.

Widows and

The dead

are either

women may marry burned or buried. The

alcohol,

again.
richer

members of the
mutton, pork,

caste perform sraddha (memorial ser-

vice for the dead).

They drink

and eat
Their

fowls,

fish, rats, etc.

In social position they

come

below the Idaiyans, Tottiyans, and Kalians.

title is

Kavandan."

For

the

following
district,
I

note

on

the

Uralis

of
F.

the

Trichinopoly

am

indebted to

Mr.

R.

Hemingway.
place
in

"

They
*

Kshatriyas living in

say that they were originally Alipuram near Oudh,' and left that or
in

search of adventure,

consequence

of

disputes at home, leaving their wives behind them, and

finally settled in

the south, where they married serving

women

(pulukkachis).

They say

that they belong to the

Mutturaja Kuttam, a phrase they cannot explain, and

protest that the Ambalakkarans,
claim,

have no ground

for so

who make a doing. They seem

will,

similar
to eat

with no other caste on equal terms, but

accept separate meals from Vellalans.
into

of course,

seven nadus, which are

in effect

They are split endogamous subPilluru,

divisions.

These are
by
the

called after villages in the country

inhabited

caste,

namely,
Virali,

Vadaseri,

Sengudi, Kadavangudi or
Magali, and Marungi.

Talakka, Paluvinji or
of the
first

The members

three of

these nadus are called Vadaseri Uralis, and those of the

other four Nattu-simai Uralis, Kunduva-nattu-tokkadus,

or Nandutindis.
All of

them

will

mess together.
still

They
the unit

say that the nadus were originally intended to facilitate

the decision of caste disputes, and they are

of self-government.
exercises

Each nadu has a headman, who

villages

supreme control over the

included

T11-16B

URALl
within
it.

244

The

Uralis also have a

number of exogamous

septs called karais by the Vadaseris and kaniyacchis by

the Nattu-simais, which are called after the names of

places.

They
to

are generally cultivators,

but are said

the sacred

sometimes

be given to crime.

They wear

thread on occasions of marriages and funerals.

The

women

can be recognised by their dress, the kusavam

being spread out behind, and a characteristic pencil-

shaped ornament (kuchu) being suspended from the neck. Some of their marriage and funeral customs are peculiar.

Among

the Nattu-simais, the betrothal

is

ratified

by

the maternal uncle of each of the pair solemnly measuring out three measures of paddy (rice) in the presence

of the other party at their house.

the bier
is

At

their funerals,
left

not brought into the village, but

is

outside,

and the corpse

body, a

carried to

it.

Among
for the

the Vadaseris,

while preparations are being

made

removal of the

Paraiyan woman
is

performs a dance.

Nattu-simais this

done on the Ettu day.

full

Among On

the
the

second day after the funeral, the relatives of the deceased

dip their toes in a mortar
in front of his house,

of cow-dung water placed

and put sacred ashes on the head.

final
It

The karumantaram, or
performed by the
after the third
rich.

death ceremony,

is

only

can take place at any time

is

day.

The Ettu ceremony

similarly

performed at any time after the third day, and

with a curious ritual.

is

attended

Both sections of the caste erect

which three plantain trees are planted, and the chief mourner and his '^ousins stand there all day
a booth,
in to receive the

condolences of their friends.

From

this

point the practice of the two sections differs in small

points of detail.

Among

the Vadaseris, the friends

come

one by one, and are asked by the chief mourner, "Will you embrace, or will you strike your forehead?" In

us
reply, the friend either closes the

tJRAU
open hand of the chief

mourner with
visitor

his

own

as a form of embrace, or flings

himself on the ground in the booth, and weeps.

Each
is

then goes to a meeting of the nadu which

being

held outside the village, and a Paraiyan and three Uralis

who have visited the booth and who have not, and ask if it may be removed. Permission being given, the plantains are cut down, and the womanfolk wail round a chembu (vessel) placed there. All
inform the headman

then proceed to the nadu meeting, where a turban

is

put

on a Paraiyan, a dancing-girl and a Pandaram, and

the Paraiyan (called Nattu Samban) beats his drum, and pronounces a blessing on the nadu. Finally all repair to the house of the deceased, where the headman

puts three handfuls of

his wife or

some other

kambu member

(millet) into the cloth of

of the family, and throws

for caste offences

a mortar on the ground.

take some curious forms.
leaf is put
If

Punishments

A margosa (Me/ta Azadirachta)

is

on the house of anyone who

seduces a
girl of

excommunicated.
is

man

the caste, an enquiry

held,

and
is

the pair are married.

The

waist-string of the

man
is

tied

round the neck of the woman, and a Tottiyan

away the pollution which they and their relatives have incurred. They are taken to a tank (pond), where io8 holes have been made by the Tottiyan, and are made to bathe in every hole, sprinkling the water over
called in to take
their heads.

A
its

sheep

is

then killed by a Tottiyan and a

Chakkiliyan,
relatives are

head
to

is

buried, and the couple and their

spot.

made

walk over the

The blood

of

the animal
all

is

then smeared on their foreheads, and they

They are next given cow's urine to drink, and then once more bathe. After that they are given milk, and are made to prostrate themselves before
have
to bathe again.

the panchayat (council).

Finally they have to give a

URALI
feast
is

246
the
to
till

to

panchayat,
the crows,
the
birds

at

which a part of the food

offered

complete

and the purification is not have partaken thereof. The

Uralis are fond of shikar (hunting).

On

the Sivaratri

night, sacrifices are offered to their family gods, and,

on

the following day,

hunting.

all

the

men

of the village go out

They have a head shikari (huntsman), called Kavettaikaran, who receives every animal which is killed, The head is given cuts off its head, and breaks its legs. to the man who killed the animal, and the rest is shared among the castemen." Of the Uralis who inhabit the hill country of Travancore, the following account
is

given in the Travancore

Uralis are a class of
hill

Census

report,

1901.

"The

tribes resident in the

Cardamom Hills. They are chiefly found in the tracts known as Kunnanat, Velampan, Kurakkanat, Mannukat, Kalanat, and Periyur. The
headman of the
Kanikkaran.
Uralis in each of these areas
tells
is

called a

Tradition

us that they were the de-

pendents of the kings of Madura, and that their duty was

to hold umbrellas in times of State processions.

In ancient

times,

many

of the parts

now

included in the

taluk belonged to the

kingdom of Madura.

Todupuzha Once, when

the king

Neriyamangalam, the ancestors of these Uralis are said to have accompanied him, and to have been left there to rule (ali) that locally (ur). The males
to

came

dress like the low-country people, with cloths about four

cubits long extending from the hip to the knee.
cloth,

Another
put over
right

about one or two cubits

in

length,

is

the back,

one end of which passes under

their

arm and

the other over the shoulder, both meeting in

front over the chest,

where they are

their

tied together in a

peculiar knot by folding the extremities, thus forming a

bag

wherein

to

contain

wayside

necessaries.

247

URALI
cloth, nine

Females wear two pieces of

and two and a

half cubits in length respectively, and folded in the The larger is the lower garment, and the middle.

smaller

upper garment

is

worn with two ends

tied

Males wear brass finger and toe-rings, sometimes of silver. Some adorn their necks with wreaths of beads, from fifteen to thirty in number.
around the neck.

Females wear ear-ornaments known as katumani, which Males are rings of metal wire, four or five in number.
generally allow their hair to grow, the face alone being

now and then

shaven.

The

Uralis

eat

rice

for

six

months of the year, and subsist on roots, fruits, and other A large forest produce during the remaining half. portion of the paddy (rice) that the Uralis gather by
cultivation

goes to the low country

salt.

in

exchange
is

for

clothing and

The

flesh of

most animals

eaten,

but the elephant and buffalo are held in such great

respect that no Urali ever ventures to hurt them.

the approach of the buffalo

is

religiously avoided.

Even They

begin to

fell

forest trees in

and seeds are They have only a

knife, for

Dhanu (December- January), sown by the end of Metam (April- May).

katti,

which

is

a kind of chopping
After cultivation they

purposes of ploughing.

change their abodes.

of the cultivated
materials.

They put up huts in the vicinity areas, and use bamboo and reeds as
under and take great

After leaving the old, and before putting up

are very good watchmen,

the

new

hut, they live for several days in caves or

trees.

They

care in putting up fences, weeding, and protecting culti-

vation from wild animals.

reed.

They make

excellent mats of

They

are clever huntsmen, and are passionately

attached to their hunting dogs.

They hoard their grains in wicker baskets called virivallam. They possess copper
and brass
vessels,

mortar,

chopping knives,

sickles,

URALI
spades,
flint

248

and

steel.

man

after marriage lives with

his wife,

apart from his parents.

is

Pollution of a very

aggravated kind
puerperal periods.

observed during the menstrual and

On these occasions a separate matam

put up at a distance
stays for three

(hut), called the pattu-pandal, is

from the dwelling hut.

days.

Here the woman

After bathing on the fourth day, she shifts to

another

matam

two days.

On

and stays there for one or the seventh day she rejoins the family.
still

nearer,

In cases of confinement, twelve days are spent in the

remotest hut, and

to touch

five

days

in the nearer one.

But

for

another period of twenty days the

the hut.

woman is

not permitted

any one in the house, or even the roofing of During these days food is prepared by others,
to her.

and given
confined,

The water

in

which those who are

and those who are

purposes

in their

menses bathe,
Hence,

is

considered to be defiled beyond remedy.

for

some secluded and out-of-the-way pool, called pattuvellam, is selected. Uralis coming to the low country hesitate to drink water, on the score that
bathing
it

might be thus polluted.

first child,

When

the

woman

delivers

herself of her
pollution,
all

her husband observes three days*

but none for subsequent confinements.

On

such occasions, the maternal relations of the

five days' pollution.

woman

have to observe
day

On

the eighteenth

after birth, the eldest

the child, and bores the

member of the family names ear. The head of the child is

is

shaved as soon as
left in front.

it is

able to walk, and a tuft of hair

The

corpses of the Uralis are not burnt,

but buried at a sufficient distance from the house. new cloth is put into the grave by each relative. After
filling in

the grave, they erect a shed over

it,

within

which the chopping knife of the deceased, a quantity of

boiled rice, and

some chewing

materials (betel and nuts)

249
are placed.

URALI

After the lapse of seven years, an offering

is

of food and drink

pollution
lasts

made

to the departed soul.

Death

for

sixteen days.

The

Uralis address

their father as appan,

and maternal uncle as achchan.

the prevailing form of inheritance
is

Marumakkathayam
(in the

is

female
is

line).

Marriage
settled,

settled

by the parents.
state.

There
to

no

tali

symbol to indicate the wedded

is

After the marriage

the

the girl

is

merely sent

pandal or hut of the

husband.

The

Uralis

intermarry with the Ulladans, and in rare cases with

Muduvans.
ing to get

Remarriage
married
into

is

permitted.

An

Urali, wish-

a particular family,

has to

wed
in

into the family a girl belonging to his own.

Uralis have a fine ear for music, and sing

The many songs

the

night

before going to

bed.

Like the Kanis

Their would-be

(Kanikars), they resort to enchantments called cheppuka

and chattuka
sorcerers

for the cure of diseases.

have to leave the community, and wander

alone in the forest for a

said to then get into

number of months. a trance, when their

They

are

forefathers

appear before them as maidens, and teach them the

mystic
arts.

The

Uralis bear their loads only

on the good
S.

back, and never on the head.

places without their
forest guides."

They never go chopping knife. They

to distant

are

The

Uralis are stated by the Rev.

Mateer * to practice polyandry like the Todas.

Urali
is

further

synonym
it

of

the

Tandans
having
It

of Travancore, in reference,

is

said,

to their

been guardians of villages (ur)

is

in

former times.

also

the

title

of the

Travancore
Malabar.

and

headman of the Kuravas of synonym of the Kolayans of

Native Life

in Travancore.

URALI
Urali.-The
jungles of
forest

250
Uralis,

who form

the subject of the

present note, dwell at an

altitude of 1,800 feet in the

Dimbhum

in the

Coimbatore

district,

where a

bungalow, situated on a breezy ridge overlooking

the plains, formed a convenient centre from which to

study both Uralis and the more primitive Sholagas.

The

Uralis are familiar with the Badagas,

a settlement not

many

miles distant

the

who have Todas, who

;

occasionally migrate across the adjacent Nilgiri frontier

in search of grazing land for their

buffaloes

and the

Kurumbas and
civilised

Irulas,

the Nilgiris, which run

who inhabit the lower slopes of down to Coimbatore. With the

at the

world they are acquainted, as they carry loads

to the plains,

and run down to market

is

town of

Sathyamangalam, which
from Dimbhum.
clad in turban,

only seventeen miles distant

Like the Nilgiri Badagas, they are

and long flowing body-cloth, white (when new), or striped with red and blue. The hair is worn long and unkempt, or shaved d la Hindu with kudimi
in

mimicry of the more

civilised classes,

man was
;

introduced to us as
paroquet,

an expert mimic of the note of the

in front of the

peacock, jungle-fowl and other forest birds

and a small party improvised,

bungalow, a

bird trap cleverly constructed out of stones, an iron plate

from the camp kitchen, bamboo, and rope made on the

spot from the bark of Ficus Tsiela.

The making

of

fire

with

flint

and

steel is fast

disappearing in favour of safety

matches.

The
{ji.e.,

Uralis say that they are

men

of seven kulams

having seven posts to the marriage booth), and are

of five kulams and children of Karayya.

children of Billayya, while they describe the Shdlagas as

men

They

call

themselves Uralis or Irulas, and,

that, as Billayya

when

questioned, say

and Karayya are brothers, they may also

URALL

251

URALI

But there is no intermarriage between Ural is and Shalagas, though members of the two tribes sometimes interdine. According to another
be
called

Sholagas.

legend, the Uralis and Sholagas are both descended from

Karayan, and the Sivacharis (Lingayats) from Billaya

or

of

They speak a patois mixed Tamil and Canarese, and have a number of
Madheswaram
{see

Sholaga).

exogamous
not clear.

septs, the

meaning of the names of which

is

They

indulge in a large repertoire of nick-

names,
hairy
lying,

for the

most part of a personal nature, such as

big-navelled,
tail

donkey-legged,
like

pot-bellied,

hare-lipped,

a bear or the

of a mungoose, toothless,

brought up on

butter-milk.

One man was named

was born on a

Kothe Kalian

(kotha, a stone), because he

rock near Kotagiri.

The

majority of the tribe earn a modest livelihood

by collecting minor forest produce, such as myrabolams, wax and honey, and poles for use as primitive breaks for
country carts during the ascent of the ghat road.
poles are tied to the carts by ropes, and
trail

These
behind

on the ground, so

that,
is

when

the cart stops, the backward

course of the wheels

arrested.

Some

till

the

soil,

and
is

cultivate various kinds of food-grains.

Others are sheep

and

cattle owners.

few families possess land, which

given free^of rent by the Forest Department, on condition

that they

work

for the

department whenever their services

are required.

As

a class they are not inclined to do hard

work, and they appear to get into the clutches of moneylending Chettis.

Coracana).

Their staple food But they eat also sheep,

black monkeys,

is

ragi

{Eleusine

fowls, goat, deer,

pigeons and doves,

wild boar,

hare,

hedgehogs, paroquets, quails and partridges, jungle-fowl,

woodcock,
jungle.

woodpeckers,

and

other

denizens of

the

A man

who was asked whether they

eat beef,

UrAU
cats,

i5^
bears,

toads,
at

or

white

monkeys,
the

expectorated

violently

the mention of each, and

three produced

the

suggestion

of the

first

most

explosive oral

demonstration.
Tribal

disputes are referred to a headman, called

Yejamana, who must belong to the exogamous sept

called

Sambe, and whose appointment

is

an hereditary

one.

To

assist

him, three others,

belonging to the

Kalkatti, Kolkara
titles

and Kurinanga

septs,

whose hereditary
are appointed.
(tribal

are Pattagara,

Gouda and Kolkara,

The Kolkara has

to invite people to the

panchayat

and be present on the occasion of marriages. A woman who, after marriage, refuses to live with her husband, is punished thus. She is tied to a tree, and the Kolkaran empties the contents
council), collect the fines inflicted,

of a hornet or wasp's nest at her

feet.
if

After a few

minutes the
live

woman

is

questioned, and,

she agrees to

with her husband, she must, in token of assent, lick

"

a mark made on his back by the Kolkara with fowl's

excrement, saying
I

You

are

my

husband.

In

future

shall not quarrel

with you, and will obey you."

Even

after this ordeal has

been gone through, a

leave her

woman may,
in favour of

on payment of a
another

fine,

husband
is

man
a

of the tribe.

When

girl

reaches puberty, she

anointed, deco-

rated with jewelry, and

occupy a separate hut for seven days, during which time two young girls keep her company. On the eighth day, all three bathe in a
to

made

pond or stream, and return in their wet clothes to the girl's home, where they sit on a pestle placed in front
of the door.

plantain leaf

is

then placed in front of

them, on which cooked rice and curry are spread.

child,

girl's lap,

aged about eight or nine months, is set in the and she feeds the infant with a small quantity

253
of
rice,

URALI

of which she herself swallows a few mouthfuls.

at the concludish,

Those assembled then sit down to a meal, sion of which they wash their hands in a
girl

and the
the

throws the water away.

is

The

feast concluded,

spot

sprinkled with

cowdung

water, and cleaned up by

the

girl.

Marriage
latter.

is

either infant or adult, but, as a rule, the

is

The match-making

carried out

by the boy's
visits,

parents, who, with his other relations, pay two

one
girl.

with and one without the boy, to the parents of the

At the

and at the second of plantains, rice, and millet pudding is made. The party must be received with due respect, which is shown by
first visit

a present of

ragi,

taking hold of the walking-sticks of the guests on arrival,

and receiving them on a mat spread inside the house. The customary form of salute is touching the feet with
both hands, and raising them, with palms opposed, to
the forehead.

Before taking their seats,

the

guests

salute a vessel of water,

which

is

placed on the mat,

surrounded by betel leaves and nuts.

A flower

is

placed

on the top of the stone or

tribal

figure

which represents the

goddess, and, after puja (worship) has been done

it

to

it,

is

addressed

in

the words **Oh,

if

Swami

drop

the flower to the right

propitious,

the marriage
if

is

going to be

and

to

the

left

otherwise."

Should the
way,
the occasion

flower remain
it

is

on the image, without greeted as a very happy omen.

if

falling either

On

of the betrothal ceremony,

their

the bridegroom's party, on

way
it,

to the bride's village,

have
is

to cross a stream,

running or dry, the bridegroom

across

not allowed to walk

but must be carried over on the back of his

maternal uncle.

As

they approach the bride's home,

they are met by the Kolkara and two other men, to

whom

the Kolkara, after receiving the walking-sticks of

URALI
the guests, hands

254

them over. Failure to do so would be an act of discourtesy, and regarded as an insult to be wiped out by a heavy fine. When the procession arrives
at the house, entrance

into the marriage

it

vented by
village.

a stick held across

booth by people of the

is

pre-

bride's

mock
is

struggle takes place,

during which

turmeric water
into the

thrown by both
effected.

sides,

and an entrance

house
of,

is finally

After a meal has been

partaken

the bridal party proceed to the village of

the bridegroom, where the bride and bridegroom are

lodged

in separate houses.

In front of the bridegroom's

house a booth, supported by twelve posts arranged in The two pillars nearest the four rows, has been erected.
entrance to the house are called murthi kamba.
the holes
Into

made

for the reception of these, after a cocoa-

nut has been broken, ghi (clarified butter), milk, and a

few copper coins are placed.

The

bridal pair, after

an

oil

bath, are led to the booth, decorated with jewels

and

wearing new
cocoanut
a plate.
is

cloths,

and made

to sit

on a plank.

broken, and they salute a vessel placed on

bridal party then adjourn to a

The

pond or

stream, and do puja to their god.

On

the return thence

the bridal couple must be accompanied by their maternal

uncles,

who

should keep on dancing, while cocoanuts are

broken

in front of

them

till

the house
sit

is

reached.

The
their
is

contracting parties then again

little

on the plank with

fingers linked, while the bride

money

(theravu)

paid to the father-in-law,

to the mother-in-law.
tied

and the milk money

tali

(pal kuli)
is

The

(a

golden disc)

then

on to the

bride's

neck by some female relation of

after

the bridegroom, and the bride and bridegroom,

saluting those assembled, enter the house, where the

young wife

is

at

once told to cook some

rice,

of which

she and her husband partake from the same leaf plate.

255

URALI

There

exists,

among

the Uralis, a kind of informal

union called kuduvali.

man and woman

will,

by

mutual agreement, elope into the jungle, and live there

together,
till

they are discovered and brought back by

their relations.

panchayat (council)

is

held,

and they

are recognised as

man and

wife

if

the bride

money and
event,

fine inflicted are paid.

Failure to pay up would render

them

liable to

excommunication.

To celebrate the
;

a feast must be given by the man and, if he should die without having fed the community, any children born

him are considered as illegitimate. In such a case, the widow or her near relatives are asked to give food to
to
at least a few before the corpse
is

removed, so as to

legitimatise the children.

The
As soon

Uralis bury their dead, and the death ceremonies

are, to a certain extent,

copied from those of the Badagas.

of the tribe dies, the corpse
is

as a

member

anointed, washed, and dressed in

new

clothes and turban.

viz.
:

On

the face three silver coins are stuck,

a rupee
is

on the forehead, and a quarter rupee outside each eye.

When

all

have assembled

for the funeral, the corpse

brought out and placed under a car (teru) of six storeys, made of bamboo and sticks, covered with coloured cloths

and

flags,

and having

at the top a kalasa (brass vessel)

and umbrella.

To

the accompaniment of a band

car,

dance takes place around the

then moves on to
is

and the procession the burial-ground, where a cow buffalo

car,

brought near the

and a

little

milk drawn and

poured three times into the mouth of the corpse.

A
The

cow
car

and one or two calves are taken round the

is

car,

and the
been

calves presented to the sister of the deceased.

then

broken up,
off.

after
is

the decorations have

stripped

The

corpse

buried either on the spot, or

taken away to distant Nirgundi, and buried there.

On

urAli

256

the eighth day after the funeral or return from Nirgundi,

the eldest son of the deceased has his head shaved, and,

together with his brother's wife,

fasts.

If

the funeral

has been at
relations,
rice in

Nirgundi, the son, accompanied by his

thither
arrival,

proceeds
cloth.

after

tying

some cooked
all

On

he

offers this to

the

memorial stones
erects a stone,

in the burial-ground

(goppamane), and
in

which he has brought with him,

memory

of the deceased.
ghi,

He

then anoints

all

the stones with

which

is

contained in a green

bamboo measure.
offered,

He

collects the rice,

which has been

and one of the

party, .becoming inspired, gives vent to oracular decla-

rations as to the season's prospects, the future of the

bereaved family,
sacred,

etc.

The

collected rice
all.

is

regarded as
its

and

is

partaken of by

Each

sept has

own

goppamane, which is a rectangular space with mud walls on three sides. In cases in which the corpse has been
buried close to the village, the grave of stones.
is

marked by a

file

Two

or three years afterwards, the body

is

exhumed, and the bones are collected, and placed in front of the house of the deceased. All the relations weep, and the son conveys the bones to Nirgundi,

where he buries them. On the eighth day he revisits the spot, and erects a stone with the ceremonial already
described.

The
sacrifice

Uralis worship a variety of minor deities, and

sheep and goats to Palrayan.

viz.
:

They observe

two annual festivals, (a) Thai nombu, when the whole house is cleaned, and margosa (Me/ta Azadirachtd) twigs and spikes of Achyranthes aspera are tied together, and placed in front of the house over the roof,
or stuck
into the roof

overhanging the entrance.

partaken
of.

sumptuous
takes place

repast
in

is

This

ceremonial

the month Thai (December- January).

257
{b) In the

USIRA
large trough
is

month Vyasi (March- April) a

filled

placed close to a well, and

with a mixture of

salt

and water.
drink the

The

cattle,

decorated with leaves and flowers,

are brought, one by one, to the trough, and

salt

made

to

water.

Uril Parisha.

class of

Mussad.
village,
is

Uru. Ur,

Uru,

meaning
Boya,

the

name

of

a division of Bedar,

Golla,

Korava,

Kuruba,

The Bedars and Boyas are divided into two main divisions, Uru or those who dwell in villages, and Myasa (grass-land or forest people) who live away from villages. In like manner, the Uru Oddes are those who have abandoned a nomad life, and settled in
Madiga, and Odde.
villages.

Among some
is

of the Tamil cultivating classes,

the

headman

known

as the

Ur Goundan.

Ur-Udaiyan
Nattaman,

(lord

of a village).

synonym of

Urukathi
Toreva.

(a

kind of knife).

An exogamous sept of
pilots

Urukkaran,
sailors in the

a class of

Muhammadan

and

Laccadive islands.

[See Mappilla.)

Urumikkaran. The Urumikkarans, or those who play on the drum (urumi), are said * to be " Tottiyans The Kappiliyans in Madura, and Parayans elsewhere."
say that they migrated with the Urumikkarans from the

banks of the Tungabadra

tried to ravish their

river,

because the Tottiyans

women.

At a Kappiliyan wedding,

a Urumikkaran must be present at the distribution of

on the second day, and at the final death ceremonies a Urumikkaran must also be present.
betel

Usira
Komati.

(usirika,

Phyllanthus Emblica).

sept of

Madras Census Report, 1901,

UTLA

258
or Utlavadu has been recorded as an

Utla. Utla
sept Oi

occupational sub-caste of Yerukala, and an exogamous

Boya and Padma

fibre,

Sale.

The name

is

derived

from

utlam,

a hanging receptacle for pots,

made of
sell.*

palmyra
of Boya.

which some Yerukalas make and

aspera).

Uttareni i^Achyranthes

An exogamous sept

exogamous sept of Mala, Mutracha, and Yerukala. During the marriage ceremonies of Brahmans and some non- Brahman castes, the

Uyyala

(a swing).

An

bride and bridegroom are seated in a swing within the

marriage booth, and songs called uyyala patalu (swing

songs) are sung by

women

to the

accompaniment of music.

Vada. On

the coast of

Ganjam and Vizagapatam,

the sea fishermen are either Vadas or Jalaris, both of

which are Telugu

carried

castes.

The

fishing operations are

on by the men, and the fish are sold by the women in markets and villages. Various Oriya castes, Kevuto, Kondra, Tiyoro, etc., are employed as e.g., The Vadas seem to fishermen, but only in fresh-water.
be a section of the
Palles, with
call

whom

they will interdine

Balijas, and intermarry. They though they have no claim to be regarded as Balijas. Sometimes they are called Kalasis by Oriya people. Their Socially the Vadas occupy a low position. form Telugu. language is a corrupt and vulgar of The men wear a conical palm leaf cap, such as is worn by the Pattanavan fishermen in the Tamil country. In the

themselves Vada

presence of a superior, they remove their loin-cloth and

* Madras Census Report^

901.

VADA

CiUDS.

259
place
it

VADA

round their neck and shoulders as a mark of

respect.

Among many

other castes, this would, on the

contrary, be regarded as an act of impertinence.

Like other Telugu

intiperus,
e.g.,

castes, the

Vadas have exogamous

be peculiar to them,

some of which seem

to

Mailapilli, Ganupilli, Sodupilli, Davulupilli.

Other
castes.

intiperus are such as are

common

to

many Telugu
and

The

caste

headmen are

entitled Kularaju

Pilla,

and

members of At Chatrapur, for example, they belong There is also a caste to the Mailapilli and Vanka septs. The headmen seem to have servant styled Samayanodu. more power among the Vadas than among other Telugu castes, and all kinds of caste matters are referred to them They receive a fee for every marriage, and for disposal. arrange various details in connection with the wedding This is based on the Telugu type, with a ceremonial. few variations. When a young man's relations proceed
the appointments are apparently held by
particular septs.
to the

house of the

girl

whom
if

it

is

proposed that he
in

should marry, the elders of her family offer water

brass vessel to their guests,

they approve of the match.

sit

During the marriage

rites,

the bride and bridegroom

within a pandal (booth), and the

men

of the bridegroom's
leaf,

party exhibit to those assembled betel

oil,

areca nuts,

turmeric paste,

etc., in

which no foreign matter, such

etc.,

as fragments of paper, rags,

must be found.

If

they

are discovered, a fine

is

inflicted.

There
the

is

exhibited in the Madras

Museum

a collection

of clay figures, such as are worshipped by fishermen on

Ganjam

coast,

concerning which Mr. H. D'A. C.

as follows.
"
I

Reilly writes to

me

am

sending you

specimens of the chief gods worshipped by the fishermen.

The

Tahsildar of Berhampur got them

made by

the

potter and carpenter,

V11-17B

who

usually

make such

figures for

VADA
the

260
fishermen.
I

Gopalpur

have found fishermen's

shrines at several places.

Separate families appear to

consisting of large chatties

have separate
(earthen

shrines,

some

pots),

occasionally

ornamented,

and turned
Others are
I

upside down, with an opening on one side.

made
had

of brick and

chunam

(lime).
sea.
viz.,

All that

have seen

their

opening towards the

Two

classes of figures

are placed in these shrines,

clay figures of gods,

which are worshipped before fishing expeditions, and when there is danger from a particular disease which
they prevent
;

and wooden figures of deceased

imaginative as the

relations,

which

are quite as

clay

figures.

Figures of gods and relations are placed

family shrine.

in the

same

There are hundreds of gods to choose from, and the selection appears to be a matter of family taste and tradition. The figures, which I have sent, were made by a potter at Venkatarayapalle, and painted by a carpenter at Uppulapathi, both villages near Gopalpur. The Tahsildar tells me that, when he was
inspecting
sixty

them

at the

Gopalpur

travellers'

bungalow,

or

seventy fisher people came

first

and worshipped

them, and at

objected to their gods being taken

them by telling them that it was because the Government had heard of their devotion to their gods that they wanted to have some of them in
away.
pacified

He

Madras."
following
:

The

collection

of clay figures includes the

Bengali
horse.
fish for

Babu wears a

hat,

and rides on a black

He

blesses the fishermen, secures large hauls of

them, and guards them against danger

when out

affinity It has been observed that between the Ganjam fishermen and the Bengali Babu,

fishing.

" this

resulting in the apotheosis of the latter,

is

certainly a

striking manifestation of the catholicity of hero-worship.

VADA POr SHRINES.

26l

VADA

and

would be interesting to have the origin of this particular form of it, to know how long, and for what
it

reasons the conception of protection has appealed to the

followers of the piscatory industry.

George Campbell, the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, who comIt

was

Sir

pelled his Bengali officials,

much

against their inclination,

to cultivate the art of equitation."

Samalamma wears
Rajamma, a female

a red skirt and green coat, and with a sword

protects the fishermen from fever.

figure,
in

her right

hand, riding on a black elephant.

She

blesses barren

women
catches

with children, and favours her devotees with big

in

when they go out fishing. Yerenamma, riding on a white horse, with a sword her right hand. She protects fishermen from drowning,

and from being caught by big fish. Bhagirathamma, riding on an elephant, and having
eight
fishing

or twelve
at

hands.

She helps

fishermen

when

night,

and protects them against cholera,

a red jacket and green skirt, and

dysentery, and other intestinal disorders.

Nukalamma wears
protects the fishing

community against small-pox.

prevents the boats from being

Orusandi

Ammavaru

sunk or damaged.

Bhagadevi rides on a nity from cholera.

eyes, represented

tiger,

and protects the commu-

Veyyi Kannula Ammavaru, or goddess of a thousand

by a pot pierced with a gingelly (Sesamum) oil light is burnt.

the general welfare of the fisher folk.

holes, in

which
to

She attends
to

The

chief sea goddess of the

Vadas seems

be

Orusandiamma, whose image must be made out of the wood of the nim {Me/za Azadirachta) tree. She is
supposed
to

have four arms.

Many

of the pot temples

VADA
set

262
shrines.

up on the sea-shore are her

On

no account

should she be provoked,

upset.

She

is

lest the fishing boat should be regarded as constantly roaming over^the

sea in a boat at night.

deity,

Associated with her

is

is

a'

male

named Ramasondi, who

(vehicle)

her brother.

His vaha-

nam

separately
flowers,

is an elephant. Orusandi is worshipped by each family. At the time of worship, two cloths, a fowl, a goat, and a bottle of toddy

or arrack, are carried in procession to the sea-shore.

Before the procession

the house of the person

starts,

people collect in front of

who
is

is

doing the puja (worship),

and

tie

him and the goat

to a long post set

up

in front

thereof.

toy

boat

placed before the post, and

Ramasondi is invoked by a person called Mannaru, who becomes inspired by the entrance of the deity into him.

fowl

is sacrified,

and, with the boat on his head, the

Mannaru proceeds towards the shore. Orusandi is then invoked, but does not come so easily as Ramasondi. Repeated invocations are necessary before some one becomes inspired. The goat, post, and a pot shrine for
the goddess are taken to the shore.
the image

A
is

small platform

is

erected there, on which the shrine, smeared with

(lime),
is

placed,

and

in

it

chunam deposited. Worif it

ship

is

then performed, and the goat sacrificed

all

crawls
so,

along on

fours and shivers.

is

If

it

does not do

another goat

substituted for

it.

As every

family sets

up its own pot shrine, the number of these is considerable, and they extend over several furlongs. The sea goddess Marulupolamma is housed in a small shed made of date palm leaves. A goddess who is very much feared, and worshipped at the burial-ground, is Bulokamma. Her worship is carried out at noon or midnight. She is represented by a pot, of which the
neck
is

removed.

In the sides of the pot four holes are

263

VADA
is

made, into each of which a twig

inserted.

The ends
is

of the twigs are tied together with thread, so that they

represent a miniature pandal (booth).

The

pot
in

carried

by a Mannaru, dressed up like a

white cloths,

woman

black and

together with another pot representing

Enuga
left

Sakthi.

The former

is

carried in the

bend of the
pots are

elbow, and the latter on the head.

in

The

accompanied
the

procession to the burial-ground, and, on

way
in

thither

some one becomes

:

the following legend

I

inspired,

and narrates

"

am

Bulokasakthi.

was

an egg, of which the upper half

the

Ages ago became the

sky and the lower half the earth, and was released.

The

moon was
mirror.

mark on my

forehead, and the sun

was

my

Seven gadhis (a measure of time) after my birth, By that time I had grown into an a west wind arose. and so I embraced the wind, which impregwoman, adult
nated me, and, after nine gadhis,

Brahma was
I

born.

He

grew

into a

young man, and

asked him to embrace me,

caused him to become
fate,

but he refused, and, as a curse,

a stone. Vishnu underwent the same promised to satisfy me, if I gave him This I did, and shoulder-bag, and cane.

but
third

Siva
eye,

my
lost

my

power.

Then
mud.
I

all

the water disappeared, and

was covered with

it

Siva again caused water to appear, and of

took three handfuls, and threw them over

third

my

body.

consumed me, and reduced me to From these were created Sarasvati, Parvati, and ashes. Bulokamma. I am that Bulokamma. I asked a favour

The

handful

of Siva.

He made me
lines,

remain within
I

this earth, and,

drawing three

said that

should not come out,

and should receive offerings of fowls and goats." At this stage, a chicken is given to the Mannaru, who bites, and kills it. At the burial-ground worship is performed, and a goat sacrificed. The goddess being confined

VADA

264
is

within the earth, no shrine

not represented by an image. and the pot placed near it.

erected to her, and she

is

small pandal

is

erected,

The goddess Kalimukkamma is represented by a paper or wooden mask painted black, with protruding
With her is associated her brother Baithari. She is believed to be one of the sisters created by Brahma from his face at the request of Iswara, the others being Polamma, Maridipoli, Kothapoli, Jungapoli, NukaThe shrine of Kalipoli, Runjamma, and Kundamma. mukkamma is a low hut made of straw. At the time of worship to her, a Mannaru, dressed up as a woman, puts on the mask, and thus represents her. A stone slab, containing a figure of Kalimukkamma, is carried by a woman. She is the only goddess who may be represented
tongue.

by a stone.
effigy.

To her pigs are offered. Peddamma or Polamma is represented by

Along with
her,

a wooden

Maridiamma
is

is

also worshipped.

The

offerings to

Peddamma

consist of a goat or sheep,

sacrificed to

and a pot of milk.

A
is

pig

Maridiamma.

When

the people proceed in procession to the place of

tied
to the

worship, a toy cart

person representing
boat.

Maridiamma, and some one must carry a toy

distance from the house, the cart
is is

At a

detached, and a pig

killed

by an abdominal
is

incision.

Samalamma
pensities, to
is

a mild goddess, with vegetarian pro-

whom

animal food must not be offered. She

associated with the aforesaid Bengali

horse.

Babu riding on a Her image may only be carried by young girls,

and grown-up women may not touch it. Of the Sakthis worshipped by the Vadas, the chief is Koralu Sakthi. The man who performs the worship is tied to a country cart, to which a central stake, and a
stake at each corner are attached.

Dressed up

in

female

:^

n <

265
attire,

VADRA

he drags the

cart,

with which he makes three

rounds.
stakes,

chicken

is

then impaled on each of the corner

central stake.

and a pig on the

times,

In former

the images of the deities were

made in clay, but it has been found by experience that wooden images are more durable, and do not require
to be replaced so often. Along with the images of gods and goddesses, the Vadas place figures represent-

ing deceased relatives, after the peddadinam ceremony).

(final

death

The Mannarus

are very important individuals, for

not only do they perform worship, but are consulted on

many
fish,

points.

If

man does

not secure good catches of

he goes to the Mannaru, to ascertain the cause of

luck.

his
to

bad

The Mannaru
is

holds in his hand a string,

which a stone

tied,

goddesses by name.

and invokes various gods and Every time a name is mentioned,

If the

the stone either swings to and fro like a pendulum, or

performs a circular movement.

is is

former occurs,

it

a sign that the deity whose

name has been pronounced

the cause of the misfortune, and must be propitiated

in a suitable

manner.

Vadakkupurattu.
ing to the north

synonym, meaning belongof

side

of the temple,

Marans

in

Travancore.

Vadra.Vadra,
a sub-division of
calling

Vadrangi, or Vadla

is

a name of

Telugu Kamsalas, the professional

of which is carpentering. It is noted, in the Gazetteer of Tanjore, that " wood-carving of a very fair
is

quality

done

at several places in the

Tanjore
in

district

by a

class of

workmen
skill
is

called car carpenters,

from the
carving

fact that their

generally exercised

images on temple

cars.

They

are found at Tanjore,

Mannargudi, Tiruvadaturai and Tiruvadi, and perhaps

VADUGAN
elsewhere.

266

Vaddis.

The workmen at the last-named place are The Vaddis of the Godavari district are also

found to do wood-carving, sometimes with great

Vadugan.
"a

At the census,
it

skill."

1891, 180,884 individuals

is

were returned as Vadugan, which

native of the northern or

described as meaning
in

Telugu country, but

I

ordinary usage

refers to the Balijas.

find,

however,

that 56,380 Vadugars have returned their sub-division as Kammavar or Kammas, and that the term has been

used to denote many Telugu castes.

1901,

At the

census,

number of people returning themselves as Vadugan dropped to 95,924, and the name is defined by linguistic term meanthe Census Superintendent as a ing a Telugu man, wrongly returned as a caste name by Kammas, Kapus and Balijas in the Tamil districts." In the Salem Manual, Vaduga is noted as including all
the
**

who speak Telugu

Bestha, etc.
It is

in

the Tamil districts,

e.g.,

Odde,

recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "of

the same social standing as the

Kammalans

are the

Vadu-

gans (northerners), a

makkattayam

caste of foreigners

found in Palghat and the adjoining part of Waluvanad.

They
which

are divided into two

is

exogamous

classes,

one of
cut

regarded as inferior to the other, and perfor the caste.

forms purificatory ceremonies

(hair knot)."
It
is

They

their hair close all over the head,

and have no kudumis

that " Xavier,

noted by

Mr.

L.

Moore*

writing in 1542 to 1544, makes frequent references to

men whom he

calls

Badages,

who

are said to have been

collectors of royal taxes,

and

to

have grievously oppressed

Xavier's converts
* Malabar

among

the fishermen of Travancore.f

3rd ed,, 1905.

Law and Custom,

\ Father Coleridge's Life

and Letters of St. Francis Xavier.

26;
Dr. Caldwell, alluding to Xavier's

VAIDYAN

letters, says* that Badages were no Vadages doubt or men from the these North, and is of opinion that a Jesuit writer of the time who called them Nayars was mistaken, and that they were really Nayakans from Madura. I believe, however,

that the Jesuit rightly called

them Nayars,

for

find

that Father Organtino, writing in 1568, speaks of these

Badages as people from Narasinga, a kingdom north of Madura, lying close to Bishnaghur. Bishnaghur is, of course, Vijayanagar, and the kingdom of Narasinga was the name frequently given by the Portuguese to VijayaThere is a considerable amount of evidence to nagar.
Nayars of Malabar are closely connected by origin with the Nayakans of Vijayanagar." {See Nayar.) Vadugayan (Telugu shepherd). A Tamil synonym

show

that the

for Golla.

Vagiri or Vagirivala. See Kuruvikkaran. Vagiti (doorway or court-yard). An exogamous

sept of Jogi.

Vaguniyan. 5"^^

Vayani.
or Baidya,
title

Vaidyan.^Vaidyon
and Pulluvans, and,
Village

meaning physician or
been returned

medicine-man, occurs as a

of Kshaurakas, Billavas,

at times of census, has

as an occupational sub-division of Paraiyans.

physicians
to

are

known

as

Vaidyans,

may belong
diagnoses
all

any

caste, high or low.

and The Vaidyan

an

diseases by feeling the pulse, and, after doing

this for a sufficiently long time,

remarks that there

is

excess of vatham, pitham, ushnam, and so on.

His stock

phrases are vatham, pitham, ushnam, sleshmam, karakam,

megham or meham, saithyam, etc. Orthodox men and women do not allow the Vaidyan to feel the pu.se by
Histoiy of Tinnevelly.

VAIDYAN

268

direct contact of the fingers,

and a

silk cloth is
is

placed on
felt

the patient's

wrist.

The

pulse of males

with

the right hand, and that of females with the

left.

Some
practi-

Vaidyans crack the finger and wrist-joints before they

proceed to
tioners,
feel

the pulse.

Some

are general

and others

specialists in the treatment of fever,

piles, jaundice, syphilis,

rheumatism, and other diseases.

cases,

The
In

specialists

are generally hereditary practitioners.

the

treatment
pills,

powders and
of
various

the Vaidyan prescribes and a decoction or infusion (kashayam) drugs which can easily be obtained at

of

the village drug-shop, or with the help of the village

herbalist.

Among

these

are

ginger,

pepper,

Abies

Webbiana, Acorus calamus, nim [Melia Azadirackta),

or Andrographis paniculata
etc.

sticks,

Alpinia Galanga,
for

If the

medicine has to be taken

in

a long time, the

drugs are compounded together

e.g.,

the form of a lehyam,

bilvadi,

kushpanda, and purnadi lehyam.

Some

Vaidyans prepare powders (basmam), such as swarna (gold) basmam, pavala (coral powder) basmam, or

sankha (chank

shell

powder) basmam.

Special pills

(mathre), prepared at considerable cost, are sometimes

kept by Vaidyans, and passed on from generation to generation as heirlooms. Such pills are usually intended
for in

well-known

specific diseases.

These

pills

are used
last for

very minute quantities, and consequently

long time.

drop of honey or butter

pill
is

is

placed on a

slab of sandstone, on which the

rubbed.

The

honey or butter
a very low
usual
fasting

is

then administered to the patient.

is

standing rule of the Vaidyan

diet,
is

such as
"

rice

keep his patient on His gruel without salt.

to
i.e.,

saying
is

Langanam paramoushadam,"

an excellent medicine.
cases of jaundice
is

well-known

treat-

ment

in

the drinking of curds,

269
in

VAIDYAN

which twigs of Phyllanthus Niruri have been well mashed.

In a very interesting note * on couching of the lens as
practiced by native practitioners, Major R,
I.

H.

Elliot,

M.S., writes as follows.

is

"

The

ignorance and stupidity

of the ryot (villager)

so great that he will not very

infrequently try one eye in an English hospital,

in

and one

a Vaithyan's hands.

It is

a very

common

thing for a

native patient to

when he
up

first

deny ever having visited a native doctor, comes to hospital. After the other eye
will

has been successfully operated on, he

to the fact
. . .

sometimes own

to be
live

appear two classes of operators, the resident men who for long periods in one bazaar, and the travellers
continuously from place to place.

Here

in the south, there

who move

Both are

Mahomedans.
experience.'
place.

The former appear The

latter

to

get

somewhat
'

better results than the latter,

and are spoken of as men of seem never to stop long in one

They collect a number of victims, operate on them, and then move on before their sins can find them out.
Both kinds of operators seem
dirty needle or a sharp
to

be innocent of any
;

attempt at securing asepsis or antisepsis

;

they use a

employed
etc.

wooden skewer no anaesthetic is a bandage is kept on for ten days, and

is

counter-irritation

freely resorted to, to

combat

iritis,

Many

of the victims are ashamed to

hospital
after
if

come

to

European
It

the

failure

of their hopes.

has been said that,

the Vaithyan did not get good

results,

out.

he would be dropped, and the practice would die This remark can only have come from one who
of the

knew nothing

Indian character, or the crass

It
is

ignorance of the lower classes of the people.

hard

* Indian Medical Gazette,

XLI,

8, 1906.

VAIDYAN
for those

270

realise

who have not lived and worked among them to how easily the ryot falls a dupe to impudent self-

advertisement.

He

is

a simple kindly person, whose

implicit trust in confident self-assertion will bring

him

to

grief for

many another

generation.
sitting

The
in a

vision of these

poor unfortunate people

let

down

dusty bazaar to

an ignorant charlatan thrust a dirty needle into their

occupation of the

blind eyes has evoked the indignation of the English

surgeon from the time of our

country.
hospital,

first

Side by side with a well-equipped English

which turns out

its

ninety odd per cent, of

useful vision, there sits in the neighbouring bazaar even

to-day the charlatan, whose fee

id. to

is

fixed at anything

from

8 shillings, plus, in every case, a fowl or other

animal.

The

latter is ostensibly for sacrificial purposes,

but
pot.

understand ends uniformly

Weirdest, perhaps, of
all

in the

Vaithyan's curryis

the Vaithyan's methods

the use of the saffron-coloured rag, with which pus

is

wiped away from the

colour, the pus, etc.,
is well.

patient's inflamed eye.

On

this
all

cannot be seen, and therefore

It is

the fabled ostrich again, only this time in

real

life,

with vital interests at stake."

It is

noted * in connection with the various classes of

" the

Nambutiri Brahmans that

Vaidyans or physicians,

known

as Mussads, are to study the medical science,

and

to practice the same.

sitates the

As the profession of a doctor

neces-

performance of surgical operations entailing

the shedding of blood, the Mussads are considered as

slightly degraded."

Further information

concerning

native

medicine-

men

will

be found

in

the articles on Kusavans and

Mandulas.
* Cochin Census Report, 1901.

271

VAISYA
of the Rishi Vaikhanasa.
priests
in

Vaikhanasa. Followers
They
are

Archaka Brahman

the

Telugu

country.

Vairavan Kovil.An exogamous

(temple) of Nattukottai Chetti.

section or kovil

Vairavi.^The
Recorded,
in

equivalent

of Bairagi

or Vairagi.
1

the

Madras Census Report,

901, as

"a

They are found only in the sub-caste of Pandaram. Tinnevelly district, where they are measurers of grain,
and pujaris
in village temples."

In the

Madura

district,

Vairavis are

members of the Melakkaran

caste,

who

officiate as servants at the

temples of the Nattukottai

Chettis.

Vaisya.Vaisya
of

is

the third of the traditional castes

Manu.

*'

It

is,"

Mr.

Francis writes,*

"doubtful

whether there are any true Dravidian Vaisyas, but

of the Dravidian trading castes (with the
notably the
title

some

Chetti),

Komatis,

are treated as Vaisyas by the

latter

do not admit their right to perform the religious ceremonies which are restricted by the Vedas to the twice-born, and require them to follow
Brahmans, though the
only the Puranic
rites.

The Muttans

(trading caste in

Malabar) formerly claimed to be Nayars, but recently

they have gone further, and some of them have returned

themselves as Vaisyas, and added the Vaisya

title

of

Gupta

to their names.

They do

not,

however, wear the

rites,

sacred thread or perform any Vedic

and Nayars

consider themselves polluted by their touch."

Vellalas

Some

and Nattukottai Chettis describe themselves as being Bhu (earth) Vaisyas, and some Gollas claim to be regarded as Go (cow) Vaisyas.* Some Ganigas and
Nagartas
call

themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas, t and,

f Mysore Census Report, 1891.

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

VAJJIRA
like the

272

Canarese Ganigas

(oil-pressers),

the Tamil

oil-

pressers (Vaniyan) claim to rank as Vaisyas.

Vaisya

Brahman

is

noted * as being a curious hybrid

Baniyans,"
to

name, by

which the Konkani Vanis

small colony of
Vaisyas,
is
*'

(traders) style themselves.

who

call

themselves Jain

said t

have settled
or

in

Native
the

Cochin.

Vaisya

is

recorded as the caste of various title-holders,

is

whose

title

Chetti

Chettiyar,

in

Madras

Quarterly Civil List.

An exogamous sept of Toreya. Vakkaliga. See Okkiliyan. Valagadava. An occupational name various
Vajjira (diamond).
for

classes in

South Canara,

e.^.,

Sappaligas, Mogilis, and

Patramelas,

who
(net).

are engaged as musicians.

Valai

The

name,

said

to

indicate those

who hunt
that,

with nets, of a section of Paraiyans.

The
the
net

Ambalakkarans, who

are also called Valaiyans, claim

when

Siva's ring

was swallowed by a

fish in
first

Ganges, one of their ancestors invented the

made in the world. Valaiyal. A sub-division

of Kavarai,

i.e.,

the Tamil

equivalent of Gazula (glass bangle) Balija.

Valaiyan. The Valaiyans are described, in the Manual of Madura district (1868), as "alow and debased
class.

Their name

is

supposed to be derived from

their
in netting
live

valai

net,

and

to

have been given to them from

being

constantly employed

game
;

in

the jungles.
fish

Many

of them
iron.

still

by the net

some catch

some smelt

Many

are engaged in cultivation, as

bearers of burdens, and in ordinary cooly work.

tradition that a Valaiya

The

woman was

the mother of the

Vallambans seems to show that the Valiyans must be

Madras Census Report, 1901. t N. Sankuni Wariar, Ind. Ant.

XXI,

1892.

< >

X >
-I

<

>

273

VALAIYAN
in the country."

one of the most ancient castes

the country inland
in fresh waters.

In the

Tanjore Manual they are described as

" inhabitants of

who live by They engage

snaring birds, and fishing

also in agricultural labour

and cooly work, such as carrying loads, husking paddy

(rice),

and cutting and

class."

selling fire-wood.

They are a poor

and degraded

The

Valaiyans are expert at making

cunningly devised traps for catching rats and jungle fowl.

They have
which
relates
still

" a comical fairy-tale of the origin of the war,

goes on between them and the rat

tribe.

It

how

the chiefs of the rats met in conclave, and

devised the various means for arranging and harassing the enemy, which they still practice with such effect." ^ The

Valaiyans say that they were once the friends of Siva,

but were degraded for the sin of eating rats and frogs.
In
the

Census
"

Report,

1901,

the

Valaiyans
in

are

described as

a shikari
In the

(hunting)

caste

Madura

and Tanjore.
Servaikaran,

latter

the names

Ambalakaran,

Vedan,

Siviyan,

and

Kuruvikkaran are

indiscriminately applied to the

caste."

There

is

some

connection between Ambalakarans, Muttiriyans, Muirachas, Uralis, Vedans,

Valaiyans, and Vettuvans, but in

It

what

it

exactly consists remains to be ascertained.

likely

seems

that all of
stock.

common

parent

them are descended from one Ambalakarans claim to be

or hunter

descended from Kannappa Nayanar, one of the sixtythree Saivite saints,

caste.

who was a Vedan

and
to
in that district

by

In Tanjore the Valaiyans declare themselves to

origin,

have a similar
Moreover, the

Ambalakaran
of
the

and Muttiriyan seem

be synonymous with Valaiyan.

of

statistics

the

distribution

Valaiyans show that they are numerous in the districts

* Gazetteer of the

Madura

district.

VU-l8

VALAIYAN

274

where Ambalakarans are few, and vice versd, which looks as though certain sections had taken to calling themselves
Ambalakarans.

The upper

sections of the
is

Ambalakarans

style themselves Pillai,

which

title

properly belonging

to Vellalas, but the others are usually called

Muppan

in

Tanjore, and Ambalakaran, Muttiriyan, and Servaikaran

in Trichinopoly.
far as
I

The
is

usual

title

of the Valaiyans, so
style themselves

can gather,

Muppan, but some

are

Servai and Ambalakaran."

The Madura
Brahmans
what they
is

Valaiyans

said *

to

be

" less

brahmanised than those

in Tanjore, the latter

employing

as priests, forbidding the marriage of widows,

occasionally burning their dead, and being particular

eat.

But they

still

cling to the worship of

all

the usual village

it

gods and goddesses."

In

some

places,

said, t

the Valaiyans will eat almost anything,

including rats, cats, frogs and squirrels.

Like the Pallans and Paraiyans, the Valaiyans,

in

some

places, live in streets of their

own, or

in settlements

At times of census, they have outside returned a large number of sub-divisions, of which the
the villages.
following

may be

cited as

examples

Monathinni.

Those who

eat the vermin of the

soil.

Pasikatti (pasi, glass bead).

Saragu, withered leaves.

Vanniyan.

Synonym

of the Palli caste.

hill.

Vellamputtu, white-ant
In

some places the Saruku or Saragu Valaiyans have exogamous kilais or septs, which, as among the Maravans and Kalians, run in the female line. Brothers and sisters belong to the same kilai as that of their mother and maternal uncle, and not of their father.
Madras Census Report, 1901.
t Ibid,, 1891.

275
It is stated, In

VALAIYAN
Madura district, four endogamous
Karadi,

the Gazetteer of the

that " the Valaiyans are

sub-divisions,

grouped
Vahni,

into

namely,

Valattu,

and

The last of these is again divided into Pasikatti, those who use a bead necklet instead of a tali (as a marriage badge), and Karaikatti, those whose women wear horsehair necklaces like the Kalians. The caste
Kangu.
title is

Muppan.

Caste matters are settled by a head-

man

Kambliyan (blanket man), who lives at Aruppukottai, and comes round in state to any village which requires his services, seated on a horse, and
called the

accompanied by servants who hold an umbrella over his head and fan him. He holds his court seated on a The fines imposed go in equal shares to the blanket.
aramanai
(literally palace,
i.e.,

to the

headman

himself),

and

to the oramanai, that

It
is

is,

the caste people.

noted by Mr.

F. R.

Hemingway
namely,

that

"the

Valaiyans of the Trichinopoly district say that they have

eight

endogamous
Ettarai

sub-divisions,

Sarahu (or

Saragu),

Koppu, Tanambanadu or Valuvadi,

similar to

Nadunattu or Asal, Kurumba, Vanniya, Ambunadu, and

Punal.

Some

of these are

those

of the

Kalians and Ambalakarans."

In the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district,
that the Valaiyans are
said to possess "
it is

recorded

endogamous

sub-divisions called Vedan, Sulundukkaran and

Ambato be

lakkaran.

The members
cultivators.

of the

first

are said

hunters, those of the second torch-bearers,

and those of

the

last

They

are a low caste, are refused

admittance into the temples, and pollute a Vellalan by touch. Their occupations are chiefly cultivation of a

low order, cooly work, and hunting.

They

are also said

to be addicted to crime, being employed by Kalians as their tools."

vii-iSb

VALAIYAN
Adult marriage
maternal uncle
is
is

276
is

the rule, and the consent of the

necessary.

freely

permitted.

Remarriage of widows At the marriage ceremony, the

tali

bridegroom's sister takes up the

and, after showing
it

(marriage badge),
it

to those assembled, ties

tightly

round the neck of the bride.

tali

To tie

it

loosely so that the

string touches the collar-bone

breach of custom, and the

fined.

woman

would be considered a who tied it would be

at

The

tali- tying

ceremony always takes place

and the bridegroom's sister performs it, as, if it was tied by the bridegroom, it could not be removed on his death, and replaced if his widow wished to marry again. Marriages generally take place from January to May, and consummation should not be effected till the end
night,

month Adi, lest the first child should be born in the month of Chithre, which would be very inausThere are two Tamil proverbs to the effect picious.
of the
that " the girl should remain in her mother's house during

Adi," and "

if

a child

is

born

in Chithre,

it

is

ruinous to

the house of the mother-in-law."

In the Gazetteer of the
that " at

Madura

district,

it is

stated
tali,

weddings, the bridegroom's sister

ties

the

and then hurries the bride off to her brother's house, where he is waiting. When a girl attains maturity, she is made to live for a fortnight in a temporary hut, which she
afterwards burns down.
girls of the

While she

is

there, the little

meet outside it, and sing a song charms of womanhood, and its power of illustrative of the Two of the alleviating the unhappy lot of the bachelor.
caste

verses say

What

of the hair of a

man

It is twisted,

and matted, and a burden.

What
They

of the tresses of a

woman ?
and a
glory.

are as flowers in a garland,

277
What
of the
life

VALAIYAN

of a

man ?
at the palace gate.

It is that of the

dog

What of the days They are like the

" Divorce
is

of a

woman ?

gently waving leaves in a festoon.

readily permitted on the usual payments,

and divorcees and widows may remarry. A married woman who goes astray is brought before the Kambliyan, who delivers a homily, and then orders the man's waistThis legitimatises any string to be tied round her neck.
children they
in the

may

have."

The

Valaiyans of Pattukkottai

Tanjore

district

say that intimacy between a

is

man

and woman before marriage

caste,

tolerated,

and that the

of the

children of such a union are regarded as

members

and permitted to intermarry with others, provided the parents pay a nominal penalty imposed by the caste
council.

In connection with the Valaiyans of the Trichinopoly

Mr. Hemingway writes that "they recognise three forms of marriage, the most usual of which consists
district,

in the

bridegroom's party going to the

girl's

house with

three marakkals of rice and a cock on an auspicious day,

and
tali

in

both parties having a

feast there.
girl's

Sometimes
house, ties a

the young man's sister goes to the

round her neck, and takes her away.

is

The

ordinary

form of marriage, called big marriage,

that the

sometimes used
it,

with variations, but the Valaiyans do not like

and say

two other forms

marry even

result in

more

prolific unions.

They

tolerate unchastity

before

marriage, and allow

parties to

after several children

have been

born, the marriage legitimatising them.

They permit

remarriage of widows and divorced women.

convicted
of immorality are

Women
erukku

garlanded

with

(Caloiropis gigantea) flowers, and

of

mud round

the village.

made to carry a basket Men who too frequently

VALAIYAN
offend in this respect are
to the neck

2"]%

made

to sit with their toes tied

by a creeper.
girls."

When

woman

is

divorced,
is

her male children go to the husband, and she

to

allowed

keep the

The

tribal

gods of the Valaiyans are Singa Pidari

the

(Aiyanar) and Padinettampadi Karuppan.

on the day
the deity.

after

new-moon

in

Once a year, the month Masi

to,

(February to March), the Valaiyans assemble to worship Early in the morning they proceed
the

Aiyanar temple, and, after doing homage to the god, go

off to the forest to

hunt hares and other small game.

On

their return they are

met by the Valaiyan matrons

rice

carrying coloured
flowers, betel leaves

water or

(alam),

garlands of
is

and areca

nuts.

The alam

waved

over the men, some of

garlanded.

whom become

inspired and are

While they are under inspiration, the mothers appeal to them to name their babies. The products of the chase are taken to the house of the headman and distributed. At a festival, at which Mr. K. Rangachari was present, at about ten o'clock in the morning all the Valaiya men, women, and children, dressed up in holiday
attire,

swarmed out of

their huts,

and proceeded to a
carried

neighbouring grove.

The men and boys each

a throwing stick, or a digging stick tipped with iron.

On

arrival at the grove, they stood in

a row, facing
them,
all

east,

and,

throwing down their

sticks,

saluted

and

prostrated themselves before them.

their sticks,

Then

took up

the

women brought

and some played on reed pipes. Some of garlands of flowers, and placed them
for a

round the necks of four men, who

in their

time stood holding

the ends were

hands their

sticks,

of which

stuck in the ground.

shiver,

After a time

they

began

to

move Under the influence

quickly about, and kick those around them.

of their inspiration, they exhibited

:^79

VALAIVaN
five or six

remarkable physical strength, and

not hold them.

men

could

Calling various people by name, they

expressed a hope that they would respect the gods,

worship them, and offer to them pongal (boiled

rice)

and animal
to

sacrifices.

The women brought

In

their babies

them
is

to be

named.

some

places, the

naming of

infants

performed at the Aiyanar temple by any one

Failing such
to
it,

who

is

under the influence of inspiration.

a one, several flowers, each with a

are thrown in front of the idol.
(priest)

name attached
and the
it.

boy, or the pujari

infant

picks

up one of the
is

flowers,

receives the

name which
in

connected with

The
at

Valaiyans are devoted to devil worship, and,

the Tanjore district, every Valaiyan

Orattanadu
is

backyard
tree, in

said to contain
is

an odiyan [Odina Wodier)

live.*
It is

which the devil

supposed to

noted

by Mr.

W.
at

Francis t that "certain of the Valaiyans

who

live

Ammayanayakkanur

are the
hills.

hereditary

pujaris

to

the

gods of the Sirumalai

Some

of

uncommon, and one of them, Papparayan, is said to be the spirit of a Brahman astrologer whose monsoon forecast was falsified by events, and who, filled with a shame rare in unsuccessful weather prophets,
these deities are

threw himself

off

a high point on the range."

According to Mr. Hemingway, the Valaiyans have a

special caste god,
spirit

of

named Muttal Ravuttan, who is the a dead Muhammadan, about whom nothing
known.
are as a rule buried with rites similar to

seems

to be

The dead
those of the

Kalians and Agamudaiyans.

The

final

death ceremonies (karmandhiram) are performed on the

sixteenth day.

On the

night of the previous day, a vessel

Gazetteer of the Tanjore district.

f Gazetteer of the Madura

district.

VALATYAN
filled

280
is

with water
his

placed on the spot where the deceased

breathed

last,

and two cocoanuts, with the pores

it.

('eyes') open, are deposited near

On

the following

morning,

all

proceed to a grove or tank (pond).

The

eldest son, or other celebrant, after shaving

and bathing,

marks out a square space on the ground, and, placing a few dry twigs of Ficus religiosa and Ficus bengalensis Presents of rice and other therein, sets fire to them.
and others. The sapindas, who have to and ceremony closes with the son observe pollution, placing new cloths on their heads.
food-stuffs

are

given

to

beggars

Mr. Francis records

" the relations

that,

at

the

funeral

ceremonies,

go three times round a basket of grain placed under a pandal (booth), beating their breasts and
singing

:
kanji (rice gruel)
; :

For us the
of Siva) for thee

kailasam (the abode

Rice

for us

for thee

Svargalokam,

and then wind turbans round the head of the deceased's

heir, in recognition of his

new

position as chief of the

family.

When

woman

loses her husband, she

goes

three times round the village mandai (common), with a

pot of water on her shoulder.

After each of the

first

two

journeys, the barber makes a hole in the pot, and at the

end of the third he hurls down the vessel, and cries out an adjuration to the departed spirit to leave the widow and children
the Tanjore
is

in peace."

It is

noted, in the Gazetteer of

district, that "

it

one of the funeral ceremonies

peculiar,

though

is

paralleled by practices

among

the Paraiyans and Karaiyans.

to the burning-ground

When

the heir departs

on the second day, a mortar is placed near the outer door of his house, and a lamp is lit inside. On his return, he has to upset the mortar, and
light."

worship the

28

VALAN

Yalan. For

the following note on the Valan and

I

Katal Arayan fishing castes of the Cochin State,

am

indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Aiyar.

in

a tank.

of
for

The name Valan is derived from vala, meaning fish Some consider the word to be another form Valayan, which signifies a person who throws a net
fishing.

According to the tradition and current

belief of these people, they

were brought to Kerala by

and conveying passengers across the rivers and backwaters on the west coast. Another tradition is that the Valans were Arayans, and they became a separate caste only after one of the
Farasurama
for plying boats

Perumals had selected some of their families

service,

for boat

and conferred on them special

privileges.
is

They
one of

even now pride themselves that their caste

Puranas, and Guha,
the divine

remote antiquity, and that Vedavyasa, the author of the

who rendered
Sita,

the boat service to

Rama,

and Lakshmana, across the

forest,

Ganges

in the

course of their exile to the

were

among

the caste-men.
in

There are no sub-divisions

the caste,

but the

members thereof are

said to belong to four

exogamous

illams (houses of Nambutiris), namely, Alayakad, Ennalu,

Vaisyagiriam, and Vazhapally, which correspond to the

gotras of the Brahmans, or to four clans, the

members of

each of which are perhaps descended from a

ancestor.

common

According to a tradition current among them,

they were once attached to the four Nambutiri illams

above mentioned for service of some kind, and were even the descendants of the members of the illams, but were doomed to the present state of degradation on
account of some misconduct.
Evidently, the story
is
I

looked up to to elevate themselves in social status.

am inclined to believe that they must have been the Atiyars

VALAN

282

(slaves) of the four aforesaid

Brahman

families,

owing a

kind of allegiance (nambikooru) like the Kanakkans to

Manakkal Nambutripad in Perumanam of Even now, these Brahman families the Trichur taluk. are held in great respect by the Valans, who, when
the Chittur
afflicted

with family calamities,

visit

the

respective

illams with presents of a few packets of betel leaves

and

a few annas, to receive the blessings of their Brahman

masters, which, according to their belief,

may

tend to

avert them.

The low sandy

backwater
places,
is

tract

of land on each side

In

of the

the abode of these fishermen.

some

more

especially south of Cranganore, their houses

are dotted

along the banks of the backwater, often

trees,

nearly hidden by cocoanut

while at intervals the

white picturesque fronts of numerous

Roman

Catholic

and Romo-Syrian churches are perceived. These houses are in fact mere flimsy huts, a few of which, occupied
by the members of several
together in the same
families,

may be seen huddled

compound abounding in a growth of cocoanut trees, with hardly enough space to dry their In the majority of cases, the compounds fish and nets. belong to jenmis (landlords), who lease them out either rent-free or on nominal rent, and who often are so kind as to allow them some cocoanuts for their consumption, and leaves sufficient to thatch their houses. About ten per cent, of their houses are built of wood and stones, while a large majority of them are made of mud or bamboo framework, and hardly spacious enough to accommodate the members of the family during the summer months. Cooking is done outside the house,
and very few take
their
rest inside
after

hard work,

for

compounds are shady and

in the

breezy,

and they may

toil,

be seen basking

sun after midnight

or drying

2^3
the
nets or
nsh.

VALAN
few,

Their utensils are

consisting

of earthen vessels and enamel dishes, and their furni-

ture of a few
as beds.

wooden planks and coarse mats

to serve

The

girls of the

Valans are married both before and

the
tali-kettu

after puberty, but

kalyanam

(tali-tying

marriage)

is

indispensable before they

come

of age, as

otherwise they and their parents are put out of caste.

ceremony and for the real marriage, the bride and bridegroom must be of different
Both
for

the tali-tying

illams or gotras.

In regard to the former, as soon as

an auspicious day is fixed, the girl's party visit the Aravan with a present of six annas and eight pies,

and a few packets of betel leaves, when he gives permission, and issues an order to the Ponamban,
subordinate of the kadavu (village),
to

his

his

see that the

ceremony is properly conducted. The Ponamban, the bridegroom and his party, go to the house of the bride. At the appointed hour, the Ponambans and the castemen
of the

two kadavus assemble

after depositing six

annas

and eight pies in recognition of the presence of the Aravan, and the tali is handed over by the priest to the bridegroom, who ties it round the neck of the bride
amidst the joyous shouts of the multitude assembled.

The ceremony always

vities generally last for

takes place at night, and the

festi-

two days.

It

must be understood

that the
girl,

tali
is

tier is

not necessarily the husband of the

but

merely the pseudo-bridegroom or pseudois

husband,

who

sent

away with two

pieces of cloth and

a few annas at the termination of the ceremony.

he, however,
at his

Should

wish to have the

girl as his wife,

tali,

he should,
a wedding
bride.

own

expense, provide her with a

dress,

and a few rupees as the price of the

it

Generally

is

the maternal

uncle

of the girl

who

VALAN
provides her with the

284
first

two

at

the time of the

ceremony.

The actual marriage is more ceremonial in its nature. The maternal uncle, or the father of a young Valan who
wishes to marry,
first visits

the

girl,

and,

if

he approves
is

of the match for his

nephew

or son, the astrologer

consulted so as to ensure that the horoscopes agree.

astrology does not stand in the way,

If

they forthwith

proceed to the
tained.

girl's

house, where they are well enter-

The

bride's parents

and

relatives

return the

visit at the bridegroom's house, where they are likewise

treated to a feast.

The two

parties then decide

on a day

for the formal declaration of the

proposed union.

On
the

that day, a Valan from the bridegroom's village, seven

to

nine elders, and the

is,

Ponamban under whom

bride

meet, and, in the presence of those assembled, a

Valan from each party deposits on a plank four annas and a few betel leaves in token of enangu mattam or exchange of co-castemen from each party for the due
fulfilment of the contract

thus publicly entered

into.

Then they

fix

the date of the marriage, and retire from

the bride's house.

On

the appointed day, the

bride-

groom's party proceed to the bride's house with two

pieces of cloth, a rupee or a rupee and a half, rice,

packets of

betel

leaves,

etc.

The

bride

is

already

dressed and adorned in her best, and one piece of cloth,

rice

and money, are paid to her mother as the price of

After a
feast,

the bride.

the bridal party go to the

is

bridegroom's house, which

hour.

entered at an auspicious

They

are received at the gate with a lamp and

is

a vessel of water, a small quantity of which

seniors of the house and seated together,

sprinkled

on the married couple. They are welcomed by the

when sweets

are given, and the bride

is

formally declared to be a

285

VALAN
family.

member

of the bridegroom's

The ceremony

closes with

a feast, the expenses in connection with

which are the same on both sides. A man may marry more than one

wife, but

no

woman

may
man.

enter into conjugal relations with

more than one

widow

may, with the consent of her parents,

enter into wedlock with any

member

of her caste except

her brothers-in-law, in which case her children by her first husband will be looked after by the members of his

by either party making an application to the Aravan, who has to be presented with from twelve annas to six rupees and a half according
family.

Divorce

is

effected

to the

means of the

applicant.

The Aravan,

in

token

of dissolution, issues a letter to the

members of the

particular village to which the applicant belongs, and, on the declaration of the same, he or she has to pay to his

or her village castemen four annas.

When

a Valan

girl

comes of age, she

is

lodged

in

room of the house, and is under pollution for four days. She is bathed on the fourth day, and the castemen
and women of the neighbourhood, with the relatives and friends, are treated to a sumptuous dinner. There is a curious custom called theralikka, i.e., causing the girl to attain maturity, which consists in placing her in seclusion in a separate room, and proclaiming that
she has

come

of age.

Under such circumstances, the

house of the
girl,

caste-women of the neighbourhood, with the washer-

woman, assemble
pours a small

at the

when

the latter
oil

quantity of gingelly [Sesamum)

on

her head, and rubs her body with turmeric powder, after

which she

is

proclaimed as having attained puberty.

She

is

bathed,

and lodged

in

separate

room as

and the four days' pollution is observed. This custom, which exists also among other castes,
before,

VALAN
is

286
large

now being abandoned by a

In
respect

majority of the

community.
of
inheritance,

the

Valans

follow

system, which partakes of the character of succession

from father to son, and from maternal uncle to nephew.

The
if

self-acquired property

is

generally divided equally

between brothers and

sons, while the ancestral property,

any, goes to the brothers.

The

great majority of the

Valans are mere day-labourers, and the property usually

consists of a few tools, implements, or other equipments

of their calling.

The

Valans,

like

other

castes,

have their

tribal
is

organisation,

and

their

headman (Aravan

or Aravar)

appointed by thitturam or writ issued by His Highness

the Raja.
called

The Aravan appoints other social heads, Ponamban, one, two, or three of whom are Before the stationed at each desam (village) or kadavu. development of the Government authority and the establishment
of

administrative departments, the Aravans

still

wielded great influence and authority, as they

a limited extent, not only in matters
civil

do to

social,

but also in

and criminal disputes between members of the comFor all social functions, matrimonial, funeral, munity.
permission has to be obtained and paid
of the
for.

etc., their

The members

community have
leaves,
rice).
all

to

visit

their

headman, with presents of betel

money, and some-

times rice and paddy (unhusked

The headman
ceremonies by

generally directs the proper conduct of

writs issued to the

Ponambans under him.

of Aravan,

The Ponamthough not

the next
his

bans also are entitled to small perquisites on ceremonial

occasions.
virtually

The appointment
hereditary,

passes at

his death to

qualified senior

member

of his family,

who may be

brother, son, or nephew, but this rule has been violated

28;

VALAN

by the appointment of a person from a different family. The Aravan has the honour of receiving from His Highness the Raja a present of two cloths at the Onam festival, six annas and eight pies on the Athachamayam
day, and a similar

sum

for the

Vishu.

At

his death, the

ruler of the State sends a piece of silk cloth, a piece of

sandal-wood, and about ten rupees, for defraying the

expenses of the funeral ceremonies.

The Valans
the heroes of

profess Hinduism, and Siva, Vishnu,

all

and

the Hindu Puranas are

worshipped.

Like other castes, they entertain special reverence for

Bhagavathi,
flour,

who

is

propitiated with offerings of ricefruits,

toddy, green cocoanuts, plantain

and

fowls,

on Tuesdays and Fridays.

grand

festival,

called

Kumbhom
of March,

Bharani (cock

festival), is

held in the middle

when Nayars and low

In
fact,

caste

men
all

offer

up cocks

to Bhagavathi, beseeching

immunity from diseases during

people from
parts of Malafestival,

the ensuing year.

bar,

Cochin, and Travancore, attend the

and

the whole country near the line of march rings with

shouts of

**

Nada, nada" (walk or march) of the pilgrims

In
"

to Cranganore, the holy residence of the goddess.

their passage
is

up

to the shrine, the cry of " Nada,

nada

varied by unmeasured abuse of the goddess.

it

The
every

abusive language,

is

believed,

is

acceptable to her, and,

it

on

arrival

at

the shrine, they desecrate

in
is

conceivable manner, in the belief that this too

able.

accept-

They throw

stones and

filth,

howling volleys of

abuse at the shrine.

to be present
is

The

chief of the

Arayan
in the

caste,
first

Koolimuttah Arayan, has the privilege of being the

on the occasion.

The image

temple
is

said to have
in the

been recently introduced.

is

There

door

temple which

apparently of stone, fixed in

a half-opened position.

tradition, believed

by Hindus

VALAN

288

and Christians, is attached to this, which asserts that St. Thomas and Bhagavathi held a discussion at PalHport
about the respective merits of the Christian and Hindu
reHgions.

The argument became

it

heated, and Bhaga-

vathi, considering

best to

cease further discussion,

river,

decamped, and, jumping across the Cranganore

made

straight for the temple.

St.

Thomas, not

to be

outdone, rapidly gave chase, and, just as the deity got

inside the door, the saint reached
his
foot
its

outside, and, setting

its

between

it

and the door-post, prevented

until the

closure.

There they both stood

its

door turned to

stone,
its

one not allowing

being opened, and the other

being shut.

Another important
nore,
is

festival,

which

is

held at Cranga-

the

Makara Vilakku, which

is

falls

on the

first

of

Makaram
round the
elephants,

(about the 15th January), during the night of

a good deal of illumination both in and

which there

temple.
all fully

procession of

ten
it

or

twelve

decorated, goes round

several times,

accompanied by drums and instrumental music.

Chourimala lyappan or Sastha, a sylvan deity, whose abode is Chourimala in Travancore, is a favourite deity
of the Valans.

In addition, they worship thedemi-gods

or demons Kallachan Muri and

ever disposed to

Kochu Mallan, who

are

do them harm, and who are therefore They have a patron, propitiated with offerings of fowls. who is also worshipped at Cranganore. The spirits of their ancestors are also held in great veneration by these
people, and are propitiated with offerings on the

new

moon and Sankranthi days

Makaram.
in

of

Karkadakam, Thulam, and

observed by the Valans

The most important common with other

festivals

castes are

Mandalam

Vilakku,

Sivarathri, Vishu,

Onam, and Desara.

289

VALAN

Mandalam Vilakku takes place during the last seven During days of Mandalam (November to December).
this festival the

Valans enjoy themselves with music and

drum-beating during the day.

developing
hysterical
fits,

At

night,

some of them,

profess to be oracles, with

demons such

as

Gandharva, Yakshi, or Bhagavathi,

in

dwelling in their bodies

their

incorporeal

forms.
their

Consultations are held as to

future events,

and

advice

is

thankfully received and acted upon.

Sacrifices

of sheep, fowls, green cocoanuts, and plantain fruits are

offered to the

demons believed

to

be residing within, and

are afterwards liberally distributed

among

the castemen

and others present.

comes on the last day of Magha. The whole day and night are devoted to the worship of Siva, and the Valans, like other castes, go to
Sivarathri
festival

The

Alvai, bathe in the river,

night, reading the Siva

and keep awake during the

his names.

Purana and reciting

spirits of the

Early on the following morning, they bathe, and make

offerings of rice balls to the

ancestors

before returning home.

The Valans have no temples

all

of their own, but, on

important occasions, worship the deities of the temples

of the higher castes, standing at a long distance from the

outer walls of the sacred edifice.

occasions,

On

important religious

Embrans
for

are invited to perform the

Kalasam

which they are liberally rewarded. A kalasam is a pot, which is filled with water. Mango Vedic hymns leaves and dharba grass are placed in it. are repeated, with one end of the grass in the water, and
ceremony,
the other in the hand.

Water thus

sanctified

is

used for
safely

bathing the image.

From

a comparison of the religion

it

of the Valans with that of allied castes,

said that they
V11-19

may be

were animists, but have rapidly imbibed

VALAN

290

the higher forms of worship.

They

are

becoming more

and more

literate,

religious works.

and this helps the study of the There are some among them, who

compose Vanchipattu (songs sung while rowing) with

plots

from their Puranic studies.

either

The Valans
chief

burn or bury their dead.

The

mourner

is

either the son or

nephew of the dead

person, and he performs the death ceremonies as directed

by the

priest (Chithayan),

who

attends wearing a

cloth, turban,

and the sacred thread.

the second,
fifth,

commence on

or

new The ceremonies seventh day, when the

chief mourner, bathing early in the morning, offers pinda

bali (offerings of rice balls) to the spirit of the deceased.

This

is

continued

till

the thirteenth day,

when

the nearest

relatives get shaved.

On

the fifteenth day, the castemen

of the locality, the friends and relatives, are treated to a

grand dinner, and, on the sixteenth day, another offering

(mana pindam) is made to the spirit of the departed, and thrown into the backwater close by. Every day during
the ceremonies, a vessel
full

of rice

is

given to the
If the

priest,

who also
deceased
is

receives ten rupees for his services.

death

ceremonies are not properly performed, the ghost of the

is

believed to haunt the house.

his advice
is

An

astrologer

then consulted, and

is

invariably followed.
fire) is

What

called

Samhara

Homam

(sacred

kept up,
is

and an image of the dead man

purified

in silver or gold

by the recitation of holy mantrams. Another purificatory ceremony is performed, after which the

image

is

handed over

to a priest at the temple, with a

rupee or two.
performed.

This done, the death ceremonies are

The

ears of Valan girls are, as

among some

other
less,

castes, pierced

when they
a piece

are a year old, or even

;of

and a small

quill,

cotton thread, or a

bit

of

291

VALAN
The wound
oil. is

wood,
lead

is

inserted into the hole.

gradually
piece of

healed by the application of cocoanut

is

A
is

then inserted in the hole, which

gradually

enlarged by means of a piece of plantain, cocoanut, or

palmyra

leaf rolled up.

The Valans are expert

Highness the Raja
palace,
in

rowers, and possess the special

privilege of rowing from Thripunathura the boat of

for his installation

at

His the Cochin

when the Aravan, with sword in hand, has to stand front of him in the boat. Further, on the occasion of

any journey of the Raja along the backwaters on occasions of State functions, such as a visit of the Governor
of Madras, or other dignitary, the
as
to

headman leads the way an escort in a snake-boat rowed with paddles, and has supply the requisite number of men for rowing the
official

boats of the high

and

his retinue.

The Katal Arayans,

or sea Arayans,

who

are also

called Katakkoti, are lower in status than the Valans,

and, like them, live along the coast.

service to the Portuguese
days, acting as

They were

of great

and the Dutch

in their

palmy

boatmen in transhipping their commodities and supplying them with fish. The Katal Arayans were, in former times, owing to their social degradation,
precluded from travelling along the public roads.
disability was,

This

during

the

days

of

the

Portuguese
Catholic

supremacy, taken advantage of by the

missionaries,

Roman
of

who

turned their attention to the conversion

of these poor fishermen, a large

number

whom were

thus elevated in the social scale.

are sea fishermen.
all

The

Katal Arayans

On

the death of a prince of Malabar,

fishing

is

temporarily prohibited, and only renewed

after

three days,

when

the spirit of the departed

its

is

supposed to have had time enough to choose

without molestation.
VIII9 B

abode

VALAN

292
their

Among

own community,
by four

the Katal Arayans

distinguish themselves

distinct appellations, viz.,

Sankhan, Bharatan, Amukkuvan, and Mukkuvan, Of The castemen these, Amukkuvans do priestly functions.
belong to four septs or
illams,

namely,

Kattotillam,

Karotillam, Chempotillam, and Ponnotillam.

Katal Arayan girls are married both before and after

puberty.

The

tali-tying

ceremony, which

is

compulsory
is

in the case of
off,

Valan

girls before

they come of age,

real marriage.

put

and takes place along with the

The

preliminary negociations and settlements thereof are

substantially the

same as those prevailing among the Valans. The auspicious hour for marriage is between three and eight in the morning, and, on the previous evening, the bridegroom and his party arrive at the house of the bride, where they are welcomed and treated to a grand feast, after which the guests, along with the bride and bridegroom seated somewhat apart, in a pandal tastefully decorated and brightly illuminated, are entertained with songs of the Velan (washerman) and his
wife alluding to the marriage of Sita or Parvathi, in the
belief that they will bring about a

happy conjugal union.

These are continued till sunrise, when the priest hands over the marriage badge to the bridegroom, who ties it
round the neck of the bride.

The songs

are again

continued for an hour or two, after which poli begins.

The

guests

who have assembled

contribute a rupee,

eight annas, or four annas, according to their means,

which go towards the remuneration of the priest, songsters, and drummers. The guests are again sumptuously
entertained at twelve o'clock, after which the bridegroom

and

his party return with the bride to his house.

At the
it,

time of departure, or nearly an hour before

the

bridegroom

ties

a few rupees or a sovereign to a corner

^9i
of the bride's
body-cloth,

VALAN

probably to induce her to

is

accompany him.
bridal party
is

Just then, the bride-price, which

is

loi puthans, or Rs. 5-12-4,

paid to her parents.

The

entertained at the bridegroom's house,

where, at an auspicious hour, the newly married couple

are seated together, and served with a few pieces of
plantain fruits and

some

milk,

when the

bride

is

formally
If

declared to be a

member

of her husband's family.

is

girl attains

maturity after her marriage, she

secluded

for a period of eleven days.

fourth, seventh,

She bathes on the first, and eleventh days, and, on the last day
feast,

the caste people are entertained with a grand

the

expenses connected with which are met by the husband.

The

Katal Arayans rarely have more than one wife.

after the

widow may, a year

death of her husband,

enter into conjugal relations with any

caste,

member
is

of the
in the

except her brother-in-law.

line.

Succession

male

duties are the

(Aravans), whose same as those of the headmen of the Valans. When the senior male or female member of the ruling family dies, the Aravan has the special privilege of being the first successor to the masnad with his
(nuzzer),

The Katal Arayans have headmen

tirumul kazcha

which consists of a

small

quantity of salt packed in a plantain leaf with rope and

a Venetian ducat or other gold coin.

During the period

after

of mourning, visits of condolence from durbar officials

and sthanis or noblemen are received only

Aravan's
nore
is

the

visit.

When the
special

Bhagavathi temple of CrangaKoolimutteth

entering
the
privilege

defiled during the cock festival,

Aravan has the

temple

of

in preference to other

castemen.

The

Katal Arayans profess

Hinduism,

and

their

modes of worship, and other

religious observances, are

VALAN
The

294

the same as those of the Velans.

The dead
it

are either
is

burnt or buried.

period

of death

pollution

eleven days, and the agnates are freed from

by a bath

on the eleventh day.

On

the twelfth day, the castemen

of the village, including the relatives and friends, are

treated to a grand feast.

The

son,

mourner, observes

the

diksha, or

who is the chief vow by which he

does not shave,

for a year.

He
in

performs the sradha

(memorial service) every year

honour of the dead.

"

Some

of the methods of catching fish at Cochin are

thus described by Dr.

Francis Day.*

Cast nets are

employed from the shore, by a number of fishermen, who station themselves either in the early morning or
in the afternoon,

along the coast from 50 to 100 yards

a careful watch on the water, and, on

apart.

They keep

perceiving a fish rise sufficiently near the land, rush

down and attempt

not done
as
in

to

throw their nets over

it.

This

is

Europe

by twisting the net round

and round the head until it has acquired the necessary but by the person impetus, and then throwing it
;

twirling

himself and the net round and round at the

same

time,

and then casting

it.

gets knocked over by a wave.

He not unfrequently When fish are caught,

they are buried in the sand, to prevent their tainting.

In the wide inland rivers, fishermen employ cast nets in

the following manner.

Each man

is

in a boat,

which
This

is

propelled by a boy with a bamboo.

The

fisherman has
last

a cast net, and a small empty cocoanut

shell.

he

throws into the river, about

twenty yards before the

comes down with a splash, said to be done As the boat approaches to scare away the crocodiles. the place where the cocoanut shell was thrown, the
boat,

and

it

The

land of the Permauls, or Cochin,

its

past

and

its

present, 1863.

295

VALAN
This methodriis only

man

casts his net

around the

spot.

for obtaining small fish,

a time are to

and as many as fifteen boats at be seen thus employed in one place, one

following the other in rapid succession,

centre, others the sides of the river.
"

some trying the

Double rows of long bamboos,

firmly fixed in the

mud, are placed at intervals across the backwater, and on these nets are fixed at the flood tide, so that fish which have entered are unable to return to
the sea.
ally

Numbers

of very

large

ones are occasionof Chinese nets

is

captured in this way.

A species
banks.

also
1

used along

the river's

They

are

about
corner,

6 feet square, suspended by

let

bamboos from each

and
after

down

like

buckets into the water, and then

a few minutes drawn up again.

piece of string,

to

which are attached portions of the white leaves

is

of the cocoanut tree,

tied at short

intervals along

the ebb side of the net, which effectually prevents fish

from going that way.

plan somewhat analogous

is

employed on a small
three feet square
is

scale for catching crabs.

net

supported at the four corners by two

pieces of stick fastened crosswise.

From

the centre of
it

these sticks where they cross

is

a string to pull
is

up

by or
left

let

it

down, and a piece of meat

inside.

tied to the

middle of the net

This

is let

down from a

wharf,

under water

for a

few minutes, and then pulled up.

Crabs coming
sea,

to feed are thus caught.

is

" Fishing with a line

seldom attempted
of

in the

deep
fish.

excepting for sharks, rays, and other large

are

The hooks employed

roughest,

two

descriptions,

the

although
;

perhaps

the

strongest,

being of

native manufacture

the others are of English make,

denominated China hooks.

The hook

is

fastened to a

species of fibre called thumboo, said to be derived from

valan

296

a seaweed, but more probably from one of the species of

hemp, cotton, or the fibre palm [Caryota urens), which is obtained of the talipot by maceration. In Europe they are called Indian gut.
palms.
lines are either

The

" Trolling from the shore at the river's

mouth
is

is

only carried on of a morning or evening, during the

winter months of the year,

when

the sea
in

smooth.

The line is wound round

line

from 80 to 100 yards

the
left

length,
is

and held

hand

the hook
bait
is

fastened to the
fish.

by a brass wire, and the

his head,

a live

The
it

fisherman, after giving the line an impetus by twirling

round and round

throws

it

with great precision

from 50 to 60 yards.
of an anna each.

man

is

always close by with a

sells for
is

cast net, catching baits,

which he

one quarter
very exciting

This mode of fishing

sport, but is very uncertain in its results,

and therefore

usually carried on by coolies either before their day's

work has commenced,

"

or after

its

termination.
all

Fishing with a bait

the

continues

day long

in
is

Cochin during

monsoon months, when work

five

almost at a standstill, and

or six persons

may be
it

perceived at each jetty, busily engaged in this occupation.

The Bagrus

tribe is then plentiful, and, as

bites

readily, large

numbers are captured.

the small canoe only steadied

" Fishing in small boats appears at times to be a

dangerous occupation

by the paddle of one man seated in it looks as if it must every minute be swamped. Very large fish are sometimes caught in this way. Should one be hooked
too large for
the

fisherman to manage, the

man

in

the next boat comes to his assistance, and receives a

quarter of the fish for his trouble.

all
is

This

is

carried on

through the year, and the

size of

some of the Bagri

enormous.

"

Fish are shot

is

in

various ways, by a Chittagong

bamboo, which
is

a hollow tube,

down which
is

the arrow
is

propelled by the marksman's mouth.

This mode

sometimes very remunerative, and

followed by persons

who

quietly sneak along the shores, either of sluggish

into trees,

Sometimes they climb up and there await a good shot. Or, during the monsoon, the sportsman quietly seats himself near some narrow channel that passes from one wide piece of water into another, and watches for his prey. Other fishermen
streams or of the backwater.
shoot with bows and

and again others with cross-bows, the iron arrow or bolt of which is attached by a line to the bow, to prevent its being lost. But
arrows,
netting
fish,

catching them with hooks, or shooting them

with arrows, are not the only means employed for their
capture.

Bamboo

labyrinths,

bamboo

baskets, and even

men's hands

alone, are called into use.

" Persons fish for crabs in

shallow brackish water,

in

provided with baskets like those employed

for catching eels, but

Europe

open

at both ends.

The
feel

fishermen

walk about
endeavour

in

the mud, and,

it

when they

a fish move,

to cover

with the larger end of the basket,

which

is

forced
is

the hand

down some distance into the mud, and then passed downward through the upper
the fish

extremity, and

taken out.
is

catching them by the hand

Another plan of by having two lines to

tied
to the

which white cocoanut leaves are attached

fisherman's

two great

toes,

from which they diverge

the other end of each being held by another

man a

good way
it

off,

and some distance apart.

fish

On

these lines

being shaken, the

become

frightened, and, strange as

may appear, cluster for protection around the man's feet, who is able to stoop down, and catch them with his
hands, by watching his opportunity.

VALANGAI
"

298
labyrinths are

Bamboo
in

water,

which a

common good many fish,

all

along the back-

especially eels

and

crabs, are captured.

These labyrinths are formed of a

screen of split bamboos, passing perpendicularly out

of the water, and leading into a larger baited chamber.

A A

dead cat
string
is

is

often

employed as a
its

bait
it

for

crabs.

attached to

body, and, after

has been in

the water some days,

it is

pulled up with these Crustacea

often surprised at crabs

adherent to

it.

Persons are

being considered unwholesome, but their astonishment

would

cease,

if

they were aware what extremely unclean

feeders they are.

" Fish are obtained

from the inland rivers by poison-

ing them, but this can only be done

low.

when the water

is

A dam

is

thrown across a certain portion, and the

it.

poison placed within

indicus (berries)

It

generally consists of Cocculus

rice
;

pounded with

croton

oil

seeds, etc."

Balagai,

Valangai. Valangai, Valangan, Valangamattan, or meaning those who belong to the right-hand
been returned as a subDeva-dasis,

faction, has, at times of census,

division,

synonym

or

title

of

Holeyas,

Nokkans, Panisavans, Paraiyans, and Saliyans. Some Deva-dasis have returned themselves as belonging to the
left-hand (idangai) faction.

Valayakara Chetti. A Tamil synonym of Gazula Balijas who sell glass bangles. The equivalent Vala
Chetti
is

also recorded.

Valekara. A Badaga form of Billekara or belted peon. The word frequently occurs in Badaga ballads. Taluk peons on the Nilgiris are called Valekaras. Vali Sugriva. A synonym of the Lambadis, who claim descent from Vali and Sugriva, the two monkey chiefs of the Ramayana.

Valinchiyan. 5^^

Velakkattalavan.

299

VALLAMBAN

Valiyatan
Recorded,
title

(valiya, great, tan, a title of dignity).

in the

Travancore Census Report,

901, as a

of Nayar.

Vallabarayan.

Vallamban.
Madura

The

title

of Occhan.

Vallambans are a small Tamil

cultivating class living in the Tanjore, Trichinopoly,

districts.

and

They

are said * to be " the offspring

woman, now a small and Some of them assert insignificant caste of cultivators. that their ancestors were the lords of the soil, for whose
of a Vellalan and a Valaiya
sole benefit the Vellalans used to carry

on cultivation. Vellambans to have joined the Tradition makes the Kalians in attacking and driving away the Vellalans.
customary among the Vallambans, when demising
being descendants of the
the Vallama nadu in
lost

It is

land, to refer to the fact of their

Vallambans who

Vallam,

i.e.^

Tanjore, their proper country."

Some Vallambans claim

They Vellalas who

to be flesh-eating Vellalas, or to be superior to Kalians

and Maravans by reason of

call

their Vellala ancestry.

themselves Vallamtotta Vellalas, or the

lost

Vallam, and say that they were Vellalas of Vallam

in the

Tanjore

district,

who

left

their native place in a

time of famine.
Portions of the

divided into areas

certain
factor.

Madura and Tanjore districts are known as nadus, in each of which a

is

caste,

called the Nattar,

the

predominant

called

For example, the Vallambans and Kalians are the Nattars of the Palaya nadu in the Sivaganga
district.

zemindari of the Madura

In dealing with the

tribal affairs of the various castes inhabiting a particular

nadu, the lead

is

taken by the Nattars, by

whom

certain

privileges are enjoyed, as for

example

in

the distribution

Manual of

Ihe

Madura

district.

VaLLambai^
to them, after the

300

Brahman and zamindar, of the

in

flowers

and sacred ashes used

temple worship.

For the

purposes of caste council meetings the Vallambans collect

together representatives from fourteen nadus, as they
consider that the council should be composed of delegates

from a head village and

in

its

branches, generally thirteen

number.
It is

noted by Mr. F. R.
**

Hemingway

that the Val-

lambans

speak of five sub-divisions, namely, Chenjinadu,

Palayanadu,

Amaravatinadu,

Melnadu, and

Kilnadu.

The Mel and Kilnadu people

and the
those
latter

intermarry, but are dis-

tinguishable by the fact that the former have moustaches,

have

not.

The women
is

dress like the

allowed,

Nattukottai

Chettis.
it

Tattooing

not

and

who

practice

are expelled from the caste.

title,

The

men

generally have no

but some

who

enjoy State

service inams call themselves Ambalakaran.

The Melthough they

nadu people have no exogamous

have exogamous kilais, examples of exogamous
cited
:

divisions,

observe the rule about Kovil Pangolis.

karais,
septs,

and

the

The Kilnadus As following may be

pattams."

Solangal
(jackal),

(Chola),

Pandiangal
(tiger).
is

(Pandyan),

Nariangal

and Piliyangal
of the

The headman
of nadus
village
is

Vallambans

referred

to

generally as the Servaikaran.

is

The headman

of a group of a

entitled Nattuservai, while the

headman
and

known
is

as

Or

Servai, or simply Servai.

Marriage
that
is

celebrated
is

between

adults,
to.

remarriage of widows
" the

not objected

It is

the stated *

maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter

claimed as a matter of right by a boy, so that a boy

of ten

may be wedded

to a mature

woman

of twenty or

Manual of the Madura

district.

301
twenty-five years,
if

VALLAMBAN

she happens to be unmarried and

elderly male

without issue.
family
will

Any

member

of the boy's

his elder brother, uncle,

or even his father

have intercourse with her, and beget children, which

the boy,

when he comes

of age, will accept as his own,

in

and

legitimatise."
is

This system of marriage,

"

which

there

a marked disparity in the ages of the contracting

is

couple,

referred to in the proverb

least

be tied at

by a log of wood."

The tali should The marriage rites

families the services of a

some well-to-do Brahman purohit are enlisted. The presence of the Umbalakaran or caste headman at a
are as a rule non-Brahmanical, but in

marriage

is

essential.
offer,

On the wedding day

is

the contract-

ing couple
rice),

at their

homes, manaipongal (boiled

and the alangu ceremony

rice

performed by waving
touching
the
knees,

coloured

round

them,

or

shoulders, and head with cakes, and throwing

them over

the head.
old cloth
uncle.

The

wrist-threads, consisting of a piece of

Cooked

dyed with turmeric, are tied on by the maternal rice and vegetables are placed in front

Four betel leaves are given to the bridegroom, who goes round the dais, and salutes the four cardinal points of the compass by pouring water from a leaf. He then sits down on a plank on the dais, and hands the tali (marriage badge) to his sister. Taking the tali, she proceeds to the bride's
house,

of the marriage dais, and offered to the gods.

where the
is

bride,

after performing the alangu

ceremony,

awaiting her arrival.

On

reaching the

house, she asks for the bride's presents, and one of her

brothers replies that such a piece of land, naming one,

is

given as a dowry.

The

bridegroom's sister then

removes the string of black and gold beads, such as is worn before marriage, from the bride's neck, and replaces it by the tali. The conch shell should be blown by

VALLAMBAN
women

302

or children during the performance of manai-

pongal, and

when

the

tali is tied.

The

bride
sits

is

conveyed

to the house of the bridegroom, and

with him on

the dais while the relations the community

make

presents to them.

The messenger who conveys

is

the news of a death in

a Paraiyan.

The

corpse

is

placed

within a pandal (booth) supported on four posts, which

is

erected in front of the house.

Some paddy (unhusked

rice

rice) is
is

poured from a winnow on to the ground, and

thrown over the face of the corpse.

On the second day

and other articles of food, are carried by a barber to If the spot where the corpse has been buried or burnt. has been adopted, course the barber latter picks out the
rice,

some of the remains of the bones, and hands them to On the third day, the widow the son of the deceased.
goes round the pandal three times, and, entering within
it,

removes her

tali string,

over her neck.

On

and new clothes are thrown the sixteenth day the final death

ceremonies (karmandhiram) are performed. A feast is given, and new cloths are tied on the heads of those

under pollution. Pollution lasts for thirty days. The Vallambans profess to be Saivaites, but they
consider Periya

Nayaki of Velangkudi as
its

their tribal

goddess, and each nadu has

as

own

special deity,
etc.

such

Vembu

Aiyanar, Nelliyandi Aiyanar,

is

places the tribal deity

festival

some worshipped on a Tuesday at a

In

called

Sevvai (Tuesday).

On

this

day

pots

containing fermented rice liquor, which must have been

made by

the caste people and not purchased, are taken

to the place of worship.

On

a Friday, those families

which are to take part in the festival allow a quantity of paddy (rice) to germinate by soaking it in water, and on the following Tuesday flower spikes of the palmyra palm
are added to the malted rice liquor in the pots.

The

303
pots of ordinary families

VALLUVAN
placed in their houses,

may be

but those of the Umbalakarans and Servaikarans must

be taken

to the

temple as representing the deity.

Into

these pots the flower spikes should be placed by some

respected elder of the community.
quantity of rice liquor
is

A week later, a small

the liquor into a tank

are carried by

women

poured into other pots, which to the temple car, round which they

go three
or pond.

times.

They then throw

pots of the

Umbalakaran and Servaikaran must be carried by young virgins, or grown-up

The

women who are not under menstrual of the women who carries these pots
possessed by the village deity.
festival, cradles, horses,

pollution.

One

usually becomes At the time of the

human

figures, elephants, etc.,

made by
Valli
vas,

the potter, are brought to the temple as votive

offerings to the god.

Ammai Kuttam.A

meaning followers of Valli God Subrahmanya, whom they claim Korava woman.

synonym of the KoraAmmai, the wife of the

to

have been a
in the

Vallodi.The name denotes a settlement

Valluvanad taluk of Malabar, and has been returned as a sub-division of Nayar and Samantan, to which the

Raja of Valluvanad belongs. Valluvan.The Valluvans are summed up by Mr. H. A. Stuart* as being "the priests of the Paraiyans

and

Pallans.

Tiruvalluvar,

the

famous Tamil poet,

is

author of the Kural, belonged to this caste, which

usually regarded

as

a sub-division of Paraiyans.

It

appears that the Valluvans were priests to the Pallava

kings before the introduction of the Brahmans, and even
for

some time
*

after itf

In an unpublished Vatteluttu

Madras Census Report, 1891, and Manual of the North Arcot

district.

t See Divakaram and Chudamani Nikhandu.

VALLUVAN
inscription,

304
believed to

be of the ninth century, the

'

following sentence occurs

Sri

Velluvam Puvanavan, the

will

Uvac'chan (Oc'chan) of this temple, six men for doing the temple service.'
to that of the Vellalas,
if

employ daily

Again, the Vallu-

vans must have formerly held a position at least equal

the story that Tiruvalluva

Nayanar married a Vellala girl is true.* He is said to have " refused to acknowledge the distinctions of
caste,

and succeeded
from
descent.

in

obtaining a Vellala

woman

as
it

his wife,

whom
As

a section of the Valluvans say

has

its

their ancestor

intervals between his studies themselves in mending torn

amused himself in the by weaving, they employ

but chiefly live by

linen,

astrology,
officiating

and by acting as priests of Paraiyans, and at their funerals and marriages, though some

refuse to take part in the former inauspicious ceremony,

and leave the duty to those

whom

they consider impure

Valluvans called Paraiya Tadas. Another section of the Valluvans is called Alvar Dasari or Tavadadhari (those

who wear

the necklace of tulsi beads).

Both Saivites

and Vaishnavites eat together, but do not intermarry. Unlike Paraiyans, they forbid remarriage of widows and even polygamy, and all males above twelve wear the
sacred thread."

According to one account, the Vallualliance

vans are the descendants of an

between a
children

Brahman sage and a Paraiyan woman, whose

blessed them, and told

complained to their father of their lowly position.

He
much

them
and,

that they
in

would become

very clever
respected.

astrologers,

consequence,

At the Travancore

census, 1901, the Vallu-

vans were defined as a sub-division of the Pulayas, for whom they perform priestly functions.
Sec Life of Tirnvalluvar, in Lazarus' edition of the Kural.

VALLUVAN DRESSED UP AS SIVA AT MALAYAN UR FESTIVAL.

305

VALLUVAN

Both men and women are employed as astrologers and doctors, and are often consulted by all classes of
people.
In

many

villages they

have the privilege of

receiving from each ryot a handful of grain during the harvest time." * Of three Valluvans, whom I inter-

viewed

Coimbatore, one, with a flowing white beard, had a lingam wrapped up in a pink cloth round the neck,
at

round the right upper had a salmoncoloured turban. The third was wearing a discarded British soldier's tunic. All wore necklaces of rudraksha
arm.

and a charm

tied in a pink cloth

Another, with a

black beard,

their foreheads were smeared with oblong patches of sandal paste. Each of them had a collection of panchangams, or calendars
for

{^Elceocarpus Ganitrtts) beads,

and

determining auspicious dates, and a bundle of palm

strips
(ulla

leaf

mudyan)

inscribed

with

slokas

for

astrological purposes.

Their professional duties included

writing charms for sick people, preparing horoscopes,

and making
cabalistic

forecasts

squares

good or evil by means of marked on the ground. Some

of

Valluvans would have us believe that those

ciate

who
and

offi-

as

priests

are

not

true

Valluvans,

that

the true
astrologer,

Valluvan,
will not
'

who

carries out

the duties of an

perform priestly functions for the

Paraiyans.

The most

important sub-divisions of the Valluvans,

returned at times of census, are Paraiyan, Tavidadari,

and Tiruvalluvan.
gather
that

From
are

information supplied to me,

there

two

main

divisions,

called

Arupathu

Katchi (sixty house section)

and Narpathu
his

Katchi (forty house section).

to be descendants of

The

former are supposed

Nandi Gurukkal, and take

name

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

vn-20

VALLUVAN
as their gotra.

306

The

Say ichya Ayyamgar. site of one of the most sacred Siva temples. The subdivision Alvar claims descent from Tiruppan Alvar, one of
the twelve Vaishnava saints.
In the Tanjore district,

Sidambara Sidambara, or C hidambaram, is the

gotra of the latter
is

the Valluvans have exogamous septs or pattaperu,

after persons, e.g., Marulipichan,

named
etc.

Govindazhvan,

The Valluvans

include in their ranks both Vaish-

navites and Saivites.

The

majority ot the

latter,

both

males and females, wear the lingam.

The

affairs

of the

community are adjusted by a caste council and there are, in most places, two hereditary officers called Kolkaran and Kanakkan. At the betrothal ceremony the bride's money (pariyam), betel, jewels, flowers, and
future bride's lap.
fruit,

are placed in the

The money

ranges from seven to ten

is

rupees

if

the bridegroom's village

on the same side of

if

a river as the bride's, and from ten to twenty rupees

it

is

on the other

side.

small

sum
is

of money, called

uramurai kattu (money paid to relations) and panda

varisai

(money paid

in the pandal),

also paid

by the

bridegroom's party

for

a feast of toddy to the relations.

This

is

the proper time for settling caste disputes by the

village council.

On

the wedding day,

the milk-post,
set up,

consisting of a green

bamboo

pole,

is

and a
viz.,

number of
placed near

pots,
it.

brought from the

potter's

house, are

On

the dais are set four lamps,

an

ordinary brass lamp, kudavilakku (pot light), alankara

vilakku (ornamental
light).
light),

and paligai vilakku (seedling

The
it
it.

bride and bridegroom bring

floor

some

sand,

spread

on the

near the dais, and place seven

leaves on

Cotton threads, dyed with turmeric, are

tied to the pots

set cakes

and the milk-post.

On

the leaves are

and

rice,

and the contracting couple worship

307
the pots and the family gods.

VALLUVAN
The Valluvan
priest

repeats a jumble of corrupt Sanskrit, and ties the kanka-

on their wrists. They are then led into the house, and garlanded with jasmine or Nerium

nams

(threads)

flowers.

The

pots are arranged on the dais, and the

Into one

sand

is

spread thereon close to the milk-post.

of the pots the female relations put grain seedlings, and

four other pots are filled with water by the bridegroom's
party.

small

quantity of the seedlings

is

usually

wrapped up in a cloth, and placed over the seedling pot. Next morning the bundle is untied, and examined, to see if the seedlings are in good condition. If they are so, the bride is considered a worthy one if not, the bride is
;

either bad, or will die prematurely.

The

usual nalagu

ceremony
paste.

is

next performed, bride and bridegroom being

oil,

anointed with

and smeared with Phaseolus

Mungo

This

is

followed by the offering of food on eleven

Towards evening, the dais is got ready for its occupation by the bridal couple, two planks being placed on it, and covered with cloths lent by a washerman. The couple, sitting on the planks, exchange betel and paddy nine or twelve times, and rice twenty -seven times. The priest kindles the sacred fire (homam), and pours some ghi (clarified butter)
leaves to the ancestors and house gods.
into
it

from a mango

leaf.

The bridegroom

is

asked

whether he sees Arundati (the pole-star)

replies in the affirmative.

thrice,

and

shown the sky, smoked over burning camphor, and placed on a tray
tali
is

The

together with a rupee.

present,
it

After being blessed by those

is

tied

round the neck qf the bride by the

his
is

bridegroom,
the

who has

right

leg on her lap.

On
the

second day there

a procession

through

village, and,

on the following day, the wrist-threads are

removed.
VII-20 B

VALLUVAN
In

308
places, the Valluvans, at their marriages, like

some

the Pallis and

some other

castes, use the pandamutti, or

pile of pots reaching to the top of the pandal.

The
grave.

Saivite lingam wearers bury their

dead

in a

sitting posture in

a niche excavated in the side of the

in,
is

After death has set

burnt.

a cocoanut

is

broken, and

camphor
is

The corpse

washed by

relations,

who

bring nine pots of water for the purpose.

tied

The lingam

on to the head, and a cloth bundle, containing a rupee, seven bilva {/Egle Marmelos) leaves, nine twigs of the tulsi {^Ocimum sanctum), and nine Leucas aspera
flowers, to the right arm.

The

corpse

is

carried to the
vessels.

grave on a car surmounted by grave

is

five brass

The

purified

by the sprinkling of cow's urine and cow-

dung water before the corpse is lowered into it. On the way to the burial-ground, the priest keeps on chanting
various songs, such as " This
thillai
is

Kailasa.

This
is

is

Kailasa
Nallia

(Chidambaram).

Our

request

this.

Mutthan of the Nandidarma gotra died on Thursday in the month Thai in the year Subakruthu. He must
enter

the

fourth stage (sayichyam), passing

through

Salokam, Samipa, and Sarupa.

of stones, of thorns,
of
fire,

He

crosses the rivers

and of snakes, holding

the

tail

of the bull Nandi.

safely,

To

enable him to reach

lights of rice."

heaven

we pound

rice,

and put

The
been

priest

receives a

fee

for his

services,

which he

places before an image

filled in.

made on the grave after it has The money is usually spent in making

a sacred
grave.

bull,

lingam, or stone slab, to place on the

On

the third day after death, the female rela-

tives of the deceased pour milk within the

house into

a vessel, which
burial-ground,
cleaned.

is

taken by the male relatives to the

offered
at the

and

grave,

which

is

small platform,

made

of mud, and

composed

309
of several
is

VALLUVAN

tiers,

decreasing in size from below upwards,

erected thereon, and surmounted by a lingam.

At

the north and south corners of this platform, a bull and

paradesi (mendicant)

made
laid,

of

mud
etc.,

are placed, and at

in the
final

each corner leaves are form of

rice, fruits,

on which the offerings

are
laid.

vegetables,

The

death ceremonies are celebrated on the seventeenth day.

pandal (booth)
it

is

set

up,

and closed

in

with cloths.

Within

are placed a pot and five pestles and mortars,

tied.

to which threads are

Five married women, taking

a lamp, which

hold of the pestles, pound some rice contained in the

pot,

and with the

flour

make

is

placed on

a tray.

The

eldest

son of the deceased goes, with the

lamp on

his head, to

an enclosure having an entrance

at

the four cardinal points.

The

enclosure

is

either a per-

manent one with mud walls, or temporary one made out of mats. Within the enclosure, five pots are set up in the centre, and four at each side. The pots are cleansed by washing them with the urine of cows of five different Near the colours, red, white, black, grey, and spotted.
pots the articles required for puja (worship) are placed,

and the officiating priest sits near them. The enclosure is supposed to represent heaven, and the entrances are the gates leading thereto, before which food is placed
on
leaves.

The

eldest son, with the lamp, stands at the

is

eastern entrance, while Siva

worshipped.

The

priest
is

then repeats certain stanzas, of which the following

the substance.
in the

"

You who come like

at midnight,

Siddars (attendants

abode of Siva)

muttering Siva's name,

?
I

why do you come

with

near Sivapadam

will

pierce you

my

trident.
hell."

Get away.

Let these be taken to

yamapuri, or
noise,

ask "

Oh

Then Siva and Parvati, hearing the sons, who are you that keep on saying
nativity."

Hara, Hara?

Give out truly your names and

VALLUVAN

310
reply
is

To which the
of that Being
saiva by faith.
all

given "

who graced
I

am a devotee Markandeya, and am a Vira!

Oh

Lord,

have come to enter heaven.

We have
charity.

led pure lives,

it

and have performed acts of

So

is

not just that

we

should be prevented from

parents, or superiors,

entering.

Men who
all

ill-treat their

those addicted to

kinds of vice, blasphemers, mur-

derers, perverts from their

own

faith

and

priests,

and

other such people, are driven to hell by the southern

gate."

At

this

stage,
son,

a thread

is

passed round the

enclosure.

The

still

bearing the lamp, goes from

the eastern entrance past the south and western entrances,

and, breaking the thread, goes into the enclosure through

the northern entrance.

official)

The Nandikol
first

(hereditary village

then

ties

a cloth

round the head of the

eldest son,

and afterwards round the heads of the other

abstain from eating beef.

sons and agnates.

The Valluvans
they mix

Though

freely with the Paraiyans,

in

they will not eat

with them, and never live

the Paraiyan quarter.

The

Valluvans are sometimes called Pandaram or

In

Valluva Pandaram.

some

places, the priests of the

Valluvans are Vellala Pandarams.

Valluvan,A
boatmen
in

small inferior caste of fishermen and

Malabar.*

Valmika.

Valmika or Valmiki
Paidis,

is

name assumed
did penance

by the Boyas and

for so

who

claim to be descended from

Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana,

who
hill

long in one spot that a white-ant

(valmikam)
is

grew up round him.

referred to

In a note before me, Valmiki

as

the

Spenser of India.

In the

North

Arcot Manual, Valmikulu, as a synonym of the Vedans,

Gazetteer of Malabar.

311
is

VANDULA OR
VANDI RAJA
live

made

to

mean those who

on the products of
the

ant-hills.

Val Nambi. Recorded,

of Brahmans, and val
that the

in

Madras

Census

Report, iQOi.as " a synonym for Mussad.

means a sword.

Nambi is a title The tradition is

name arose from the ancestors of the caste having lost some of the privileges of the Vedic Brahmans owing to their having served as soldiers when Malabar was ruled by the Brahmans prior to the days of the Perumals." Valuvadi.The Valuvadis are returned, in the
Madras Census
Pudukottai State.
Report,
I

1901,

as

cultivators

in

the

am

informed that the Valuvadis are

a section of the Valaiyan caste, to which the Zamindar

of Nagaram belongs.

The name Valuvadi was originally a title of respect, appended to the name of the Nagaram Zamindars. The name of the present Zamindar is Balasubramanya Valuvadiar. Thirty years ago there is said Some Valaiyans in to have been no Valuvadi caste. prosperous circumstances, and others who became relaZamindar by marriage, have tives of the Nagaram
changed
their caste

name, to show that they are superior

in social status to the rest of the

community.

Vamme.^A
because,

gotra of Janappans, the

fish

members of

which abstain from eating the

called bombadai,

when some

of their ancestors went to fetch

water

in the

marriage pot, they found a number of this

fish in the

water contained in the pot.

Vana
by some

Palli. A name, meaning

South Arcot.

forest Palli,

assumed

Irulas in

Vandikkaran.An occupational name for Nayars who work as cartmen (vandi, cart) for carrying fuel. Vandula or Vandi Raja. A sub-division of Bhatrazu, named after one Vandi, who is said to have

been a herald

at the

marriage of Siva.

VANGU

312
(cave).

VangU

A sub-division of
;

Irula.

Vani. "The
Stuart writes,*

Vanis or Bandekars," Mr.

classified

H.

A.

"have been wrongly

are said to have

in the

census returns (1891) as oil-pressers

traders.

they are

in reality

They

come from Goa, and

guru
is

they speak Konkani.

of the
1

Their
math."

spiritual

the head

Kumbakonam

In the Census Report,

literally

90 1,

it is

noted that Vani, meaning

"

a trader,

is

a Konkani-speaking trading caste, of which Bandekara

is

a synonym.
call

They ape

the Brahmanical customs,

and

themselves by the curious hybrid name of

Vaisya Brahmans."
further synonym.

Hari Chetti has been returned as a

are,

Vaniyan.The Vaniyans
"oil-pressers

Mr. Francis writes,!

among

the Tamils, corresponding to the

Telugu Gandlas, Canarese Ganigas, Malabar Chakkans,

and Oriya
Tellis.

For some obscure

reason,
all

Manu

classed oil-pressing as a base occupation, and

followers

of the calling are held in small esteem, and, in Tinnevelly,

they are not allowed to enter the temples.

In conse-

quence, however, of their services in lighting the temples

(in

token of which

all

of them, except the Malabar

Vaniyans and Chakkans, wear the sacred thread), they

are earning a high position, and

some of them use the

in the city

sonorous
light)

title

of Joti Nagarattar (dwellers in the city of

and Tiru-vilakku Nagarattar (dwellers

lamps).

of holy

practice infant

They employ Brahmans as priests, marriage, and prohibit widow marriage,

and decline to eat in the houses of any caste below Brahmans. However, even the washermen decline to eat with them. Like the Gandlas they
usually burn their dead,

have two sub-divisions, Ottai-sekkan and Irattai-sekkan,

* Manual of the South Canara
t Madras Census Report, 1901.
District,

313

VANIYAN

who

use respectively one bullock and two bullocks in

Oddly enough, the former belong to the right-hand faction, and the latter to the left. Their usual title is Chetti. The name Vanuvan has been assumed by Vaniyans, who have left their traditional occupation, and taken to the grain and other trades." "The word Vanijyam," Mr. H. A. Stuart informs us,* " signifies trade, and trade in oil, as well as its manufacture, is the usual employment of this caste, who assert that they are Vaisyas, and claim the Vaisyapuranam as their holy book. They are said to have assumed the thread only within the last fifty or sixty years, and are reputed to be the result of a yagam (sacrifice by fire) performed by a saint called Vakkuna
their mills.

Maharishi.

The

caste contains four sub-divisions called

Kamakshiamma,
Toppa-tali,

Visalakshiamma,
first

Ac'chu-tali,

and
the

the two

referring to

the goddesses
last to

principally worshipped

by each, and the two

or marriage tokens,

peculiar kinds of

talis,

worn by

their

women.
Chettis,

They have

the

same customs as the Beri

flesh.

but are not particular in observing the rule

which forbids the eating of

the Vaniyas
is

called the Pillai

A bastard branch of Kuttam, which is said

who
of this class are

to have sprung from the concubine of a Vaniyan,

lived

many

years ago.

The members
live,

never found except where Vaniyans

to

have

a right to be fed

this
in

be refused,

and are supposed by and clothed them. Should they utter the most terrible curse, and,
In the Census Report, 1891,
that

this

manner, eventually intimidate the uncharitable

into giving

them alms."
writes

Mr.

Stuart

further

the

Vaniyans "were
it

formerly called Sekkan (oil-mill man), and

is

curious

Manual of

the

North Arcot

district.

VANIYAN
that the oil-mongers alone
trader.

314

came

to be called

Vaniyan or
which

They have returned 126

Ilai
is

sub-divisions, of

only one,

Vaniyan,

is

numerically important.

One

sub-division

Iranderudu, or two bullocks, which refers

to the use of

working the mill. This separation of those who use two bullocks from those who employ only one is found in nearly every oil-pressing
in

two bullocks

caste in India.

The Vaniyans

of Malabar resemble the

Nayars

in their

customs and habits, and neither wear

In

the sacred thread, nor employ Brahmans as priests.

North Malabar, Nayars are polluted by their touch, but in the south, where they are called Vattakadans, they
have succeeded in forcing themselves into the ranks of the Nayar community. A large number of them returned
In this connection, Nayar as their main caste." * that followers of the calling of oilMr. Francis states
pressers

(Chakkans) are " known as Vattakadans

in
;

in

North Malabar but the former are the higher in social status, the Nayars being polluted by the touch of the Vaniyans and Chakkans but not by that of the Vattakadans. Chakkans and Vaniyans may not enter Brahman temples. Their customs and manners are similar to those of the Nayars, who will not, however, marry their women."
South Malabar, and as Vaniyans

Of the Vaniyans
the sacred thread.

of Cochin,

it is

stated in the Cochin

Census Report, 1901, that "they are Vaisyas, and wear

In regard to marriage, inheritance,
etc.,

ceremonies, dress, ornaments,

difference

there

is

practically no

between them and the Konkanis.

But, as

they do not altogether abstain from meat and spirituous

liquors, they are not allowed free access to the

houses

of Konkanis, nor are they permitted to touch their tanks

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

3^5

VANNAN

and

wells.

They

are Saivites.

priests,

who

are called
for

and death pollution

in this respect.

They have their own Panditars. They observe birth ten days, and are like Brahmans
are mostly petty merchants and

They

shop-keepers.

Some can

read

and write Malayalam,

but they are very backward in English education."

The

oils

expressed by the Vaniyans are said to be

iluppei {Bassia

" gingelly

[Sesamum indicum), cocoanut,

pinnei

longifolia)y

{^Calophyllum

ground-nut {Arachis hypogoed).

are sinful acts, and no one,

inophyllum), and According to the sastras

the crushing of gingelly seeds, and the sale of gingelly

oil,

who does

not belong to
sell

the Vaniyan class, will either express or

oil."*

gingelly

When
the corpse

a Vaniyan dies a bachelor,

is

a post-mortem

mock ceremony
is

performed as by the Ganigas, and

married to the arka plant {Calotropis

gigantea),

and decorated with a wreath made of the

flowers thereof.

Vankayala (brinjal or ^^^ plant Solatium Melongena). An exogamous sept of Golla. The fruit is eaten by Natives, and, stuffed with minced meat, is a common
:

article of

Anglo- Indian dietary.

(armlet).

Vanki

A gotra of Kurni.

Vannan.The Vannans are washermen in the Tamil

and Malayalam countries. The name Vannan is, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, f " derived from vannam,
beauty.

There
to

is

a tradition that they are descendants

of the mythological hero Virabadra,

who was ordered

Daksha's
frequently

by Siva
Yaga.

wash the clothes of

all

men, as an expiation
to death in

of the sin of putting

many people

Hence the Tamil washermen

district.

are

* Manual of the Tanjore

t

Manual of the North Arcot

district

Madras Census Report, 1891.

VANNAN
called Virabadran.

316

Having

to purify all the filthy linen

of the villagers, they are naturally regarded as a low, unclean class of Sudras, and are always poor. They

add

to their

income by hiring out the clothes of

funeral
parties,

their

lay them on the ground before the pall-bearers, so that these may not step upon the ground, and by letting them out on the
sly to

customers to

who

persons wishing to use them

In

without having
standing the

to

purchase for themselves.

to

social

Vannans are placed

profess

next below the barbers.

in

They

be Saivites

the southern districts, and

Vaishnavi<:es in the north.

rally takes place after

The marriage of girls genepuberty. Widow remarriage is

not
all,

permitted

among some,

if

sub-divisions.

Divorce

may be
They
either

obtained by either party at pleasure on payment

is

of double the bride-price, which

usually Rs. 10-8-0.

are flesh-eaters, and drink liquor.

The dead
(or

are

burned or buried.

The Pothara

Podora)

Vannans are of
It is

inferior status,

because they wash only

inferior castes."

for Paraiyans, Pallans,

and other

noted, in the

Madura Manual,

that those
it

who
the

have seen the abominable substances, which

lot

is

of the

Vannans
In

to

make

clean,

cannot

feel

any

surprise at the contempt with which their occupation

is

regarded.

the Tanjore Manual,

it

is

recorded

that, in the rural parts of the district, the

not allowed to
Vellala
;

clothes

Vannans are Brahman or a enter the house of a washed by them not being worn or
until

mixed up with other clothes in the house undergone another wash by a caste man.
It
is

they have

on

record that,

on one occasion, a party

when out shooting, met a funeral procession on its way to the burial-ground. The bier was which one of the draped in many folds of clean cloth,
of Europeans,

317
party recognised by the
initials

VANNAN
as one of his bed-sheets.

Another identified as his sheet the cloth on which the corpse was lying. He cut off the corner with the initials, and a few days later the sheet was returned by
the washerman,
tion,

who pretended ignorance

it

of the mutila-

and gave as an explanation that

in

must have been

done,

his

absence,

by one of

his assistants.

On
in

another occasion, a European met an Eurasian,

village not far from his bungalow,

a
of

wearing a

suit

clothes exactly similar to his own, and, on close examination,

found they were

his.

They had been newly washed

and dressed.

The most important divisions numerically returned by Vannans at times of census are Pandiyan, Peru (big),
Tamil, and

Vaduga (notherner). Gazetteer of the Madura district,

It is

recorded, in the
" is rather

that

Vannan
title,

an occupational term than a caste

the Pandya

and, besides

includes the Vannans or Vannans Vaduga Vannans or Tsakalas of the Telugu country, and the Palla, Pudara, and Tulukka Vannans, who wash for the Pallans, Paraiyans, and Musalmans respectively. The Pandya Vannans have a headman called the Periya Manishan (big man). A man can claim the hand of his paternal aunt's daughter. At weddings, the bridegroom's sister ties the tali (marriage badge). Nambis officiate. Divorce is freely allowed to either party on payment of twice the bride-price, and divorcees may marry again. The caste god is Gurunathan, in whose

proper,

temples the pujari (priest)

is

usually a Vannan.

The

dead are generally burnt, and, on the sixteenth day, the house is purified from pollution by a Nambi."

Some Vannans have assumed the name Irkuli Vellala, and Rajakan and Kattavaraya vamsam have also been
recorded as synonyms of the caste name.

VANNAN

318

The Vannans of Malabar are also called Mannan or Bannan. They are, Mr. Francis writes,* "a low class of Malabar washermen, who wash only for the polluting castes, and for the higher castes when they are under
pollution following births, deaths, etc.
It is

believed by

the higher castes that such pollution can only be

removed

by wearing clothes washed by Mannans, though at other The washing is times these cause pollution to them.
generally done by the

women, and the men are

exorcists,

devil-dancers and physicians, even to the higher castes.

Their

women

are midwives, like those of the Velak-

katalavan and Velan castes.

This caste should not be

tribe of Travancore."

confused with the

It is

Mannan

hill

recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that " the

Mannans, a makkattayam caste of South Malabar, appamarumakkattayam Vannans of the north, are a caste of washermen and their services
rently identical with the
;

are indispensable to the higher castes in certain purificatory ceremonies

(mattu). practice

when they have to present clean cloths They are also devil-dancers and tailors. They Mannans are fraternal polyandry in the south.
into

divided
(peru,

two endogamous classes, Peru-mannans great), and Tinda-mannans (tinda, pollution);

and, in Walavanad, into four

endogamous

classes called

Choppan, Peru-mannan, Punnekadan, and Puliyakkodam. The Tinda-mannan and Puliyakkodam divisions perform
the purificatory sprinklings for the others."

Mannan, Mr. T. K. Gopal requisition at the Nayar Thirandukalianam ceremonies on the attainment of puberty by a girl, when they sing ballads, and have to
services

The

of

the

Panikkar

writes,t

"are

in

bring,

for the

girl's

use,

the mattu

or

sacred dress.

Madras Census Report, 1901.

f Malabar and

its

Folk, 1900.

319

VANNAN
pollution,

Then, on occasions of death

similar duty to perform.
fourth,

they have a

Among

the Nayars, on the

or rarely the third day after the menses, the

woman has to use, during her bath, clothes supplied by Mannan females. The same duty they have to perform
during the confinement of Nayar females.
cloths
to

All the dirty

and bed sheets used, these Mannan females have wash." Mr. S. Appadorai Iyer informs us that those
are employed by the

Mannans who
san
class,

Kammalan, or

arti-

as barbers, are not admitted into the

Mannan

which follows the more honourable profession of washing clothes. The Mannans perform certain cerecaste,

monies
festivals,

in

connection with Mundian, the deity

responsible for the weal or

woe

of cattle

and, at

who is Puram
and

carry the vengida koda or prosperity umbrella,

tiers of red, green, orange, black

composed of many

white cloth, supported on a long bamboo pole, before the goddess.

It is

recorded by Bishop Whitehead *

that, in various

places

in

Malabar,
at

there are

temples in

honour of

Bhagavati,

Vannan

caste.

which the pujaris (priests) are of the " There is an annual feast called gurusi
to the guru) about

tarpanam (giving
object

March, when the

Its

hot weather begins, and the people are at leisure.

is

to appease the wrath of the goddess.

During

the

festival,

the pujari

sits in

the courtyard outside the

temple, thickly garlanded with red flowers, and with red

his forehead. Goats and fowls are him by the devotees, and he kills them then brought to with one blow of the large sacrificial sword or chopper.
It
is

kunkuma marks on

thought auspicious

for the

head to be severed
skilful

at
in

one blow, and, apparently, pujaris who are

* Madras Dioc
Magazine, 1906.

VANNAN
decapitation are
off,

320

much

in request.

When

the head
it

is

cut

the pujari takes the carcase, and holds

filled

over a large

copper vessel partly

with water, turmeric, kunkuma,

it.

and a

little rice,

and

lets

the blood flow into

When all

the animals are killed, the pujari bales out the blood and

water on the ground, uttering mantrams (sacred lines or verses) the while. The people stand a little way off.

When
upside

the vessel

is

nearly empty, the pujari turns

it

that the ceremony is ended. During these proceedings, a number of Vannans, dressed in fantastic costumes, dance three times round the During the festival, processions are held round temple.

down

as a

sign

the various houses, and special swords with a curved

hook

at the end, called palli val (great or

honourable

sword), are carried by the worshippers.

These swords

are worshipped during the Dusserah festival in October,

and, in
deity.

some

shrines, they form the only

The Tiyans have small shrines

to

emblem of the in their own

gardens sacred

the

family deity,

Bhagavati, or some demon, or the spirit

which may be of an ancestor.

Vannans come dressed in fancy costume, with crowns on their heads, and dance round the courtyard to the sound of music and tom-toms, while a Tiyan priest presents the family offerings, uncooked rice and young cocoanuts, with camphor and incense, and then rice fried with sugar and ghi (clarified butter)." In an account of the Tiyans, Mr. Logan writes * that

Once a

year,

" this caste

is

much given
often called.

to devil-charming, or devil-

driving as

it

is

The washermen (Vannan)

are the high priests of this superstition, and with chants,

ringing cymbals, magic figures, and waving lights, they

drive out evil spirits from their votaries of this caste at

* Manual of Malabar.

321
certain epochs in their married lives.
particular, called teyyattam

VANTARI

One ceremony

in

corrupt form of

Deva
leafy

and

attam, that
in
is

is,

playing at gods

takes
it

place occa-

sionally

the

fifth

month

of

pregnancy.
is

arbour

constructed, and in

front of

placed a

terrible figure

of Chamundi, the queen of the demons,

flour,

made
is

of

rice

turmeric

powder, and

charcoal

powder.

party of not less than eighteen washermen

organized to represent the demons and furies

imp),

Kutti-

chattan (a mischievous

being invoked, these

pairs, dance, caper,

and many others. On demons bound on to the stage in

roar, fight,

jump,

and drench each

Their capers and

other with saffron (turmeric) water.

exertions gradually work up their excitement, until they

are veritably possessed of the devil.

At

this juncture,

fowls and animals are sometimes thrown to them, to

appease their

fury.

These they attack with

his prey.

their teeth,

and

kill

and tear as a tiger does

After about

twenty minutes the convulsions cease, the demon or

spirit declares its pleasure, and,

much

fatigued, retires to
is

give place to others

and thus the whole night

noise and shouting,
at
least,

spent,

with
it

much tom-tomming and

for

making

impossible,

Europeans

to sleep within

earshot of the din."

Vannattan. A synonym of Veluttedan, the caste of washermen, who wash for Nayars and higher castes. Vanni Kula Kshatriya. A synonym of the Pallis, who claim to belong to the fire race of Kshatriyas. Vanniyan.A synonym of Palli. The name further

occurs as a sub-division of Ambalakaran and Valaiyan.

Some Maravans also are known as Vanniyan or VanniTen (honey) Vanniyan is the name adopted by kutti.
some
Irulas in the

South Arcot

district.

Vantari. 5^^ Telaga.

vn-2i

VANUVAN

322

Vanuvan. A name assumed by

Vaniyans who have

abandoned their hereditary occupation of oil-pressing, and taken to trade in grain and other articles.

Varakurup.
Report,
1

Recorded,
title

in

the

Madras

Census

90 1, as a

of Malayalam Para vans.

Varige (millet). Variyar. For

section

An exogamous sept of Kapu.

the following note on the Variyar
I

of the

Ambalavasis,

am

indebted
is

to

Mr.

N. Subramani Aiyar.

The name

believed

to

be

derived from Parasava, which, according to Yajnavalkya

and other law-givers, is the name given to the son of a Brahman begotten on a Sudra woman, and suggests the
fact that the

Variyar

is

no Brahman, though the blood

in

of the latter

may
is

course through his veins, and though

early

such marriages were regarded as sacraments

days.
his

This

the derivation given by Pachumuttalu in

Keralaviseshamahatmya, who adds that the chief

In

occupation of the Variyars

temples.

is to sweep the floor of the some of the Asauchavidhis (works on pollution) of Kerala, the commentator explains the word Parasava as Variya. Many Variyars add the title

Parasava to their name, when writing

accordance with a tradition that

in Sanskrit.

Some

derive the word from varija or one born of water, in

Parasurama created
special service in

from water a class of persons

for

temples, and to take the place of Sudras, who, being

meat-eaters, were ineligible for the same.
like the
late

Others again,

Professor

Sundaram
from

Pillay,

would take
to

Variyar

as

being

derived

varuka,

sweep.

Recently, some ingenuity has been displayed in splitting

the word into two words, giving

to pseudo- Aryan.

it

a meaning equivalent
is

The

title

Asan, or teacher,

possessed

by

certain

families,

whose members have held the

In

hereditary position of tutors in noblemen's houses.

323
mediaeval times,
edicts,

VARIYAR
families received royal

many Variyar

conferring upon

tutors

and astrologers. now possessed by them.

them the privileges of being These special rights are even

is

The

following

legend

narrated concerning the

origin of the Variars.

A
in

Sudra woman removed a bone

from within a temple

obedience to the wish of certain

Brahman priests, and was excommunicated from her caste. The priests, on hearing this, were anxious to better her condition, and made her the progenitor of a class of Ambalavasis or temple servants, who were According to another afterwards known as Variyars.
legend, the corpse of a Maran, which was found inside

a Nambutiri's house, was promptly removed by certain

Nayars,
scale,

who on

that account were raised in the social

and organised into a separate caste called Variyar.

There is a still further tradition that, in the Treta Yuga, a Sudra woman had five sons, the first of whom became the progenitor of the Tiyatunnis, and the second that
of Variyars.

mahatmya. aged man. Not confident

A fourth account is given in the KeralaA young Brahman girl was married to an
in

unaided human

effort,

under

circumstances such as hers, she devoted a portion of her

time daily to preparing flower garlands for the deity of

the nearest temple, and conceived.

But the Brahman welcomed the little stranger by getting the mother thrown out of caste. Her garlands could no longer be accepted, but, nothing daunted, she worked as usual, and made a
mental offering of the garlands she prepared, which,

through an unseen agency, became

of the deity.
at their

visible

on the person

Though the people were

struck with
girl,

shame
was

unkind treatment of the innocent

they were
caste

not prepared to take her back.

VII-2IB

The Variyan

accordingly constituted, and her child was brought up by

VARIYAR

324

the Azhancheri Tambrakkal, and accommodated in the

padippura or out-house at the entrance gate.

or those

In the

Pasupata Tantra, the Variyars are called Kailasavasins,

who

live in Kailas, as

they are supposed to be

Kailasa
is

specially devoted to the worship of Siva.

the

abode

of Siva, whither the blessed

go

after death.

The

Variyars of Travancore are divided into four

Ilayetattunad

groups, called Onattukara, Venattukara,

(or Ilayathu),

and Tekkumkur.

The Venattukaras have

the privilege of interdining with the Onattukaras, and

having their ceremonies performed by priests from that

group.
to

But the ceremonies of the Onattukaras appear

be performed without the Venattukaras being admitted

into their midst.

The
The

third

in the houses of the

first

and fourth groups take food and second, though the reverse

seldom happens.

Variyars in British Malabar are

divided into several other groups.

The
Sanskrit,

Variyars are generally well-read, especially in

make excellent

astrologers, and are also medical

is

practitioners.

A
is

Variyars house

called variyam, as

the Pisharati's

known

as pisharam.

Married

women have

the hair-knot on the

left

side

of the head, like Nayar ladies.

They cover
dress.
is

the breast

with a folded cloth,

innovations
in

and never wear a bodice or other

of

the matter
matra,

The marriage
the shape of a

ornament

is

called

and

in

maddalam
women,
is

or drum.

Other neck ornaments are called

entram and kuzhal.

The

todu, or ornament of

Nayar
their

worn

in the ear-lobes.

Women mark

foreheads, like Nambutiri ladies, with sandal paste.

The

Variyars, Pushpakans, and Pisharatis, are said

to constitute the three original garland-making castes of

Malabar, appointed by
day,
in
all

Parasurama.

At the present
except
in

the

important temples,

South

325
Travancore,

VARIYAR
perform that function,

where Kurukkals

garlands can only be prepared by one of these castes. The technical occupation of a Variyar in a temple is
called

kazhakam, which
viz.,

is

probably derived from the

Dravidian root kazhaku, to cleanse.

Kazhakam

is

of

two

kinds,

malakkazhakam
is

or

garland-making
service,

service,

and talikkazhakam or

sweeping

of

which the former

more

dignified

than the

latter.

Under the generic term kazhakar are included making

flower garlands for the temple, preparing materials for

the offering of food, sweeping the beli offering, carrying

and holding umbrellas when the god is carried in procession, having the custody of the temple jewels, etc.
lights

The

Variyar
to

is

at the

beck and
little

call

of the temple priest,

and has
evening.
food,

do sundry

services from

morning
deity.

till

He
it

is

remunerated with some of the cooked

after

has

been offered

to

the

The

Variyars are to Saivite temples what the Pisharatis are

to Vaishnavite temples.

Their prayers are prominently

Their

addressed only to Siva, but they also worship Vishnu,

Subramanya,
chief

Sasta,
is

Ganesa, and Bhadrakali.

the farce called
is

amusement

Kuttappathakam,

the hero of which

heroine Naityar.

An

Ilayatu

one Vankala Nikkan, and the is the stage-manager, and

Parangotan
is

a Pisharati the actor.

the buffoon, and

Mappa

his wife.

In the eighteenth century, a grand

festival lasting

over twenty-eight days, called

in British

mamangam,
which

was celebrated
are

Malabar.

The above characters

this
festival,

represented as proceeding to

came off once in twelve years on the Magha asterism in the month of Magha, and is hence popularly called Mahamagha.

The Variyar

caste

is

governed

in all

matters by the
priests.

Nambutiri Brahmans, but they have their own

VARIYAR

326

The
all

Ilayatus believe that they were the preceptors of

the Ambalavasi castes in

former times, but were

dislodged from that position owing to most of them

employing priests from among their own caste men.

Even

at

the present day, Ilayatus are

known

to ex-

press their displeasure

when they
is

are asked to drink

water from a Variyar's well. water from the Nambutiris

purification,

As, however, consecrated

taken to a Variyar for

its

they entertain no scruples about cooking

their

food there,
fire.

provided they carry with them the

the

aupasana
British

Inheritance

among
is

Variyars

Malabar

in

the female line

of

and (marumakkathaof
chiefly

Cochin

yam).

Among

the Variyars

Travancore,
accordance

these belonging to the Onattukara section, a kind of

qualified

makkathayam

prevails,

in

with

which both sons and daughters have an equal right to

inherit ancestral property.

The
is

eldest

male member
all

is

entitled to the
families.

management

of the estate in
largely

undivided
in

Partition,

however,

followed

practice.

The

tali-kettu

ceremony of the Variyars generally

takes place before a girl reaches puberty, and, in the

case of boys, after the ceremony of Sivadiksha has been

between the twelfth and sixteenth If the marriage is in the kudi-vaippu form, or, years. in other words, if there is an intention on the part of
performed, that
is

both parties to treat the marital alliance as permanent,

no separate sambandham need be celebrated afterwards and, in all cases where marriages are celebrated between

members
vogue.
she
is

of the
If

same

section, the

kudi-vaippu form

is

in

unmarried when she reaches puberty, not permitted to take part in any religious
a
girl is
is

ceremonies, or enter any temple until she

married.

327

VARIYAR
is

The first item of a Variyar's marriage when the bridegroom, decked in new
then goes
in

ayani-unu,

clothes

and

ornaments, dines sumptuously with his relations.

bathing, puts on clothes touched by the bride.
this

He
After

procession to the bride's house, and, after

some prayers are

bride
is

recited,

and a
strictly

sacrifice is offered.
hall,

The
the

then brought to the marriage

rites

and,

all

Brahmanical

are

observed.

After

sunset,

some grass and a

is

leopard's skin are placed

is

on

the floor on which white cloth

spread.

The

bride-

groom, who

seated on the northern side, worships

Ganapati, after which the couple take their seats on the

cloth bed spread on the floor.
in front of

Lights are then waved

is

them.

This ceremony

known

as diksha-

virikkuka.

In the kudi-vaippu form of marriage, the

bride

is

taken to the house of the bridegroom, where the

is

dikshavirippu

observed.

Otherwise the marital

rite

becomes a mere tali-kattu ceremony, and the girl, when she comes of age, may receive clothes in token of
conjugal connection with another person.
first

When

the

husband

dies, clothes

may be

received from another

Variyar, or a Brahman, whose wife the woman becomes. Most of the ceremonies observed by Malayali Brahmans are also performed by the Variyars, the

vratas and upanayana

omitted.

being

among

those which are

is

Sivadiksha, as already indicated,

observed
festival

between the twelfth and sixteenth years.

lasts for four days,

The
rites

though the religious

are over

on the first day. At an auspicious hour, the priest and the Variyar youth put on the tattu dress, or dress worn for ceremonial purposes, and worship a pot full of water with incense and flowers, the contents of which are then poured by the priest over the youth. The priest and a Maran then perform the tonsure, and the

vAriyar
youth bathes.

328

Some Nambutiris
rite,

are then engaged to

perform the purificatory

after

which the Variyar

wears the tattu as well as an upper

cloth,

marks

his fore-

head with ashes and sandal paste, and decorates himself

with jewels, rudraksha i^Elceocarpus Ganitrus) beads, and
flowers.

Alms are

received by the young Variyar from his

mother, and he takes seven steps in a northerly direction

which symbolise
after the

his pilgrimage to Benares.

rite that

It is

only
is

performance of this
to

the Variyar

believed

become a grihastha (married person, as

in

opposed to a bachelor).
have been elaborated
lasts

The funeral rites of the caste many places. Death pollution

Anniof close

for
is

twelve days, and the sanchayana (milk cere-

mony)

observed on the seventh or ninth day.

versary ceremonies are celebrated in

relations,

memory

and others are propitiated by the performance

of sradh, and the feeding of a Variyar on a

new-moon day.
left

In an account of a royal wedding in Travancore in

1906,
I

read that

"a number
close

of Variyars
is

the theva-

rathu koikal, or palace where worship

performed, for

a
It

compound (garden)
is

by to bring an areca palm.

supposed

that

they do this task under divine

inspiration

and guidance.

One man

is

given a small rod

by the Potti or
this,
all

priest in the palace, and, after receiving

he dances forward, followed by his comrades, and wend their way to a compound about a furlong away.
reaching the spot, they uproot a big areca palm
iron,
its

On

without the use of any implement of

and take

it

away
plant

to the

thevarathu koikal without

touching the

ground, to the accompaniment of music.

it

They then

in front of the portico,

ship) after

and do some puja (worthe manner of Brahmans. The function is

flag

comparable to the dhwajarohanam, or hoisting of the

during temple utsavams.

The Variyans dance round

329
the tree, singing songs, and perfo'-rwng puja.
of white cloth
is

VASTRA

piece

tied to the top of the tree, to serve as

is

flag,

and a lamp

lighted,

and placed
in

at the foot of

the tree."

The

Variyars are described,

the Gazetteer
is

of

Malabar, as " a caste whose traditional duty

the temple precincts
(varuga).

to

sweep
day,

At the present

some members of the

or petty chieftains,

caste are important land-owners

occupying a very high social position.

They

generally

follow the

marumakkatayam

principle,

but they have also a form of marriage called Kudivekkal

Brahman Sarvasvadhanam, by which the as a member of the family into which adopted wife is she marries, and her children also belong to it. The
similar to the

Variyars names and ceremonies indicate Sivaite proclivities,

just as those of the Pisharodi

are tinged with

called a Variyam,
class is

Vishnavism.

The Variyars house

among

is

and
its

his

woman-folk Varassiars.

This

perhaps

the most progressive

the Ambalavasis,

some of

members having received a Western education and

entered the learned professions."

VarugU Bhatta.^A
from Perikes.

mendicant

class,

which begs

Varuna. Some
the

Pattanavan fishermen have adopted

name

of Varunakula Vellala or Varunakula Mudali

after

Varuna the god of the waters.

(new).

Vasa
said to

sub-division of Kurubas,
blankets.

who

are

weave only white

Vasishta. A
Rishis,

Brahmanical

gotra

adopted

by

Khatris and Toreyas.

Vasishta, one of the seven great

was the son of Mitra and Varuna, whose quarrels with Viswamitra are narrated in the Ramayana. Vastra.-^One division of the Koragas is called Vastra, meaning cloths such are used as a shroud for a

iem^'

VATTAKADAN

330

them as an act of charity, by them being prohibited. Vastrala (cloth) further occurs as an exogamous sept of the Kama Sale and Devanga weavers. Vattakadan. Recorded as a sub-division of Nayar,
the wearing of

corpse, which were given to

new

cloths

the occupation of which

in temples.

is

expressing

oil,

chiefly for use

in

Mr. F. Fawcett writes *

that,

North

Malabar, he has frequently been told by Nayars of the

superior classes that they do not admit the Vattakadans
to

be Nayars.

According to them, the Vattakadans have

adopted the honorary

recently.

In the
stated

kadan

is

Nayar to their names quite Madras Census Report, 1891, Vattato be a synonym of Vaniyan and in
affix
;

the report, 1901, this

name

is

said to

mean

a Native of

Vattakad, and to be given to the Chakkans.

Vatte (camel). Vatti. Vatti

synonym

A gotra of Kurni.
or

Vattikurup has been recorded at Nayar, and a

Vatti
is

times of census as a sub-division of

of Kavutiyan and Tolkollan.

said to

mean one who

prays for happiness.

Vayanis,
Vayinis,

Vayani.The

Vaguniyans,
of

or

Pavinis, are a section of Madigas, the

members

which

play on a single-stringed mandoline, and go about from

village

to

village,

singing the

praises

of the village

goddesses.

Each Vayani has

his recognised beat.

He

plays a prominent part in the celebration of the annual

festival

of the village goddess, and receives a sacred

is

thread (kappu), which

before the

usually tied to his mandoline,

festival.

commencement of the
superior
in

He
to

regards

himself

as

social
will

position

ordinary

Madigas, with

whom

he

not

marry.

The name

Vayani

is

said to be a corruption of varnane, meaning to

* Madras

Museum

Bull. Ill, 3. 1901.

331
describe.

VEDAN
the Chingleput district,

In

some localities,

e.g.,

the Vayani enjoys mirasi rights in connection with land.

Vedan.
Stuart,
in

The Vedans
and

are described by Mr. H. A.

the North Arcot Manual, as having been

soldiers,

" formerly hunters

and

it is

this caste

which

furnished a considerable and valuable contingent to the

early

Tippoo.

Hindu kings, and later to the armies of Hyder and They are supposed by some to be the remnants

of the earliest inhabitants of the peninsula, and identical

with the Veddahs of Ceylon.

kulu, which
hills
1

They are
live

also called Valmi-

means those who

It
is

(valmikum)."

noted, in the

on the products of antCensus Report,

"

89 1, that the two castes Bedar (or Boya) and Vedan were, through a misapprehension of instructions, treated as

identical in the tabulation papers.

The two words

are,

no doubt, etymologically

identical, the

one being Canarese

and the other Tamil, but the castes are quite distinct." It may be noted that the name Valmika or Valmiki is assumed by the Boyas, who claim descent from Valmiki,
the author of the Ramayana,
in

who
hill

did penance for so long

one spot that a white-ant

grew up round him. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Vedans are

described as " a Tamil-speaking labouring and hunting

caste, the

members

of which were formerly soldiers, and

subsequently dacoits.
is

The name means

Irulas
in

a hunter, and
{e.g.,

loosely applied to the

some places

Chingleput).

There is some connection between the Vedans and Tamil Vettuvans, but its precise nature is

not clear.

The Vettuvans now

Vettuva Vellalas.

consider themselves

superior to the Vedans, and are even taking to calling

themselves

Marriage

(among the

Vedans)

is

either infant or adult.

their late husband's brother or

Widows may marry Some employ agnates.

Brahmans as

priests.

They

either burn or bury their

VEDAN
dead.

332

They

claim descent from

saints.

Kannappa Nayanar,
Ambalakarans also
In

one of the sixty -three Saivite

claim to be descended from

Kannappa Nayanar.

Tanjore, the Valaiyans declare themselves to have a

The title of the Vedans is Nayakkan." Madura Manual, the Vedans are described as a very low caste, who get their living in the jungles. They are not numerous now. They appear to have
similar origin.

In the

been naked savages not very long ago, and

tion
is

their civilisa-

far

from complete.
all

contempt by men of
further, in the

They are held classes. They

in

the greatest

are described

Coimbatore

Manual, as " a very degraded,

poor

tribe, living

by basket-making, snaring small game,

and so

on.

as savage.
is

They speak a low Canarese, and are as simple The delight of a party at the gift of a rupee
curious."

Salem district some Vedans are said* to be "known by the caste name Tiruvalar, who are dintinguished as the Kattukudugirajati, a name derived from a custom among them, which authorises temporary matrimonial arrangements." The following story in connection with bears and Vedans is worthy of being placed on record. The bears
something
In

the

are said to collect ripe wood-apples {Feronia elepkantum)

during the season, and store them

rind of the fruits, and heap together

in

the forest.

After

a small quantity has been collected, they remove the

all

the pulp.

They

then bring honey and

petals of sweet-smelling flowers,

put them on the heap of pulp, and thresh them with

their feet

and with

sticks in their hands.

When

the
it.

whole has become a consistent mass, they feed on

The Vedan, who knows

the season,

is

said to drive off

the bears by shooting at them, and rob them of their

Manual of

the

Salem

district.

MALA VEDAX WITH TILED TEETH.

333
feast,

vdaN

which

is

sold as karadi panchamritham, or bear

delicacy

made

of five ingredients.

The Vedars
Rev.
S.

of Travancore are
in

Mateer * as "living
in the rice fields,

working

the jungle clearings or and formerly sold and bought

summed up by

wander about in seasons of scarcity in search of wild yams, which they boil and eat on the spot, and are thorough gluttons, eating all they can get at any time, then suffering want for days. Polygamy
as slaves.
to
is

They have

common,

as

men

are not required to provide for the

Some, who have been converted to Christianity, show wonderful and rapid improvement in moral character, civilisation and diligence."
support of their wives.

For the following note on the Mala

of Travancore,
**

(hill)

Vedans
Evans.f
the
to

am

indebted to Mrs.

J.

W.

They

live in

wretched huts amid the

rice-flats at

foot of the hills,

and are employed by farmers

guard

The upper men and women are filed to a sharp point, like crocodile's fangs. One ugly old man, Tiruvatiran by name (the name of a star), had the four
the crops from the ravages of wild beasts.
incisor teeth of both

teeth

very slightly

filed.

On

being pressed for the

reason

why he had
for me.'

not conformed to Mala Vedar fashion,

*

he grinned, and said

enough

was born with is Probably the operation had been more

beauty
I

What

painful than he could bear,

afford to

or,

may
filer.

be,

he could not

pay the

five betel leaves

and areca nuts, which

are the customary fee

of the

Any man may

perform the operation.

edge,
is

A curved bill-hook, with serrated

On
being asked whether

the instrument used.

they had any tradition about the custom of tooth-filing,

they replied that
it

was

to distinguish their caste,

and the
1900.

Native Life in Travancore.

t Madras

Museum,

Bull. Ill,

I,

VEDAN
may be noted

334
if

god Chattan would be angry

It

they neglected the custom.

is

jungle Kadirs

by the Both males and females wore a cotton loin-cloth, mellowed by wear and weather to a subtle greenish hue. Red and blue necklaces, interstrung with sections of the chank shell [Turbineila rapd) adorned the necks and chests. One woman was of special
also practiced
(q.v.).

that tooth-filing

interest.

Her neck and

breasts were literally concealed

by a medley of beads, shells, brass bells, and two common these last, she said, for ornament. Around iron keys

her hips, over her cloth, hung several rows of small bones
of pig and sambar [Cervus unicolor).
find these

The Mala Vedars

aged priest said that he used to perform devil-dancing, but was now too stiff The to dance, and had to labour like the younger men. Mala Vedans apparently possess no temples or shrines,
bones
in the jungle.

An

but Hindus permit them to offer

money

at the

Hindu

shrines from a distance, at times of sudden sickness or

during other seasons of panic.

Sattan, has no fixed abode, but,

Their god Chattan, or

where the Mala Vedans are, there is he in the midst of them. They bury their dead in a recumbent posture, nearthehut of the deceased.

The Mala Vedans

kindling
fire

practice the primitive

method of
by the

by the

friction of wood (also practiced

Kanakars), and, like the Kanakars, they eat the black

monkey.
arrows.

Their implements are bill-hooks, and bows and

They weave

grass baskets, which are slung to

betel, etc."

their girdles,

and contain

The more important measurements

Mala Vedans examined by myself were
Max.
Stature (cm.)
163-8
80-9
1 02* 6

of twenty-five

Min.
1 40-8

Average.
154-2
73*4 85-0

Cephalic index Nasal index

68-8
71-1

MALA VEDAN.

335

VEL

The
in

figures

show

that,

Southern

India,

Hke other primitive jungle tribes the Mala Vedans are short of ceremony
has

stature, dolichocephalic, and platyrhine.

The
"

following

menstrual

been

described * as occurring

among the Vedans of Travancore.

is

The

wife at menstruation

secluded for five days in a

is

hut a quarter of a mile from her home, which

also used
in

by her

at childbirth.

The

next

five

days are passed

first

a second hut, half

way between the

and

and her house.

feast,

On
rice

the ninth day her husband holds a

sprinkles

his floor with wine,

invites his friends to a spread of

and palm wine.

Until this evening, he has not dared

to eat anything but roots, for fear of being killed

devil.

by the
have

On

the tenth day he must leave his house, to which

his

he

may not return until the women,

wife, escorted her

and her

sister

bathed his

home,and eaten

rice together.

For four days

rice in his

after his return,

however, he

may

not eat

own

house, or have connection with his wife."

Vedunollu.

A gotra of Ganigas, members of which

Arbor-tristis.

may

not cut Nyctanthes

The

flowers
is

thereof are

much used

in

Hindu worship,

as the plant

supposed to have been brought from heaven by Krishna

for his wife

Satyabhama.
sub-division of Komatis,

Veginadu.A

who belong

to the Vegi or Vengi country, the former name of part of the modern Kistna district. The Vegina Komatis are

said to

have entered the

fire-pits

with the caste goddess

Kanyakamma. Vekkali Puli

section of Kalian.

(cruel-legged tiger).

An exogamous
in

Vel

(lance).

A sub-division of Malayalam Paraiyans,

Fide Jagor.
Zeitsch
:

and an exogamous sept or sub-division of Kanikars

Crawley,

The Mystic Rose.

Ethnol. XI, 164.

VELAKKATTALAVAN
Travancore.

336

Velanmar (spearmen) occurs as a name

Travancore.

for the hill tribes of

Velakkattalavan.
talavan
is

Velakkattalavan
In the

or

Vilakkat-

Census Report, 1901, to indicate chieftains among barbers, and to be the name for members of families, from which persons are selected
to shave kings or nobles.

stated in the Travancore

Madras Census Report, " the name in South 1 89 1, Velakkattalavan is said to be Malabar of the caste that shaves Nayars and higher The same man is called in North Malabar castes.
Valinchiyan, Navidan, or Nasiyan.
In dress and habits

the caste resembles Nayars, and they call themselves

Nayars

in the south.

Many

returned their main caste

as Nayar.

The

females of this caste frequently act as

In North Malabar, the Valinchiyan

midwives to Nayars.

and Nasiyan follow the Nayar system of inheritance, whereas the Navidan has inheritance in the male line but, even amongst the latter, tali-kettu and sambandham are performed separately by different bridegrooms. In
;

South Malabar the caste generally follows descent male

line,

in the
is

but in some places the other system

also

found."

Sudra Kavutiyan

Census Report, 1901, as a

is recorded, in the Madras synonym of Velakkatalavan.

Velama.The
called,

Velamas,

or,

as they are sometimes

Yelamas, are a caste of agriculturists,

who

dwell

in the

Telugu country and Ganjam.

"

Concerning them

Who the Velamas Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows.* difficult to decide. seems it Some say they form a were
sub-division of the Balijas, but this they themselves most

vehemently deny, and the Balijas derisively

call

them
was

Guna
men).

Sakala (or Tsakala)

vandlu (hunch-backed washer-

The

pride and jealousy of

Hindu
district.

castes

Manual of the North Arcot

337 amusingly
illustrated

VELAMA

by the Velamas of Kalahasti. The Deputy Tahsildar of that town was desired to ascertain

the origin of the

as he asked the

name Guni Sakalavandlu, question, a member of the

but, as

soon

caste lodged

a complaint of defamation against him before the District

Magistrate.

The nickname appears to have been

in the

applied
print

to them, because,

northern

districts,

some

chintzes, and, carrying their

goods

in a

bundle on their

backs, walk
derivation
district,
is

stooping like a laden washerman.

This

more than
is

doubtful,

for,

in

the Godavari

the

name

Guna

Sakalavandlu, guna being the

big pot in which they dye the chintzes.

say that they belong to the

Some Velamas
divided from

Kammas, but

them

in

consequence of a difference of opinion on the

Velama females being now kept in seclusion. [In the Kurnool Manual it is noted that the Velama women are supposed to be gosha, but, owing
subject of gosha, most
to

poverty,

the rule

is

not strictly observed.]

Both

Kammas and
that they

Velamas,

before they divided, are said to

but, finding

have adopted gosha from the Muhammadans,

were thus handicapped

it

in their competition

with other cultivating castes,

original

was proposed that the

custom of their ancestors should be reverted to. Those who agreed signed a bond, which, being upon
leaf,

palm
name.

was

called

kamma, and from

it

they took this

The

dissentients retained gosha,

and were therenot,

fore called outsiders or Velamas.

This does

however,

explain what the original

truth of the story
is

name

of the caste was, and the

doubtful.

Since this dispute, the

gosha, those

Velamas have themselves had a split on the subject of who have thrown it off being called Adi or original Velamas, and the others Padma Velamas. The Velamas seem to have come south with the Vijayanagara
kings,

and

to

have been made Menkavalgars, from which

vii-aa

VELAMA
position

33^

some

rose to be Poligars.

Now

they are chiefly

the hangers-on of poligars or cultivators.

To

distinguish

them from the Vellalas in the southern taluks, they call themselves Telugu Vellalas, but it seems very improbable that the Velamas and Vellalas ever had any connection with one another. They are styled Naidus." [The Velamas style themselves Telugu Vellalas, not because
of any connection between the two castes, but because

they are at the top of the Telugu castes as the Vellalas

are of the Tamil castes.

are sometimes called

For the same reason, Vellalas Arava (Tamil) Velamalu.]

sub-divisions returned by the

The most important

Velamas at the census, 1891, were Kapu, Koppala, Padma, Ponneti, and Yanadi. " It is," the Census Superintendent writes, " curious to find the Yanadi subdivision so strongly

represented,

for there

is

at the
"

present day a wide gulf between Velamas and Yanadis

(a

Telugu

forest tribe).

In the

Vizagapatam Manual, a
is
it

class of cultivators called

in the

Yanadulu
1

referred to
is

and,

Madras Census Report,

but
it

901,
"

recorded that

entries under the

name Yanati

were clubbed with

that, in

Yanadi

has since been reported

Bissamis

cuttack taluk of the Vizagapatam Agency, there

a
is

separate caste called Yanati or Yeneti

distinct

Dora which

from Yanadi."

It

would appear

that, as in the

south, the
in the

Velamas

call

themselves Telugu Vellalas, so

north they

call

themselves Yanatis.
J.

Concerning the Guna Velamas, the Rev.

writes* that "
in years

Cain

gone

by,

members

of this class,

who were desirous

but

of getting married, had to arrange and

Palli (fisherman) caste,

pay the expenses of two of the

now

it is

regarded as

sufficient to

hang up a net

in

* Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879.

339

VELAMA

the house during the time of the marriage ceremony."

The custom had its origin in a legend that, generations ago, when all the members of the caste were in danger
of being swept off the face of the earth by some of their
enemies, the Pallis came to the rescue with their boats,

and carried

all

the

Guna Velamas

to a place of safety.

The Guna Velamas, Mr. Cain

of
it

continues, were " formerly

regarded as quite an inferior caste, but, as

many members
department

have been educated

in

Anglo- Vernacular schools,

they have found their

way

into almost every

and risen in the that of dyeing

(gunas).

social scale.
cloth,

Their caste occupation is which they dip into large pots

The term Guna Tsakala is one of reproach, and they much prefer being called Velamalu to the
great disgust of the

Raca (Raja) Velamalu."

To

the

Raca Velama
Nuzvid.

section belong,

among

other wealthy land-

owners, the Rajas of Bobbili, Venkatagiri, Pittapur, and

At the annual Samasthanam meeting, in 1906, the Maharaja of Bobbili announced that "none of the
Velamavaru were working time when I first came to
small
in

any of the

offices at the

Bobbili.

There were then a

number acting as mere supervisors without clerical work. Only from the commencement of my administration

these people have

been gradually taken

into

the

office,

and induced

to read at the

High

School."

For the following note on the Velamas who have settled in the Vizagapatam district, I am indebted to
Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.
of the caste
(i)
:

The

following sub-divisions

may be noted Pedda or Padma found

it

chiefly in the Bobbili

taluk.

Those composing

are said to be the descendants

of the military followers and dependents of

Pedda Rajudu,
Khan, the

the founder of the Bobbili family,

torial

who

received a terri-

grant

in

1652 from Sher

Muhammad

TII-S3 B

VELAMA
Moghul Fauzdar
that

340
of Chicacole.
It is

to this sub-division
"

Orme

refers,

when he

says * that they

esteem

themselves the highest blood of Native Indians, next to

the Brahmans, equal to the Rajpoots, and support their

pre-eminence by the haughtiest observances, insomuch

that the breath of a different religion, and even of the

meaner Indians, requires ablution their women never transfer themselves to a second, but burn with the husband
;

of their virginity." bidden,

The remarriage

of

widows

is

for-

and women remain gosha

silver

(in seclusion),

and

wear gold or
sub-division
(2)
district,

bangles on both wrists, unlike those

of the Koppala section.

is

The

title

of

members

of this

Dora.

Kamma Velama
in

found chiefly in the Kistna

to

from which some families are said

have

emigrated

company with the early Rajas of Vizianagram. They are met with almost solely in the town of Vizianagram. The remarriage of widows is permitted,

but females are gosha.

(3)

The

title is

Nayudu.

Koppala,

or Toththala,

who do

not shave

their heads, but tie the hair in a knot (koppu)

on the top
e.g.,

of the head.
(cobra),

They

are divided into sections,

shell,

Naga

Sankha (chank

Turbinella

rapa), Tulasi

{Ocimum

sanctum), and Tabelu (tortoise).

far as

These have

no significance so

marriage

is

concerned.

They
(black),

are further divided into

exogamous

septs, or intiperulu,
:

of which the following are examples

Nalla

Doddi (court-yard, cattle-pen or sheep-fold), Reddi (synonym of Kapu). The custom of menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter, is
observed.

Brahman

officiates at marriages.

Widows

are permitted to remarry seven times, and, by an unusual

* History of the Military Transactions in Indostan.

341

VELAMA
wear on the right

custom, an elder brother

of his younger
brother.

is

allowed to marry the widow

Women

kadiyam, and on the left wrist two bangles called sandelu, between which are black glass bangles, which are broken when a

wrist a solid silver bangle called ghatti

woman becomes

a widow.

The

titles

sub-division are Anna, Ayya, and,

members of this when they become

of

prosperous, Nayudu.

Velamas of the Godavari district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes that they "admit that they always arrange for a Mala couple to marry, before
In a note on the

they have a marriage in their

own

houses, and that they

provide the necessary funds for the Mala marriage.

explain the custom by a story to the effect that

They a Mala

once allowed a Ve^ama to

sacrifice

him

in

order to

obtain a hidden treasure, and they say that this custom

is

observed out of gratitude for the discovery of the

treasure which resulted.

similar
in

The Rev.

J.

Cain gives* a
a

custom among the Velamas of Bhadrachalam

district,

the Godavari

only in this case

it

is

Palli

(fisherman)

who has
is,

to be married."

There
gradation

a correspondent
the
social

informs me, a regular

in

scale
:

among

the

Velamas,

Kammas,

and Kapus, as follows

Velama Dora

Kamma
Kapu.

Varu

= =

Velama Esquire.
Mr.

Kamma.
the ground that, in a

complaint was once

made on

pattah (title-deed), a

man was

called

Kamma, and

not

Kamma
It
is

Varu.

noted by Mr. H. G. Prendergast t that the custom of sending a sword to represent an unavoidably
XX,

Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879.

t Ind. Ant.

1891.

VELAMPAN

342
is

absent bridegroom at a wedding

the Telugu

not

uncommon among
name
for the

Razus and Velamas.

(rope-dancer).

Velampan
rope.

Possibly a
feats

Koravas of Malabar, who perform

on the

tight-

Velan. As
occurs as a
is

a diminutive form of Vellala,

Velan

title

assumed by some Kusavans.

Velan

also recorded as a title of Paraiyans in Travancore.

(See Panan.)

State,

For the following note on the Velans of the Cochin am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna I
Velans, like the Panans, are a caste of devil-

Iyer.*

The

dancers, sorcerers and quack doctors, and are, in the

northern parts of the

State,

called

Mannans (washermen).
at Trichur, told

My

informant, a

Perumannans or Perumannan

me

that their castemen south of the

Karuvannur bridge, about ten miles south of Trichur, are called Velans, and that they neither interdine nor
intermarry, because they give mattu (a

washed

cloth) to

carpenters to free them from pollution.

The Mannans,

who give the mattu to Izhuvans, do not give it to Kammalans (artisan classes), who are superior to them in social status. The Velans at Ernakulam, Cochin, and
other places, are said to belong to eight illams.
lar division into illams exists

simi-

among

the Perumannans
of the Chittur

of the Trichur taluk.

taluk have no

The Perumannans

knowledge of
story

this illam division existing

was given regarding the origin of the Velans and Mannans. Once upon a time, when Parameswara and his wife Parvati were amusing themselves,
Monograph
Eth. Survey of Cochin, No. 12, 1907.

among them. The following

343
the
latter

VfiLAN

chanced to make an elephant with earth,

them.
out of

which was accidentally trodden on by the former, whence

man who stood bowing before was called the Mannan because he came
arose

He
man

(earth), and to him was assigned his present occupation.

This tradition

is

referred to in the songs

girl's first

which are sung

on the fourth day of a

menses,

when she

takes

a ceremonial bath to free her from pollution.

The Velans

are found

all

over the southern parts

of the State, as their brethren are in the northern parts.

They live in thatched huts in cocoanut the Mannans occupy similar dwellings
pounds either of their own, or of
tenant they

gardens, while
in

small

some
is

landlord

comwhose

may
in

be.

When
is

a girl attains puberty, she a room in the hut.

at

once bathed,

and located

Her

period of seclusion

four days.

On

the morning of the fourth day, she

is

seated in a pandal (booth) put up in front of the hut,

to hold in her

and made
rice,

hand a

leafy vessel filled with

a few annas and a lighted wick,

when a few of the

till

castemen sing
late as

songs connected
o'clock,

with puberty
the girl
is

so

one or two

when

bathed.

After

this,

the castemen and

girl,

feasted along with the

women who are invited are who is neatly dressed and

girl

adorned

in

her best.

Again the

takes her seat in

the pandal and the tunes begin, and are continued till seven or eight o'clock next morning, when the ceremony

comes
three

to

an end.

The

songsters are remunerated with

paddy (unhusked rice), twenty-eight cocoanuts), thirteen annas and four pies, and two pieces The songs are in some families postponed till of cloth.
paras of
the sixteenth day, or to the day of the
girl's

marriage.

Very poor people dispense with them

following
is

altogether.

The

a translation of one of the songs.

VELAN One day

344
a girl and her friends were playing merrily
river,

when one of them noticed some blood on her dress. They took her home, and her parents believed it to have been caused by some wound, but on enquiry knew that their daughter was in her menses. The daughter asked her mother as to what she did with the cloth she wore during her menses, when she was told that she bathed and came home, leaving it on a branch of a mango tree. On further enquiry, she knew that the goddess Ganga purified herself by a bath,
on the banks of a
leaving her cloth in the river
;

that the goddess earth

buried

it

in

earth

after a bath, leaving her dress

tree.

and that Panchali returned home on a branch of a banyan

to get

Unwilling to lose her dress, the girl went to the god

Parameswara, and implored his aid

somebody

to

When muttering a mantram some water, a few drops of which (prayer), he sprinkled went up and became stars, and from a few more, which fell on the leaves of a banyan tree, there came out a man, to whom was assigned the task of washing the cloths
have her cloth washed.
of the

women in their courses, wearing which alone the women are purified by a bath. When a young man of the Velan caste has attained
girl

the marriageable age, his father and maternal uncle select

a suitable

as a wife, after a proper examination and

agreement of their horoscopes.

arranged in the hut of the
bride's price, fifteen fanams,
for the
is

The

preliminaries are

girl,

and a portion of the paid. The auspicious day

wedding
it

is is

fixed,

should attend

brated at the
up.

girl's

and the number of guests that determined. The wedding is celehut, in front of which a shed is put
generally takes place at night.

The ceremony
it,

few hours before

the bridegroom and his party arrive

at the bride's hut,

where they are welcomed, and seated

345

VELAN
pandal (shed).

on mats spread on the

the auspicious hour,

floor in the

At

when

the relatives on both sides and

the castemen are assembled, the bridegroom's enangan

(relation

by marriage) hands over a metal plate containing

suit,

the wedding

the bride's price, and a few packets

of betel leaves and nuts to the bride's enangan,

who

takes everything except the cloth to be given to the

bride's mother,

and returns the plate

sister dresses

to the

same man.

The bridegroom's
cloth,

the bride in the

new

and takes her to the pandal, to seat her along with

the bridegroom, and to serve one or two spoonfuls of

milk and a few pieces of plantain

is

fruit,

when

the bride

formally declared to be the wife of the

young man and

member

of his family.
a,fter

treated to a feast,
leaves, nuts,
in

The guests assembled are which they are served with betel

and tobacco.

The

rest of the night is spent

merry

songs and

dancing.

The songs

refer

to

the marriage of Sita, the wife of

Rama, of Subhadra,
treated to rice kanji

wife of Arjuna, and of Panchali, wife of the Pandavas.

Next morning, the

(gruel)
at

bride's party

is

eight o'clock,

and

to

a sumptuous meal
to the bride-

at twelve o'clock, after

which they repair

groom's hut, accompanied by the bride, her parents and

relations, all of
ties
is

whom

receive a welcome.

The

formali-

are gone through here also, and the bride's party

feasted.

On

the fourth morning, the newly married

couple bathe and dress themselves neatly, to worship

the deity at the local temple.

After dinner they go to

the
after
wife.

bride's

hut, where they spend a week or two, which the bridegroom returns to his hut with his
It is

now

that the bride receives a few ornaments,

a metal dish for taking meals,

stances of

lamp,

and a few
the husband

metal utensils, which vary according to the circumher parents.

Henceforward,

VfeLAN

346
live

and wife
family.

with the parents of the former

in

their

Among

the

Mannans of
father,

the northern parts of the

State, the following marriage

customs are found to prevail.

The bridegroom's
and
after

his maternal uncle, enangan,

the third or middle man, conjointly select the girl

due examination and agreement of horoscopes. The preliminaries are arranged as before, and the day for the wedding is determined. At the auspicious moment on the wedding day, when the relatives on both sides
and the castemen are assembled
plate containing the
at the

shed

in front of

the bride's hut, the bridegroom's father takes up a metal

wedding

dress,

the bride's price

(twelve fanams), and a few bundles of betel leaves, nuts

and tobacco, and repeats a formula, of which the substance

runs thus.

"A

lighted

lamp

is

placed

in

the

shed.

Four mats are spread round it in the direction of east, west, north and south. A metal plate, containing rice, flowers and betel leaves, is placed in front of the lamp, and the elderly members of the caste and the relatives on
both sides are assembled.

According

to the traditional
father,

custom of the

caste, the

young man's

maternal

uncle, enangan,

and the middle man conjointly selected

the girl after satisfying themselves with due agreement

of horoscopes, and ascertaining the illams and kriyams

on both

sides.

They have negociated

for the girl,

is

and

settled the

day on which the marriage

to take place.

In token of this,
family.
for the

they have taken meals in the bride's

The

claims of the girl for two pieces of cloth

festival,

Onam
(a

Thiruwatira

two fanams or nine annas for Dhanu, i.e., Decemberfestival in

January), and Vishu, are satisfied, and she

young man taken to the village festival. now come for the celebration of the wedding.

by the They have

is

There

347

VELAN

the price of the bride, and has seen 5

price of the same, but
varies,
it is

have been times when he has heard of loi fanams as fanams as the 1

now

21

fanams.

It

thus

and may be increased or diminished according to the will, pleasure, and means of the parties. With four fanams as the price of the bride and eight fanams
for

ornaments, and with the bundles of betel leaves, nuts,

and the wedding dress in a metal plate, may I, ye elderly members, give it to the girl's parents.-*" "Shall I,"
answers the
gives
it

girl's father,

**

accept

it ?

"
it

Receiving

it,

he

to his brother-in-law,

who

gives

to the enangan,

and he takes everything in it except the wedding suit, which he hands over to the bridegroom's enangan, who gives it to the bridegroom's sister, to have the bride
dressed in
the
it.

The
the

other portions of the ceremony are

In Palghat and the
is

same as those described above.

taluk,

Chittur

following

declaration

made.

"According to the customary traditions of the caste, when a young man of one locality comes to tame a girl of another locality, and takes her as his wife, ye elderly

members assembled
leaves, four

here,

may
rice,

these four bundles of betel

measures of
? "

two pieces of

cloth,

and

ten fanams be given to the bride's parents.-*"

"Shall

these be accepted

says the bride's enangan.

When

the bride accompanies the bridegroom to his hut, the

following formal

statement

is

made.

"

Thrash thou
off

mayst, but not with a stick.

of bad

Thou mayst

not accuse her

conduct.

Thou mayst not cut

tufts of hair.

her

ears,

breasts, nose

and

Thou mayst
as long
her,

not take

her to a tank (to bathe), or to a temple (for swearing).

Thou mayst keep and

wantest.

protect her

as

thou
her

When

thou dost

not

want

give

maintenance, and take back the children, for they are

thine own."

VELAN
Polygamy
find
it

348
is

not prohibited, but

is

rarely practiced

They are very poor, and support their wives and children born in a single married life. Want of children, bodily defect
difficult to

by the Velans and Mannans.

or incurable disease, or

want of additional hands for work, induce them to take more than one wife. may sometimes Polyandry does not prevail among the Velans, but is

common among
the State.

Mannans of the northern parts of Velan woman who loses her husband may
the
caste,
if

marry another of her

husband's death.
in the

she

likes,

a year after her

The formalities of the wedding consist husband giving two pieces of cloth to the woman who wishes to enter into wedlock with him. After this she forfeits all claim on the property of her former
husband.

Among

the Mannans, a

widow may marry

any one of her brothers-in-law.

adultery with a

woman committing
is

member of her own

caste

well thrashed.

One who
caste
is

disposes of herself to a

sent out of caste.

member of a lower She may then become a

If

Christian or

Muhammadan

convert.

an unmarried

young woman becomes pregnant, and

secret lover,

this is

known

to

her castemen, they convene a meeting, and find out the

whom

they compel to take her as his wife.

fined,

Very often they are both

toddy.
is

and the

fine is

spent on

Both among

the Velans and Mannans, divorce

easy.

A man

to take her to her to

who does not like his wife has only original home and give charge of her
to

her parents, informing them of the circumstances

which have induced him

adopt such a course.

A
is

woman who
at liberty to

does not

like

her husband

may

relinquish

him, and join her parents.

In both case, the

woman

marry again.
is

When a woman

pregnant, the ceremony of pulikuti

is

(drinking of tamarind juice)

performed

for

her during

349
the ninth month at the hut of her husband.

VELAN
The juice
is

extracted from tamarind {Tdmarindus indica\ kotapuli

[Garcinia Cambogia), nerinjampuli {Hibiscus surattensis)

and the leaves of ambazhampuli [Spondias mangiferd). A large branch of ambazhampuli is stuck in the ground in the central courtyard, near which the pregnant woman is
seated.

The husband
in

gives her three small spoonfuls,

and then seven times with her cherutali (neck ornament)

dipped
her
the
juice.

Among
it it

the

washermen,
vessel,
this,

the

woman's brother gives

sister-in-law

three times to her.

in

Should
she has
a quarter

give

small

a claim to two pieces of cloth.

After
oil
is

measure of gingelly {Sesamum)

head, to be rubbed
all

poured upon her

relatives

over her body, and she bathes,

using

Acacia Intsia as soap.

the

Those of her

castemen who are invited are sumptuously Some of them crack jokes by asking the pregnant woman to promise her baby son or daughter to theirs when grown up. All bless her for a safe delivery and

and
fed.

healthy child.

A woman who
in

is

about to become a mother

is

lodged

a separate room for her delivery, attended by her

mother and one or two grown-up women, who act as

midwives.
the
first

The

period of pollution

is fifteen

days.

For

three days the

woman

is

given a dose of dried

ginger mixed with palmyra [Borassus flabellifer) jaggery

(crude sugar), and for the next three days a mixture of
garlic
is

and jaggery.
kanji

Her

diet during the first three

days

rice

with

scrapings of cocoanut,

which are

believed to

help the formation of the mother's milk.

For the next three days, the juice of kotapuli {Garcinia Cambogid), cumin seeds, and kotal urikki {Achyranthes
asperd),

gosperma)

and of the leaves of muringa [Moringa pterymore days, is given, after which, for a few

VELAN

350

a dose of the flesh of fowl mixed with mustard, cumin

seeds and uluva
gingelly
oil is
(

Trigonella fcBnum-grcecurn) boiled in

taken.

She bathes

in

water boiled with

medicinal herbs on the fourth, seventh, ninth, eleventh,

and sixteenth days.

On

the morning of the sixteenth

room with water mixed with cowdung, and sweeps the compound. Wearing a mattu (washed cloth) brought by a washerman, she bathes to be freed from pollution. She may now
day, her enangathi (enangan's wife) cleans her
enter the hut, and mingle with the rest of the family.

Among
little

Velans and Mannans, the sons inherit the

property of their fathers, but they are very poor, and have
or nothing to inherit.

Velans and
these
people,
to

Mannans
is

practice

magic and sorcery.

All diseases that flesh

heir to are, in the opinion of

caused by malignant demons, and they

with the aid of their mantrams and

profess

cure,

amulets, people suffering from maladies.

of the following mantram, and throwing of

(holy ashes), in propitiation of the

The muttering bhasmam small-pox demon is

believed to effect a cure.

(i)

Om, Oh
in

thou, Pallyamma, mother with tusk-

like teeth, that

demoniacal

form appearest on the

burning ground called omkara, with burning piles flaming around, with one breast on one of thy shoulders,

and playing with the other as with a

stretched out and
beans, and pepper in thy

ball,

with thy tongue

wound round thy

left

head, with grass,

hand, with gingelly seeds

and chama grains

in

thy right hand, that scatterest and

;

sowest broadcast the seeds of small-pox

Oh

let

the

seeds that thou hast sown, and those that thou hast not

sown, dry up inside, and get charred outside.

as
if

Be thou
!

intoxicated with joy

(2)

Protect thou, protect thou

Malign influence of birds on children.

351

VELAN

Oh

thou round-eyed, short Karinkali with big

in possession.

ears, born from the third incessantly burning eye of Siva,

come, come and be

If this

mantram be muttered

sixteen times,

and

bhasmam thrown over

If the

the body of a child, the operator

breathing violently the while, a cure will be effected.

mantram be muttered in a vessel of water the same number of times, and the child bathed in it, the
cure will be equally effective.
(3)

To
!

cure

fits

and

fever.

Oh
my

thou swine-faced mother, thou catchest hold of

draggest him on the ground,

enemy, coming charging me, by the neck with thy

;

tusks thrust into his body

and standest slowly chewing and eating, thrusting thy

tusks,

rubbing again,

and

wearing down
;

his

body,

chewing once
controllest

more and again thou, mother that 41,448 demons presiding over all kinds of
seventy-two
Bhiravans,

maladies,
epileptic

eighteen

kinds

of
all

fits

(korka), twelve kinds

illness,

of muyalis and

other kinds of

as also Kandakaranans (demons

with bell-shaped ears), be under

as
I

my

possession so long

serve thee.

This mantram should be repeated sixteen times,

with

bhasmam thrown on
(4)

the body of the patient.

full

Oh

Bhadrakali, thou hast drunk the

in

cup.

Oh

thou that boldest the sword of royalty

sittest

thy right

hand, and that half

control, as
I

on a high

seat.

Place under
to serve

am

piously uttering the

mantrams

demons, namely Yakshi, Gandharvan, Poomalagandharvan, Chutali, Nirali, Nilankari, Chuzali, and
thee, all

many

others

who
!

cause

all

kinds of illness that flesh

Bhadrakali,
I

is

heir to.

Oh

holy mother,

vow by my

preceptor.
(5)

For devil driving.

VELAN

352
!

Oh

thou, Karinkutti (black dwarf) of

Vedapuram
hand

in Vellanad,

that pluckest the fruits of the right

branch of the strychnine tree {Sirycknos Nux-vomica),

and keepest toddy

rind of the fruit,

in its shell,

drinking the blood of the

the

black domestic fowl,

drumming and keeping time on

!

filling

and blowing thy pipe or horn

thou primeval black dwarf, so

through the nose.

long as
I

Oh

beg thee to cause such demons as would not dance to dance, and others to jump and drive them out. Oh thou, Karincome, and enable me to succeed in my kutti, come,
utter the proper

mantrams,

attempts.
(6)

Oh

thou goddess with

face.

Oh

thou with

and thou, a hunter. I utter thy mantrams and meditate upon thee, and therefore request thee to tread upon my enemies, burst open their bodies
face like that of a bear,
to

drink their blood, and

yawn

to take

complete rest

drive out such

demons as cause convulsions of the body

both from within and without, and all kinds of fever. I swear by thee and my preceptor. Scatter them as dust.

Swahah.
(7)

For the

evil eye.

Salutations to thee.

Oh

God.

Even

as the

moon

wanes

in its brightness

at the sight of the sun,

even as

the bird chakora (Eraya) disappears at the sight of the

moon

even as the

great

Vasuki (king of serpents)

;

vanishes at the sight of chakora vanishes from his head

;

even as the poison

so

may

the potency of his evil

eye with thy aid vanish.

(8)

To

cause delay
thee.

in

the occurrence of menses.

!

Salutation to

Oh

Mars

(the

son of the

goddess Earth).
If this

mantram
if

is

muttered on a thread dyed yellow

with turmeric, and

the thread be placed on both the

35'3

VELAN
the

palms joined together, and

be thought
of,

if

number of days

to

which the occurrence of the menses should be delayed

the postponement will be procured by the neck or the
it,

wearing

it

either round

loins.

The

thread with a ring attached to

and worn round the

neck

is

equally effective.

(9)

To prevent cows from giving milk. Om, Koss, dry up the liquid, kindly present me

with
in

thy gracious aspect.

Oh

thou with the great sword

thy hands, the great trident, dry up the cow's udder even
as a tiger,
(10)
I

swear by thee and

my

preceptor.

To

cause cows to give milk.

Even
due
so

as the swelling on the holy feet of

Mahadeva

to the bite of a crocodile has subsided

I

and gone down,

go down.
(11)

swear by

my

preceptor.

To remove

a thorn from the sole of the foot.

When Parameswara
hunting expedition,
lady-ship.
It

and Parvathi started on their

a thorn entered the foot of her

it

was doubted whether

was the thorn

of a bamboo, an ant, or a

strychnine tree.

Even
I

so

may

this poison cease to hurt,

Oh

Lord.

swear by

my

preceptor.
(12)

To

effect

metamorphosis.

Take the head of a dog and burn it, and plant on Burn camphor and frankincense, and it vellakutti plant. adore it. Then pluck the root. Mix it with the milk of a dog and the bones of a cat. A mark made with the
mixture on the
forehead
will

enable

any person

to

assume the figure of any animal he thinks of. (13) Before a stick of the Malankara plant, worship

Then chant the Sakti mantram 10 times, and mutter the mantram to give life at the bottom. Watch carefully which way the stick
with a lighted wick and incense.
1

inclines.

Proceed to the south of the

stick,

and pluck

VII~23

VELAN

354

the whiskers of a live tiger, and of the veerali the ear.

silk,

make with them

and enclose
it

a ball

string

it

with

silk,

within

Stand on the palms of the hand to attain the

bull,

disguise of a tiger, and, with the stick in hand, think of

cat,

white

or other animal.

Then you

will, in

the

eyes of others, appear as such.

( 1

4)

Take the
it

nest of a crow from a

margosa
will

tree,
it

and bury
into

at the cremation ground.

Then throw

the house of your enemy.

fire.

The house

soon

take

(15)

Take

the ashes of the burial-ground on which

an ass has been

it

rolling

on a Saturday or Sunday, and put

in

the house of your enemy.

The members

of the

family will soon quit the house, or a severe illness will

attack them.

The Velans and Mannans

karanan,
Karinkutti,

are animists, and worship

demoniacal gods, such as Chandan, Mundian, Kanda-

and Chathan.

All of

them are

separately represented by stones located underneath a

tree in the corners of their

compounds.

Offerings of

sheep, fowls, plantain fruits, cocoanuts, parched rice and

beaten

them on the tenth of Dhanu (last week in December), on a Tuesday in Makaram (JanuaryFebruary), and on Kumbham Bharani (second asterism in March-April). They also adore the goddess Bhagarice,

are

made

to

vathi and the spirits of their departed ancestors,

who

are

believed to exercise their influence in their families for

good or
to

evil.

Sometimes, when they go to Cranganore

visit

worship the goddess there, they

local

the senior male

members of the

families to take leave

Kammalan and Izhuvan of them, when they are given a few

Nayar,
etc.,

annas with which they purchase fowls,

offerings to the local goddess.

to

be given as

Wooden or

metal images,

representing the spirits of their ancestors, are located in

355

VELAN

a room of their huts, and worshipped with offerings on

and Sankranti nights. The Velans and Mannans either burn or bury the dead. The son is the chief mourner who performs the
funeral rites,

New Moon

them.

and the nephews and brothers take part in Their priests are known as Kurup, and they preside

Death pollution lasts for sixteen days, and on the morning of the sixteenth day the hut of the dead person is well swept and cleansed by sprinkling water mixed with cowdung. The members of the family, dressed in the mattu (a washed cloth worn before bathing) brought by the washerman, bathe to be free
at the ceremonies.

from pollution.

The

castemen, including their friends

and

relations, are invited

and

feasted.

similar funeral

feast is also held at the

end of the

year.

The
rajatis,

chief occupation of the Velans and

Mannans

is

the giving of mattu to Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Anthala-

Nayars,

Kammalans and

Izhuvans, for wearing

before going to bathe on the day on which they are freed

from pollution.

girl or

the morning of the fourth day, a

woman in her woman in

courses on

confinement

on the

and sixteenth days, and all the members of a family under death pollution on the sixteenth day, have to use it. They bathe wearing the washed cloth, and return it as soon as the bath is over.
fifth,

ninth, eleventh

It

may

either belong to the

washerman, or have been

previously given to him by the

members of the

family.

He
to a

gets an anna or a measure of paddy for his service

woman

in her

menses, and a para of paddy or six

pollutions.

annas

for birth

and death

The Velans

give

the mattu to

all

the castes above mentioned, while the

it

Mannans
profess

refuse to give

to the

Kammalans, and thereby

themselves to be superior in status to them.

clothes to dress the idols in

They wash

some of the high

VII-23 B

VELAN
caste temples.

356
Their washing consists
water mixed with
in first

plunging

the

dirty cloths in

cowdung, and

beating them on a stone by the side of a tank (pond),

them in water mixed with wood ashes or charamannu, after which they are exposed to steam for a few hours, and again beaten on the stone, slightly moistening in water now and then,
canal or river, and again immersing
until

they are quite clean.

They

are then dried in the

sun,

and again moistened with a solution of starch and When indigo, when they are exposed to the air to dry. dry, they are folded, and beaten with a heavy club, so as
to be like those ironed.

The Velans

of the Cranganore,

Cochin, and Kanayannur taluks, climb cocoanut trees to

pluck cocoanuts, and get about eight to ten annas for

every hundred trees they go up.

They make
sorcery,

umbrellas.

Some among them

are quack doctors,

practice

magic and

and some

who

treat sickly children.

Some

are

now engaged in agricultural operations, while a few make beds, pillows, and coats. There are also a few of them in every village who are songsters, and whose
on certain ceremonial occasions, namely, on the bathing day of a girl in her first menses, on the wedding night, and when religious ceremonies are
services are availed of

performed, and sacrifices offered to their gods.

Some

are experts in drum-beating, and are invited by low caste

people of the rural parts.

The Mannans

also follow the

same occupations. The Velans and Mannans eat

castes

at the

hands of

all

above

them,

namely,

Brahmans,

Kshatriyas,

Nayars, and

Izhuvans.

The former

take food

from

Kammalans, while the latter abstain from so doing. They do not eat the food prepared by Kaniyans, Panans,
Vilkurups,
or other castes of equal or inferior status.
to stand at a distance of twenty-four feet

They have

from

357

VELAN

They have their own barbers, and are their own washermen. They stand far away from the outer wall of the temples of high castes. They are not allowed
Brahmans.
to take water

from the wells of high caste Sudras, nor

are they allowed to live in their midst.

The

following note on the Velans of Travancore has

Iyer.

been furnished by Mr. N. Subramani

The word Velan has been derived from vel a spear, and also from vela work. The usual title of the Velans is Panikkan. They are believed to be divided into four classes, viz., Bharata Velan, Vaha Velan, Pana Velan, and Manna Velan. While the last of these sections, in
addition to their traditional occupation, are

washermen
of the

and climbers of areca palm

trees, the

Pana Velans take

sawing as a supplementary employment.

Some

members of the
cians.

first

and second
is

classes are also physi-

This

classification

gradually going out

of

vogue.

The Velans
to

are

said

traditionally

to

have been
is

descended from Siva, who, on one occasion,

believed

have removed the

evil effects of the sorcery of

demons

upon Vishnu by means of exorcism. As this kind of injury began to increase among men, a man and woman
were created by
quences.
this deity, to

prevent

its
is

dire conse-

In the Keralolpatti, this caste

mentioned as
are
this
is

Velakkuruppu.

But

at present the Puranadis,

the barbers and priests of this class, are

who known by

name.

Puranadi means one

who

stands outside, and

not admitted as of equal rank with the Velans proper.

The Puranadis
exist only

are not washermen.

Commensal

relations

between the male members of the Velans and

a

Puranitis (Puranadi females).

The Velans perform

number of

useful services in

the body politic of Malabar.

In the Keralolpatti their

vlan
duty
is

358
said to be the nursing of

women

in their confine-

ment.

In

the
trees,

Kerala- Visesha-Mahatmya,

exorcism,

climbing of

and washing

clothes, are

mentioned as

There are various kinds of exorcism, the chief being Velan Tullal and Velan Pravarti. The
their occupations.

former

is

a kind of

masque performed by the Velans

for

warding

off the effects of the evil eye,

and preventing
Atavi
is

the injurious influences of

demons and

spirits.

a peculiar female divinity worshipped by the caste, by

whose help these feats are believed to be performed in the main. She, and a host of minor gods and goddesses, are represented by them, and a dance commences. After it is over, all the characters receive presents. Velan
Pravarti,

or Otuka,

may

either last

for

eleven days,

or

may
in

be finished on a minor scale within three days,

and

emergent cases even

This
is

in

one day.

Puranadi acts

as buffoon, and serves the purpose of a domestic servant

on the occasion.
in

called Pallipana

when performed
and
Velan

temples,

Pallipperu

when

in

palaces,

Pravarti or Satru-eduppu in the case of ordinary people.

This

is

also

done with a view

to prevent the effect of

the evil eye.

On
or

the

first

day, a person representing the

is

enchanted

man

woman
and
is

placed in a temporary shed

built for the purpose,

lights are

waved before him.

On

the third day, a pit

dug, and a cock sacrificed.

On
is

the fourth day, the Pattata Bali, or

human

sacrifice,

takes place.

person

is

thrown into a pit which

covered with a plank of wood, upon which sacrifices are The buried person soon resuscitates himself, offered. and, advancing as if possessed, explains the cause of
the disease or calamity.

On

the eighth day, figures of

snakes, in gold or silver, are enclosed in small copper On the vessels, and milk and fruit are offered to them.

ninth day, the Velans worship the lords of the eight

359
directions,

VELICHCHAPAD

with

Brahma
the

or the creator in the midst of

is

them.

On

the tenth day, there

much
is

festivity

and
a

amusement,
condensed
possessed,
safely

and
form.

Mahabharata
chief of the
that,

sung

in

The

Velans becomes

and prays

as the Pandavas

emerged

from the sorcery of the Kauravas, the person

affected
last day,

by the calamity may escape unhurt.

the house.
day,

On

the

animals are sacrificed at the four corners of

the
is

compound surrounding
performed on the
Pattatabali,
first

No
the

special rite

but

Ituvanabali,

Kuzhibali,

Kitangubali,

Patalabali,

Sara-

kutabali, Pithabali,

Azhibali, Digbali,

and Kumpubali,

are respectively observed during the remaining ten days.

The Pana,
It

of which

rite

the breaking of cocoanuts

is

the most important item, completes this long ceremony.

was once supposed that the Bharata Velans exorcised spirits in the homes of high caste Hindus, the same work being done among the middle classes by the Vaha
Velans, and

among

the low by the

Manna

Velans.

This

rule does not hold

good

at the present day.

The Velans

are also engaged in the event of bad crops.

Besides standing thirty-two feet apart from Hindu

temples,

and worshipping
called

the divinities therein,

for

the

Velans erect small sanctuaries

Siva within their

own

compounds,
rice,

Kuriyala.

They worship

this deity

in preference to others,

and

offer

tender cocoanuts, fried

him on the Uttradam month day of August. Velanati (foreign). A sub-division of Kapus, and other Telugu castes, and of Telugu Brahmans.
sugar, and plantain fruits to
in the

exogamous
cles,

Velanga (wood apple Feronia elephantum). sept of Muka Dora. Velichchapad."Of the Velichchapads, or
:

An
ora-

of Malabar,

the

following

account

is

given by

VELICHCHAPAD
Mr. F. Fawcett.*
quality.
It

360
"

Far away

in rural

Malabar,

witnes-

sed the ceremony in which the Velichchapad exhibited his

was

in

the neighbourhood of a Nayar house,

all

to

which thronged

the neighbours (Nayars),

men and

women, boys and about an The Nayar said it was the custom in his family to hour. have it done once a year, but could give no account of
girls.

The ceremony

lasts

how

the custom originated

most probably

in

a vow,

some ancestor having vowed that, if such or such benefit be received, he would for ever after have an annual performance of this ceremony in his house. It involved

some expenditure,
the middle of the

as the Velichchapad
fed.

had

to

be paid,

and the neighbours had to be

little

Somewhere about

courtyard, always as clean as a

dinner table, the Velichchapad placed a lamp (of the

Malabar pattern) having a lighted wick, a kalasam (brass vessel), some flowers, camphor, saffron (turmeric) and
other paraphernalia.

Bhagavati was the deity invoked,

and the business involved offering flowers, and waving

a lighted wick round the kalasam.

The

Velichchapad's

movements became

quicker, and, suddenly seizing his

sword (nandakam), he ran round the courtyard (against

the sun, as sailors say) shouting wildly.
influence of the deity

He

is

under the

who

has been introduced into him,

and he gives oracular utterances to the deity's commands. What he said I know not, and no one else seemed to know or care in the least, much interested though they were in the performance. As he ran, every now and then he
cut his forehead with the sword, pressing
it

against the

skin

and sawing
all

vertically
face.

up and down.
Presently he

The blood

streamed

over his

became wilder

and wilder, and whizzed round the lamp, bending forward

* Madras Museum Bull.
Ill, 3, 1901.

<

u
>

36

VELLALA

towards the kalasam.

was present
belief of all

here,

Evidently some deity, some spirit and spoke through the mouth of the
I

Velichchapad.

This,

think, undoubtedly represents the

who were

present.

When

he had done whiz-

zing round the kalasam, he soon

became a normal being,

for the self-inflicted
I

and stood before

laceration
is

my camera.
some

The fee
rice, etc.

one rupee,

saw the Velich-

chapad about three days afterwards, going to perform

elsewhere.

The wound on

his forehead

had healed.

The
by the

careful observer can always identify a Velichchapad

triangular patch over the forehead, where the hair will

not grow, and where the skin

is

somewhat indurated."

Veliveyabadina Razu. The name, denoting Razus who were thrown out, of a class said to be descended from
Razus who were excommunicated from their caste.* Veliyam.-^Recorded, in the Travancore Census In the same report Report, 1 90 1, as a title of Nayars. Veliyattu is described as synonymous with Pulikkappanikkan, a sub-division of Nayar.

Vellaikaran (white
European.
Vellala.

man).

Tamil

name

for

"

The Vellalas," Mr. H. A.

Stuart writes.t

" are the great farmer caste of the

Tamil country, and

district.

they are strongly represented in every Tamil

The word Vellalan is derived from vellanmai [vellam, anmai, management water, meaning cultivation, Dr. Oppert I considers Vellalan to be etymotillage. logically connected with Pallan, Palli, etc., the word meaning the lord of the Vallas or Pallas. The story of
i^]

their origin is as follows.

Many

thousands of years ago,

Rev,

J.

Cain, Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

t Madras Census Report, rSgi, and Manual of the North Arcot District, X Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 188-788, p. 134, where the

etymology of the name Vellala

is

fully discussed.

VELLALA
when
land,

362
inhabitants of

the

the world

were
fell

rude and

ignorant of agriculture, a severe drought

upon the

and the people prayed

to Bhudevi, the

goddess of

the earth, for aid.

She

pitied them,

and produced from

her body a
to
till

man
soil

carrying a plough,

who showed them how

His offsprings
Bhuvaisyas, and
merchants).

the

and support themselves.

are the Vellalas,

caste,

who

aspire to belong to the Vaisya

since that includes Govaisyas,

Dhanavaisyas (shepherds, cultivators and

few, therefore, constantly

it

most put

wear the sacred thread, but on only during marriages or funerals as a

mark of the sacred nature of the ceremony."

The
days,

traditional story of the origin of the Vellalas

in the

is

given as follows

Baramahal Records.*

" In ancient

when

the

God Paramesvaradu and

his

consort

the goddess Parvati Devi resided on the top of Kailasa

Parvata or mount of paradise, they one day retired to

amuse themselves
privacy,

in private,

and by chance Visvakarma,

the architect of the Devatas or gods, intruded on their

which enraged them, and they said to him that, since he had the audacity to intrude on their retirement,
they would cause an

Bhuloka or earthly
his temerity.

world,

enemy of his to be born in the who should punish him for

him in would be born, and further added that, if he knew the birth place, he would annihilate him with a single blow. The divine pair replied that the person would spring up into
existence from the bowels of the earth on the banks of

Visvakarma requested they would inform what part of the Bhuloka or earthly world he

the

Ganga

river.

On

this,

Visvakarma took
river,

his sword,

mounted

his aerial car,

and flew through the regions of

ether to the banks of the

Ganga

where he anxiously

Section

III.

Inhabitants,

Government

Press, Madras, 1907.

363
waited the birth of his enemy.

VELLALA

One day Visvakarma

observed the ground to crack near him, and a kiritam or

diadem appeared issuing out of the bowels of the earth, which Visvakarma mistook for the head of his adversary, and made a cut at it with his sword, but only
royal

struck off the kiritam.

In the meantime, the

person

came completely out of the earth, with a bald pate, holding in his hand a golden ploughshare, and his neck
encircled with garlands of flowers.
instantly laid

hold on him,

The angry Visvakarma when the Gods Brahma,

Vishnu and Siva, and the supporters of the eight corners of the universe, appeared in all their glory, and interceded
for the earth-born

personage, and said to ^'isvakarma

thou didst vow that thou wouldst annihilate him with a single blow, which vow thou hast not performed there;

fore with what justice hast thou a second time

laid violent
first

hands on him
attempt,
it is

Since thou didst not succeed in thy

but equitable that thou shouldst

now

spare

him.

At the

intercession and remonstrance of the sfods.

his hold,

and a peace was concluded between him and his enemy on the following stipulation,

Visvakarma quitted
viz.,

that the pancha jati, or five castes of silversmiths, car-

and braziers, who were Visvakarma, should be subservient to the the sons of
penters, ironsmiths, stone-cutters,

earth-born person.
these three names.

The

bestowed on the person First Bhumi Palakudu or saviour

deities

of the earth, because he was produced by her.

Second,

Ganga kulam

or descendant of the river Ganga, by reason

forth

of having been brought

on her banks.
in

Third,

Murdaka Palakudu

or protector of the plough, alluding

his hand,

to his being born with a ploughshare

and

they likewise ordained that, as he had

lost his

diadem, he

should not be eligible to sovereignty, but that he and his

descendants should
till

the ground with this privilege.

VELLALA

364

that a person of the caste should put the crown on the

king's head at the coronation.

They next
in

invested

him

with the yegnopavitam or string, and,

order that he
in

might propagate
time, the

his caste, they

gave him

marriage

the daughters of the gods Indra and Kubera.

At

this

god Siva was mounted on a white bullock, and the god Dharmaraja on a white buffalo, which they gave him to plough the ground, and from which circumstance the caste became surnamed Vellal Warns or those who
plough with white bullocks.
deities

After the nuptials, the

departed to their celestial abodes.

Murdaka

Palakulu had fifty-four sons by the daughter of the god

Indra,

whom

by the daughter of the god Kubera, he married to the one hundred and six daughters

and

fifty-two

of Nala Kubarudu, the son of Kubera, and his sons-in-

law made the following agreement with him,

thirty-five

viz.,

that

them should be called Bhumi Palakulu, the ground thirty-five of them named Vellal Shetti, and their occupation be traffic and thirtyfive of them named Govu Shetlu, and their employment breeding and feeding of cattle. They gave the remaining one the choice of three orders, but he would not have any connexion with either of them, from whence they surnamed him Agmurdi or the alien. The Agmurdi had born to him two thousand five hundred children, and became a separate caste, assuming the appellation of Agmurdi Vellal Waru. The other brothers had
of

and should

till

twelve thousand children,

who

intermarried, and lived

together as one caste, though their occupations were

different

....
capital

yalu,

whose

During the reign of Krishna Rawas the city of Vijayanagaram or city

of victory, a person of the Vellal caste, or

named Umbhi

Amultan Mudaliyar, was appointed sarvadhikari or

prime minister, who had a samprati or secretary of the

365
caste

VELLALA
whose

of

Gollavaru
It

or so

cowherds,

name was
Bhagaand
city,

Venayaterthapalli.

happened that a

set of

vata Sevar, or strolling players, came to the

one night acted a play in the presence of Krishna Rayalu and his court. In one of the acts, a player appeared
in the

garb and character of a female cowherd, and, by

mimicking the actions and manners of that caste, afforded great diversion both to the Raja and his courtiers. But
no person seemed
minister,
to be so

much

pleased as the prime

his secretary,
for

which being perceived by determined on making him pay dear

pride,

he

his

mirth by

turning the Vellal caste into ridicule, and thus hurt his

seeing the
purpose,

and take revenge for the pleasure he expressed at follies of the cowherd caste exposed. For that

he requested the players, when they acted another play, to dress themselves up in the habit of a
female of the Vellal caste.

This scheme came to the

ears of the prime minister, who, being a proud man,

was sadly vexed

its

at the trick,

being carried into

and resolved on preventing execution but, having none of his

;

own how

caste present to assist him, and not

knowing well

to put a stop to the business, he got into his palan-

quin,

and went to a Canardha Shetti or headman of the right-hand caste, informed him of the circumstance, and

begged his advice and assistance. The Shetti replied Formerly the left-hand caste had influence enough with
'

Government to get an order issued forbidding the righthand caste to cultivate or traffic therefore, when we quarrel again, do you contrive to prevent the ryots of
;

the Vellal caste from cultivating the ground, so that the

public revenue
will fall short,

and Government
;

will

be

obliged to grant us our

own terms
is

and

will

save you

from the disgrace that

intended to be put on you.

The prime

minister agreed to the proposal, and went

VELLALA
home.

366
night,

At

when

the players were coming to the

royal presence to act, and one of

of a female of the Vellal caste,

off his head,

them had on the habit the Canardha Shetti cut

minister.

and saved the honour of the prime

affair,

The death how

of the player being reported to the

Krishna Rayalu, he enquired into the

his secretary to

Raja and finding

matters stood, he directed the prime minister and

be more circumspect
to

in their conduct,

and not to carry their enmity

such lengths.'

Since

that time, the Vellal castes have always assisted the right-

hand against the left-hand castes." [See Kammalan.) At the time of the census, 1871, some Vellalas claimed that they had been seriously injured in reputation, and handled with great injustice, in being classed as Sudras by the Municipal Commissioners of Madras
in

the classification of Hindus under the four great

divisions of Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras.

In their petition
to

it

was

stated that "

show

that the Vellalas

we shall first proceed do come exactly within the

like definition

most authoritative definition given of Vysias, and then

point out that they do not

come within the

these
'

of Sudras.

First then to the definition of Visya,

Manu,
cattle,

the paramount authority upon

paragraph 90 of his Institutes

matters,

says in

To keep herds

of

to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to read the scripture, to

carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to cultivate land,

are prescribed or permitted to a Vysia.'

"

In the course of
is

the petition, the Vellalas observed that "it

impossible

to imagine that the Vellalas, a race of agriculturists

traders, should

and
as

have had
;

to render menial service to the

three higher classes

for the

very idea of service

is,

it

needs must be, revolting to the Vellala, whose profession

teaches him perfect independence, and dependence,
it

if

be,

upon the sovereign alone

for the protection of his

367
proper interests.

vellAla
cannot be of the

Hence a

Vellala

Sudra or

servile class.

Besides, that the Vellalas are

recognised as a respectable body of the community will

also appear from the following.

called tulabharam (weighing in

There was a ceremony scales) observed by the

ancient kings
in charity to

of, at

some

part of their lives, distributing

the most deserving gold and silver equal to

;

the weight of their persons

and

tradition alleges that,

when

the kings of Tanjore performed this ceremony, the

right to

weigh the king's person was accorded to the This shows that the Vellalas have Vellalan Chettis. been recognised as a respectable body of mercantile men
in

charge of weights and measures (Manu 30, chap.

also, in

9).

So

that,

Puranam of Madura, it is said when the King Somasundara Pandien, who was
the Halasya

supposed to be the very incarnation of Siva, had to be

crowned, there arose a contention as to
the crown on his head.

who was

to put

After

agreed that one of the Vellalas,

of the

much discussion, it was who formed the strength

community (note the fact that Manu says that Vysya came from the thighs of the Supreme Deity, which, as an allegory, is interpreted to mean the strength
of the State) should be appointed to perform that part of

the ceremony.

Also, in Kamban's Ramayana, written odd years ago, it is said that the priest Vasista 1,000 and handed the crown to a Vellala, who placed it upon great Rama's head."

'The Tamils eighteen hundred years ago,' Mr. V. Kanakasabhai writes that "among the pure Tamils, the
In
class
in

most honoured was the Arivar or Sages.

Next

rank to the Arivar were the Ulavar or farmers.

The

Arivars were ascetics, but, of the

men

living in society,

the farmers occupied the highest position.

They formed

the nobility, or the landed aristocracy, of the country.

VELLALA
They were
'

368
also called Vellalar,
lords of the clouds,
'

'

lords of the flood,

'

or

Karalar,'

titles

expressive of their

skill in controlling floods, and in storing water for agri-

cultural

purposes.

The Chera,

Chola and Pandyan

chiefs

Kings,

and most of the petty

of Tamilakam,
families of

belonged to the tribe of Vellalas.

Vellalas

The poor
'the
fallen

who owned

small estates were generally spoken

Vellalas,'

of as the

Veelkudi-UIuvar or

implying thereby that the rest of the Vellalas were

wealthy land-holders.

When

Karikal the Great defeated

the Aruvalar, and annexed their territory to his kingdom,

he distributed the
chiefs.*
this

conquered
of

lands

among

Vellala

The descendants

some

of these chiefs are to

day

in possession of their lands,

which they hold as

petty zamindars under the British Government, t

Vellala families

The

who conquered Vadukam,

called Velamas,
still

or the

modern
In

Telugu country, were

zamindars there

and the great

belong to the Velama caste.

the Canarese country, the Vellalas founded the Belial

dynasty, which ruled that country for several centuries.

The

Vellalas were also called the

Gangakula or Gangainhabited

vamsa, because they derived their descent from the great

and powerful
Ptolemy.

tribe

named Gangvida, which

the valley of the Ganges, as mentioned by Pliny and

portion of Mysore which was peopled mostly

called

by Vellalas was
eleventh

Gangavadi
the
tribe,

in

the tenth and

era.

centuries

of

Christian

Another
as

dynasty of kings of this

who

ruled Orissa in the

eleventh and twelfth centuries,

was

known

the

Gangavamsa
extant,

grammar which was composed by a Brahman named

In the earliest Tamil
in

....
the

Tholkappiyan,

first

or

second century

B.C.,

Thondai-nandalap-paddiyam.

t The zamindars of Cheyur, Chunampet,

etc., in the

Chingleput

district.

369
frequent allusions are
in the

VELLALA
But,

made

to the Arivar or Sages.

chapter in which he describes the classes of society,

all

the author omits

mention

of"

the Arivar, and places the

Brahmins who wear the sacred thread as the first caste. The kings, he says, very guardedly, and not warriors,
form
the second caste,
as
if

the three kings Chera,

;

Chola and Pandy could form a caste all who live by He does not say that trade belong to the third caste.
either the kings or the

merchants wear the sacred thread.

Then he

singles out the Vellalas,

and

states that they

soil.

have no other calling than the cultivation of the

Here he does not say

indirectly

that the Vellalas are Sudras, but

implies that the ordinary Vellalas should be

reckoned as Sudras, and that those Vellalas who were

kings should be honoured as Kshatriyas.
first

This

is

the

attempt made by the Brahmins to bring the Tamils

But, in the absence of the

under their caste system.

could not possibly succeed

Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra castes in Tamilakam, they

;

and

to this

day the Vellala

does not take meals at the hands of a Padaiyadchi,

calls

who

himself a Kshatriya, or a merchant

who

passes for a

In speculating on the origin of the Vellalas, Nelson* states that "tradition uniformly H. Mr. J. declares them to be the descendants of foreign immiand it grants, who were introduced by the Pandyas

Vaisya."

appears to be extremely probable that they

are,

and that
the

an extensive Vellala immigration took place at a rather

remote period, perhaps a
colonization of the
varti.
little

before

or

after

Tonda-mandala by Adondai ChakraThe Vellalas speak a pure dialect of Tamil, and

I

no other language.

have

not

heard

of

anything
or

extraordinary in the customs prevailing

among them,

* Manual of the Madura dktrict.

ii-*4

VELLALA

Z7^
.

of any peculiarities pointing to a non-Tamil origin

. .

With

regard to the assertion so

commonly made
it

that the Pandyas belonged to the Vellala caste,

is

observable that tradition

that the

is

at issue with

it,

and declares

Pandyas proper were Kshatriyas but they were accustomed to marry wives of inferior castes as well
:

as and in addition to wives of their

own

caste

and

some of
death of

their

descendants

born

of the inferior and

after the

irregularly married wives

were Vellalans, and,

Sundara Pandya, formed a new dynasty, known as that of the pseudo-Pandyas. Tradition also says that Arya Nayaga Muthali, the great general of the sixteenth century, was dissuaded by his family priest
or

Kun

from making himself a king on the ground that he was

a Vellalan, and no Vellalan ought to be a king.
looking at
difficult
all

the

facts

of the

case,

it

is

And, somewhat

to

avoid coming to the conclusion that the

reason assigned for his not assuming the crown was the
true one.

This,

however,

is

a question, the settlement

learning
:

of which requires great

antiquarian

and

it

must be

settled hereafter."

In the Madras Census Report, 187 1, the Vellalas are

described as " a peace-loving,

frugal,

and industrious
etc.,

people, and, in the cultivation of rice, betel, tobacco,

have perhaps no equals in the world.

descend to work of a degrading nature.

clerks,

They Some
but

will not con-

are well

educated, and employed in Government service, and as

merchants, shop-keepers,

etc.,

the

greater
soil,

part of

them are the peasant proprietors of the

In the
it

and

confine their attention to cultivation."

Madura

Manual,

is

recorded that "most Vellalans support

themselves by husbandry, which, according to native

ideas, is their only
will

proper means of livelihood.

if

But they
it,

not touch the plough,

they can help

and

371
ordinarily they

VELLALA

do everything by means of hired servants and predial slaves. In the Sathaga of Narayanan may
be found a description of their duties and position in
society, of

which the following translation appears

in

Taylor's work, the Oriental

MSS.

The

Vellalans,

by

the effect of their

ploughing (or cultivation), maintain

the prayers of the

Brahmans, the strength of kings,

all.

the profits of merchants, the welfare of

donations, the enjoyments of domestic
life,

Charity,

and connubial
reputation,

happiness,

homage
and

to the gods, the Sastras, the Vedas,

all

the

Puranas,

other books,

truth,

renown, the very being of the gods, things of good report

or integrity, the
all

good order of

castes,

and (manual)

skill,

by the merit (or efficacy) Those Vellalans who are not farmers, husbandmen, or gardeners, are employed in various ways more or less respectable but none of them will condescend to do work of a degrading nature. Some of them are merchants, some shop-keepers, some Government servants, some sepoys, some domestic
these things
to pass

come

of the Vellalan's plough.

servants,

some
it

clerks,

and so

forth."

In the Tanjore

Manual,
the

is stated that "

many

Vellalars are found in

Government

service,

more

especially as

karnams or

village accountants.

As accountants

they are unsur-

passed, and the facility with which, in by-gone days, they

used to write on cadjan or palmyra leaves with iron

styles,

and pick up any information on any given points

less

from a mass of these leaves, by lamp-light no

than
side

by daylight, was most remarkable.

could write to dictation, and

Running by the

of the Tahsildar's (native revenue officer) palanquin, they

even make arithmetical

In religious obser-

calculations with strictest accuracy.

vances,

they are more

;

strict

than the generality of

Brahmans

they abstain from both intoxicating liquors

V11-24B

VELLALA
and
flesh

372
meat."
In

the

Coimbatore

Manual,

the

Vellalas are
district.

summed up

as "truly the backbone of the

It is

they who, by their industry and frugality,

create and develop wealth, support the administration,

and

As
the

their

money for imperial and district demands. own proverb says The Vellalar's goad is ruler's sceptre. The bulk of them call themselves
find the
:

Salem Manual, the Vellala is described as frugal and saving to the extreme his hard-working wife knows no finery, and the Vellalichi, (Vellala woman) willingly wears for the whole year the one blue cloth, which is all that the domestic economy of
In
the
**
;

Goundans."

the house allows her.

If

she gets wet,

it

must dry on
is

her

and,

if

she would wash her sole garment, half

to

unwrapped

be operated upon, which

is

in

its

turn

relieves the other half, that

then and there similarly

hammered
Their food

against

tank (pond),

some stone by the side of the village or on the bank of the neighbouring stream.
the cheapest of the
'

is

dry

'

grains which

they happen to cultivate that year, and not even the

draw the money out of a Vellalar's It is all expended on his land, if the policy of clutches. the revenue administration of the country be liberal, and the acts of Government such as to give confidence to the ryots or husbandmen otherwise their hoarded gains are The new moon, or some high holiday, may buried. perhaps see the head of the house enjoy a platter of rice
village feasts can
;

and a

little

meat, but such extravagance

is

rare."

The
in the

Vellalas are

summed up by

'

A Native,'*
;

as being " found

in almost every station of

fields to

life,

from the labourer

the petty zamindar (landholder)

from the owner

;

of plantations to the cooly

who works

at coffee-picking

Pen and Ink Sketches of South

India,

373

VELLALA
in his office."

from the Deputy Collector to the peon

It is

recorded, in

the Census Report, 1871, that a Vellala

had passed the M.A. degree examination of the Madras

University.

The

occupations of the Vellalas

as follows
:

whom

examined

in

Madras were

Cart-driver.

Cultivator.

Bricklayer.

Gardener.

Cooly.
Varnisher.
Painter.

Compositor.

Railway fireman.
Peon.
Student.

Watchman.

summary of the Vellalas * Mr. W. " By general consent, the first Francis writes as follows. place in social esteem among the Tamil Sudra castes is
In an excellent

awarded

to them.

To

give detailed descriptions of the

varying customs of a caste which numbers, as this does,

over two and a quarter millions, and
Presidency,
of the caste,
is

is

found

all

over the

unnecessary, but the internal construction

self-contained and distinct sub-divisions,

its

and the methods by which its numbers are enhanced by accretions from other castes, are so typical of the
corresponding characteristics of the Madras castes, that
it

seems to be worth while to

set

"The
divisions,

caste

is

first

of

all

them out shortly. split up into four main

resided.

named

after the tract of country in

ancestors

of each

originally

which the These are (i)

Tondamandalam, or the dwellers in the Pallava country, the present Chingleput and North Arcot districts, the titles of which division are Mudali, Reddi and Nainar;
(2) Soliya (or Sozhia), or

men

of the Chola country, the

Tanjore and Trichinopoly

districts of the present day, the

Filial
;

members

of which are called

(3)

Pandya, the

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

VELLALA
inhabitants of the

374

Pandyan Kingdom of Madura and

title

Tinnevelly, which division also uses the

of Pillai

(4) Konga, or those who resided in the Konga country, which corresponded to Coimbatore and Salem, The members the men of which are called Kavandans.

and

of

all

these four main territorial divisions resemble one

in their essential

another
infant

customs.

Marriage

is

either

or

adult,

the Puranic wedding ceremonies are

followed,

and

(except

Brahmans
ceremony

officiate.

among the Konga Vellalas) They all burn their dead, observe

fifteen days'

to

and perform the karumantaram remove the pollution on the sixteenth day.
pollution,

There are no marked occupational differences amongst Each them, most of them being cultivators or traders. division contains both Vaishnavites and Saivites, and
(contrary to the rule
sect are not

among

the Brahmans) differences of

of themselves any bar to intermarriage.

Each division has Pandarams, or priests, recruited from among its members, who officiate at funerals and minor ceremonies, and some of these wear the sacred thread,
while other
Vellalas

only

wear

it

at

funerals.
services),

All

Vellalas

perform

sraddhas

(memorial

and

observe the ceremony of invoking their ancestors on the

Mahalaya days

(a piece of ritual

which

is

confined to the
all

twice-born and the higher classes ofSudras);

of

them

decline to drink alcohol or to eat in the houses of any but

them may dine together. Yet no member of any of these four main divisions may marry into another, and, moreover, each of them is split into
Brahmans
;

and

all

of

sub-divisions (having generally a territorial origin), the

members of which again may not intermarry. Thus Tondamandalam are sub-divided into the Tuluvas, who are supposed to have come from the Tulu country the
;

Poonamallee (or Pundamalli) Vellalas, so called from the

3^5

VELLALA
;

town of that name near Madras

(those

and the Kondaikattis

it).

who
of

tie their

hair in a knot without shaving

will

None

these

three

intermarry.

The

Soliya

Vellalas are sub-divided into the Vellan Chettis, meaning

the Vellala merchants (who are again further split up

into three or four other territorial divisions)
;

the Kodik;

kals (betel-garden),

who grow

the betel-vine
of

and the
is

Kanakkilinattar,

or

inhabitants

Kanakkilinadu.

These three
such a small
that
its

similarly
unit,

may

not intermarry, but the last

it

and
are

girls in

are getting so scarce,

members

for their brides.

now going to other sub-divisions The Pandya Vellalas are sub-divided

who, notwithstanding

into the Karkattas or Karaikatus,

the legends about their origin, are probably a territorial

named from a place called Karaikadu the Nangudis and Panjais, the origin of whom is not clear the Arumburs and Sirukudis, so called from villages of those names in the Pandya country the Agamudaiyans,
sub-division
;

who

are probably recruits from the caste of that

name

the Nirpusis,

meaning the wearers of the sacred ashes and the Kottai Vellalas or fort Vellalas. These last are a small sub-division, the members of which live in Srlvaikuntam fort (in Tinnevelly), and observe the strictest gosha (seclusion of females). Though they are, as has
;

been seen, a sub-division of a

caste, yet their objection to

marry outside
they are
fast

their

own

circle is so strong that,

though
girls

dying out because there are so few

to

among them, they decline

for brides.

go

to the other sub-divisions

[See Kottai Vellala.]

The Kongas

are sub-

divided into the Sendalais (red-headed men), Paditalais hands), silver Vellikkai (the (leaders of armies),

Pavalamkatti (wearers of coral), Malaiyadi (foot of the hills), ToUakadu (ears with big holes), Attangarais (river
bank), and others, the origin of none of which
is

clearly

VELLALA

2il^

known, but the members of which never intermarry. In addition to all these divisions and sub-divisions of the Vellala caste proper, there are nowadays many groups
which
caste,
it.

really

belong to quite distinct castes, but which

in origin

call

themselves Vellalas, and pretend that they belong to that

although

they

had no connection with

so widely diffused that

These nominally cannot intermarry with any of the

is

genuine Vellalas, but the caste

it

cannot protect

itself

against these invasions, and, after

a few generations, the origin of the

forgotten,

new

recruits

is

and they have no

difficulty in

passing them-

selves off as real

thing occurs

members of the community. among the Nayars in Malabar.

It

The same may be

imagined what a mixture of blood arises from this practice, and how puzzling the variations in the cranial

measurements of Vellalas taken

become.

at

random

are likely to

Instances of members of other castes

who have

assumed the name and position of the Vellalas are the Vettuva Vellalas, who are really Vettuvans the Puluva
;

Vellalas,

who are
;

only Puluvans

the

11am Vellalas,

who
leaf-

are Panikkans

the Karaiturai (lord of the shore) Vellalas,

;

who

are

Karaiyans

the Karukamattai
;

(palmyra

stem) Vellalas,
Vellalas,

who

are Shanans
;

the Gazulu (bangle)

Vellalas,

who who

are Balijas

the

Guha (Rama's boat-man)

;

are

Sembadavans

and the

Irkuli Vellalas,

who

are Vannans.

The

children of dancing-girls also

often call themselves Mudali, and claim in time to be

Vellalas

and even Paraiyans assume the

to
its

title

Pillai,

and

trust

eventually

enabling

them

to

pass

themselves off as

members

of the caste."

The name

Acchu

Vellala has been

assumed by some Karaiyans,

and Pattanavans call themselves Varunakula Vellala or Varunakula Mudali, after Varuna, the god of the waters.

At times of census, many

hill

Malayalis return themselves

m
are Vellalas

VELLALA

as Vellalas, in accordance with their tradition that they

who migrated

to the hills.

Some

thieving

Koravas style themselves Aghambadiar Vellala or Pillai, and have to some extent adopted the dress and manners In Travancore, to which State some of the Vellalas.*
Vellalas have migrated, males of the Deva-dasi (dancinggirl) caste

sometimes
to be a

call

themselves Nanchlnad Vellalas.

effect that

There is may come

a Tamil proverb to the

a Kalian

Mara van.

By

respectability he

may

develop into an Agamudaiyan, and, by slow degrees, become a Vellala. According to another proverb, the
Vellalas are
fruit,

which

compared to the brinjal {Solanum Melongena) will mix palatably with anything.
of the divisions and sub-divisions of the

The account
Vellalas

recorded above
:

may be supplemented from

various sources
I.

Arampukutti, or Arambukatti (those

flower-buds).

According to Mr.

J.

A. Boyle,t

who tie the name

which

indicates Vellalas with wreaths of the

is
*

aram

flower,

one of the decorations of Siva.

territory.

They

are,

he writes,

a tribal group established in a series of villages in the

Ramnad

The

family tradition runs that they

ago from the Tondamandalam, and that the migration was made in devendra vimanam and this form of vehicle is invariably or covered cars
emigrated
five centuries
;

used

in

marriage ceremonies for the conveyance of the

bride and bridegroom round the village.

The women
rivers

never wear a cloth above the waist, but go absolutely

bare on breast and shoulders.

The two

which

bound

this district

on the north and south are rigid

limits to the travels of the

women, who are on no pretext

It
is

allowed to cross them.

said that,

if

they

make

M. Paupa Rao Naidu.

History of Railway Thieves, 1900.

t Ind. Ant. Ill, 1874.

vellalA
vows

^7^

to the deity of a celebrated temple in Tanjore, they

in

have to perform their pilgrimage to the temple

the

most perfect secrecy, and

Intermarriage
is

that, if detected,
'

they are fined.

rivers.'
It is,

prohibited

beyond the

with the men, a tradition

never to eat the

salt

of

the Sirkar (Government), or take any service

under
sub-

Government."
2.

Chetti.

The members

of

the

Vellalan

division of Chetti are " said to be pure Vellalas,

who have

taken the

title

of Chetti.

In ancient times, they had the

prerogative of weighing the person of kings on occasion

oftheTulabharam ceremony.
were, in
fact,

(5*^^

Tulabharam.)

They
skil-

the trading class of the Tamil nation in

the south.
ful

But, after the immigration of the

more

Telugu Komatis and other mercantile

classes,

the

hereditary occupation of the Vellan Chettis

gradually

declined, and consequently they were obliged to follow

different professions.

The renowned
to this caste." *

poet Pattanattar

is

said to have belonged

3.

Karaikkat or Karkatta.

The name

is

said to

mean

Vellalas

who

saved or protected the clouds,

is

or

waiters for rain.

Their original profession

said to
is

have been rain-making.

follows.

Their mythological origin

as

"In

old times, a

quarrel happened between the

Raja of Pandya desa and the god Devendra, and things

went to such lengths that the angry god commanded the clouds not to send down any rain on Pandya desa, so that
the inhabitants were
sorely

distressed

by the severe

drought, and laid their complaints before the Raja,

flew into a rage,

who

marched

his

defeated him in battle, seized

army against Devendra, on the clouds and put them

* Madras Census Report, 1891.

379
In prison, in

VfeLLALA
fell

consequence of which not a drop of rain

on any part of the Bhuloka or earthly world, which threw the people into a great consternation, and the whole
with one accord addressed their prayers to Devendra, the god of the firmament, and beseeched him to relieve

Devendra sent an ambassador to the Raja of Pandya desa, and requested that he would release the clouds, but he refused to do it unless they gave security for their future good behaviour, and

them from

their

present distress.

likewise promise that they would never again withhold the

his kingdom. At this Pandya desa became security for the clouds, and, from that circumstance, were surnamed Karakava Vellal Waru, or redeemers of the clouds."*

rain from falling in

due season on

juncture, the Vellal caste of

In an interesting account of the Karaikat Vellalas of the

Palni

hills

by Lieutenant
ceremonies,

Ward
it

in

1824

f, it

is

recorded

that

" their

is

said,

are performed by

Pandarams, although Brahmans usually officiate as priests

in their temples.

They

associate freely with the

KunnaBut,

vans,
latter
if

and can eat food dressed by them, as also the

can eat food dressed by a Karakat Vellalan.

Kunnavan

is

invited to the

house of a Karakat
supposed,

Vellalan, he must not touch the cooking utensils, or enter

the cooking-room.
to

Wives are accustomed,

favor to
their

it is

grant the

last

husband's relations.

Adultery outside the husband's family entails expulsion from caste, but the punishment is practically not very
severe,

inasmuch as a Kunnavan can always be found

ready to afford protection and a

home

to the divorcee.

A
in

man who a woman

disgraces himself by an
of a lower caste than his

illicit

connection with
is

own

punished

similar manner.

Formerly the punishment was

in either

* Baramahal Records.

Manual of

the

Madura

district.

VELLALA
case death."
It is

380
recorded * that "
in

1824 the Karakat

Vellalas were accustomed to purchase and keep predial

slaves of the Poleiya caste, giving thirty fanams for a

male, and
the

fifty for

a female.

The

latter

was held

to

be

more

valuable, as being likely to produce children for

It is said that, among the the benefit of her owner." Karaikkat Vellalas, a peculiar ceremony, called vilakkidu

kalyanam, or the auspicious ceremony of lighting the light, is performed for girls in the seventh or ninth year
or later, but before marriage.

The ceremony

consists in

worshipping Ganesa and the Sun at the house of the Her maternal uncle gives her a necklace girls' parents.
of gold
relations,
girl.

beads and

coral,

and a new

cloth.

All the

who are invited to be present, make gifts to the The women of this section wear this ornament,
is

which

called

kodachimani (hooked jewel), even

after

marriage.
4.

Kondaikatti.

Said f to consider themselves as

the highest and proudest of the Vellalas, because, during

the Nabob's Government, they were employed in the
public
service.

They

are

extremely

strict

in

their

customs, not allowing their

public conveyance,

women

to travel

by any

and punishing adultery with the

utmost severity.
Kondaikatti
literally

means one who ties his

hair in a

knob on the top of

following legend.

his head, but the

name

is

sometimes

derived from kondai, a crown, in connection with the

A quarrel

arose between the Komatis

and

Vellalas, as to

Vaisyas.

They appeared

which of them should be considered before the king, who, being

unable to decide the point at issue, gave each party

five

thousand rupees, and told them to return after

* Manual of the Madura
district,
district.

t Manual of the North Arcot

3^1
trading for five years.
the

VELLALA
Vellalas spent one-fifth of

The

sum which they

received in cultivating land, while

the Komatis spent the whole

sum

in trading.

end of the allotted time, the Vellalas crop of sugar-cane, and all the canes contained

At the had a bumper

pearls.

The KOmatis showed

only a small

profit.

The king

was so pleased with the Vellalas, that he bestowed on them the right to crown kings.
5.

Kumbakonam.
in

Vellalas,

who migrated from

in

Kumbakonam
6.

the Tanjore district to Travancore.

Kummidichatti.
district,

Recorded,

the

Manual of

the North Arcot

as a sub-division, regarded as
(chatti) of fire at

low

in position,

which carried the pot

It is

Vellala funerals.

said that, in default of

Kummidi-

chattis, ordinary Vellalas

fire at funerals.
7.

now have

to carry their

own

Nangudi or Savalai
Coimbatore
Tenkanchi.
district,

Pillaimar.

{See Nangudi.)

8.

Tendisai (southern country).

They

are found

in the

and

it

has been suggested

that they are only a branch of the

9.

Vellalas,

Konga Vellalas. who migrated from Tento

kasi

in

the Tinnevelly
Vellala.)

district

Travancore.

{See

Todupuzha
10.

Immigrants from the Tulu country, a part of the modern district of South Canara. Mr. Nelson * is of opinion that these are the original
Tuluva.
Vellalas,

who were

conquest

Tondamandalam after its by the Chola King Adondai Chakravarti.

invited to
in all the

They

are

now found

Tamil

districts,

but are

in North and South Arcot and Chingleput. It is noted, in Carr's " Descriptive and historical papers relating to the Seven Pagodas," that " Adondai

most numerous

* Manual of the Madura

district.

VELLALA
chiefly distinguished

382

Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram) and

Tripati as his place of residence or capital.

The

era of

Adondai
from
Sri

is

not higher up than the seventh century of our

reckoning.

He
Sailam

is

said to

have brought the Brahmans

Vellalas,

in

Telingana, and certainly attracted

a large colony

of

Sudra

or

agriculturists,

At Conjeeveram, there are a Nattar and a Desayi, whose authority, in

from Tuluva or northern Canara."
olden times, extended over the whole Presidency.

The

Nattar must be a Tuluva Vellala, and the Desai a Ralla

The two offices conjointly are known as the Nadu Desam. The authority of these officers has in great measure ceased, but some still go to the Nadu Desam for appeal. For purposes of caste organisation,
Balija.

Conjeeveram
sections of the

is

regarded as the head-quarters.

All

Tondamandalam

Vellalas are divided into

twenty-four kottams and seventy-nine nadus.

are subject to the former.

The

latter

The

following legendary account of the

is

Tondamanda"

lam Vellalas

given

in the

Baramahal Records.

During

the reign of a certain Raja of Choladesa, a kingdom

supposed to have comprised the present provinces south

of the river Kaveri, the countries between the Kistna

and Kaveri were quite a wilderness, in which many families of the Kurbavar caste or shepherds resided here

and there

in villages

surrounded by
forth

mud

walls.

On

time, the Raja

came

into the wilds to take the

diversion of hunting, and, in traversing the woods, he

town of Conjeeveram in the Kingdom of Arcot, where he met with a Naga Kanya or celestial nymph, fell in love with her, and asked her to yield to his embraces. She replied, If I consent to your proposal, and bear you a son, will
to a place in the vicinity of the present
'

came

you make him your successor

in

the

kingdom?'

He

383
rejoined
*

VELLALA

I will,'

and she asked him who should witness

answered
*

his promise.

He

the earth and

sky,'

but

she said that two witnesses were not sufficient, and that
there must be a third.

There happened to be a tree called adhondha near them, and the Raja replied Let the fruit of this adhonda tree be the third witness.'
'

When

she was satisfied respecting the witnesses, she

granted the Raja his desires, and, after he had remained

with her a short time, he took his leave, and returned to

his metropolis, and, in a
little

while, abdicated his throne

who managed the affairs To return to the Naga Kanya, she of the kingdom. conceived and brought forth a son, who remained with
in favour of his eldest son,

her three or four years, and then visited the different

Rishis or hermits

who

resided in the forest, and learnt

from them to use the sword, the bow and arrow, and the art of war, and obtained from them a knowledge of the

whole

circle of sciences.

the age

of sixteen years, and,

tell

requested her to

answered I will go

'Thy

father

he had attained coming to his mother, he him who was his father. She is the Chola Raja. He replied
this time
is

By

to him, but
'

who

to bear witness to the truth

of your assertion
the fruit of the
told you.'

? She rejoined 'The earth, sky, and adhonda tree are witness to what I have

The son plucked one

of the berries of the

adhonda tree, hung it by a string to his neck, took his sword and other weapons, and set out for his father's He one day took an opportunity of accompanycapital.
ing some of the nobles to the darbar, and called out to the
old Raja
*

Behold your
;
'

son.'

The Raja

replied

'

know

upon which the young man repeated everything which his mother had told him, but it had no
nothing of thee
effect

on the Raja.

When
to

the son found that his father

was determined not

acknowledge him he challenged

VELLALA
him
to single combat,
to

384
but the Raja,
challenge

not thinking

it

proper

accept
if

from

rash

youth,

demanded

he had any witnesses to prove his claim.

fruit

He

answered 'The earth and sky, and the

tree,

of the

adhonda
neck,

which

wear
the

suspended
of

from

my

are

witnesses to

truth

my

assertion.'

This circumstance brought the old occurrence to the Raja's recollection, and he owned his son, and told him that, as he had already abdicated the throne,
he trusted he would not
insist

the promise which had been

upon made to

the

fulfilling

of

his mother, but

consent to live in a private station under the dominion

of
his
'

elder
I

half-brother.

The young man nobly

your enemy, and
assist

replied

with pleasure waive the performance of your

promise, but point out to

me
I

me
for

with some troops, and

myself.'

will

conquer a kingdom

The Raja gave him an army, and

directed him

subdue the Kurubavaru or shepherds, to clear the woods, and to form himself a kingdom between the rivers
to

Kistna and Kaveri.

He

accordingly advanced into the

wilderness, and, without meeting

much

opposition, soon

subjected the

Kurubavaru, who,

knowing nothing of

cultivation or sinking of tanks or watering the country

from the

rivers,

and the conqueror wishing to introduce

he was obliged to repair to his
his difficulties.

agriculture
father,

among them, and make known

The Raja was

much

pleased with the enterprising spirit of his son,

title

conferred on him the

of

Adhonda Chakra, wrote

him such of the Vellala The young Raja held out

and permitted him

to take with

caste as chose to emigrate.

great encouragement, and got a

of that caste to

number

of adventurers

large grants of waste land, and told

accompany him back, to whom he gave them to pitch upon such spots of ground as met with their approbation, and

385
they fixed upon the
forts, districts,

VELLALA
and
villages belong-

ing to the Kurubavaru caste, which consisted of twentyfour forts, eighty-one districts,

and one thousand and

country

nine hundred

villages.

This

was

formerly

named Dandaka Aranya.

Dandaka is the name of a famous Rakshasa or Giant, who is mentioned in the Ramayana and Aranya signifies a wilderness. It was

Dhuntra Nadu, or the middle country, and the new Raja named it Dhanda Mandalam, or country
also called

of the tree dhonda, alluding to the

or

fruit

of the adhonda
to his descent.

dhonda

tree,

which bore testimony

The Dhonda Mandala

called

emigrants of the Vellala caste surnamed themselves

Vellala varu, and are
Vellala varu."

now

corruptly

Tondamandala
in

In connection with the sub-divisions of the Vellalas,

Mr.
"
in

Hemingway,

a note on the
still

Vellalas

of

the

Trichinopoly

district,

gives some

further information.

The Kondaikattis

are so-called from the peculiar

way

which they used to wear their hair

custom no

longer observed.

They are split into two sections, called and Kilnadu (westerns and easterns). The Melnadu Dakshinattans (south country men) are immigrants from

Tinnevelly.

The members

of the

Karaikkattar sub-

division in the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk are rather looked

down on by
are also

other Vellalans as being a mixed race, and

called Yeruttu-mattu

somewhat contemptuously
because,

(pack-bullocks),

in their professional calling,

they formerly used pack-bullocks.

They have a
when she
is

curious
tali

custom by which a
eight years old.

girl's

maternal

uncle ties a

(marriage badge) round her neck

seven or

The Panjukkara Chettis live in the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk. The name is an occupational
connected
with
the
cotton
trade.

one, and denotes cotton-men, but they are not at the

present day
vii-25

The

vellAla
Solapuram
called
(or

386

Cholapuram)

Chettis

are
in

apparently
the

after the village of that

name

Kumba-

The Solias (or Cholias) are numerous and ubiquitous. They are generally regarded as of doubtful descent, since parvenus, who wish to be

konam

taluk of Tanjore.

considered Vellalans,
sub-division.

usually

claim to

belong to this
the
the

The more respectable Pandarams, Thambirans who own temples and matams, and
Oduvar or Adi
Saival,

belong to the Sozhia section.

is

The Uttunattu
quarters
is

sub-division

local in origin.

Its

head-

the country round Uttatur.

The members
called

thereof are the special devotees of the Siva of that place.

The Arunattus
their moustache,

(six

nadus)

are

also

Mottai

(shaved) Vellalans, apparently because they always shave

(hair-knot).

and wear only a very small kudumi Some of their customs are unlike those of

the rest of the caste.

They have exogamous

observed
sister's

septs, their

widows always

dress in

white and wear no ornaments

in

(a rule not universally

any other sub-division),

like the

they never marry their

daughter, and their wives

wear the

tali

(marriage badge),

Panta Reddis,

on a golden thread.

Of

their six nadus, three of

which

are supposed to have been located on each side of the

Aiyar river, only two are now recognised.

Serkudi nadu
in

These are the

Namakkal taluk and the Omandur nadu of Musiri. The Yelur (seven villages) Vellalas are very few and far between. There is a small colony of Tuluvas, engaged in dyeing, at Illuppur. The Malaikandas are only found near the Ratnagiri
Kulittalai taluk.
hill

in

the

They take
in the

their

name from

the fact
hill

that

they are required to look at the Ratnagiri

when they get up of the god there.

scarce, but

morning.

They

are devotees

The Kaniyalans (landowners) are widely distributed, since the man who carries

387
the pot of blood,
to

VELLALA
are sacrificed at festivals

when animals
goddesses,

the village

must

belong to

this sub-

division.

The Kodikkal

Vellalans are so-called

from
still

their

occupation of betel cultivation,

which they

pursue largely."

The Konga Vellalas differ so strikingly from the rest in many of their customs that a separate account of them is given. {See Konga Vellala.) It is noted by Mr. Hemingway that some Vellalas
" observe a curious

custom

(derived from
is

Brahmans)
second wife
tree,

with regard to marriage, which

other communities.
after the

not

unknown among
a

man marrying
tali,

death of his

first

has to marry a plantain

and

cut

it

down

before tying the

and, in the case of a

third marriage, a

man

has to

tie

tali first to

the erukkan

(arka
%.

Calotropis gigantea) plant.

The idea is that second

and fourth wives do not prosper, and the tree and the
plant are accordingly

made

to take their places." called

peculiar
is

ceremony,

Sevvai

(Tuesday)
It
is

Pillayar,

performed by some Vellala women.

also called

Avvai Nonbu, because the Tamil poetess

observed
year,

it.

The ceremony
in

takes place twice in the

on a Tuesday

the months of Thai

(February-

March) and Audi (August-September). It is held at midnight, and no males, even babies in arms, may be A present at it, or eat the cakes which are offered. certain number of women club together, and provide the necessary rice, which is measured on the back of
the hand, or in a

measure similar to those used by

Madras milk-sellers, in which the bottom is fixed high up in the cylinder. At the house where the ceremony is to be performed the rice is pounded into flour, and mixed with leaves of Pongamia glabra and margosa
{Melia Azadirachtd).
vii-25 B

The mixture

is

then made into

VELLALA
cakes,

388
flat,

some

and some

conical, to represent Pillayar

betel,

(Ganesa).

Flowers,

fruits,

turmeric,

combs,

kunkumam
the
it

(red powder),

and other

articles required in

connection with the Pillayar worship, are also taken to

room

in

which the

rites are performed.

Of

these

has been impossible to gather an account, as the

refused to describe them, lest ruin should
fall

women

on

their families.

Some

say that, during the ceremony, the

women are
in
is

stark-naked.

In an account of an annual ceremony at Trichinopoly

connection with the festival of Kulumai

"

Amman, who

the guardian deity against epidemics, Bishop White-

head records * that

Vellala caste
is

a very

fat

pujari (priest) of the

lifted

arms of two men. sacrificed, one after the other.

eight or nine
is

up above the vast crowd on the Some two thousand kids are then

The blood

of the

first

collected in a large silver vessel holding

about a quart, and handed up to the pujari,

it.

who

drinks

is

Then, as the throat of each kid is cut, the animal handed up to him, and he sucks, or pretends to suck
relating to the Vellalas,

the blood out of the carcase."

Of proverbs may be cited

:

the following

Agriculture

is

no agriculture, unless

it is

performed

by the Vellalas.

The
Of
foremost
;

Vellala ruined himself by

courtesan ruined herself

all

gaudy dress the by coquetry and affectation.

;

the sections of the Sudras, the

all

Vellala

is

and, of

the thefts committed in the world,

those of the Kalians are most notorious.

Though you may

Vellala.

face

an

evil star,

never oppose a

* Madras Museum

Bull.,

V.

3,

1907.

389

VELUTTEDAN

Though
the

apparently the Vellala will not ruin you,

on which he writes about you, will certainly ruin you for ever. In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Vellala is palm
leaf,

recorded as a caste of Jains.

In this connection,

it

is

noted by Mr.
{q.v) and

Hemingway

that the Nainans or Nayinars

the

Karaikkattans of the Udaiyarpalaiyam

taluk are thought to be descended from Jains

who were

converted to the Hindu

faith.

Vellan Chetti. A name, denoting Vellala merchant,

taken by some Vellalas.

Velli (silver). 5^^

Belli.

Velnati. A

sub-division of Kapu,

named

after the

Telugu country. old Velnadu Veloma. Defined as " one of the two classes of The term Veloma Sudras, viz., Anuloma and Veloma.
division of the
is

applied to those born of a lower caste male and higher

caste female."

Veluttedan. The Veluttedan is defined in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as "the washerman of He calls the Nayars and higher castes in Malabar. himself a Nayar, and, in many cases, was returned as of that main caste, but these have been separated in

The caste is called Vannattan in North Malabar. The Veluttedans follow the marumakkatayam law of inheritance in the north, and makkatayam They have tali-kettu and sambandham in the south.
abstraction.

separately.

Their dress
Nayars."
In

and habits are the same as

the

those

Madras Census Report, Bannata is given as a Canarese synonym for 1 90 1, the caste name. Insithe Travancore and Cochin Census
of

Reports,

[901,

Veluttetan and

Veluthedan are given

title

respectively as an occupational

and sub-division of

Nayars.

VELUTTEDAN

390

vancore,

For the following note on the Veluttedans of TraI am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The name is believed to signify a place where clothes
are bleached.
In the
is

early

Settlement Records the

in all probability

designation recorded

Ayavu,

an old
Velut-

synonym for washing.

septs,
in

The South Travancore

tedans are said to be divided into two

Paravur and Attingal, with four

;

endogamous exogamous septs

said to have

each

but these distinctions

may be

now

There is a current tradition upon a time a Brahman was washing cloths for a friend, and was on that account thrown out of The occupation of the Velutcaste by Parasurama.
lost their

vigour and force.

that once

Hindus down to the Sudras, in which profession, for neatness and purity at any rate, if not for promptitude, they stand above the Vannans and Chayakkarans of the east coast, both of
tedans
is

washing cloths

for all high-caste

whom

have now entered the

least in the

field

in

competition with

them, and, at

most

civilised parts of the State,

not entirely without success.

In no case do the caste-

men
the

receive cloths from classes lower in social rank than

is

the Sudras, and this

pointed to with pride as one of

in their

causes which keep them

It

present elevated

scale.

need hardly be said

that,

in their traditional

occupation, the Veluttedans are largely and

assisted

materially

by

their females, the Veluttedathis.

They do

not

live

in

a group
as

together,
to

but are conveniently

scattered about, so

avoid competition one with

is,

another.

Their main

profession

in

many

cases,

supplemented by agriculture.
educated

There are absolutely no

men among

them, and, as long as machine-

laundries are not introduced into the country, they have

no reason to abandon the profession of

in pursuit of alien

their forefathers

ones.

In the matter of food and

391
drink, as also in their dress

VELUTTEDAN

and ornaments, they resemble

be mentioned, are never
in possession,

the Nayars.

Clothes,

it

may

bought by Veluttedans, as they are always

prevails only in

though temporarily, of other peoples' apparel.

South Travancore.

Tattooing
enter

They cannot

Brahmanical shrines, but are permitted to stand outside the talakkal or stone-paved walk round the inner
sanctuary, by which the image
sion.
is

taken

in daily

proces-

Besides standing here and worshipping the higher

deities,

Hindu
in

they

also

engage

in

the

propitiation

of the minor village deities.

each

village,

who

punish social

There are two headmen delinquents, and

preside over caste ceremonials.

On

the twenty-eighth

day
is

after the birth of a child, the

is

performed, and a thread

afford
it

name-giving ceremony tied round the infant's neck.

first

Those who can

celebrate the

food-giving.

The tali- tying and sambandham ceremonies are performed The former is known as separately, just like Nayars. muhurtham or auspicious occasion. The marriage badge is called unta minnu or puliyilla minnu. The details of
the marriage ceremony do not differ from those of the

Nayars.
avaltitti

The
are

ayani unu, bhutakkalam,

appam

poli,

and

all

important items, and, at least in South

In poor

Travancore, seldom failed to be gone through.

families

the mother, without

any formal ceremonial,

is

ties the tali of the girl

before she

twelve years old,

after
is

an oblation of cooked food to the rising sun.

This

called

Bhagavan
is

tali,

or god's marriage ornament.

exist.

Freedom of divorce and remarriage

(tamarind)

The

pulikuti

an indispensable ceremonial, to be gone

Inheritance devolves

through by a pregnant woman.

in

The clothes the female line (marumakkattayam). washed by Veluttedans are used by Nambutiri Brahmans, without previous washing as on the east coast, for all

VEMU
religious purposes
;

392

and clothes polluted by a member

of a low caste are purified by the Veluttedan sprinkling

ashes and water over them.

Vemu

(margosa or nim
of

Melia Azadirachta).

An

exogamous sept

Muka

Dora.

Vengai Puli
section of Kalian.

(cruel-handed tiger).

An

exogamous

Veralu Iche Kapulu who dedicate their fingers).

or Velu Iche

Kapulu (those
pros-

See Morasu.

Veshya
titute,

(Sansk

Beshya).

name denoting

applied to dancing-girls.

Vetagiri. A Tamil class found in the Chingleput The members thereof are employed in hunting, district.
cultivation,

Their

title is

and the manufacture of wild date baskets. Nayakan.

(hunter).

Vettaikaran

An

occupational

name

of

Boyas, Irulas, and Koravas, returned at times of census.

Vettile (betel vine Piper Maravans. Kondaiyamkotti of

:

Betle).

kothu or tree

Vettiyan.Vettiyan
called Toti or Thotti.

is

the

name

applied to one of

the officials of a Tamil Paraiyan settlement,

who

is

also

The former

title is

said to be

more
is

respectful as an appellation than the latter, but this

distinction without a difference.*
is

The name

Vettiyan

said to be equivalent to Bittiyan (bitti, for nothing),

or one
etc.,

who does

service, e.g., collecting grass, firewood,

without remuneration.
is

Toti

is

derived from thott,

to go round, as he

the purveyor of news, and has to

summon

people to appear before the village tribunal, or

Vettiyan are multifarious.
the rice
fields,

from tondu, to dig.

it

The duties of the is who goes round

He

and diverts the

* Manual of the Salem

district,

1883.

393
water-courses to the various
of the
ryots
fields,

VETTIYAN
according to the rights
Vettiyan beats the

(agriculturists).

The

drum

for public notices

and ceremonies.

As a servant

of

Government, he has to carry the revenue which has been He is sometimes entrusted collected to the treasury.
with large sums of money, and has never been known to

abscond with

it.

It is

said that the Village Munsiff will

trust the Vettiyan, but not the Taliari,

who

is

never sent
of the
to

alone with money.

burial

The Vettiyan is i-n charge ground, and those who repair thither have

pay

him

for his services.

He

is

also the grave-digger,

is

and

officiates

when a Paraiyan corpse

left

burnt or buried.
in

Hence

the Tamil
to

proverb against meddling

what

ought to be

some one

else

" Let

the Vettiyan

and corpse struggle together." At a Paraiyan funeral, the Vettiyan, in some places, carries the pot of fire to the grave. To bring down rain, some of the lower classes,
instead

of addressing
try
to

their

prayers
spirit

to

the rain-god

Varuna,

induce

or

devata

named

Kodumpavi (wicked one) to send her paramour Sukra to the affected area. The belief seems to be that Sukra goes away to his concubine for about six months, and, if he does not return, drought ensues. The ceremony consists in making a huge figure of Kodumpavi in clay,
which
is

placed on a cart, and dragged through the

streets for seven to ten days.

On

the last day, the final

It
is

death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated.

disfigured, especially in those parts

which are usually conshaved, accompany

cealed.

Vettiyans,

who have been

the figure, and perform the funeral ceremonies.

This

procedure

is

believed to put

Kodumpavi

to shame,

and to

get her to induce Sukra to return and stay the drought.

At Paraiyan marriages certain pots are worshipped, and it is, in some places, the Vettiyan who says " The

VETTUVAN
sun, the

394
pots,

moon, the

come

to the marriage booth.

and the owner of the girl have So make haste, and fill the
official is

pots with water."

The

office of the

Vettiyan village

hereditary,

and the holder of it is entitled to some respect among his brethren, and to certain emoluments in kind, e.g., grain at
the harvest season.

There

is

a proverb that " whatever

may be

the wealth of the lord

who comes

to rule over
is

him, his duty of supplying him with a bundle of grass

not to cease."

This relates to the demands which were,

still,

and perhaps are

country.
In

made on him

in rural parts of the

some

places, lands, called Vettiyan

Maniyam,
removing

are given rent-free to Vettiyans.

The
dead

Vettiyan

is

said to possess the right of

cattle

from

villages,

and

in return to
is

supply leather

for agricultural purposes.

He

further said to
hides.*

make

drum heads and tom-toms from raw

The

Vettiyans belong to the right-hand section during

left

disputes between the right and

hand

factions.

Vettuvan.The Tamil Vettuvans

the Madras Census Report, 1901, as

are described, in

"an

agricultural

and hunting caste, found mainly in Salem, Coimbatore, and Madura. The name means a hunter.' They are probably of the same stock as the Vedans, though the
'

exact connection

is

not clear, but they

now

consider

themselves superior to that caste, and are even taking to

calling themselves

Vettuva Vellalas.

Tradition says that

the

Konga

kings invited Vettuvans from the Chola and

Pandya countries to assist them against the Keralas. Another story says that the caste helped the Chola king
Aditya Varma to conquer the Kongu country during
the latter part of the ninth century.
In paragraph 538 of

A. Chattcrton.

Monograph on Tanning and Working

in Leather,

904,

395
the Census Report, 1891, reference
that the
is

VETTUVAN
made to the belief Veddahs of Ceylon.
it

Vedans are

identical with the

In connection with this supposition,

is

reported that

Kandi-Amman, which may possibly mean the goddess of Kandy (in Ceylon). Of the endogamous sections into which the
the Vettuvans worship a goddess called
'
'

caste

is

divided, the

most numerically important are

(root),

Venganchi, Kilangu

Pasari,

Viragu (firewood),

Pannadai (sheath of the cocoanut

leaf),

and

Villi

(bow).

They have

their

own

barbers,

who seem
mean

also to form

a separate sub-division, and are called Vettuva Ambattans

or Navidans, both of which words
barber.

are said to refuse to serve any one lower than a

Vellala.

They Konga

Nominally they are Hindus, but they are said to worship the seven Kannimars, or aboriginal goddesses, to

whom

the Irulas also pay homage.

alcohol,

meat and drink

though some of
is

They those who

eat

are

endeavouring to increase their social repute are taking

to vegetarianism.

Widow marriage

forbidden.

They

either burn or bury the dead, but no ceremonies are

performed

for

deceased ancestors.

Their customs are

thus a curious mixture of those followed by high castes

and low ones. Their ordinary title is Kavandan." Of the Malayalam Vettuvans, who live in Malabar and the southern portion of the South Canara district, it
is

recorded, in the

Madras Census Report,

serfs,

1901, that

they are
collectors

"agricultural

shikaris

(hunters),
in

and

of forest produce,

who

live

the Malabar

jungles.
called

They have two endogamous sub-divisions, Kodi and Peringala. The former keep their hair long, and their women wear a cloth. The latter have top -knots, and their women dress in leaves, which they wear only round their waists, and renew daily. The
latter are

an unclean

set

of people,

who

live

in

rude

VETTUVAN
bamboo and reed
carrion.
huts,

396

and

will eat

anything down to

Yet they consider themselves superior to Cherumans and Pulaiyans, and are careful not to be This same name is also borne by polluted by them. masons and salt-workers in the low country in of a class
Malabar."

The Malabar Vettuvans

they are at the present day

are said to have a fantastic

legend, showing that they were not originally as low as

in

the social scale.

" It

is

related that one of their tribe went and asked a high-caste

Nayar

to give

him a daughter

in

marriage.

The Nayar

offered to

come
fell

to

do so on condition that the whole tribe would his place and dance on berries, each one who

The tribe foolishly agreed and went and danced, with the result that, as each one tripped and fell, he or she was A little girl who mercilessly shot dead with arrows.
to be shot with arrows.
to the condition,

survived this treatment was secretly rescued, and taken

away by a compassionate Nayar, who married her

his family.

into

From

this union, the present

is

day Vettuvans day they

in

affirm their origin

to be traced.

Up

to this

hold the caste of that particular Nayar

veneration." *

very great

described as follows.t
cloth, secured

The costume of these Vettuvans has been " The men wear a short loinbelt

round the waist by a

which

is

also also

used as a sling during hunting expeditions.

They

wear brass ear-rings, and grow a bit of moustache, and a little stumpy beard. The dress of the women consists
of three clusters of long leaves, suspended from the waist

and

tied

on by a cheap

girdle.

According to a

tribal

legend, when, in the morning of time, costumes were being

distributed by the deity to the various races of the earth,

* Madras Mail, 1907.

f /did.

397
the Vettuva women,

VETTUVAN

being asked to choose between

a costume which needed to be changed daily, and one

which

needed

to

be

changed
for the

only

yearly,

readily

expressed a preference

former, and the deity,

considering this an unpardonable piece of vanity, decreed

that

thenceforth the

women

should

dress in leaves

gathered fresh every morning.

to

Whenever it is suggested them that they should adopt some more lasting apparel,

the Vettuva

women answer that

deity,

they are carrying out the

mandate of the
dress only
if

and can abandon their present

the deity appears in person, and sanctions

a change."

On
Madras

the occasion of a recent visit of the Governor of

to

South Canara, a party of Vettuvans was

paraded before him.

Collector

One
it
'

of the

men ^as wearing an

he folded
his

aluminium coronation medal, and, on being asked by the

who had given

to him,

arms

obsequiously, and replied

My

Tamburan'

(landlord).
it is

In a recent note on the leaf-wearing Vettuvans,

stated that "
set,

they believe that the sun travels, after

in the

it

has

through a hole
at

bowels of the earth, and

emerges
time
is

morning
his

in the east.

The way they

(rice)
lot,

calculate

interesting.

Vettuvan says that

are a very truthful

his children

were born when

and such
hills.

master sowed paddy

on such
of good

They

moral character, the chastity of their womankind being

held very sacred."

The Malabar Vettuvans

but
their
social

are

summed up by Mr.
their
classification

T. K. Gopal Panikkar * as being " not exactly slaves,

position justifies
races.

amongst the slave

They

live

on the cocoanut

plantations of the Nairs, and other well-to-do classes.

* Malabar and

its

Folk, 1900.

VETTUVAN
They

398

lead a hand-to-hand existence on the

wages which

they obtain for hedging and fencing cocoanut plantations,

plucking cocoanuts,
live,

tilling,

with their wives

and other allied work. They and children, and sometimes

other relations as well, in houses small but more decent-

looking than the mere huts of the other lower classes.

In point

of caste restrictions they are certainly better

;

circumstanced
classes
in

and their daily contact with the higher

ordinary concerns of
life

the

affords

them

greater

facilities for

increased knowledge and civilisation

than their brother citizens of the slave races enjoy.

They

are

much
food

addicted to toddy-drinking, but their

is

principal

rice.

Their condition

is

never so

intolerably wretched as that of the other classes.

They

are sometimes employed by cultivators for agricultural

purposes.

Their females occupy themselves

in

the fields
for

during the harvest season, but they also make thatch

houses of cocoanut leaves woven after a set model during the thatching season about December or January.

Their males wear ear-rings of brass, and their females adorn themselves with nose, finger, and neck ornaments of brass or beads. The one piece of cloth supplied
annually by the masters, to whose plantations they are
attached, forms the dress both for males and
females,

which they
civet,

tie

round their

waists.

They do

not eat

carrion, but are exceedingly fond of fish, the flesh of the

and the

rat,

and of some other animals not generally

eaten by other classes.

like the

They observe death

the

pollution

higher classes of Malabar, and the period of

varies

observance

according to

particular

class

or caste, to which their masters belong.

if

For
is

instance,
is

they belong to a
days,

Nair's
to

plantation,

such period
it

fifteen

and,

if

Brahmin's,

ten days

Nairs and Brahmins observing pollution for these periods

399
respectively.

VETTUVAN

The

priests

monials are selected

who officiate at their cerefrom among their own tribesmen or

is

Enangers, whose express recognition

validity
to

necessary to give

the

performance of the ceremony.

like

Their

marriage customs are very

ous
in their case.

those of the Tiyyars,

excepting that the feasting and revelry are not so pomp-

Like the Nairs, they retain the front

knot.

The

only offences of general occurrence

among

them are petty cases of theft of cocoanuts, plantains, areca nuts, and roots of common occurrence. The Vettuvans believe in a Supreme Creator, whom they name and invoke as Paduchathampuram, i.e., the king who created
us.

Likewise,

they believe

in certain evil

deities, to

whom they make

They
and

offerings at particular times of the year.

are not, like the other classes, distinguished

by

loyalty to their masters, but are a very ungrateful sect,

their very

name,

viz.,

Nambu

Vettuvan, has passed

into a
It

bye-word
is

for ingratitude of all kinds."

in the

recorded,

Gazetteer of Malabar, that

" the Vettuvans of Chirakkal taluk are a low caste of

jungle cultivators and basket makers, distinguished by

the survival amongst
their

women

of the custom

of

dressing in leaves, their only clothing being a kind of

double fan-shaped apron of leaves tied round the waist

with a rolled cloth.

They

live

in

huts

made
grass,

of split
called

bamboo and thatched with

elephant

kudumbus. The Vettuvans are divided into fourteen illams, which seem to be named after the house names
of

the janmis

(landlords)

whom

they serve.

Their

headmen, who are appointed by their janmis, are called

Kiran, or sometimes Parakutti (drummer).

Amongst the
is

Vettuvans,
hole

when labour
till

begins, the

woman
left

put in a

dug

in

a corner of the hut, and

the cry of the child
is

there alone with

some water

heard."

VETTUVAN

400

For the following note on the Vettuvans of the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha
Krishna Aiyar.*
"

The Vettuvans

are also called Vettuva Pulayas.

part
in

They

are pure agricultural labourers, taking

every kind of work connected with agriculture, such as

ploughing,
water,

sowing,

weeding, transplanting,

pumping

The males
2

more day labourers. get two edangazhis of paddy (hardly worth annas), and the females an edangazhi and a half.
and reaping.
are
it

They

In times of scarcity, they find

difficult

to

support

themselves.

woman becomes pregnant, her become aware of the fact, inform their local headman (Kanakkan or Kuruppan), who convenes a meeting of the elderly members of the community for the purpose of summoning the secret lover,
an unmarried
parents, as soon as they

"When

and prosecuting the necessary enquiries.

of the confession of the charge, he
is

In the event

asked to marry her.

They go to the local Thandan, and relate to him the incident, who thereupon gives him water in a vessel (kindi vellam). The woman
matter does not end there.
is

The

asked to drink this as well as some cow-dunged water,

is

and
from
to
If

then made to

let

flow a few drops of blood from

'

the body.
guilt).

After this he says

dhosham

thirnu

'

(free

Should, however, the lover be unwilling

marry

her,

he

is

thrashed and placed under a ban.

they are related to each other, they are both turned

out of caste.

marry again.
leaf,

The woman who is freed from guilt can The Thandan gets as his perquisite four
fine

annas out of the

imposed, four packets of betel

eight areca nuts, and three tobacco leaves.

Their

* Monograph, Ethnological Survey of Cochin, 1905.

VETTUVANS.

40I

VETTUVAN
The balance

headman

also has a share of the fine, etc.

is

which then remains

for those assembled.

spent on toddy, and beaten rice

"

The Vettuvans

profess the lower forms of

Hindu-

ism.

Their chief gods are Chevva, Chathan, Karinkutti,

Parakutti, Kappiri and Kandakaranan, and also Namburi Thamburan. They give regular offerings to them, lest the gods should become angry, and cause serious calamities to the members of their families. Images of gods are made of bell-metal, and worshipped in their
huts.

The deceased

ancestors are also worshipped as

gods, to

whom

are given a different kind of offerings.

Toddy is an indispensable item in their offerings to them. In Ooragam and its neighbourhood, when I took my
was told that there was no tree-tapping, and that toddy brought to them for sale was largely adulterated with water, and very costly. Their gods were very angry, for they were not satisfied
notes on the Vettuvans,
I

with
other

it.

They caused fever, deafness, blindness, and They worship Kali also. Kumbhom disorders.
is

Bharani
goddess.

an important

festival

to

them.

On

the

morning of this day, tunes are played in honour of the There are special songs called Thottampattu.
Sacrifices are offered to the deity very early.

puja

(worship)
bells

is

also performed for the sword, anklets,

and

deity,

worn round the loins, all placed in front of the and songs are again sung. One of them turns a Velichchapad (oracle), who speaks as if by inspiration.

Wearing the above ornaments, they go to a temple, in front of which they empty out on a mat a few paras of paddy, and again play and sing.
"

The

funeral

ceremonies of the Vettuvans are

somewhat
breathes

elaborate.
his
last,

When
his

member

of

the caste

relations,

friends,

and

other

vii-a6

VETTUVAN
They

402
all

castemen of the kara (settlement) are

event.
attend,

informed of the
the obsequies.

and take part

dressed

in in

The dead body is bathed, and Some gold, rubbed on cloth.

into his

a piece of
is

new

a stone in water,

poured

mouth by

his

sons and daughters.

is

Karuvanconsists
in

guka, or Gurutvam Vanguka,

an important ceremony
It

performed by

his sons

and daughters.

taking sixteen small bits of plantain leaves, with some

rice

on each, and placing them on the forehead, neck,

legs, feet, etc.,
is

chest, loins, thighs, hands,

last

washing the
taken in by
After
is

two, and collecting the water, which

the

members

junior to him in the family.

is

this,

the dead body

placed on the bier, which

carried by

four persons to the grave.

family, four in
(cloth)

The

nearest relatives of the

number, called Bhedakars, with a mundu

in

tied

round their heads, walk

front

of the
is

procession.

The grave

is

dug,
it.

and a new cloth

It
is

spread, and the corpse laid on

layers of earth

filled

in

with

and stones, to prevent dogs and jackals

from disturbing the dead body. All those who have accompanied the chief mourner bathe, and return home.
eldest son,

The members who

of the family fast for the night.

is

The

the chief mourner, bathes in the early

rice) to

morning, and offers the pinda bali (offering of

the spirit of the departed
for fifteen

days.

On

the

seventh day, the chief mourner, and the Enangan, go to

the graveyard, and level the slightly raised part of the
grave.

piece of stone, kept near the foot,

is

taken,

and placed on a leaf. Some toddy, arrack (alcoholic liquor) and water of the tender cocoanut, are poured
over
it

as

offerings.

By some
in
it.

magic,
is

the

spirit

is

supposed to be living

It

brought home, and

oil

placed in a cocoanut shell containing

mixed with
is

turmeric, and kept outside the hut until the pollution

403
over.

VETTUVAN
and on the

The

pollution lasts for fifteen days,

fast.

night of the fifteenth day they

the sixteenth day,
invited bring with
all

On

the morning of

the castemen of the kara

rice,
oil,

who

are

them

curry-stuffs,
all

and toddy.

Rubbing themselves with

they

go

to bathe, after

which the Enangan sprinkles cowdunged water, to show

that they are freed from pollution.
purified

The

stone

is

also

and then brought home. Those who have assembled are fed, and then depart.
by a dip
in

water,

The

chief mourner,

who has

to perform the diksha, does

not shave for a year, bathes in the early morning, and

offers the bali before

going to work.

This he continues

for

a year, at the end of which he gets himself shaved,

feast called

and celebrates a
departed.

masam

in

honour of the
deceased,
is

The

stone,

representing

the

placed on a seat in a conspicuous part of the hut.

An
It

image of wood or copper sometimes takes

is

its

place.

thenceforward worshipped, and believed to watch over

the welfare of the family.

it

Regular offerings are given to

local temple.

on Karkadagom and Thulam Sankranthi, Onam, Vishu,

festival

and the
"

day of the

The

castes

below the Vettuvans are Pulayan,

Nayadi, and Ullatan.

rior to

They
is

consider themselves supe-

Pulayas, and are careful not to be polluted by

them.

Vettuvan who

polluted

by a Nayadi or

Ulladan

fasts for

seven days, subsisting on water, tender

cocoanuts, and toddy.

On the
As

eighth day he bathes, and

takes his regular meals.

lars,

the Vettuvans are Chanda-

any distance

less

than sixty-four feet will pollute the

stand at a distance of twenty-four

higher castes.
feet

They

from Kammalar.

from them.

Owing

to their disabilities

Nayadis and Ullatans stand far and low wages,

many turn
for

either Christians or

Muhammadans, and work

wages of two and a

VII-26 B

half to three annas a day."

VIBHAKA GUNTA
There
Vettuvan.
is

404

a class of people in Malabar called Vettan

"

or Vettuvan, which must not be confused with the jungle

These people were,

it

is

said,*

once

salt-

makers, and are

now masons,

earth-workers, and quarry-

men.

They

are said to be divided into two classes, the

in

marumakkattayam (with inheritance

the female line)

regarded as indigenous to Malabar, and the makkattayam (with inheritance from father to son), said to be

immigrants from the south."

Vibhaka Gunta.
Report as
" a

Recorded

in the

Madras Census
;

low class of wandering beggars

clubbed

Some Malas in the Vizagapatam district manyams, or petty fields, and supplement possess gunta their income by begging. Vignesvara. A synonym for the elephant god Ganesa, which occurs as a gotra of Nagaralu. The equivalent Vinayaka is a gotra of Medara. Vilkurup.^The Vilkuruppu or Vilkollakuruppu are
with Mala."

the priests and barbers of the Malayalam Kammalans,

and also makers of umbrellas and bows

In former
the Malabar Infantry.
excellence, the

(vil)

and arrows.
are,

times they supplied the latter articles for

Malabar and Travancore

par
still

home

of the palm-leaf umbrella, which

holds

its

own

against umbrellas of European manufacture,

which were,

in

1904- 1905, imported into India to the value

of Rs. 18,95,064.

native policeman, protecting himself

is

from the sun with a long-handled palm umbrella,

common

object in towns and villages on the west coast.

State,

Concerning the Vilkurups of the Cochin

Mr.
" In

L. K. Anantha Krishna Aiyar writes as follows. f

former times, their occupations were training low caste

men

to

arms and

athletic feats, to use sticks in fighting,

* Gazetteer of Malabar.

t Monograpb Eth. Survey of Cochin.

405

vilyakAra
pial school

and

also to the use of

bows and arrows, and

teaching.

In these days of civilisation, their services are

no longer required for these purposes, and they are employed in shampooing, umbrella making, and quarrying
laterite stones for building purposes.

In

Nayar

families,

during tali-tying ceremonies, they have to give a

bow

and a few arrows.

During the Onam festival also, they have to give a bow and arrows to every Nayar house, for which they get some paddy (rice), curry stuffs, a cocoanut,
oil.

and some

When

they are called

in for

shampooing,
patient lies

three oils are well boiled, and cooled.

The

on a plank,

oil is

poured over him, and every part of his

body
at

is

well shampooed,

and afterwards he
Nayars,

is

bathed

in

water boiled with medicinal herbs.

the

The Vilkurups
Izhuvans,

eat

hands

of

Brahmans,

and

Kammalans, but abstain from taking the food of

washermen, Panans, Kaniyans, and other low

barbers,
castes.

They have

to stand at a distance of thirty-two feet from

Brahmans and Nayars.

stand at a great distance.

Pulayans and Parayans have to

They live in localities occupied They cannot approach the Brahman temples, but have to stand far away from the outer wall. They are their own barbers and washermen." Villasan (bowmen). A synonym of Malayalam Kammalans, who formerly had to supply bows and arrows for
by the Izhuvans.

the Travancore army.

Villi.^Villi

(bow) or Villiyan (bowmen) has been

Villi

recorded as a synonym of the Irulas of Chingleput.

of the Tamil country.

also occurs as a sub-division of Vettuvan, a hunting caste

Villu

Vedan

(huntsmen using bows).

in the

synonym

of Eravallar.

Vilyakara. Recorded, port, 1901, as "a sub-caste

Madras Census Re-

of Servegara or Kotegara."

VINKA

406

Vilyakara, Valekara and Olekara are

the occupation of a servant
private individual.

names

indicating

under Government or a

Vinka
of Jatapu.

(white-ant

Termites).

An exogamous sept

Vipravinodi. In a note on the Vipravinodis, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes that they are said to be the descendants of a Brahman by a Lingayat woman. They
are Lingayats, and are called Vipravinodi because they

perform acrobatic feats before Vipras, or Brahmans.

They

generally travel

about the country with their

of their
favourite
in

wives and children.

One

feats

is

throwing up three stone or wooden balls

of the

the

air,

and catching them, or rolling them over various parts

body.

When

they

perform

before

a mixed

audience, they call themselves

is

Naravidya varu, which

said to be an abbreviated form of

Narulu Mechche
feats

Vidyalu

Chese

varu,

or

those

who perform

which men
posture.

praise.

The

dead are

buried in a sitting

Virabhadra. A synonym
(Vannan), whose patron deity

of the Tamil

washermen

is

Virabhadra, from

whom

they claim descent.

Viragu (firewood). A sub-division of Vettuvan. Virakudiyan. A synonym of Panisavans, who

engaged
occasions.
in

are

blowing

the conch

shell

on ceremonial

Virala (heroes). An exogamous sept of Golla and Kapu. Vira Magali (a god). An exogamous section of

Kalian.

Viramushti. For
Viramushtis
to Mr. C.

the

following account
district,
I

of the

in the Vizagapatam Hayavadana Rao.

am

indebted

407

ViRAMUSHTl

They
death,

are Lingayats, but do not, as a rule, wear the

it is

Ungam, as
before
it is

the custom to postpone initiation until

is

when

the linga

tied

on the corpse by a Jangam

initiated

buried.

Those who are

during

life

wear the linga suspended from the neck.

mushtis seem to have several sub-divisions,
are believed to cure snake-bite, Puccha

The
e.^".,

Vira-

Naga

Mallika {^Rhinacanthus comnmnis), the roots of which

Kaya

{Citrulhis

Colocyntkis), Triputa (^IponicBa Turpethuni),

and Rama-

dosa {Cuatmis Meld).

Girls

are

married before or after

to

puberty.

The

menarikam custom, according

which a man should

is

marry his maternal uncle's daughter,

in the

observed.

voli (bride-price) of sixteen rupees, or half a tola of gold,

form of jewelry,

is

given to the bride.

professional

The Viramushtis
mendicants,

are

acrobats

and

and are attached to

the

Devangas and
In days

Komatis.
for their

The

following legends are current to account

connection with these castes.

in

gone

by, there was,

a big town, a great Lingayat mutt

(monastery) named Basavanna Mandiram, presided over

by a Jangam

priest

named
it.

Basavanna.

The mutt
priests,

contained three hundred crores of Lingayat

great wealth was stored in

and

This the Viramushtis

guarded against

thieves.

Telaga, Chikayya by name,

who was

a professional

thief,

determined to plunder the

mutt, in order to satisfy his mistress.

One night, when

in

the

Viramushtis were

fast asleep,

he entered the mutt, but,

devout

when he saw a number

turn Lingayat.
to the place

of

Jangams engaged

worship, he abandoned his project, and determined to

Accordingly, at day-break, he advanced

where the head of the mutt was seated, made known to him who he was, and informed him of
his resolution.

Opinions were divided as to the

fitness of

VIRAMUSHTI

408
it

receiving such an applicant, but

that,
if

was

finally

decided

man

repented, he was a
fold, as

fit

person to be received

into the

Lingayat

the linga recognises no caste.

was accordingly tied on his neck. From that time Chikayya became a new man and a true Jangam, and went from place to place visiting sacred shrines. One day he happened to be at a place where lived a merchant prince, who never dined except in the company of a

The

linga

Jangam.

On

the suggestion of his wife Nllakuntaladevi,

an
it.

invitation to dine

was sent

to Chikayya,

who

accepted

After dinner, the

merchant went out on business, and

Nllakuntaladevi, noticing what a beautiful

was,
fell

man Chikayya

in love

with him.

He, however, rejected her

advances, and ran away, leaving his knapsack behind

him.

Nllakuntaladevi cut off her golden necklace, and,

it

having placed

in the

knapsack, ran after Chikayya,

it.

and threw
inflicted

it

at him,

asking him to accept

She then

several cuts on herself, and,

as soon as her

husband returned home, complained that the Jangam had stolen her necklace, and attempted to ravish her.
Information was sent to Basayya, the head of the mutt,

and a council
decided
that

meeting summoned,

at

which

it

was
off.

Chikayya should have

in

his

head cut
last

The

order to carry out this act was given to the Vira-

mushtis,

who went

search of him, and at

found

him beneath the shade of a tree overhanging the bank of a river, engaged in worshipping his linga, which was in
his hand.

On

searching the knapsack, they found the

necklace, and

proceeded to cut
feet

off

Chikayya's head,
into the air,

which went several hundred

followed

up

and
the

travelled towards the mutt, whither the headless trunk

on

foot.

On

their

return to the mutt,

Viramushtis found that the three hundred crores of

priests

had been miraculously beheaded, and the place

VIRAMUSHTI.

409

VIRAMUSHTI

was a vast pool of blood. As soon, however, as the head and body of Chikayya approached, they became re-united, and Siva, appearing on the scene, translated him to kylas (heaven). At the same time, he restored the priests to life, and inflicted the following four curses (i) they were not to build or use on the Viramushtis
:

houses, and are consequently found living under trees outside villages
;

(2) they

were not to sleep on a cot

;

(3) they were not to use the wild broom-stick (4) they were not to set up permanent ovens for cooking purposes,

but to

make impromptu

stoves out of three

stones.

Taking compassion on them, the Devangas promised to give the Viramushtis a small sum of money annually, and
to contribute towards their marriage expenses.

become attached to the Komatis subsequent to the above incident. The story goes that some Komatis asked them to delay for three and half hours the march of Vishnu vardhana Raja, who was advancing with a view to marrying the daughter of one of them, named Vasavakanya (now deified into Kanyakamma). This the Viramushtis did by entertaining
are said to have

The Viramushtis

the Raja with their acrobatic

feats.

Meanwhile, the

Komatis made a number of fire-pits, and put an end to Vishnuvardhana arrived too late, and had themselves.
his

head cut

off.

The Viramushtis prayed

lost

to Vasava-

kanya, inasmuch as they had

both the Raja,

in

who
their

promised them a grant of

performance, and herself,

land

return

for

lump of gold to body that each family of

who had promised to give a each gotra. The Komatis replied in a

their caste

would

in future

give

the Viramushtis an annual present of money, and help in

defraying the expenses of their marriages.

In accordance with the above legends, the Viramushtis
usually

beg only from Devangas and Komatis.

When

ViRAMUSHtl

416
tree,

they approach a village, they generally halt under a

and, early in the morning, dress

up as

acrobats,

and appear
luck
!

with daggers,

sticks, etc.,

crying

Good

luck

They caper about as they advance, and, a Devanga or Komati house, perform
feats,

Good when they

!

reach

their acrobatic
caste.

and wind up with a eulogium of the

Money

and food are then doled out to them. Whenever a Devanga, Lingayat Komati, or other
Lingayat wants to make a hero (vira) of a deceased

member
maker),

of his family, he sends for a Viramushti (or hero-

and

has a

slab

planted,
is

with a recognised

ceremonial, at the spot where he

buried.
I

In a further note on the Viramushtis

that

am

informed

they correspond

to

the

Virabhadra

Kayakams

of the Canarese Lingayats,

like

whom

they dress up,

and adorn themselves with small lingams, the figure of Virabhadra, a sword, a plate bearing a star, and heads
of Asuras (demons).

Every important Saivite temple has one or two Viramushtis attached to it, and they One of are supposed to be servants of the god Siva.
is

their chief duties

to

guard the

idol

during processions,

and on other occasions. If, during a car procession, the car will not move, the Viramushtis cut themselves
with their swords until
it

is

set in motion.

There

is

a Tamil proverb that the Siva

Brahman (temple

priest)

eats well, whereas the Viramushti hurts himself with

the sword, and suffers much.

The custom
of the

is

said to be

dying out.

The

principal

occupation

Viramushtis

is

begging from Beri Chettis, Devangas, Komatis, and

washermen.
performed
lingam, and

In

former days,
called

they are said to have

ceremony

pavadam.

When

an

orthodox Lingayat was insulted, he would swallow his

lie flat

on the ground

in front of the

house

4ti
of the offender,

VISALAKSHIAMMA
some Lingayats, who
had to arrive accom-

who had

to collect

would send

for

a Viramushti.

He

panied by a pregnant Viramushti woman, pujaris (priests)

of Draupadi,

Pachaiamman and Pothuraja temples, a

Sembadava pujari, Pambaikarans, Udukkaikarans, and some individuals belonging to the nearest Lingayat mutt.
Arrived at the house, the pregnant

woman would
in

sit

down
his

in front of the

person lying on the ground.

With
his

sword the Viramushti man then made cuts

scalp

and

chest,

and sprinkled the recumbent man with

would then
rise,

the blood.

He

and the lingam would

as

come out

of his mouth.

Besides feeding the people, the

offender was expected to pay

money

pavadam

to the

Viramushtis and mutts.

Some

Viramushtis

style

themselves

Vastad,

or

athletes, in reference to their professional occupation.

Viranattan. The name denotes those who play on It is recorded, in the Madras a drum called viranam. Census Report, 1901, that the Viranattans "were originally temple servants, but now do miscellaneous day
labour.

Their females are prostitutes.

Their

titles

are

Mestri and Mudali."

Viranollu.^Viranollu and Viththanollu are gotras of Ganigas, who may not cut the wood-apple (J^erom'a
elephanUim).

Virasaiva.^A synonym

for Lingayat.

Some Lingaof

yats claim to be Virasaiva Brahmans.

Visalakshiamma.
Visalakshiamma
to
is

Recorded,
means

in

the Manual

the North Arcot district, as a sub-division of Vaniyan. the goddess of Benares,

who

is

said

be the

sister of

Minakshi of Madura and Kamakshi

Visalakshi
is

of Conjeeveram.
beautiful eyes,

literally

one with
described

and

name

of Parvati,

who

is

as possessing large

and beautiful eyes.

VISWAKARMA

412

and Viswa Brahman are synonyms for Kammalan, the members of which class claim descent from the five faces of Viswakarma, the
architect of the gods.

Viswakarma.Viswakarma

Vitugula-vandlu. A

fanciful

name,

meaning

hunters or gallants, adopted by Boyas.

Vodari. 6"^^ Odari. Vodda. See Odde.

Vodo.A
Vojali.

small caste of Oriya basket-makers and

cultivators in the

See

Vizagapatam agency.
Ojali.

Vokkiliyan
liyan,

(cultivator).

sub-division of Kappi-

and Tamil form of Vakkaliga.

etc.,

[See Okkiliyan.)
for Balijas,

Vudupulavallu.An occupational name

Velamas,

who

paint chintzes.

Vyadha
Vyasa
of Balija.

(forest men).

A synonym of Myasa Bedars.

section of Nayar.

Vyapari.A trading
(the

name

of a sage or rishi).

A sub-division

Wahabis are a sect of Muslim revivalists founded by Muhammad ibn Abdu'l Wahhab, who was born in A.D. 1691. Wahabyism has been
'

Wahabi.The

defined as the Puritanism of Islam, "hated by the socalled orthodox

Musalmans, as the Lutherans were hated

It is by Leo, and the Covenanters by Claverhouse."* recorded, in the Manual of North Arcot (1895), that

since 1806 (the year of the Vellore mutiny)

"two alarms
last

have been raised

is

in

the

district,

both at Vellore, which

largely inhabited

by Muhammadans.
p. 69.

The

alarm

* Ind. Ant., X, 1881,

413
occurred
petitions
in 1869.

WYNAD

Early

in

May of that year, anonymous

were received by the Joint Magistrate and the Assistant Superintendent of Police, stating that the Wahabi Muhammadans of Vellore were in league
against Government, and had arranged a plot for the

massacre of

all

the European residents, in which the

stationed at

28th Regiment of Native Infantry, then

Vellore,

was deeply

implicated.

An

East Indian subalso reported

ordinate of the Public

that

Works Department

he had overheard a Muhammadan munshi of the Small Cause Court speaking to a shopman of his faith

about the seditious preaching of a certain Khazi.

The

and described what he said had occurred in a certain mosque, where sedition had been openly advocated by a Wahabi missionary who had re-

munshi was sent

for,

cently arrived from Hyderabad, as well as by others."

It

appeared, from the investigations of the Inspectoraffair

General of Police, that the whole

had been nothing more than a conspiracy among the orthodox Muhammadans to arouse alarm regarding the designs of the Wahabis, and to prevent these sectarians from frequenting
their mosques.

Wudder.

See Odde.
at times of census, as a terri-

Wynad. Returned,
torial division of Chetti.

There are

at

boundary between the Nilgiri

in

district

Gudalur near the and Malabar, and

the Wynad, two classes called, respectively,

Mandadan

Chettis {(j'V^ and

Wynadan

Chettis.

Wynaadan " They speak Malayalam, and follow marumakkatayam (inheriThey say they were originally tance in the female line). Vellalas from Coimbatore, followed makkatayam (inherifollowing account of the
or

The

Wynadan

Chettis

is

given

in

the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris.

tance from father to son), spoke Tamil, and wore the

WYNAD
Tamil top-knot.
their

414
In proof of this, they point out that at
still

weddings they

follow certain Tamil customs,

the bridegroom wearing a turban and a red cloth with

a silver girdle over

putting

on

and being shaved, and the woman petticoats and nose-rings. They have
it

headmen
council.

called

Kolapallis, subordinate

to

whom

are

Mantiris, but these are liable to be overruled by a nad

man's

No wedding may Two forms leave.

take place without the headof marriage are recognised.

In one, the couple exchange garlands after the Tamil

fashion,

and the father (a relic of the makkatayam system) Preliminaries are arranged by conducts the ceremony.
is

go-betweens, and the chief of the numerous rites

placing of a bracelet on the girl's upper (booth) before the
priest

the

arm under a pandal and the assembled relatives.

The
girl's

other form

is

simpler.

The bridegroom goes

to the

house with some

men

friends, and, after a dinner

there, a

go-between puts on the bangle.

Before marriage,
is

a tali-kettu ceremony resembling that of the Nayars

often gone through,
all

the girls of a family

talis tied

who

are of

marriageable age having

round their necks on

women are allowed intimacy with their husbands' brothers. Widows The dead are usually are permitted to marry again. burnt, but those who have met their deaths by accidents
the same day by a maternal uncle.

Married

and epidemics are buried. Water from a vessel containing rice and a gold coin is poured into a dying person's mouth. Should the spirit of the dead disturb the dreams of the
relatives,

a hut for

it is

built
in

close to the house,

and

under an astrologer's directions this lights are lit morning and

The Wynaadan Chettis reverence the deities in the Ganapati, Mahamari and Kalimalai Tambiran temples near Sultan's
evening, and periodical offerings of food are made.
Battery, Airu
Billi

of the Kurumbas, and one or two

415
Others.

YADAVA
distended ear-lobes

The women wear

in their

gold discs which are so characteristic of the Nayars, and many necklaces. They wear two white cloths, tying

one round the waist and another across their breasts."

It
is

recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that the

Wynad
They
coast

or

Wynaadan

Chettis "claim to be Sudras, and

are in appearance and customs very similar to the Nayars.

are polluted by

all

castes below Nayars.

Their

marriage customs seem to be a mixture of east and west

practices.

They

follow

the marumakkattayam
;

system, and perform the tali-kettu kalianam

is

but this
talis

done on the tenth day

after puberty,

and two

have to be tied on the

celebrate
bracelet
is

girl,

one by her maternal uncle,

and one by the senior female of her house.

a regular marriage

They

also

ceremony, at which a
while next morning a

put on the bride's right arm, and bride and

;

bridegroom garland each other

kanam

or

bride-price

has to be paid to the bride's

in

karnavan (senior male

shikaris (sportsmen),

a family).

They
is

are bold

and tiger spearing

a favourite

pastime, closely connected with their religion.

"

The

tiger
is is

is

encircled by a wall of netting six feet

high, which

gradually closed up, and then speared.

not skinned, but
is

The

carcass

stretched on a pole,

and hung up as a

sacrifice to their deity."

meaning descendants of king Yadu, from whom Krishna was descended, has been recorded as a synonym or title of Idaiyan, and a subdivision of Golla and Koracha. There is a tradition among the Idaiyans that Krishna was brought up by
their caste.

Yadava.

Yadava,

yAkAri

416

Yakari. 5^^ Ekari. Yanadi. The Yanadis

rhine tribe, short

are a dark-skinned,

platy-

of stature,

who

inhabit the

Telugu

country.

The name

has been

the subject of
derive
it

much
(pri-

etymological speculation.
vative)

Some

from a
it

and nathu
Again,

(lord or protector),

and

may mean
(boat)

those
caste.

who

are not included in the ruling or principal

it

has been derived from

yanam

and adi (means). But the Yanadis are not known to have plied, nor do they now ply boats at Sriharikota,
their

chief place of residence, which

to be derived

is

on the

coast.

The word would seem

anadi,

from the Sanskrit

or those

whose

origin

is

not traceable.

The
it

people perhaps elongated the vowel-sound, so that

became Yanadi. In like manner, the Native graduate of the Madras University talks of himself as being, not a B.A. or M.A., but B.Ya. or M.Ya. And a billiardmarker
will
call

the

game

yeighty-yeight instead of

eighty-eight.

The
vague.

tradition of the

Yanadis as to their origin

is

very

Some

call

themselves the original inhabitants

of the wilds in the neighbourhood of the Pulicat lake,

where they hunted and fished at will, until they were enslaved by the Reddis. Others say that the Reddi (or Manchi ?) Yanadis were originally Chenchus, a small but
superior class, and that they fled from oppression and
violence from the mountains in the west, and amalga-

mated themselves with the common Yanadis. The common deity of both Chenchus and Manchi Yanadis is Chenchu Devudu. Between the Yanadi and the Chenchu, however, there is no love lost. They can be
seen living close together, but not
the Nallamalais, and
intermingling,

on

they differ in their social customs.

said
to

Yanadi

Chenchu

is

be

the

name given by

417

YANADI

Brahmans
old,

to

the

Chenchus.*
is

The

following

legend
"

concerning the Yanadis

narrated by Mackenzie. f

Of

one named Raghava brought with him sixty families

Pacanatti
district,

from

locating himself with

Sriharicotta, and, clearing the country,

them at formed RaghavaBenares,

puram.

The

people by degrees spread through a few

adjoining districts.

rishi,

who came from

and was named Ambikesvarer, resided in Mad'hyaranya (or the central wilderness), and there, daily bathing in a

These wild people of their own accord daily brought him fruits and edibles, putting them before him. At length he inquired of them the reason. They replied that their country was infested by a terrible serpent, and they wished to be taught charms to destroy it, as well as charms for other needful purposes. He taught them, and then vanished away." It is an advantage for a European to have a Yanadi as a camp servant, as he can draw water from any caste well.
river,

paid

homage

to Siva.

The Yanadi can also wash, and carry water for Brahmans. The animistic nature of their religion the production
;

of
in

fire

by

friction

the primitive hunting and fishing stage

;

which a number remain

eat, after

the almost raw animal food

which they
of the
yet

merely scorching or heating the flesh

indicate that the Yanadis have not
culture.

game they

kill,

emerged from a primitive stage of

FrotiuTH caudatum (konda ragi).

They
:

make fire by friction with sticks from

Bauhinia racemosa (aree chettu).
Ficus. sp. (kallu jeevee chettu).

the following trees

Ftereospermum suberijolium

(tada).

tree belonging to the Nat.

tree).

Order Laurineae.

Cordia tnonoica (female

* Manual of the Kurnool

district.

t Catalogue Raisonn6 of Oriental Manuscripts, III, 1862.

vn-27

YANADI

418
sticks are prepared,

Two
In
it

one

short, the other long.

is

the
is

former a square

cavity

scooped

out,

and
is

held firmly on the ground, while the long stick

fro in the cavity.

twisted rapidly to and

No

charcoal

powder
fire to.

is

used, but a rag, or even dried leaves are set

The

head-quarters of the Yanadis

is

the island of

Sriharikota in the Nellore district.

dition attracted notice in 1835,

Their primitive conthe island

when

came

into

the possession of the Government, which endeavoured

to ameliorate
liberal

their position

allowance of grain,

by supplying them with a clothing, tobacco, and money, in

return for the jungle produce, which they collected.

The

demand

for labour naturally rose,

and the Government

offered to

pay to parents
i

annas 6 pies on the birth of a

male, and

bounty on productivity
In
1858,

anna 3 pies on the birth of a female child justified by special local causes.

Government opened a school for the teaching of Telugu, which was rendered attractive by
the
offers of rice

and clothing
for

to those

who
in

attended

it.

An

industrial

department gave lessons

the

basket-making, and
of

land

was assigned

cultivation

chay-root

(Oldenlandia umbellata), which yields the beautiful red

dye formerly much employed

fabrics,

in

the dyeing of cotton

but has had

its

nose put out of joint by the

introduction of aniline and alizarin dyes.

tries

But the indusin 1877.

proved unsuccessful, and the strength of the school

it

gradually declined, so that

was abolished

At

the census, 1891, the Yanadis returned as

many

as 89 sub-divisions,

of which the two most important

numerically were Chenchu and Manchi.

division into

classes exists according to dietary, occupation, residence,

etc.

There

are,

for

example, the Reddi Yanadis, the

Challa (refuse-eating), Adavi, and Kappala (frog-eaters).

O
<

419

YANADI

The Reddi Yanadis

the

are a settled class, employed chiefly

as cooks by the Panta Reddis.

They do

not mingle with

Challa and Adivi sections,

If a

whom

they regard as
dies,

out-castes.

Reddi Yanadi woman's husband

abandons, or divorces her, she

and, in

may marry his brother, the case of separation or divorce, the two brothers
on friendly terms with each other.

will live

The

Challas
(tree).

are also

known

as

Garappa (dry-land) or Chatla

They

reside in huts on

the borders of villages in the

service of the community, and live on jungle produce, and

by snaring and hunting game. The Reddi and Challa Yanadis are occasionally employed as kavalgars, or village
watchmen,
in

the Kistna and Godavari districts.

In the

Venkatagiri

Zemindari

the

Yanadis

are

among

the

recognised servants of the village community as procurers

The Adavi Yanadis are, The Manchi or good Yanadis are a small superior class. The Yanadis of the North Arcot district, it may be noted, are Chenchu worshippers, and go by that name. They are non-frogof charcoal for the blacksmith.
as the

name

implies, jungle-men.

eaters,

and do not permit the Kappala, or

on the refuse

frog-eaters,

even to touch their pots.

district feed idle

Some Yanadis of the Nellore of the table. The Somari, or

district.

Yanadis, live in the Kavali taluk of that

They do scavenging work, and eat the refuse food thrown away by people from the leaf plate after a meal. The following are some of the house-names of families
living in Nellore, Sriharikota,
(a)
Bandi,

Tada, and

Kambakam

Manchi Yanadis
cart.
Ilia,

of a house.

Chembetti, hammer.
Chilakala, paroquet.

Kathtlula, sword.

Kanur, a

village.

Dhoddi, sheep-fold.
Igala, house-fly.

Kotlu, cow-shed.

Mekala, goat
Manikala, measure.

Enthodu, a
vii-28

village.

yAnAdi
Pamula, snake.
Tenkayala, cocoanut.
Totla, garden.

420
Udamala,
Jandayi,
water-lizard.

flag.

Marrigunta,
fig-tree.

pond

near

Tupakala, gun.
{b)

Challa Yanadi

Nerigi Mekala, a kind of goat.

Elugu, bear.
Thirlasetti,

name of a

Balija Chetti.

names represent exogamous septs. In every case, the house-name was known only to old men and women, and they, as a rule, did not know the housenames of their neighbours or relations. Many of the names are derived from villages, or persons of other castes, on whose land they may. live, and are probably new names adopted instead of the original ones. For the
All these

purpose of their register. Forest

officers invent prefixes

be

same family name can Permadu Budthagadu, to distinguish them from other Chenchugadus, and Budthagadus. The same practice is resorted to by planters, who give " estate names " to
by which
Yanadis with the
e.g.,

distinguished,

Kee Chenchugadu,

their coolies.

Yanadis

will not eat

with Madigas or Paraiyans, and

observe some principle

table.

in

partaking of the refuse of the

Chinna Yanadi to eat the refuse of the Mondis, Oddes, or Yerukalas, would involve excommunication, which is always pronounced by a Balija
Thus,
for a

Chetti,

whose decision
feast,

is final

and binding.

Restoration

to caste can be secured by undergoing a personal ordeal,

by giving a
future.

and promising good behaviour

It is

in

the

The

ordeal takes the form of scalding of the

tongue with hot gold by the Balija Chetti. that there has recently grown up a tendency

curious

for

of other castes to join the Yanadi community.

members There

421

YANADI

are instances of barbers, weavers, fishermen, and even

Komatis being admitted into the Yanadi fold. The headman, who goes by the name of Kulampedda

Pedda Yanadi, exercises general social control over a group, known as a guddem, ordinarily of about twenty
or
huts.

He

decides social questions, sometimes on his

own

responsibility,

by excommunicating or fining

sometimes
Until

acting on the advice of a council of his castemen.

quite recently, the tribe remained under the guidance of

a hereditary leader of Sriharikota,

who

wielded immense

power. The Paraiyans have risen superior to the Yanadis as a community, supplying among themselves
their

own

artisans, weavers,

carpenters, barbers, priests,

teachers, etc., while the

to

Yanadis are only just beginning

Telugu, but some
e.g.^

move in this direction. The language of the Yanadis

is

words are compounds of Telugu and Tamil,

chedi for plantain, pandikutti for pig.

arti-

The Yanadis know

etc.

the forest flora well, and the uses

of the various trees and shrubs, which yield good firewood,

They
if a

call

the roller {Coracias indica) the milk bird,

in the belief that,

when a cow goes

is

dry, she will yield

in

milk

feather of the roller

put

the grass for her

sinensis) is

to swallow.
to

The crow-pheasant {Centropus

prickly-pear

them the
;

crow
the

florikin

the
;

ground
and the

peacock

the fan-tail snipe

pond snipe

pin-tail the rice field snipe.

At the

census,

1891, 84,339 Yanadis

were returned

as Hindus, and 549 asanimists.

Their places of worship

are not temples, but houses, called devara indlu (houses

of the gods), set apart for every centre.

They worship

household god, a village goddess of local importance, and

a deity of wider repute and influence.
is

invariably the household god.

Chenchu Devudu Poleramma or Ankamma

YANADI
is in

422

charge of a local area for weal or woe.

Venkateswaralu,
Panchala,

rayudu,

SubbaNarasimhulu, ano

others, are the

area.

gods who control destinies over a wider

priests.

The Yanadis are their own

:

The
idol

objects
at Sri-

of worship take various forms

wooden

harikota

bricks

stones

pots of water with margosa

;

{Melia Azadirachta) leaves

the walls of their houses
;

images of gods drawn on

or

mere handfuls of

clay-

squeezed into shape, and placed on a small platform

erected under an aruka tree, which, like other Hindus,

they hold sacred.

turmeric,
etc., for

They use a
worship
;

red powder,

flowers,

burn camphor and incense

and distribute
the like.

fruit,

dhal (pulse of Cajamis indicus), and

In worshipping ancestors, they resemble the

Kurumbas. The house of the gods is a sanctum, into which no polluting object is allowed to enter. The most pious perform rites every Friday. At Sriharikota they
do so once a fortnight, or once a month. The ordinary Yanadi only worships on occasion of a marriage, funeral,
etc.

belief lingers that the pious are en rapport with

the deity,

them.

who converses with them and even inspires The goddess receives animal sacrifices, but
is

Chenchu Devudu
daily

strict

vegetarian,

whose votaries
like

are bound, at times of worship, to subsist on a single

meal of roots and

fruits.

The Yanadis,

Hindus, wear sect marks, and are even divided into

Vaishnavites and Saivites.
worship,
of
to

They
with

are supposed, during

endow inanimate
features,

objects,
life

and the

spirits

geographical

and

mind,

and

supernatural powers.
Christianity.

Some Yanadis
in

are converts to

The Yanadis live bamboo and palmyra

low conical huts, rudely

built of

leaves, grass, or millet stalks, with

a small entrance, through which grown-up people have

423
to creep.
rain,

yAnadi

The
The
:

hut affords protection from the sun and

but the Yanadis generally cook, eat,

staple food of the Yanadis,
:

and sleep
apart from

outside.

bazar purchases, consists of the following

Animals

Sambar
fruit

deer, wild goat,

l:j,ear,

porcurat,

pine, boar, land tortoise, hare, bandicoot

and jerboa

Varanus
fruit of

(lizard),

mungoose, and
:

fish.
;

Vegetables and
Cycas

Dioscorea (yams)
;

pith and

Phoenix sylvestris (date palm)

fruit

kernel of
;

circinalis,

eaten after thorough soaking in water

and fruits of
plum),

Eugenia alternifolia and Jambolana (black Carissa Carandas and spinartcm, Buchanania
are, like the

acuminata, and Mimusops hexandra.

They

Irulas of Chingleput, very partial

is

to sour and fermented rice-water, which

kept by the
in

higher classes for

for

cattle.
fuel.

This they receive

officers
lazy,

exchange

headloads of

For some time past they have

from drinking this
unfit for

been stopped by the Forest

pulusunillu, as
it

makes them

and

work.

The marriage ceremony is no indispensable necessity. The Adavi Yanadis, as a rule, avoid it the Reddi Yanadis always observe it. The parents rarely arrange
;

alliances, the parties

concerned managing for themselves.

Seduction and
is

Maturity generally precedes marriage.

elopement are common occurrences, and divorce

obtained.
live
in

easily

Adultery
;

is

no serious offence

widows may
is

concubinage

and pregnancy before marriage

no crime.

By

nature, however, the Yanadis are jealous

of conjugal rights, and attached to their wives.

Widowall

hood involves no personal disfigurement, or denial of

the

A widow
as

emblems of married life. has been known

as seven husbands.

to take,

one

after another,

many

The
is

greater the

her husbands, the more exalted

the status

number of of a widow

yanAdi
in society,

424

and the stronger her title to settle disputes on questions of adultery, and the like. Polygamy is common, and a Yanadi is known to have had as many as seven wives, whom he housed separately, and with whom
he lived by turns. The marriage ceremony is undergoing change, and the simple routine developing into a
costly ceremonial, the details of

which

{e.g.,

the "screen

scene") are copied from the marriage rites of higher

Telugu country. Until quite recently, the flower of the tangedu {Cassia auriculatd) did duty for the tali, which is now a turmeric-dyed cotton thread with
castes in the

a gold bottu suspended from

it.

The

auspicious hour

is

determined by a very simple process.

The hour

is

noon,

which arrives when a

pole,

two

feet high, stuck vertically

on the marriage platform, ceases to throw a shadow. The pole has superseded the arrow used of old, and

sometimes a purohit
from his calendar.

is

consulted, and gives the hour

is,

As a punishment for at Sriharikota, made

in the sun,

adultery, the unfaithful

woman

to stand, with her legs tied, for

a whole day
her head.

with a basket

full

of sand on

The
cloth,

maternal uncle receives a measure of

at the

rice,

new

and eight annas,

head-shaving ceremony of
is

his

nephew.
lad,
is

At
ties

this

ceremony, which

a borrowed

custom, the uncle plucks a lock of hair from the head of

the

and

it

to a

bough

of the aruka tree.

The

head
to

shaved, and the lad worships the village goddess,

whom

a fowl
is

is

offered.

The

guests are feasted, and

the evening

spent in a wild torch-light dance.

At the
at least

first

menstrual period, a Yanadi

girl

occupies

a hut erected

for the purpose,

one

stick

away

devils.

On

which must have within it of Strychnos Nux-vomica, to drive the ninth day the hut is burnt down,

425

YANADI

and the

girl

cleanses herself from pollution by bathing.

days on the palm {^Phoenix Margosa leaves, and somesylvestris), and then on rice. times the leaves of other trees, and the knife with which the umbilical cord was cut, are placed under the infant's
after confinement, feeds for three

A woman,

tender leaves, or cabbage of the date

head

for

six days.

net

is

hung
is

in front

of the door,

to keep out devils.

The baby

given a

name by

the

soothsayer,

who

pretends to be in communication on the

subject with the

god or goddess.
as prophets of

The Yanadis pose

and,
like

human

destinies,

Kurumbas, pretend to hold intercourse with gods and goddesses, and to intercede between god and man. Every village or circle has
the
Nilgiri

one or more soothsayers, who learn their art from The period of pupilage experts under a rigid routine.
is

a fortnight spent on a dietary of milk and

in

fruits

with no cooked meat,

a cloister in meditation.

The

god or goddess Ankamma, Poleramma, Venkateswaralu, Subbaroyadu, or Malakondroyadu, appears like a

shadow, and inspires the pupil, who, directly the period
of probation has ceased, burns

camphor and frankincense.

deity,

He

then sings
his

in

praise

of the

takes a sea
feast,

bath with

master,

gives a sumptuous
soothsayer.

and

becomes
by

an

independent

The

ardent

soothsayer of old wrought miracles, so runs the story,

stirring

boiling
scald

rice

with
hurt.

his

hand,

which was
brother
folded
large
his
in

proof against

or

His

modern
in

invokes the gods with burning charcoal

hands, to the beat of a drum.

People flock

numbers to know the truth. The word is rangampattedhi in North Arcot and sodi in Nellore. The soothsayer arranges Chenchu Devudu and the local
gods
in

a separate devara

illu

or house of god, which

YANADI
is is

426

always kept scrupulously clean, and where worship

regularly

carried

on.

The

auspicious

days

for

soothsaying are Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.

chief

The

soothsayer

is

a male.
fruit,

The

applicant

presents

and money. The sits in front of his house smeared with black, white, red, and other colours. His wife, or some other female, kindles a fire, and throws frankincense into it. He beats his drum, and sings, while
betel nuts,
flowers,

him with

soothsayer bathes, and

a woman from within repeats the chant in a shrill voice. The songs are in praise of the deity, at whose and
the
soothsayer's
feet

the applicant

prostrates

himself

and invokes

their aid.

The

soothsayer feels inspired,

:

and addresses the supplicant thus " You have neglected me. You do not worship me. Propitiate me adequately,
or ruin
is

yours."

The

future

is

predicted

in

song.

In these predictions the rural folk place abundant faith.

The Yanadis bury

leaves
in

their dead.

The

corpse

is laid

on

front

of the hut, washed and clad.

is

Pelalu

(parched rice)

thrown over the corpse by the son

It is

and

all

the agnates.

eventually placed on a bier,

covered with a new

ground, by
sapindas.
all

cloth,
or,

and carried

to the burial

the sons,

in

the absence thereof,

the

At a

fixed spot

near the grave, on which

is

corpses are placed, a cross

drawn on the ground,

the four lines of which represent the four cardinal points

of the compass.

Close to the corpse are placed betel

All present then
is

leaves and nuts, and a copper coin.

proceed to the spot where the grave

the corpse
is

to

be dug, while

left

in

charge of a Yanadi called the

rule,

Bathyasthadu, who, as a

belongs to a different sept

corpse
is

from that of the deceased.

face

The

laid

on a

cloth,

downwards,

in the grave.

The

eldest son, followed

by the other

relatives,

throws three handfuls of earth

t->

'<

>

427
into

YANADI
filled
in.

the

grave,

which

is

then

On

their
by-

return

home,
hut,

the

mourners undergo
broken
chatty
chatties

purification

bathing before entering their huts.

In front of the
(pots)

dead

man's

two

are

placed,

whereof one contains ash-water, the other turmericwater.

Into

each

leafy
at

twig

is

thrown.

Those who
at

have
with

been
the

present

the funeral stop

sprinkle

the chatties,
first

and,

with the twig,

ash-water,

them-

selves

and then with the

turmeric-water.
gingelly
oil,

Inside the hut a lighted lamp, fed with

set

is

up,

before which those

who
is

enter

make obeisance before eating. The chinnadinamu ceremony, whereof notice

given

by the Bathyasthadu, is usually held on the third dayEvery group (gudem) or village has its after death.

own Bathyasthudu,
is

specially appointed,

whose duty

it

to convey the news of death, and puberty of

all

girls,

to

the relatives.

Tupakis

will

never nominate a

Tupaki as their Bathyastha, but will select from a Mekala or any sept except their own. On the morning of the chinnadinamu, the eldest
son of the deceased cooks rice in a new pot, and

makes curries and cakes according to his means. These are made up into six balls, which are placed in a new basket, and taken to the burial-ground. On reaching the spot where the cross-lines were drawn, a ball of rice is placed thereon, together with betel leaves and nuts
and a
copper
coin.

The

Bathyasthadu

remains

in

charge thereof, while those assembled proceed to the

grave, whereon a pot of water
is

poured, and a stone

planted

at

the
is

spot

beneath which
with shikai

the
(fruit

head

lies.

The
first

stone

anointed

of Acacia
it,

Concinna) and red powder, and milk poured over

by the widow or widower and then by the

vii-29

relations.

YANADI

428
places a
ball

This ceremony concluded, the son

rice at

of

each corner of the grave, together with betel

and money.

Milk

is

poured over the remaining

a
leaf,

ball,

which
to

is

wrapped
at

in

and buried over the spot

is

where the abdomen of the deceased

the grave,
the

situated.

Close
three

southern

or head

end,

stones are set up in the form of a triangle, whereon

new pot

full

of water
pot,

is

placed.

hole

is

made

in the

bottom of the

and the water

trickles out

towards

the head of the corpse.

This concludes the ceremony,

carried out.
is

and, as on the day of the funeral, purification by bathing,

ash-water and turmeric-water,

is

The peddadinamu ceremony

sixteenth,

performed on the

or

some

later

day

after death.

As on

the

chinnadinamu, the son cooks

rice in

new pot.
is

Opposite

the entrance to the hut a handful of clay

squeezed into
son, taking

a conical mass, representing the soul of the deceased,

and stuck up on a platform. The eldest portion of the cooked rice, spreads it on a
the clay image, before which incense
placed.
is

leaf in front of

burnt,

and a lamp
to a

The

image, and the remainder of the food made

up

into four balls, are then carried

by the son

tank

(pond).

As soon

as the relatives have assembled there,

the recumbent effigy of a

of the tank,
conical

man

is

made, close to the edge

with the feet towards the north.

is

The

image

set

up

close to the

which

is

anointed by the relatives

is

head of the effigy, as at the chinnadinamu,

it.

except that no milk

poured over

The

four balls

of

and feet of the effigy, together with betel and money, and the son salutes it. The agnates then seat themselves in a row between the
rice are placed close to the hands

and the water, with their hands behind their backs, so as to reach the effigy, which is moved slowly towards the water, into which it finally falls, and becomes
effigy

429
disintegrated.

YANADI
distri-

The proceedings conclude with

bution of cloths and cheroots, and purification as before.

The more prosperous Yanadis now engage a Brahman

remove the pollution by sprinkling water over them. During the peddadinamu incessant music and drumbeating has been going on, and is continued till far into the night, and sometimes the ceremonial is made to
to
last

over two days,

in

order that the Yanadis

may

indulge

in

a bout of music and dancing.

The Yanadis
for

are expert anglers, catching fish with a

triangular net or wicker basket.

They also excel in diving

concealed
in crevices

and catching hold of

in
florikin.

fish

of

rocks or buried

mud, and

assist

European sportsmen
to
it,

by marking down
count bring
the
in

Those who are unable

a string with knots tied in

to indicate

number of birds marked. They catch bandicoot rats by a method known as voodarapettuta. A pot is stuffed with grass, into which fire is thrown. The mouth of the pot is placed against the hole made by the bandicoot, and smoke blown into the hole through a small slit in the pot. The animal becomes suffocated, and tries to escape through the only aperture available, made for the
occasion by the Yanadi, and, as
it

emerges,

is

killed.

They

are fearless

in

catching cobras, which they draw

out of their holes without any fear of their fangs.

They
in his

pretend to be under the protection of a charm, while so

doing.

correspondent writes that a cobra was

grounds, and his servant got a Yanadi,

of the adjoining garden, to dislodge

who had charge The man was it.

killing
knife,
it,

anxious to catch
carefully

it

alive,

and then, before

with

removed the
it

poison-sac

and

swallowed

a protection against snake-bite. The Yanadis are good shikaris (huntsmen), and devoid
as

of fear in the jungle.

VII-29 B

They hold

licenses under

the

YANADI

430

Arms
game.

Act, and being

good

shots, are great at

bagging

tigers, leopards, porcupines,

and other big and small

After an unsuccessful beat for spotted deer, a

friend informs me, the

Yanadis engaged therein erected

feet

a cairn of twigs and stones several

the refrain in Telugu

high, round

which they danced with gradually quickening step, to Nothing comes.' Then, to the
'

same

tune,

they

danced

round

it

in

the
the

opposite
beat

direction.

The

incantation

concluded,

continued and a stag duly appeared on the scene

was and

was missed

They gather honey from

cliffs

bee-hives on

hill

tops and

which are precipitous and almost inaccessible, and

perilous to reach.

The man

climbs

down

with the help

of a plaited rope of pliant bamboo, fastened above to a

peg driven

firmly into a tree or other hard substance,

and

takes with him a basket and stick.

away the bees at the first swing by burning grass or brushwood beneath the hives. The next swing takes him closer to
drives

He

the hive, which he pokes with the stick.

He

receives

the honey -comb in the basket, and the honey flows out When the basket and of it into a vessel adjusted to it. vessel are full, he shakes the rope, and is drawn up by
the person in charge of
brother, so that there
collects a considerable
it,

who is almost always his wife's may be no foul play. He thus

quantity of honey and wax, for

which he receives only a subsistence wage from the

contractor,

who makes
list

a big profit for himself.

The

following

of minor forest products, chiefly

is

collected

by Government Yanadis,
:

given in the Nellore

District Gazette

Chay

root {Oldenlandia umbellata), which, by a

quaint misprint, appears as cheroot.

Kanuga (Pongamia glabra).

431
Sarsaparilla

YANADI
indicus).

{Hemidesmus

Nux vomica

[Strychnos Nux-vomicd).

Tangedu {Cassia auriculata). Soap nut {Sapindus trifoliatus). Achilla weed (lichens).
Ishwarac {Aristolochia indicd).

Vishabuddi {Sida carpinifolid).

Kukkapala {Tylophora asthmaticd). Honey. Rattan ( Calamus Rotang). Tamarind {Tamarindus indicus). Neredu {Eugenia Jamb olana).
Surati bark
(

Ventilago Madraspatand).
it is

In the interests of the Yanadis Gazette, that " the

laid

down,

in the

Yanadi
at least

villages

must be encouraged,

and the people paid

they
collect.

once a week for the produce

This must be done by the maistry (over-

up and down the main ride every day during the collection season, checking the collections, and paying for them on the spot. The Yanadis will, of
seer) going

course,

camp

out in the reserve

when

collecting produce,
Sri-

and not return, as heretofore, every three days to

harikota, thus wasting 45 per cent, of their time in the

mere coming and

going,

apart

from the

fact

that,

under the old system, the produce from some parts of

the reserves was never collected at
all,

as no one visited

them."

The Yanadis dance on

with turmeric,
songs, and

festive

occasions, at cere-

monies, and occasionally for begging, smearing the body

wearing
in

flowers,

singing meaningless

drumming

rude fashion " dambukku, damis

bukku."
paniment.

Their only wind instrument

Their dance

the bag-pipe,

but they play on the snake charmer's reed as an accomis

full

of indecent suggestion.

YANADI
They have

432
of late trained themselves for the stage, and

there are several troupes of Bhagavathulu.

To

the Rev. G. N. Thomssen, of the Telugu Mission,

I

Bapatla,

am

indebted for the following account of a

**

Yanadi dance.
in

Especially at night, they love to gather

their huts,

some part of the jungle where they have

and, having gathered a pile of palmyra leaves, burn

them

one by one as torches, while a number of men and

women

begin to dance their quaint, weird jungle dance, which

is

to represent the experiences of the hunters in their

wanderings.
fantastically.

The chief actors, They are almost

or dancers, are dressed

nude, but dangling from

in

their loins are

palmyra baskets,

which they gather

etc.,

edible bulbs and roots, dead rats, snakes,

which are
thelu
'

prized as something to
actors
fell

fill

the stomach.

Suddenly the
cries out
is
'

on the ground.

One
is

of

them

(scorpion).

Then

the other asks where, and

shown

the place where the scorpion

supposed to have stung

:

the sufferer, while the choir sing

Alas
! !

the scorpion stings.

!

O O

the scorpion stings.

!

Which finger ? Ah the middle one. As soon as I was stung, The poison into my head ascends. Ayo Ayo What shall I do ? Bring down the poison with yilledu.
! !

This chant
like

is

kept up for a long time, when suddenly

falls

another of the actors

on the ground, and writhes

The Yanadis are a very supple race, and, when dancing, especially when writhing on the ground,
a snake.

one sees a display of muscular action that makes one believe that the human body is capable of all the twists

and turns of a serpent. When the actor is representing the man bitten by a snake, one hears quaint cries while

433
the snake
loin-cloth.
is

YANADI
and nose, basket and
:

sought

in the hair, ears,

The

choir

now

sings the following

Come down

to catch the snake,

snake-charmer, behold the standing snake.

well.

Be sure the pipe sounds

Come, come, with the big snakes

in the basket.

And the little ones in the lock of your hair. When I went down the bank of the Yerracheru, And saw the harvest cut. The cobra crawled beneath the harvester.
Ayo Ayo Ayo
! !

To
people,

see this action song, and to hear these strange

is

one of the queerest experiences of native

life.

aboriginal

The
all

dancers, and the

spectators

who

form the choir,

become

very excited,

and even the

is

European, seeing the tamasha (spectacle),

with the excitement.
spiration, but

infected

The
is

actors

are bathed in per-

the dance

kept up nevertheless, and

is

only

when

their large stock of palmyra leaf torches

will

exhausted

they stop and take their

life

rest."

In their

nomadic

the Yanadis have learnt by

experience the properties and uses of herbs and roots,

with which they treat fever,

diseases.

rheumatism,
for

and other
cobra bite

They have
sting.

their

own remedies

and scorpion
free

It is said that

the Yanadis alone are

from elephantiasis, which affects the

remaining

population of Sriharikota.
It is
it

noted by the Rev. G. N. Thomssen that " while

people
into

has been impossible to gather these

schools,

because of their shyness and jungle wildness.

Christian missionaries, especially the American Baptist

missionaries, have succeeded in winning the confidence

of these degraded children of nature, and

have joined the Christian Church.

well,

many of them Some read and write

and a few have even learned English.

We

have a

YANADI
small, but

434

growing settlement of Christianised Yanadis

the Yanadi.
It is

at Bapatla."

To sum up

notorious that, in times

of scarcity, he avoids the famine relief works, for the simple

reason that he does not feel free on them.

Nevertheless,
are kavalgars

a few are

in

the police service.

Some

(watchmen), farm labourers,

scavengers, stone-masons

or bricklayers, others are pounders of rice, or domestic

servants,

and are as a rule

faithful.

They earn
by hunting,
fuel,

liveli-

hood

also in various subsidiary ways,

fishing,

cobra-charming, collecting honey or

rearing and

selling pigs, practicing medicine as quacks,

ing.
"

An

iron implement,"
is

and by thievMr. F. S. Mullaly writes, *

really their
It is

called the sikkaloo kol,

kept by them ostensibly for the

but
it

purpose of digging
used
in the

roots,

is

jemmy, and
an ordinary
fitted in

commission of burglary.

iron tool,

pointed at both ends, one end being

wooden

handle.

With

this they

can dig through a wall

and quickly, and many houses are thus broken Houseinto in one night, until a good loot is obtained. during the first quarter breakings are usually committed
noiselessly

of the moon.

Yanadis confess

their

own crimes
.

readily,

but will never implicate accomplices.

Women
At dusk

are useful in the disposal of stolen property.

they go round on their begging tours selling mats, which

they make, and take the opportunity of dropping a word

to the
tion
in
is

women
seldom

of cheap things for sale, and the temptaresisted.

Stolen property

is

also carried

their

marketing baskets to

the village grocer, the

Komati.

Among

the wild (Adavi) Yanadis,

women

[are

told off to acquire information while begging, but they

chiefly rely

on the liquor-shopkeepers

for news,

which

may be

turned to useful account."t

Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency, 1892.

t This note

is

based on an article by Mr. Ranga Rao, with additions.

435

YATA

Yanati.The
between
arisen.

Yanatls, Yenetis, or Enetis, are a class

of cultivators in the

whom
1

Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts, and the Yanadis some confusion has
it is

For example,
89 1, that
it

noted, in the

Report,

is

curious to find

Madras Census the Yanadi sub-

division of the
is

at the present

Velamas so strongly represented, for there day a wide gulf between Velamas and
in

Yanadis,

Again,

the Census Report, 1901,

it is

noticed

under the heading Yanati that " entries of

this

name

were clubbed with Yanadi, but

that, in

it

has since been reported

Bissumcuttack taluk of the Vizagapatam Agency,

a separate caste called Yanati or Yeneti Dora,
distinct

there

is is

which

from either Yanadi or Konda Dora."

It is

said that the Yanatis of

Ganjam

also

go by the

name

of

Entamara and Gainta or Gayinta.

Yatas are the toddy-drawers of Ganjam

Yata.The
ita,

and Vizagapatam.

The

caste

name

is

a corrupt form of

It

meaning date palm, from which the toddy is secured. is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district,
is

that " toddy

flabellifer)

obtained from the palmyra [Borasstfs

sylvesiris).

and date palm {^Phoenix

is

The

toddy-drawers are usually of the Yata and Segidi castes.

The palmyra
like

flower spathe, and the date

end of the palm by making an incision, an inverted V, close under the crown of leaves. In
off the
little

tapped by cutting

the zamindaris,

care

is

taken to see that date trees

are not over-tapped, and hundreds of trees

ruined,

may be

seen

and even

killed

by excessive tapping."

Many
are
in

members

of the caste are engaged in the manufacture of

baskets and boxes from palm leaves.

said to be responsible for a

The Yatas

good deal of the crime

portions of the Vizagapatam district.

For the following note on the Yatas of the Vizaga-

patam

district, I

am

indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

YATA
They
castes.

436
are a Telugu-speaking people, and the caste
is

organised on

the

same

lines

as

many

other Telugu
is

In each locaHty where they are settled, there

a headman called Kulampedda, who, with the assistance

of the caste elders, settles disputes and affairs affecting

the community.

The

caste

is,

like other

Telugu

castes,

divided up into numerous intiperus or exogamous septs.

The custom
the
girl,

of menarikam, according to which a

is

man
If

marries his maternal uncle's daughter,

the rule.

whom
is

man

claims

in

accordance with this

custom,

not given to him, his mother raises such a

is

howl that her brother

compelled by the castemen to

refuses to give up his daughter,
his sister

come to
is

terms.

If

he

still

and bestows her on another man, the protest of

said to destroy the happiness of the pair.

Girls are cere-

married before or after puberty.

The marriage

monies
at the

last

over three days, and are carried out either

if

house of the bride or bridegroom, the former

the parents are prosperous and influential people in the

community.

Brahman

officiates,

and

ties

the sata-

manam on
shape of

the bride's neck.

On

the evening of the third

day, at the bride's house, presents called katnam, in the

rings,

waist-bands, and a gold bangle for the are given to the bridegroom.

right upper arm,

The

value of these presents bears a fixed proportion to that of

the voli or bride-price.

The

pair live for three days at

the bride's house, and then proceed to the house of the

bridegroom, where they stay during the next three days.

They then

return to the

home

of the bride, where they

once more stay for three days, at the end of which the

bridegroom returns to his

house.
if

The consummation
the girl has reached

ceremony
puberty,

is

a separate event, and,

place

takes

few days after the marriage

of widows
is

ceremony.

The remarriage

permitted.

437

YENUMALA
and a man marrying
fine.

The satamanam
pedda.

is

tied

on the bride's neck by the Kulam-

Divorce

is

also recognised,

a divorced

woman

has to pay twelve rupees, known as

moganaltappu, or new husband's

The

divorced

woman
to her

has to return all the jewellery which was given by her former husband. The dead are cremated, and a man of the washerman

caste usually assists in igniting the pyre.

There

is

an

annual ceremony

in

memory

of the dead, at which the

house

is

cleaned,

and

purified with cow-dung.

liberal

meal

on a more than usually

house.

scale

is

cooked, and

incense and camphor are burnt before the entrance to the

Food

is

then offered to the dead,

who are invoked

partake of a

by name, and the celebrants of the

hearty meal.

rite

The usual caste titles are Naidu and Setti. Yeddula (bulls). An exogamous sept of Boya and

Kapu.

Yedu Madala

(seven madalas).

The

name

of a

section of Upparas, indicating the

amount of the brideprice. A madala is equivalent to two rupees. Yelka Meti (good rat). An exogamous sept of

Boya.

Yemme.Yemme, Emme,
ing
buffalo

or Yemmalavaru, mean-

or

buffalo

people,

has been recorded as

an exogamous sept of Bedar or Boya, Kurni, Kuruba,

Madiga, and Vakkaliga.

Yenne (oil). A sub-division of Ganiga. Yenuga.Yenuga or Yenigala, meaning

elephant,

has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kapu, the members of which will not touch ivory. Yenumala.-^Yenumala or Yenamaloru, meaning
buffalo or buffalo people, has been recorded as an exoga-

mous

sept of Balija, Boya, Madiga, and Odde.

YERAVALLAR
Yeravallar. 5^^

43
Eravallar.

Yerlam.A
Brahman
cated for
girl

division

of Kapus,

so called after a

named Yerlamma, who was excommunibeing married, and bore children

to a

not

Kapu.

Yerra

(red).

A sub-division of Golla and Kapu, and

an exogamous sept of Devanga.

See Erudandi. YogiGurukkal. The Yogi Gurukkals are described

Yerudandi.
Madras Census Report,
caste.

in

the

1891, as

"a Malayalam-

speaking beggar

They

are also priests in Kali

temples, and pial schoolmasters.

a sitting posture (like

noted,
is

They bury their dead in Sanyasis)." The pial, it may be

which village schools

a raised platform under the verandah, or on

either side of the door of a house, in

are held.

The Yogi Gurukkals

and
ance
their

are scattered about Malabar,

to be the perform-

chief occupation seems

to

of worship
for

Kali

or

Durga.
Tiyans.

They

officiate

as priests

Mukkuvans and

Among

the

Mukkuvans, puja (worship) to Kali at the annual festival has to be done by a Yogi Gurukkal, whereas, on ordinary occasions, it may be done by a Mukkuvan, provided In that he has been initiated by a Yogi Gurukkal.
their customs,

the Yogi

Gurukkals closely follow the

Nayars.
It is

recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that " the

Yogi Gurukkals of North Malabar are a caste which, though low in the social scale, is not regarded as conveying distance pollution.

They perform
it

sakti puja in their

is

own

houses, to which no one outside the caste

;

allowed

to attend

they also perform

for

Nayars and Tiyans.

and are also

They

are celebrated sorcerers

and

exorcists,

schoolmasters by profession."

439

ZONNALA
vulgare).

Zonnala
the

(millet

Sorghum
has

Zonnala,

or

equivalent

Zonnakuti,

been recorded as

an

exogamous sept of Kapu. The Koyis hold a festival when the zonna crop is ready to be cut, at which a fowl
is

killed in the field,

and

its

blood sprinkled en a stone

set

up

for the purpose.

Printed by The Superintendent,

Government

Press,

Madras.

AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS

GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.
IN

THE

EAST.

R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. CoMBRiDGE & Co., Madras. T. COOPOOSWAMI Naicker & Co., Madras. HiGGlNBOTHAM & Co., Mount Road, Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Esplanade, Madras.
S.

MuRTHY &
Kama

G. A. Natesan
P. K.

Co., Kapalee Press, Madras. & Co., Madras. Iyar & Co., Madras.

Radhabai Atmaram Sagun, Bombay. Sarasvati Publishing House, Popham's Broadway, Madras. E. Seymour Hale, Bombay. * T. K. SiTARAMA AiYAR, Kumbak6nam. Co., Bomb.iy. D. B. Taraporevala Sons
S:

Temple & Co., Georgetown, Madras. Thacker & Co. (Limited), Bombay. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta. Thompson & Co., Madras.

IN ENGLAND.
Arnold, 41 and 43, Maddox Street, Bond Street, W., London. Blackwell, 50 and 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, W.C., London. Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. T. Fisher Unwin, i, Adelphi Terrace, W.C, London. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, S.W., London. Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, E.C., London. P. S. King & Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, S.W.,
E. A. B. H.

London.

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner &

London.

Co., 43, Gerrard Street,

Soho, W.,

LuzAC & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, W.C, London. B. QuARiTCH, II, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, W., London.

W. Thacker &

Co.,

2,

Creed Lane, E.C., London.

ON THE CONTINENT.
P'riedlander & SOHN, II, Carlstrassc, Berlin. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig. Rudolf Haupt, i, Dorrienstrasse, Leipzig, Germany. Karl W. Hiersemann, Leipzig. Ernest Lerou.v, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland.

Agent for sale of the Legislative Department publications.

University of California

SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles. CA 90024-1388
Return
this material to the library
it

from which

was borrowed.

UCLA-Cotlege Ubrary

DS 430 T42c

DS 430 T42c
v.7

v.7

L 005 763 721 7

001 086 068