Vedic mathematics (book)

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For the actual mathematics of the Vedic period, see Sulba Stras and Indian mathematics. Vedic mathematics is a list of sixteen basic stras, or aphorisms, presented by a Hindu scholar and mathematician, Bharati Krishna Tirthaji Maharaja, during the early part of the 20th century.[1] While its author claimed it to be a system of mathematics, this is not generally accepted, and it is more generally regarded as a set of strategies for calculation. These are said to be creative and useful, and can be applied in a number of ways to calculation methods in arithmetic and algebra, most notably within the education system. Some of its methods share similarities with the Trachtenberg system. Tirthaji claimed that he found the stras after years of studying the Vedas, a set of sacred ancient Hindu texts.[2] However, Vedas do not contain any of the "Vedic mathematics" sutras.[3][4]

Contents
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1 Origin of the system 2 The stras (formulae or aphorisms) o 2.1 Substras or corollaries o 2.2 Background information on the Vedas 3 Methods described in the stras o 3.1 All from nine and the last from ten 3.1.1 First corollary, when squaring numbers o 3.2 By one more than the one before 3.2.1 Method 1: example: using multiplication to calculate 1/19 3.2.2 Method 2: example: using division to calculate 1/19 o 3.3 Multiplying by 11 o 3.4 Vertically and crosswise

3.5 Transpose and apply 3.6 When the samuccaya is the same, that samuccaya is zero 3.7 If one is in ratio, the other one is zero 4 Applications 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References

o o o

Origin of the system [edit]

There has been much controversy among Indian scholars about Tirthajis claims that the mathematics is Vedic and that it encompasses all aspects of mathematics (Kansara, 2000). First, Tirthajis description of the mathematics as Vedic is most commonly criticised on the basis that, thus far, none of the stras can be found in any extant Vedic literature (Williams, 2000). When challenged by Prof K.S. Shukla to point out the sutras in question in the Parishishta of the Atharvaveda, Shukla reported that the swamiji said that the sixteen sutras were not in the standard editions of the Parishishta, and that they occurred in his own Parishishta and not any other.[5][6] Considering the lack of references to the stras, coupled with the fact that the language style does not seem Vedic, some propose that the stras were simply composed by Tirthaji himself. Critics have questioned whether this subject deserves the name Vedic or indeed mathematics. They point to the lack of evidence of any sutras from the Vedic period consistent with the system, the inconsistency between the topics addressed by the system (such as decimal fractions) and the known mathematics of early India, the substantial extrapolations from a few words of a stra to complex arithmetic strategies, and the restriction of applications to convenient, special cases. They are also worried that it deflects attention from genuine achievements of ancient and modern Indian mathematics and mathematicians, and that its promotion by Hindu nationalists may damage mathematics education in India.[7] In response to criticisms that the stras cannot be located within the texts, several people have explained how textual references should not be the basis for evaluating the Vedicity of the mathematics (Agrawala, 1992). Some propose that Vedic mathematics is different from other scientific work because it is not pragmatically worked out, but is based on a direct revelation, or an intuitional visualisation of fundamental mathematical truths (Agrawala, 1992; Pratyagatmananda, 1965). Tirthaji has been described as having the same reverential approach towards the Vedas as the ancient rishis that formed them. Thus, it seems as though some believe that Tirthaji may not have found the stras within the Vedas, but that he received them spiritually as the rishis did, which should validate them as Vedic. The controversy about the Vedicity of the mathematics is further confused by the double meaning of veda. Since veda can be translated to mean knowledge, it is also possible that Vedic mathematics simply refers to the fact that the stras are supposed to present all knowledge of mathematics. Tirthajis definition of veda does not clearly clarify whether he uses it to represent all knowledge or the Vedic texts; rather, it seems that he uses it to refer to both.

The stras (formulae or aphorisms) [edit]

Vedic mathematics is based on sixteen stras which serve as somewhat cryptic instructions (reconstructed from vedic sutras which were meant for hinduism and not mathematics) for dealing with different mathematical problems. The following list of nineteen items is said to be the list of sixteen (sic) stras, translated from Sanskrit into English:

"By one more than the previous one" [8] "All from 9 and the last from 10"[9] "Vertically and crosswise (multiplications)"[10] "Transpose and apply"[11] "Transpose and adjust (the coefficient)"[12] "If the Samuccaya is the same (on both sides of the equation, then) that Samuccaya is (equal to) zero"[13][14] By the Parvartya rule [15][16] "If one is in ratio, the other one is zero." [17] "By addition and by subtraction."[18] By the completion or non-completion (of the square, the cube, the fourth power, etc.)[19][20] Differential calculus [21][22] By the deficiency Specific and general The remainders by the last digit "The ultimate (binomial) and twice the penultimate (binomial) (equals zero),"[23] "Only the last terms,"[24][25][26][27] By one less than the one before The product of the sum All the multipliers

Substras or corollaries [edit]

"Proportionately"[28] "The remainder remains constant" "The first by the first and the last by the last" [29] "For 7 the multiplicand is 143" "By osculation" "Lessen by the deficiency" "Whatever the extent of its deficiency, lessen it still further to that very extent; and also set up the square (of the deficiency)"[30] "By one more than the previous one"[31] "Last totaling ten"[32][33] "The sum of the products" "By (alternative) elimination and retention (of the highest and lowest powers)"[34] "By mere observation"[35][36] "The product of the sum is the sum of the products" "On the flag"

Background information on the Vedas [edit]

The word veda has two basic meanings. The first, a literal translation of the Sanskrit word, is knowledge (Veda). The second, and most common meaning of the word, refers to the sacred ancient literature of Hinduism, the Vedas, a collection of hymns, poetry and Hindu

ceremonial formulae (Veda). Believed to be one of the oldest human written records, the Vedas date back over 4000 years (Gaskell, 2000). Traditionally, they were passed down orally and adapted from generation to generation by sacred sages called rishis, before eventually emerging written in Vedic, an ancient form of Sanskrit. The Vedas are divided into four main sections: the Rig-veda, Sama-veda, Yajur-veda and the Atharva-veda, known collectively as the Samhitas (Veda). The first three, the Rig-veda, Sama-veda, and Yajur-veda are basically ritual handbooks that were used by priests during the Vedic period (1500500 BCE) (Veda). Vedic mathematics is apparently part of the fourth Veda, Atharva-veda, which is distinct from the others in several ways. First, unlike the religious focus of the other Vedas, the Atharva-veda contains hymns, spells and magical incantations for personal and domestic use (Veda). Also, the Atharva-veda, which was written later than the other Vedas, was not always considered authoritative, but only became so after being accepted by the Brahmans, the highest order of Hindu priests (Veda). Collectively, the Vedas include information about a huge range of subjects, spanning religion, medicine, architecture, astronomy, etc. (Gaskell, 2000). Although there is controversy about whether the Vedas themselves actually include references to mathematics, the roots of sophisticated mathematics have actually been traced back to the Vedic era. Ancient Indian Vedic civilizations are known for being skilled in geometry, algebra and computational mathematics complex enough to incorporate things like irrational numbers (Dutta, 2002). Furthermore, all ancient Indian mathematics literature is composed completely in verse; there was a tradition of composing terse stras, like those of Vedic mathematics, to ensure that information would be preserved even if written records were damaged or lost (Dutta, 2002).

Methods described in the stras [edit]

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Many of the stras alone have no clear mathematical meaning at all, but it is claimed that these can be applied by following the interpretations provided by Tirthaji in his book.

All from nine and the last from ten [edit]

When subtracting from a large power of ten with many columns of zeros, it is not necessary to write the notation for "borrowing" from the column on the left. One can instead subtract the last (rightmost) digit from 10 and each other digit from 9. For example, when one is subtracting ten thousand minus 4,679, the leftmost three digits of 4,6794, 6 and 7--are subtracted from 9, and the rightmost nonzero digitthat is, 9--is subtracted from 10, yielding the solution: 5,321. This method is also used when finding the deficit from the next larger

power of ten when setting up a multiplication problem using the "cross-subtraction" method.[37] First corollary, when squaring numbers [edit] "Whatever the extent of its deficiency, lessen it still further to that very extent; and also set up the square (of that deficiency)"[38] For instance, in computing the square of 9 we go through the following steps: 1. The nearest power of 10 to 9 is 10. Therefore, let us take 10 as our base. 2. Since 9 is 1 less than 10, decrease it by the deficiency (9 - 1 = 8). This is the leftmost digit of our answer. 3. On the right hand side put the square of the deficiency, which is 1. Hence, the square of nine is 81. Similarly, 8 = 64, 7 = 49, 6=36. For numbers above 10, instead of looking at the deficit we look at the surplus. For example:

and so on.
[39] This method of squaring is based on the fact that where a is the number whose square is to be found and b is the deficit (or surplus) from nearest product of 10.

By one more than the one before [edit]

"Ekdhikena Prvea" is the Sanskrit term for "[by] One more than the previous one". It provides a simple way of calculating values like 1/x9 (e.g.: 1/19, 1/29, etc.). The stra can be used for multiplying as well as dividing algorithms. For example, to calculate 1/19, x = 1 . For the multiplication algorithm (working from right to left), the method is to start by denoting the dividend, 1, as the first (rightmost) digit of the result. Then that digit is multiplied by 2 (i.e.: x + 1 ), and noted to that next digit to its left. If the result of this multiplication was greater than 10, (value 10) is noted, and the "1" is noted as a carry which will be added to the next digit directly after multiplying. The preposition "by" means the operations this formula concerns are either multiplication or division. [In case of addition/subtraction preposition "to" or "from" is used.] Thus this formula is used for either multiplication or division. It turns out that it is applicable in both operations.

Note: This stra can also be applied to multiplication of numbers with the same first digit and the sum of their last unit digits is 10. An interesting sub-application of this formula is in computing squares of numbers ending in five. Examples: 3535 = ((33)+3),25 = 12,25 and 125125 = ((1212)+12),25 = 156,25 or by the stra, multiply "by one more than the previous one." 3535 = ((34),25 = 12,25 and 125125 = ((1213),25 = 156,25 The latter portion is multiplied by itself (5 by 5) and the previous portion is square of first digit or first two digit (33) or (1212) and adding the same digit in that figure (3or12) resulting in the answer 1225. (Proof) This is a simple application of , i.e. when and

It can also be applied in multiplications when the last digit is not 5 but the sum of the last digits is the base (10) and the previous parts are the same. Examples: 37 33 = (3 4),7 3 = 12,21 29 21 = (2 3),9 1 = 6,09 ? This uses twice combined with the previous result to produce:

. We illustrate this stra by its application to conversion of fractions into their equivalent decimal form. Consider fraction 1/19. Using this formula, this can be converted into a decimal form in a single step. This can be done by applying the formula for either a multiplication or division operation, thus yielding two methods. Method 1: example: using multiplication to calculate 1/19 [edit] For 1/19, since 19 is not divisible by 2 or 5, the fractional result is a purely circulating decimal. (If the denominator contains only factors 2 and 5, the result is a purely noncirculating decimal, else it is a mixture of the two: a short non-circulating sequence of digits, followed by an endless repetition.) Each factor of 2 or 5 or 10 in the denominator gives one fixed decimal digit. So we start with the last digit of the result, being the dividend: 1

Multiply this by "one more", that is, 2 (this is the "key" digit from 'Ekdhikena') 21 Multiplying 2 by 2, followed by multiplying 4 by 2 421 8421 Now, multiplying 8 by 2, sixteen 68421 1 carry multiplying 6 by 2 is 12 plus 1 carry gives 13 368421 1 carry Continuing 7368421 47368421 947368421 1 Now we have 9 digits of the answer. There are a total of 18 digits (= denominator 1) in the answer computed by complementing the lower half (with its complement from nine): 052631578 947368421 Thus the result is 1/19 = 0.052631578,947368421 repeating. 1 21 421 8421 68421 (carry 1) we got 16, so we keep 6 and carry 1 368421 (carry 1) we get 6*2 + carry 1 = 13, so we keep 3 and carry one do this to eighteen digits (191. If you picked up 1/29, you'll have to do it till 28 digits). You'll get the following 1/19 = 052631578947368421 i.e.10100111101011000 Run this on your favorite calculator and check the result! Method 2: example: using division to calculate 1/19 [edit]

The earlier process can also be done using division instead of multiplication. We start again with 1 (dividend of "1/x9"), dividing by 2 (" x + 1 "). We divide 1 by 2, answer is 0 with remainder 1 result .0 Next 10 divided by 2 is five .05 Next 5 divided by 2 is 2 with remainder 1 .052 next 12 (remainder,2) divided by 2 is 6 .0526 and so on. Other fractions can sometimes be converted into the format of "d/x9"; as another example, consider 1/7, this is the same as 7/49 which has 9 as the last digit of the denominator. The previous digit is 4, by one more is 5. So we multiply (or divide) by 5, that is: 7 57 857 2857 42857 142857 .142,857 (stop after 7 1 digits) 32412

Multiplying by 11 [edit]
1135= 385 (1) The five in the ones place of the answer is taken from the five in 35. (2) The eight in the answer is the sum of 35 (3+5=8). (3) The three in the hundreds place of the answer is taken from the three in 35. However, if in step #2 the sum is greater than 9, the sum's left digit is added the first digit of the number multiplied by 11. For example: 1159= 649 (1) The nine in the ones place of the answer is taken from the nine in 59. (2) The four in the answer is the right digit in the sum of 59 (5+9=14) (3) The six in the hundreds place of the answer is taken from the sum of the five in 59 and the digit in the tens place from the sum of 59 (5+9='14) --> (5+1=6) The steps for multiplying a three-digit number by 11 are as follows: 11768= 8448

(1) The 8 in the ones place of the answer is taken from the eight in 768. (2) The 4 in the tens place of the answer is taken from the sum of 8, in the ones place of 768, and 6, in the tens place of 768 (8+6=14). As 14 is greater than 9, the 1 is carried over to step 3. (3) The 4 in the hundreds place of the answer is taken from the sum of 6, in the tens place of 768, and 7, in the hundreds place of 768, plus the carried 1 from step 2 (6+7+1=14). As 14 is greater than 9, the 1 is carried over to step 4. (4) The 8 in the thousandths place of the answer is taken from the sum of 7, in the hundreds place of 768, plus the carried 1 from step 3 (7+1=8).

Vertically and crosswise [edit]

This formula applies to all cases of multiplication and is very useful in division of one large number by another large number. For example, to multiply 23 by 12: 23 || 12 21 22+31 32 276 So 2312=276. When any of these calculations exceeds 9 then a carry is required. This is the equivalent of (10a+b)(10c+d)=100ac+10(ad+bc)+bd.

Transpose and apply [edit]

This formula complements "all from nine and the last from ten", which is useful in divisions by large numbers. This formula is useful in cases where the divisor consists of small digits. This formula can be used to derive the Horner's process of Synthetic Division.

When the samuccaya is the same, that samuccaya is zero [edit]

This formula is useful in solution of several special types of equations that can be solved visually. The word samuccaya has various meanings in different applications. For instance, it may mean a term which occurs as a common factor in all the terms concerned. A simple example is equation "12x + 3x = 4x + 5x". Since "x" occurs as a common factor in all the terms, therefore, x = 0 is a solution. Another meaning may be that samuccaya is a product of independent terms. For instance, in (x + 7) (x + 9) = (x + 3) (x + 21), the samuccaya is 7 9 = 3 21, therefore, x = 0 is a solution. Another meaning is the sum of the denominators of two fractions having the same numerical numerator, for example: 1/ (2x 1) + 1/ (3x 1) = 0 means we may set the denominators equal to zero, 5x 2 = 0. Yet another meaning is "combination" or total. This is commonly used. For instance, if the sum of the numerators and the sum of denominators are the same then that sum is zero. Therefore,

Therefore, 4x + 16 = 0 or x = 4. This meaning ("total") can also be applied in solving quadratic equations. The total meaning can not only imply sum but also subtraction. For instance when given N1/D1 = N2/D2, if N1 + N2 = D1 + D2 (as shown earlier) then this sum is zero. Mental cross multiplication reveals that the resulting equation is quadratic (the coefficients of x are different on the two sides). So, if N1 D1 = N2 D2 then that samuccaya is also zero. This yields the other root of a quadratic equation. Yet interpretation of "total" is applied in multi-term RHS and LHS. For instance, consider

Here D1 + D2 = D3 + D4 = 2x 16. Thus x = 8. There are several other cases where samuccaya can be applied with great versatility. For instance "apparently cubic" or "biquadratic" equations can be easily solved as shown below:

Note that x 3 + x 9 = 2 (x 6). Therefore (x 6) = 0 or x = 6. This would not work for the apparently quadratic which has no real or complex solutions. Consider ,

Observe: N1 + D1 = N2 + D2 = 2x + 8. Therefore, x = 4. This formula has been extended further.

If one is in ratio, the other one is zero [edit]

This formula is often used to solve simultaneous linear equations which may involve big numbers. But these equations in special cases can be visually solved because of a certain ratio between the coefficients. Consider the following example: 6x + 7y = 8 19x + 14y = 16 Here the ratio of coefficients of y is same as that of the constant terms. Therefore, the "other" variable is zero, i.e., x = 0. Hence, mentally, the solution of the equations is x = 0 and y = 8/7.

(alternatively: 19x + 14y = 16 is equivalent to: (19/2)x +7y = 8. Thus it is obvious that x has to be zero. Note that it would not work if both had been "in ratio". For then we have the case of coinciding lines with an infinite number of solutions.: 6x + 7y = 8 12x + 14y = 16 This formula is easily applicable to more general cases with any number of variables. For instance ax + by + cz = a bx + cy + az = b cx + ay + bz = c which yields x = 1, y = 0, z = 0. A corollary says solving "by addition and by subtraction." It is applicable in case of simultaneous linear equations where the x- and y-coefficients are interchanged. For instance: 45x 23y = 113 23x 45y = 91 By addition: 68x 68 y = 204 68 (x y) = 204 x y = 3. By subtraction: 22x + 22y = 22 22 (x + y) = 22 x + y = 1. Again, by addition, we eliminate the y-terms: 2x = 4, so x = 2. Or, by subtraction, we eliminate the x-terms: 2y = 2, and so y = 1. The solution set is {2,-1}. Examples of models which are complete extensions due to j.corcoran and mircea h.orasanu and mircea t.orasanu

Applications [edit]

In the UK, the method is used by teacher Satish Sharma with students in Slough, as well as by Kenneth Williams, teacher, author and spokesman for the Maharishi School in Skelmersdale, Lancashire, both of whom claim that the methods offer significant results for their pupils.[40] Multiplier is an integral part of the processor. Vedic multiplier is based on the Vedic mathematics. Vedic multiplier's architecture is based on the Sutra called "Urdhva Tiryakbhyam". Urdhva Tiryakbhyam (Vertically and Crosswise), deals with the

multiplication of numbers. This Sutra has been traditionally used for the multiplication of two numbers in the decimal number system. By applying the algorithm to the binary number system, architecture for multiplier is designed. Other sutra used for Vedic multiplier is Nikhilam Sutra which literally means all from 9 and last from 10. Although it is applicable to all cases of multiplication, it is more efficient when the numbers involved are large. Compared with the other multipliers, Vedic multiplier has less delay time.[41][42][43] Vedic multiplier is also used for computing Fast Fourier transform.[44]