ME361ManufacturingSciences

J.Ramkumar
Topics covered Topicscovered
General introduction Generalintroduction
Classificationofmachiningprocess
hi i i h i l d l Machiningwithsingleedgetools
Typesofcutting
Typesofchip
Introduction
Manufacturingprocesstoproduce
Specifiedshape
Materialproperties
Process
Change in configuration and physical properties Changeinconfigurationandphysicalproperties
Followingtypeofoperations
Constantmassoperations p
Casting,rolling,extrusion,wiredrawing,forging,etc
Materialadditionoperations Bottomupapproach
Bolting rivetting keying welding rapid prototyping etc Bolting,rivetting ,keying,welding,rapidprototyping,etc
Materialremovaloperations(surplusmaterials
removed) Topdownapproach
M hi i fi i hi t Machining,finishing,etc
Basics of Machining process BasicsofMachiningprocess
Relativemotionobtainedbycombiningrotatory and
translatory movementsofeitherthetoolorworkpiece
orboth
Shape is obtained by relative motion of Shapeisobtainedbyrelativemotionof
Shapeofthetool
Pathittraverses
Tool path is parallel to the axis cylindrical surface both internal Toolpathisparalleltotheaxis cylindricalsurfacebothinternal
andexternal
Tool/workpieceisreciprocated flatsurface Shaping(tool
reciprocatesandworkpiecefeed)andplaning (viceversa)
Otherexamples
Milling Surfaceandendmilling
drilling
BasicsofMachiningprocess
Generatix
g p
Ge e at
Linesgeneratedbycuttingmotion
Directrix
Linesfromfeedmotion
Howisatapermade?
Methodsofgeneratingsurfaces
Tracingmethod directtracingofthegeneratrices Eg:
shaping,planing
Generation surfaceproducedistheenvelopofthe
generatrices milling etc generatrices milling,etc
Concept of generatrix and directrix Conceptofgeneratrix anddirectrix
Rectilinear generatrix and directrix Rectilineargeneratrix anddirectrix
Directrix perpendiculartotheplaneofgeneratrix
Directrix intheplaneofgeneratix p g
Generation of Various Surfaces Generation of Various Surfaces
1:
Classification of Machining Process ClassificationofMachiningProcess
Surplusmaterialremovedintheformofchip
Differencebetweentoolandmachinetool?
Machine tool relative motion Machinetoolrelativemotion
Primary Power
Secondary feed
Shaping and Planing Operation Shaping and Planing Operation
3:
4:
Turning Operation g p
5:
Milling and Grinding Operation Milling and Grinding Operation
6:
Simulation of Actual Machining Processes
7:
Basic Machining Operation Basic Machining Operation
8:
Machining with Singleedge tools MachiningwithSingle edgetools
Simple tool Simpletool
Principalcuttingedge
Auxiliary cutting edge Auxiliarycuttingedge
Importantanglesinawedgeshapetool
Rakeangle toolfacewithaplanenormalto
cuttingvelocityvectorandthemachinedsurface
Fl k l fl k f d hi d f Flankangle flankfaceandmachinedsurface
Single point cutting tool Singlepointcuttingtool
Chipthicknessratior=t1/t2?
Types of cutting Typesofcutting
Wedgeshapetool constrainedtorelativemotionoftheworkpeice toformachip.
Orthogonal cutting where i 0 and cutting edge is perpendicular to cutting velocity Orthogonalcutting wherei =0andcuttingedgeisperpendiculartocuttingvelocity
Obliquecutting 3Dcuttingandi isinclinde
Differencebetween
Orthogonalcutting
Cuttingedgeofthetoolisperpendiculartothedirectioncutting
l it velocity
Cuttingedgeiswiderthantheworkpiecewidth plainstraincondition
flowisconfinedtothex,z plane
Chipflowsontherakefacewithvelocityperpendiculartothecutting
edge
CuttingforcesactalongXandZdirectionsonly
Obliquecutting
CuttingedgeofthetoolisinclinedatanangleIwiththenormaltothe
cuttingvelocity
ChipflowsontherakefaceatanangleequaltoI
Cuttingedgeextendsbeyondthewidthofworkpiece
Cutting forces act along all directions Cuttingforcesactalongalldirections
Typesofchips
Dependingupontheworkmaterial,cutting
conditions,threebasictypes
Relativemotionbetweentoolandworkpiece
compressionatcuttingedge plasticstate.
Plastic flow on rake surface
Continuous chip
Plasticflowonrakesurface
Shearingactionoftheworkmaterial
Continuouschip
Continuouschipwithbuiltupedge
Discontinuous chip Discontinuouschip
Types of chips Typesofchips
ContinuouschipwithBuiltupedge
U d t i diti t t d t t l Undercertainconditionstemperatureandpressureattool
chipinterfaceishigh
sliding rupture(strainhardeningandthermalsoftening)
from the chip takes place fromthechiptakesplace
Highresistanceattoolchipinterface protectinglayer
removed
Affi it f ldi Affinityforwelding
Startinggrowing build upedge
Growthishigh unstable
Movealongthechip
Movewiththemachinedsurface
Forms only at critical speed Formsonlyatcriticalspeed
Types of chips Typesofchips
Continuouschip,
Continuouschipwithbuiltupedge
Discontinuouschip
Formation of chip and its factors Formationofchipanditsfactors
Type of chips Typeofchips
speed recrystalization temperature
Aboverecrystal temp strainhardening
i l d isneglected
Lowrecrystal temp strainhardeningis
high
Same BUEisformed
Influenceofcuttingspeedand
h Roughness
Region 1 Ra is poor discontinuous chip as Region1 Raispoor,discontinuouschip,as
speedincreasesRaimprovesfrom
discontinuous to semi discontinuous discontinuoustosemidiscontinuous
Region2 BUEisformedandcontinuoustill
recrystalization temperature recrystalization temperature
Region3 ContinuouschipswithoutBUEso
d R goodRa
ToolGeometry
Cutting process is influenced by the inclination of the cutting edge Cuttingprocessisinfluencedbytheinclinationofthecuttingedge
andorientationofrakeandflankface.
Orientationdefineweneedreferenceplaneandaxes.
I k f i li i Important rakefaceinclination
Rakeanglecanbemeasuredin
Aplanenormaltothecuttingedgeandperpendiculartotheplane A plane normal to the cutting edge and perpendicular to the plane
containingcuttingedge OABC
Aplaneparalleltothecuttingvelocityvectorandperpendicularto
the plane containing the cutting edge ODEF theplanecontainingthecuttingedge ODEF
Aplanecontainingthecuttingvelocityandchipvelocity ODGHas
showninfig
Single edge cutting tool Singleedgecuttingtool
Inobliquecutting,threedifferentvaluesofrake q g,
angleisobtained
Theyarenormalrake,velocityrakeandeffective
rake rake.
Morecuttingedgesareinvolvedthecuttingtool
becomes very complex becomesverycomplex
Differentsystemarefollowed
ASA/Coordinatesystem
Continental/Orthogonalsystem German
Maximumrakesystem/British
Normal rake system/International Normalrakesystem/International
Referenceplanes
Referenceplanesinorthogonalsystem
(1)Longitudinal(2)transfer feeddirections
Referenceplanesincoordinate system
( ) g ( )
Third plane is in the direction of the Thirdplaneisinthedirectionofthe
Maxslopeoftherakeface
Referenceplanesinnormalrakesystems
(1)Longitudinal(2)Transversefeeddirections
Normal rake system Normalrakesystem
Third plane is perpendicular Thirdplaneisperpendicular
tothecuttingedgeofthe
tool
System of axes Systemofaxes
Thesearenotthecartesian
coordinateaxesbuttracesofthe
referenceplane.
The auxiliary cutting edge and Theauxiliarycuttingedgeand
auxiliaryflankanglesarealso
shown
ASA/Coordinatesystem
Singlegdnttodspecificationin
Continentalsystem(ORS)
SinglepointtoolspecificationinBritishsystem
(MRS)
SinglepointtoolspecificationinInternational
system(NRS)
SinglepointtoolspecificationinAmericancontinental
t (MRS) system(MRS)
Different nomenclature systems Differentnomenclaturesystems
Selection of tool angles Selectionoftoolangles
Withzeroinclinationchipflowsparalleltotheworksurface
chipdisposalproblem p p p
Withinclinationangle chipflows Cuttingforce,powerand
Raisgood
Large smallrakeangle
Flankangle
End Cutting edge angles provided clear the cutting edge EndCuttingedgeangles providedclearthecuttingedge
fromthemachinedsurfaceandreducetoolchatter.Toolarge
anangle,weaktoolandaffectheatconduction.
Sidecuttingedgeaffectstoollife
Geometryofhelicalmillingcutter
Geometryoftwistdrill
Features of Orthogonal Chip Formation Features of Orthogonal Chip Formation
12:
=
=r
(4.1)
r=CuttingRatio
(4.2)
(4.3)
Mechanics of Chip Formation
13:
ExpressFc inFsandFn
FtinFnandFs
FinFc andFt
NinFc andFt
Fs in Fc and Ft FsinFc andFt
FninFc andFt
RinFandangles
Fc inRandfrictionandrakeangles
Ft i R d f i ti d k l FtinRandfrictionandrakeangles
(4.4)
(4 5) (4.5)
(4.6a)
(4.6b)
(4.7a)
(4.7b)
(4.8a)
(4.8b)
( ) (4.9)
(4.10a) ( )
(4.10b)
(4.11)
(4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)
will be minimum when the denominator is maximum. Differentiating the
denominator with respect to and equating it to zero denominator with respect to and equating it to zero.
=0
(4.15)
Using equation (4.15) in equation (4.13), we get
(4 16) (4.16)
can be expressed as
Inrealityshearstressisnotcompletely
independentofnormalstress
(4.17)
During machining, is given by
p
Where =normalstressactingonthe
shear plane shearplane
So, the shear stress can be expressed as
From the circle diagram (Fig. 13 b), we can write From the circle diagram (Fig. 13 b), we can write
Using this in the expression for and writing in terms of , we get
Using equation (4.9) and (4.10 a) along with the foregoing equation, we obtain
(4.18)
Now, applying the principle of minimum energy consumption, we finally get
(4.19)
Where and is constant for the work material. is sometimes
called the machining constant.
Itisclear increases increasesand increases decreases
Asthecuttingspeedincreases, decerases andsoFc too
Effect of Cutting Parameters on Chip Formation
15:
Duringanorthogonalmachiningoperationonmildsteel,theresultsobtainedare
uncutthickness=0.25mm,chipthickness=0.75mm,w=2.5mm,rakeangleiszeroand
C i f 950 N d h f 475 N Cuttingforce=950Nandthrustforce=475N.
Determinethecoefficientoffriction
Determinetheultimateshearstressoftheworkmaterial
Determinationofcoefficientoffriction
The distribution of shear and normal Thedistributionofshearandnormal
stressontherakefaceisnotuniform.
TiptoC,normalstressishighso
stickingfrictionishigh
CtoD,curling slidingfriction
Whennormalforceissmall,Fis
proportionaltonormalload.
Independent of apparent area Elastic Independentofapparentarea.Elastic
plasticregion.
Whennormalforceishigh,plastic
deformationatslidinginterfaceso
f i i f i i d d f l frictionforceisindependentofnormal
load
Strainratecalculation:
Strainrate=((deltaS)/(deltay))*(1/(deltat))
Strain rate can be expressed in shear velocity Strainratecanbeexpressedinshearvelocity
Needforvelocitydiagram
MeasurementofShearangle
DirectMethod
IndirectMethod
Step1:determiner;ltb =(ltb)ofchipwecalculatetc
Step 2 : AB = t/sin () = tc/cos () we get Step2:AB=t/sin()=tc/cos ()weget
Alternativemethod
Weightofthechip=l
c
t
c
b
c
=ltb
Machining Constant
: 2 :2
Shear Angle Relationships
:3
(4.20)
Power Consumption
(4.21a)
Specific Energy
(4.21b)
:4
(4.22)
=Uncutthickness,mm
Q=Volumerateofmaterial
removal removal
Mechanicsofobliquecutting
WhencuttingedgeinclinedbyI,thenfollowingrakeanglecomesintoexistence
1. Normalrakeangle
2. Velocityrakeangle
3. Effectiverakeangle
Becauseofthistwoshearangle
1.Normalshearangle anglefromshearplanetoplanecontainingthenewlyformedwork
surfacemeasuredinaplanenormaltocuttingedge
2 Eff ti h l l i d i th l t i i th tti l it d 2.Effectiveshearangle angleismeasuredintheplanecontainingthecuttingvelocityand
chipvelocityvector
Relationshipbetweendifferentrakeanglesandinclination
Heat Generation and Cutting Tool Temperature
16 :16
Total rate of heat generation
(4 23)
Total rate of heat generation
= Rate of heat generation in primary zone
(4.23)
= Rate of heat generation in secondary zone
(4.24)
From relations (4.24) and (4.25),
(4.25)
When a material particle moves across the primary deformation zone, the temperature
rise is given by rise is given by
(4.26)
Where
= Fraction of primary heat which goes to the workpiece
= Density of the material = Density of the material
= Specific heat of the material
= Uncut thickness width of cut respectively Uncut thickness, width of cut respectively
It has been found that is a function of the shear angle and a nondimensional
quantity
(4.27)
= Thermal conductivity of the material = Thermal conductivity of the material
For a wide range of work materials and machining conditions
(4.28)
The maximum temperature rise when the material particle passes through the
secondary deformation zone along the rake face of the tool can be approximately secondary deformation zone along the rake face of the tool can be approximately
expressed as
(4.29a)
Where is the length of contact between the tool and the chip
The corresponding average temperature rise
(4.29b)
It has been found that
Using this relation in equation (4.29a), we obtain
(4.29c)
The final temperature is given as The final temperature is given as
(4.29d)
Where is the initial temperature of the workpiece. This maximum temperature is
Along the rake face of the tool.
V i i f T i h C i S d Variation of Temperature with Cutting Speed
(4.30)
= Overall temperature rise and = Specific energy
Cutting Parameters: Workpiece Material SAE B 1113 Steel
Tool K2S WC
Rake Angle - 20
0
Uncut thickness 0.06 mm
Theoverallinterfacetemperatureriseis
Proportionaltothesquarerootofthe
Cuttingspeed
:17
Failure of Cutting Tool and Tool Wear
Plastic deformation of the tool due to high temperature and large stress
Mechanical breakage of the tool due to large force and insufficient strength
and toughness and toughness
Blunting of the cutting edge of the tool through a process of gradual wear
:18
Crater and Flank Wear
Wear takes place Wear takes place
- on the rake surface where the chip flows over the tool
- on the flank surface where rubbing between the work and on the flank surface where rubbing between the work and
the tool occurs
:19
ToolWearvariousmechanism
AdhesionWear:Surfacemating weldingoftoolandworkpiecematerial
Smallwearparticles attritious wear
Largewearparticles galling
Abrasionwear:surfaceasperitiesploughaseriesofgrooves
Basiccondition particlesmustbeharderthanthesurface.
Thiswearratethroughthisisprocessdependsonhardness,elasticproperties
Andthegeometryofthematingsurfaces.
Diffusion : Two surfaces in close contact, atom from one transfer to other by diffusion Diffusion:Twosurfacesinclosecontact,atomfromonetransfertootherbydiffusion
Changesthephysicalpropertieslikehardness,toughness,etc.
Diffusionrateistemperaturedependentsodependsonslidingrate
Amountofmaterialtransferistimeofcontactandinverseofslidingspeed
Growth of Tool Wear
Flank Wear Abrasion and adhesion
Crater Wear - Diffusion
Breakinwear sharpcuttingedgeisquicklybroken,wear
ratehigh,contactstartsfromzeroandnormalpressureis
hightocausesubsurfaceplasticflow.
:20
Cutting Tool Materials
Condition of Hardness Ratio (Proposed by T.N. Loladze) Co d o o a d ess a o ( oposed by .N. o ad e)
(4.31)
:5
Variablesaffectingtoollife
Cuttingconditions
toolgeometry
toolmaterial
workmaterial
cutting fluid cuttingfluid
Properties of tool material Propertiesoftoolmaterial
1. Hothardness
2. Toughness
3. Thermalconductivityandspecificheatshouldbehigh
4. Coefficientoffrictionbetweentheworkpieceandtool
Toollist
1. Carbontoolsteel
2. HighSpeedsteel
3. Cementedcarbide WCCowithotheringradients likeTaC,TiC,etc
4. Ceramicoxide
5 Ceramic Non oxide 5. CeramicNonoxide
6. Coatings Singleandmultilayer
7. Diamond
Cutting Speed for Various Tools
: 8 :8
Tool life and machinability Toollifeandmachinability
Machinability easeformachining
Majorforcriteria
Machiningforcesandpowerconsumption
S f fi i h Surfacefinish
ToolLife flankwear0.3mmorflankwearmax0.6
mm
Velocityhasadirectinfluenceonflankwear
VT
n
=C
C d d l / l d i n,C=dependsontool,w/p,toolgeometryandcutting
condition
T =C/(V
1/n
f
1/m
d
1/o
) /( )
Dependence of Tool Life on Tool Geometry
:24
Cuttingfluids
Ways in which cutting fluid affects machining
C li d f hi t l k b Cooling down of chip-tool-work zone be
carrying away generated heat
Reducing the coefficient of friction a chip-tool
interface
Reducing thermal distortion caused by
temperature gradient
Washing of chip
Protecting from corrosion Protecting from corrosion
Ideal cutting fluid Idealcuttingfluid
Large specific heat and thermal conductivity Largespecificheatandthermalconductivity
Lowviscosityandsmallmolecularsize
Suitable reactive constituent Suitablereactiveconstituent
Nonpoisonous
I i Inexpensive
Typesofcuttingfluids
Waterbased
Mineraloil
Cutting Fluids
: 29 :29
Change in per cent Heat Distribution with Speed
Fig.: 30 Role of Cutting Speed
Dependence of Coefficient of Friction on Speed
:30
Effect of Cutting Environment
: 31 :31