Chapter 4 Metal Removal Processes

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Outline
• Introduction to Machining
• Fundamentals of Metal Cutting
• Machining Processes: Turning, Milling, Drilling
and Shaping
• Theory of chip formation in Orthogonal cutting
• Types of chips Produced In Metal cutting
• Cutting Forces and Power
• Tool Wear and Tool Life
• Abrasive Machining Processes
• Machinability
• Selection of Cutting conditions & Machining
Economics
Introduction to Machining Processes
• Machining (metal removal process) is the process of
removing unwanted (excess) material from the workpiece
in the form of chip to get the desired final geometry.
• Machining is important commercially and technologically
for several reasons.
 Variety of work materials
 Variety of part shapes and geometric features
 Dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finishes
• Disadvantages
 Wasteful of material
 Time consuming
Classification of Machining Processes
Metal cutting (conventional processes)
 The process in which a thin layer of excess metal (chip) is
removed by a wedge-shaped single-point or multipoint
cutting tool with defined geometry through a process of
extensive plastic deformation.
e.g. turning, milling, drilling, shaping, boring, planing, etc.
Abrasive processes:
 Material removal by the action of hard, abrasive particles that
are usually in the form of a bonded wheel.
 Each single particle acts like a single-point cutting tool.
e.g. Grinding
Non-traditional processes:
• Machining with mechanical, electrochemical, thermal and
chemical sources of energy.
e.g. EDM, ECM, Water Jet Machining, Ultrasonic Machining,
etc.
The Cutting Tool
• A sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut the
material to achieve the desired geometry.
• A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges
and is made of a material that is harder than the work
material.
• The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the
parent work material.
• A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used
for operations such as turning.
• Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one
cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative
to the workpart by rotating.
• Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-cutting-
edge tools.

(a)A single-point tool showing rake face, flank and tool


point; and(b)a helical milling cutter, representative of
tools with multiple cutting edges.
Cutting Conditions
• Relative motion is required between the tool and
work to perform a machining operation.
• The primary motion is accomplished at a certain
cutting speed v.
• The tool must be moved laterally across the work.
This is a much slower motion, called the feed f.
• The penetration of the cutting tool below the original
work surface, called the depth of cut d.
• Collectively, speed, feed and depth of cut are called
the cutting conditions.
Material removal rate for the process
RMR= v f d
where RMR = material removal rate(mm3/s); v = cutting
speed(mm/s); f = feed(mm); and d = depth of cut(mm).

Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a


turning operation.
• A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining
operation to cool and lubricate the cutting tool.
• Machine tool is any power-driven machine that
performs a machining operation.
• The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming and press working operations.
• Conventional machine tools are usually tended by a
human operator, who loads and unloads the
workparts, changes cutting tools, and sets the cutting
conditions.
• We classify the machining operations by which part
shape is created as generating and forming.
• In Generating, the geometry of the work part is
determined by the feed trajectory of the cutting tool.

• Example, straight turning, taper turning, contour


turning, peripheral milling, and profile milling.

• Material removal is accomplished by the speed motion


in the operation, but part shape is determined by the
feed motion.
• In forming, the shape of the part is created by the
geometry of the cutting tool.
• In effect, the cutting edge of the tool has the reverse of
the shape to be produced on the part surface.
• Form turning, drilling, and broaching are examples of
this case.
• The cutting conditions in forming usually include the
primary speed motion combined with a feeding motion
that is directed into the work.
• Forming and generating are sometimes combined in
one operation.
• In thread cutting, the pointed shape of the cutting tool
determines the form of the threads, but the large feed rate
generates the threads.
• In slotting (also called slot milling), the width of the
cutter determines the width of the slot, but the feed
motion creates the slot.
• Machined parts are classified as rotational or non rotational.
Working Principles of Selected Machining Operations
 Most important machining operations:
 Turning
 Drilling
 Milling
 Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
 Turning: Single point cutting tool removes material from
a rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape.

(a). Turning operation


 Drilling: Used to create a round hole, usually by means
of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges.

(b). Drilling operation


 Milling: Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface and two
forms: peripheral milling and face milling.

(c). Peripheral milling and (d) Face milling operations


• For providing cutting action, a relative motion between
the tool and work is necessary.
• This relative motion can be provided by:
1. keeping the workpiece stationary and moving the
tool. Or
2. keeping the tool stationary and moving the work. Or
3. moving both in relation to one another
Relative motion of various cutting operation
Theory of chip formation in Orthogonal cutting
Orthogonal cutting
• uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the cutting edge is
perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed.

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process, and (b)


how it reduces to two dimensions in the side view
• As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is
formed by shear deformation along a plane called the
shear plane, which is oriented at an angle ϕ with the
surface of the work.
• Only at the sharp cutting edge of the tool does failure
of the material occur, resulting in separation of the
chip from the parent material.
• Along the shear plane, where the bulk of the
mechanical energy is consumed in machining, the
material is plastically deformed.
• During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is
positioned a certain distance below the original work
surface.
• This corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior to
chip formation, to.
• As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its
thickness increases to tc.
• The ratio of to to tc is called the chip thickness ratio
or the chip ratio r:
to
r=
tc
• The chip ratio is always be less than 1.
Types of chips Produced In Metal cutting
Discontinuous chip
• When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are machined
at low cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate
segments (sometimes the segments are loosely attached).
• This tends to impart an irregular texture to the machined surface.
• High tool–chip friction and large feed and depth of cut promote
the formation of this chip type.
Continuous chip
• When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and
relatively small feeds and depths, long continuous chips
are formed.
• A good surface finish typically results when this chip type
is formed.
• A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip
friction encourage the formation of continuous chips.
Continuous chip with built-up edge
• When machining ductile materials at low-to-medium
cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to
cause portions of the work material to adhere to the rake
face of the tool near the cutting edge.
• This formation is called a built-up edge (BUE).
• The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows,
then becomes unstable and breaks off.
• Much of the detached BUE is carried away with the chip,
sometimes taking portions of the tool rake face with it,
which reduces the life of the cutting tool.
• Portions of the detached BUE that are not carried off with
the chip become imbedded in the newly created work
surface, causing the surface to become rough.
Serrated chips
Serrated chips (shear-localized chips)
• These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that
they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced
by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear
strain followed by low shear strain.
• associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals
such as titanium alloys, nickel-base super alloys, and
austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at
higher cutting speeds.
• However, the phenomenon is also found with more
common work metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut
at high speeds.
Forces in Metal Cutting
• Consider the forces acting on the chip during
orthogonal cutting.
• The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be
separated into two mutually perpendicular components:
friction force and normal force to friction.

Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in


orthogonal cutting, and (b) forces acting on the tool that can
be measured.
• The friction force F is the frictional force resisting
the flow of the chip along the rake face of the tool.
• The normal force to friction N is perpendicular to the
friction force.
• These two components can be used to define the
coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip:
F
µ=
N
• The friction force and its normal force can be added
vectorially to form a resultant force R, which is
oriented at an angle β, called the friction angle.
• The friction angle is related to the coefficient of
friction as
µ = tan β
• Two force components applied by the workpiece on
the chip: shear force and normal force to shear.
• The shear force Fs is the force that causes shear
deformation to occur in the shear plane.
• the normal force to shear Fn is perpendicular to the
shear force.
• The shear stress that acts along the shear plane
between the work and the chip can be defined as:
tow
; where As = area of the shear plane =
sin𝜙
• The shear stress represents the level of stress required to
perform the machining operation.
• This stress is equal to the shear strength of the work
material (S) under the conditions at which cutting occurs.
• Vector addition of the two force components Fs and Fn
yields the resultant force R’.
• In order for the forces acting on the chip to be in
balance, the resultant R’ must be equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction and collinear with the resultant R.

Force diagram showing


geometric r/ships b/n F, N,
Fs, Fn, Fc, and Ft.
• None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can
be directly measured in a machining operation,
because the directions in which they are applied vary
with different tool geometries and cutting conditions.
• However, it is possible for the cutting tool to be
instrumented using a force measuring device called a
dynamometer, so that two additional force components
acting against the tool can be directly measured:
cutting force and thrust force.
• The cutting force Fc is in the direction of cutting, the
same direction as the cutting speed v, and the thrust
force Ft is perpendicular to the cutting force and is
associated with the chip thickness before the cut to.
• Equations can be derived to relate the four force
components that cannot be measured to the two forces
that can be measured.
• Using the force diagram, the following trigonometric
relationships can be derived:
F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α
N = Fc cos α - Ft sin α
Fs = Fc cos 𝜙 - Ft sin 𝜙
Fn = Fc sin 𝜙 + Ft cos 𝜙
• Note that in the special case of orthogonal cutting
when the rake angle α = 0; F =Ft and N= Fc.
• Thus, in this special case, friction force and its normal
force could be directly measured by the dynamometer.
Cutting Power in Machining
• A machining operation requires power.
• The product of cutting force and speed gives the
power (energy per unit time) required to perform a
machining operation:
Pc = Fcv
where Pc = cutting power(Nm/s) or (W);
Fc = cutting force(N) and
v = cutting speed(m/s).
Tool Wear and Tool Life
Possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail in
machining:
1. Fracture failure. occurs when the cutting force at the
tool point becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly
by brittle fracture.
2. Temperature failure. occurs when the cutting temp. is
too high for the tool material, causing the material at the
tool point to soften, which leads to plastic deformation
and loss of the sharp edge.
3. Gradual wear. Gradual wearing of the cutting edge
causes loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting efficiency,
an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily
worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a
temperature failure.
Tool Wear
• Gradual wear occurs at two principal locations on a
cutting tool: the top rake face and the flank.
• Accordingly, two main types of tool wear can be
distinguished: crater wear and flank wear.

Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations


and types of wear that occur.
Crater wear
• consists of a cavity in the rake face of the tool that
forms and grows from the action of the chip sliding
against the surface.
• High stresses and temperatures characterize the tool–
chip contact interface, contributing to the wearing
action.
• The crater can be measured either by its depth or its
area.
Flank wear
• occurs on the flank, or relief face, of the tool.
• It results from rubbing b/n the newly generated work
surface and the flank face adjacent to the cutting edge.
• Flank wear is measured by the width of the wear
band, FW.
• This wear band is sometimes called the flank wear
land.
• An extreme condition of flank wear often appears on
the cutting edge at the location corresponding to the
original surface of the workpart.
• This is called notch wear.
• Nose radius wear; occurs on the nose radius leading
into the end cutting edge.
Tool life
• Is the length of cutting time that the tool can be used.
• Operating the tool until final catastrophic failure is one
way of defining tool life.

Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting
speeds. Hypothetical values of speed and tool life are shown for a
tool life criterion of 0.50mm flank wear.
• In production, it is often a disadvantage to use the tool
until this failure occurs because of difficulties in
resharpening the tool and problems with work surface
quality.
• As an alternative, a level of tool wear can be selected
as a criterion of tool life, and the tool is replaced when
wear reaches that level.
• A convenient tool life criterion is a certain flank wear
value, such as 0.5mm.
• When each of the three wear curves intersects that line,
the life of the corresponding tool is defined as ended.
Taylor Tool Life Equation
vTn = C
where v = cutting speed, m/min (ft/min); T = tool life, min;
and n and C are parameters whose values depend on feed,
depth of cut, work material, tooling (material in particular),
and the tool life criterion used.

Natural log–log plot of cutting speed vs. tool life.


Abrasive Machining Processes
• Involve material removal by the action of hard, abrasive
particles that are usually in the form of a bonded wheel.
• Grinding is the most important abrasive process.
• Other traditional abrasive processes include honing,
lapping, superfinishing, polishing, and buffing.
• The abrasive machining processes are generally used as
finishing operations.
• Although some abrasive processes are capable of high
material removal rates rivaling those of conventional
machining operations.
• Abrasive processes are important commercially and
technologically for the following reasons:
 They can be used on all types of materials ranging
from soft metals to hardened steels and hard
nonmetallic materials such as ceramics and silicon.
 Some of these processes can produce extremely fine
surface finishes, to 0.025 µm (1 µ-in).
 For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be
held to extremely close tolerances.
Grinding
• is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive
particles that are contained in a bonded grinding wheel
rotating at very high surface speeds.
• The grinding wheel is usually disk-shaped, and is
precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.
• The rotating grinding wheel consists of many cutting teeth
(the abrasive particles), and the work is fed relative to the
wheel to accomplish material removal.
The Grinding Wheel
• consists of abrasive particles and bonding material.
• The bonding material holds the particles in place and
establishes the shape and structure of the wheel.
Basic parameters of a grinding wheel
1. Abrasive material
2. Grain size
3. Bonding material
4. Wheel grade and
5. Wheel structure.
Typical structure of a grinding
wheel.
• The cutting conditions in grinding are characterized by
very high speeds and very small cut size.
• The peripheral speed of the grinding wheel is determined
by the rotational speed of the wheel.
v= πDN
where v = surface speed of wheel, m/min (ft/min); N =
spindle speed, rev/min; and D = wheel diameter, m (ft).
(a) The
geometry of
surface
grinding,
(b) assumed
longitudinal
shape and
(c) cross
section of a
single chip
• Depth of cut d, called the infeed, is the penetration of the
wheel below the original work surface.
• As the operation proceeds, the grinding wheel is fed
laterally across the surface on each pass by the work.
• This is called the crossfeed, and it determines the width of
the grinding path w.
• This width, multiplied by depth d determines the cross-
sectional area of the cut.
• In most grinding operations, the work moves past the
wheel at a certain speed vw, so that the material removal
rate is: RMR = vw wd
• The cutting conditions combine with the grinding wheel
parameters to affect surface finish, forces and energy,
temperature of the work surface and wheel wear.
Machinability
• Properties of the work material have a significant
influence on the success of the machining operation.
• These properties and other characteristics of the work are
often summarized in the term ‘‘machinability.’’
• Machinability denotes the relative ease with which a
material (usually a metal) can be machined using
appropriate tooling and cutting conditions.
Criteria used to evaluate Machinability
1. Tool life • The type of machining operation,
tooling, and cutting conditions are
2. Forces and power
also important factors.
3. Surface finish and • One material may yield a longer
4. Ease of chip disposal. tool life, whereas another material
provides a better surface finish.
• Machinability testing usually involves a comparison of
work materials.
• The machining performance of a test material is measured
relative to that of a base (standard) material.
• Possible measures of performance in machinability testing
include:
1. tool life,
2. tool wear,
3. cutting force,
4. power in the operation,
5. cutting temperature, and
6. material removal rate under standard test conditions.
• The relative performance is expressed as an index number,
called the Machinability Rating (MR).
• The base material used as the standard is given a
machinability rating of 1.00. B1112 steel is often used as
the base material in machinability comparisons.
• Materials that are easier to machine than the base have
ratings greater than 1.00, and materials that are more
difficult to machine have ratings less than 1.00.
• Machinability ratings are often expressed as percentages
rather than index numbers.
Selection of Cutting Conditions & Machining Economics
• One of the practical problems in machining is selecting the
proper cutting conditions for a given operation.
Selection of Feed and Depth of cut
• Cutting conditions in a machining operation consist of
speed, feed, depth of cut, and cutting fluid (whether a
cutting fluid is to be used and, if so, type of cutting fluid).
• Depth of cut is often predetermined by workpiece
geometry and operation sequence.
• Many jobs require a series of roughing operations followed
by a final finishing operation.
• In the roughing operations, depth is made as large as
possible within the limitations of available horsepower,
machine tool and setup rigidity, strength of the cutting tool.
• In the finishing cut, depth is set to achieve the final
dimensions for the part.
• The problem then reduces to selection of feed and speed.
In general, values of these parameters should be decided in
the order: feed first, speed second.
• Determining the appropriate feed rate for a given
machining operation depends on tooling, roughing or
finishing and surface finish requirements in finishing.
Optimizing Cutting Speed
• Selection of cutting speed is based on making the best use
of the cutting tool (choosing a speed that provides a high
metal removal rate yet suitably long tool life).
• The optimal cutting speed is to be calculated for :
1. Maximum production rate, or
2. Minimum unit cost.
Maximizing Production Rate
• For maximum production rate, the speed that minimizes
machining time per workpiece is determined.
• Minimizing cutting time per unit is equivalent to
maximizing production rate.
• In turning, there are three time elements that contribute to
the total production cycle time for one part:
1. Part handling time Th
2. Machining time Tm and
3. Tool change time Tt .
• Let np = the number of pieces cut in one tool life (the
number of pieces cut with one cutting edge until the tool is
changed);
• Thus, the tool change time per part = Tt /np.
• The total time per unit product for the operation cycle
Tc = Th + Tm + Tt /np
where Tc = production cycle time per piece, min
• Machining time in a straight turning operation is given by
Time elements in a machining cycle plotted as a function of cutting
speed: Total cycle time per piece is minimized at a certain value of
cutting speed. This is the speed for maximum production rate.
• The cutting speed for maximum production rate in the
operation is

• The corresponding tool life for maximum production rate is


Minimizing Cost per Unit
• The speed that minimizes production cost per piece for
the operation is determined.
The four cost components that determine total cost of
producing one part during a turning operation:
1. Cost of part handling time = CoTh
Where Co is the cost rate (e.g.$/min) for the operator and
machine.
2. Cost of machining time = CoTm
3. Cost of tool change time = CoTt / np
4. Tooling cost = Ct / np
where Ct is the cost per cutting edge and np is number of
pieces machined with that cutting edge.
Cost components in a machining operation plotted as a function of
cutting speed. Total cost per piece is minimized at a certain value of
cutting speed. This is the speed for minimum cost per piece.
• The cutting speed that obtains minimum cost per piece for
the operation can be determined by

• The corresponding tool life is given by


End of Chapter Four

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