T

h
i
s

P
D
F

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

d
o
w
n
l
o
a
d

f
r
o
m
a

s
i
t
e

h
o
s
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
k
n
o
w

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
w
w
w
.
m
e
d
k
n
o
w
.
c
o
m
)
.

Review Article
Physical sunscreens: On the comeback trail
Balaji D. More
C lin ica l P h a rm a co lo gist a n d M a n a ge r, M e d ico -m a rketin g a n d C lin ica l R e se a rch , S te ife l P h a rm a ce u tica ls I n d ia Ltd .
Ad d re ss fo r co rre sp o n d e n ce : D r. B a la ji D . M o re , 1 0 1 N irm a l K u n j, 2 9 9 N L P a ra lk a r M a rg, P a re l, M u m b a i -4 0 0 0 1 2 , I n d ia .
E -m a il: b d m d cp @ ya h o o .co m
Awareness of ultraviolet radiation-induced skin damage creates the need for the development of broad-spectrum, safe
and cosmetically acceptable sunscreens. Being relatively inert, safe, stable and non-irritating, physical sunscreens are
particularly useful for patients with sensitive skin who cannot tolerate chemical sunscreens. However, they form a thick
visible pigment layer on the skin. To overcome this drawback, microne oxides have been developed which made the
sunscreens virtually transparent when applied on the skin. This article reviews the rationale for the comeback of physical
sunscreens by analyzing data from various sources.
Key Words: Microne, Polymorphic light eruption, Titanium dioxide, Ultraviolet radiation, Zinc oxide
I N TR O D U C TI O N to several microns whereas pigmentary grade particles fall
in the 80 nm to 250 nm size range.
[1]
However, particle size
The component of the solar spectrum covering 200-400 distribution rather than particle size regulates the efficacy
nanometers (nm) is responsible for skin damage and is termed and the transparency in a dispersion.
ultraviolet radiation (UVR). UVR consists of UVR-B (290-320
nm) and UVR-A (320-400 nm). Substances which physically For hundreds of years, ZnO has been used topically to treat
attenuate UVR by causing molecular rearrangement (size, many skin disorders with fairly encouraging results. Zinc is an
shape and appearance change) without any effect on the essential mineral, a component of about 70 metalloenzymes
internal structures) are called physical UVR attenuators. Zinc and required for DNA, RNA and protein synthesis.
[2,3]
In
oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO
2
), talc, kaolin, iron oxides, addition, due to its anti-microbial action, ZnO has been used
red petrolatum, silica and mica are examples of physical for dressing burns and other wounds in the pre-antibiotic
attenuators of UVR of which ZnO and TiO
2
are approved as era.
[2]
TiO
2
has a variety of uses as it is odorless and absorbent.
active sunscreen ingredients.
[1]
This mineral can be found in many products, ranging from
AB S TR AC T
The only drawback of these agents is that they form a thick
visible pigment layer on the skin, which is not acceptable
to most individuals. To overcome this drawback, microfine
oxides have been developed which have made physical
sunscreens virtually transparent on skin. However, there
is no universal consensus on the definition of the term
microfine. For all practical purposes, the term microfine
is used to describe particles of sizes ranging from a few nm
paint to food to cosmetics. It is usually coated with silica
or stearate to reduce photoreactivity. Micronized TiO has
been shown to provide protection against UVB-induced
immunosuppression in humans i n vi vo.
[4]
A M E C H AN I S M O F U VR ATTE N U TI O N
It was believed that in contrast to chemical sunscreens, the
physical metal oxides act as only scatterers or reflectors of
o H o w t cite th is a rticle : M o re B D . P h ysica l su n scre e n s: O n th e co m e b a ck tra il. I n d ia n J D e rm a to l Ve n e re o l Le p ro l 2 0 0 7 ;7 3 :8 0 -5 .
R cce p te d : Ja n u a ry, 2 0 0 7. C o n ict o f in te re st: Au th o r wa s wo rk in g in e ce ive d : S e p te m b e r, 2 0 0 6 . A S o u rce o f S u p p o rt: S e e a ck n o wle d gm e n t.
S te ife l P h a rm a ce u tica ls I n d ia Ltd . a s a m a n a ge r in M e d ico -m a rketin g a n d C lin ica l R e se a rch a t th e tim e o f su b m issio n o f th e a rticle .
I ndi an JDermatol Venereol Leprol| M arch-A pri l 2007| Vol 73| I ssue 2 80
2
.
c
o
m
)
.
T
h
i
s

P
D
F

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

d
o
w
n
l
o
a
d

f
r
o
m
a

s
i
t
e

h
o
s
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
k
n
o
w

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
w
w
w
.
m
e
d
k
n
o
w

More BD: Physical sunscreens
UVR. However micronized forms of metal oxides (ZnO and
TiO
2
) of sizes below 370 nm, owe their UVR attenuating
ability to their absorbing power, practically no light being
reflected.
[5-7]
Whenever light falls on a substance, a certain
fraction of the incident light is either reflected, scattered or
absorbed. Absorption is a process, in which light is lost, i.e.,
it is converted into some other form of energy.
Absorption of UVR by metal oxides is evident from the
mobilization of electrons within their atomic structure. The
energy required for mobilization is absorbed from UVR thus
causing these metal oxides to act as photosemiconductors.
[1,8]
The energy gap is the amount of energy required to promote
the electron from the valence band into the conductive
Figure 1: Absorbance spectra for zinc oxide particles of varying
sizes
[10]
band (3.23 electron Volts (eV) and 3.06 eV for ZnO and TiO
2
respectively). These energy gaps are calculated by using the
quantum theory that corresponds to a UV wavelength of
385 nm for ZnO and 405 nm for TiO .
[1,8]
Therefore all UV
2
radiations shorter than 385 and 405 nm will be absorbed
by ZnO and TiO
2
respectively. The absorbed energy is then
emitted as longer wavelength radiations as the electrons
return to a lower energy level. This whole event occurs within
less than 10.6 seconds.
[1]
Although metallic oxides are not
inert per se, they can be coated to make them stable, non-
toxic and safe.
[9]
U V AB S O R P TI O N S P E C TR U M
Figure 2: UV absorbance characteristics of titanium dioxide
The UVA coverage ability of microfine physical block particles
depend on the primary particle size
[11]
depends primarily on the particle size.
[10]
Micronized ZnO
particles efficiently absorb radiation from the entire UV a tendency to agglomerate to form large particles. In many
region (380 nm and shorter) with a steep drop-off whereas cases, larger aggregates are formed during the manufacturing
particles smaller than 100 nm result in coverage up to of the powder even before the formulation step. These large
340-360 nm as seen in Figures 1 and 2.
[7,10,11]
About 90% of UVR aggregates / agglomerates may not be effective depending on
of wavelength below 360 nm is attenuated by absorption.
[1,8,11]
the ultimate size. Physical sunscreens can also be formulated
UVA attenuation is better than UVB attenuation with by incorporating both ZnO and TiO
2
or their combination with
particles of larger size.
[12]
Micronized forms have the ability chemical sunscreen ingredients to achieve higher levels of
TiO
2
to attenuate both UVB and UVA II with a steep or gradual
drop off in absorbance in the upper UVA I range. Attenuation
characteristics vary greatly for TiO
2
as seen from the UVB, and
UVA absorbance (320-400 nm) spectra. Formulations of ZnO
tend to attenuate both UVA and UVB more uniformly than
those of TiO
2
. It is prudent to consult the supplier for product
absorbance and attenuation curves so as to determine the
extent of UVA coverage of a given physical sunscreen.
For ZnO and TiO
2
, particle size of ~0.1 micron is the most
effective in attenuating UV radiation.
[13]
UV blocking capacity
decreases as the particle size goes below 0.1 micron whereas
above this size, whitening can occur. Very fine particles have
protection. Currently, sun protection factor (SPF) is the only
globally accepted scale to estimate a sunscreens protective
action. However, it does not provide the complete protective
profile of a sunscreen especially against long wavelength UVA
I (340-400 nm) as it only takes into account UVB radiation.
ZnO and TiO
2
are among three sunscreen ingredients
approved by US-FDA to claim adequate coverage in the long-
wave range of the UVA spectrum, the third being avobenzone.
Evaluating the efficacy of UVA protection will enable true
broad-spectrum UVB and UVA photoprotection.
[14]
However,
there is no consensus on the method of evaluating UVA
protection. UVA protection factors based on protective factor
I ndi an JDermatol Venereol Leprol| M arch-A pri l 2007| Vol 73| I ssue 2 81
T
h
i
s

P
D
F

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

d
o
w
n
l
o
a
d

f
r
o
m
a

s
i
t
e

h
o
s
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
k
n
o
w

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
w
w
w
.
m
e
d
k
n
o
w
.
c
o
m
)
.

More BD: Physical sunscreens
ability (PFA) and UVA/UVB ratios for zinc oxide and titanium
dioxide for (water in oil) w/o and (oil in water) o/w emulsions
are seen in Figure 3.
[11]
O P TI C AL P R O P E R TI E S AN D TR AN S P AR E N C Y
Microfine metal oxides possess the unique property
of being transparent to visible light but opaque to UV
radiations.
[13]
Transparency is explained by the ability
to allow visible light to pass through while opacity
oxides. Therefore, particles less than 0.25 microns in
size actually transmit more visible light than their larger
counterparts.
[13]
However, when the particle size is further
reduced, the particles tend to agglomerate and aggregate
leading to increased particle size and opacity. Hence,
particle size needs to be maintained in a well-defined range
and must be evenly distributed.
P H AR M AC O K I N E TI C S
results from the ability to attenuate UVR transmission by ZnO is not absorbed through the skin. Skin absorption
reflection, scattering and /or absorption. The opacity of studies after zinc oxide application to intact and psoriatic
a suspension of fine material is influenced by the particle skin revealed essentially unchanged serum zinc levels.
[15]
size of the material, the difference in the refractive indices In addition, application of 40% zinc ointment to relatively
of dispersed material and the dispersing medium and large areas of skin does not raise the serum zinc levels.
[2]
the degree of wavelength of light used in the opacity Although microfine TiO
2
deposited on the outermost surface
measurement.
[13]
Refractive index (RI) measures the speed of the stratum corneum generally does not penetrate the
of light in the given substance relative to speed of light different layers of the skin,
[16]
one study has demonstrated
in air.
[14]
Light scatter within any medium is a function of that it does penetrate the skin in very minute quantities.
[17]
difference in the RIs between the pigment and the medium. Therefore, more studies are necessary to establish if dermal
If the ratio of the RIs is close to 1, the whole system has absorption of physical sunscreens is statistically and clinically
a transparent appearance. In contrast, the entire system significant.
has a white appearance if the ratio is significantly greater
than 1. The RI of ZnO is 1.9 whereas that of TiO
2
is 2.6 Although concerns have been raised about a possible
making it whiter in appearance.
[1]
photocatalytic activity of metal oxides on living tissues,
crystal surface photocatalytic activity has not been
The RI of a material is intrinsic to that material and is a encountered with ZnO.
[6,18]
The absorption curves for
fixed characteristic. However, it can be minimized by one microfine ZnO before and after solar simulator irradiation
of two ways: either by using a suspending medium with a (30 Lcm
2
) was similar, demonstrating it to be completely
RI similar to that of the material or by manipulating the photostable.
[7]
To reduce potential adverse effects, metal
particle size of the material. The first method is limited due oxides used in cosmetic preparations are often coated.
[16]
to lack of availability and appearance of such suspending Manganese-doped titania oxides show improved efficacy
media. Hence, the only remaining option, that of reduction over undoped TiO
2
in sunscreen formulations containing
of particle size is exploited to reduce the opacity of metal organic UV absorbers.
[19]
Figure 3: UVA protection factors based on PFA and UVA/UVB Figure 4: FDA-approved UVA screen absorbance spectra: TiO2-
ratios for zinc oxide and titanium dioxide for w/o and 21 nm primary particle size with 100 nm aggregates,
o/w emulsions
[11]
5% dispersion in Vaseline; Avobenzone-1% in ethanol;
Z-Cote-5% dispersion in Vaseline
[11]
I ndi an JDermatol Venereol Leprol| M arch-A pri l 2007| Vol 73| I ssue 2 82
T
h
i
s

P
D
F

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

d
o
w
n
l
o
a
d

f
r
o
m
a

s
i
t
e

h
o
s
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
k
n
o
w

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
w
w
w
.
m
e
d
k
n
o
w
.
c
o
m
)
.

More BD: Physical sunscreens
C LI N I C AL U S E S
Metal oxides as a single ingredient sunscreen can be safely
used for daily skin protection from UVR.
[20]
The metal oxides
sunscreen formulations are usually less oily and may prove
useful in patients with subjects with oily and acne-prone skin.
They offer photoprotection to individuals with visible light
and UV-A photosensitivity such as those with porphyria, drug
photoallergy and polymorphous light eruption.
[21-23]
They are
especially useful for patients with sensitive skin and those
stated to be protective against DNA damage as indicated by
two studies.
[4,27]
However, much debate has arisen regarding the safety of
nanoparticle use in sunscreens. The Government of Australia,
Department of Health and Aging, has reviewed the literature
on the safety of nano-particles of ZnO and TiO
2
in sunscreens.
It was observed through isolated cell experiments that ZnO and
TiO
2
can induce free radical formation in the presence of light
and that this may damage these cells (photomutagenicity with
not tolerating chemical sunscreens. ZnO). However, this would only be of concern in people using
sunscreens if ZnO and TiO
2
penetrated into viable skin cells. The
weight of current evidence is that they remain on the surface of D I R E C TI O N S FO R U S E
the skin and in the stratum corneum of the skin.
[28,29]
Most directions for use on sunscreen containers and
packaging recommend that users apply liberally or I N TE R AC TI O N WI TH S TE R O I D S
generously. However such directions are vague and the
manufacturer must give the exact method of application. Prednisolone and zinc react in a molar proportion of 2:1
The exact amount of sunscreen required to be applied on to form a defined compound. Hence the application of
the skin for optimal protection should be recommended by prednisolone with zinc oxide-containing dermatological
the manufacturer based on the method and quantity of the formulations is not indicated.
[30]
sunscreen formulation used for determination of the SPF. formulation of ZnO and hydrocortisone had poor stability.
When using physical sunscreens, it is advisable not to rub Hydrocortisone decomposed mainly to its 21-aldehyde, but
them too hard as they work best on the surface of the skin. other degradation products were also identified.
[31]
They leave the surface of the skin with a milky glaze which can
be quite useful for gauging which skin areas you are covering
O R G AN I C S U N S C R E E N S WI TH M I C R O FI N E P AR TI C LE
and which one may have missed. Sweat will remove sunscreen
more effectively than water. The ideal sunscreen works by
leaving a uniform film on the surface of the skin. Sunscreen
A development among chemical sunscreens is the availability
should be reapplied whenever it may have been rubbed off.
of sunscreen agents with microfine particle size which
The substantivity of sunscreens will be determined by its
renders them the property of scattering and reflecting UV
water resistance, higher water resistance will confer more
rays in addition to absorbing them.
substantivity to sunscreens.
MBBT (Methylene Bis-Bezotriazolyl Tetramethylbutylphenol)
(Tinosorb

) is the first agent in this new class with an average

S AFE T Y P R O FI LE
ZnO is approved as a category I protectant by the US-FDA.
[24]
A fixed-dose topical
[3 3 , 3 4 ]
S I Z E : A P H YS I C AL C H E M I C AL S U N S C R E E N .
Moreover it is approved for use in the treatment of diaper
rash because it is safe to apply to inflamed non-intact
skin.
[25,26]
Titanium dioxide is regarded as an inert, non-toxic
substance by many regulatory bodies as seen in many MSDS
(Material Safety Data Sheets). It is evident that physical
sunscreens absorb UVR and in aqueous environments,
can lead to the generation of hydroxyl radicals.
[6]
This can
initiate oxidations and studies with TiO have shown that
2
it produces DNA damage both i n vi t ro and in human cells,
indicating that further studies are required to assess the
safety of micronized TiO
2
and by extension, of ZnO. However,
by providing UV-A protection and by preventing short-term
UVB-induced immunomodulation, physical sunscreens are
Figure 5: Action spectrum of MBBT Tinosorb

covering UVB,
UVA II and UVA I
I ndi an JDermatol Venereol Leprol| M arch-A pri l 2007| Vol 73| I ssue 2 83
T
h
i
s

P
D
F

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

d
o
w
n
l
o
a
d

f
r
o
m
a

s
i
t
e

h
o
s
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
k
n
o
w

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
w
w
w
.
m
e
d
k
n
o
w
.
c
o
m
)
.

More BD: Physical sunscreens
particle size of 150 nm. It attenuates UV rays by triple action:
85% UV rays are absorbed, 10-15% UV rays are scattered
and 3-5% are reflected. It has a broad UV spectral coverage
including UVA I with a critical wavelength of 388 nm, PFA
of 7.07 and UVA/UVB ratio of 1. It is thus an effective broad
spectrum sunscreen.
C O N C LU S I O N
There is overwhelming evidence to support the hazards
editors. Sunscreens: Development, evaluation and regulatory
aspects, 2
nd
ed. Marcel Dekker: New York; 1997. p. 353-98.
9. Wolf R, Matz H, Orion E, Lipozencic J. Sunscreens-the ultimate
cosmetic. Acta Dermatovenerol Croat 2003;11:158-62.
10. Shao Y, Schlossman K. Kobo Products Inc. Effect of particle
size on performance of physical sunscreen formulas. PCIA
Conference: Shanghai, China; 1999.
11. Demas C, Kwiatkowska B. Biochemistry of beauty: Sunscreens.
Available from: http://www.biochemistryofbeauty.com. [Last
accessed on 2005 Jan 7].
12. Murphy GM. Sunblocks: Mechanisms of action. Photodermatol
of UVR. Public awareness of these hazards has increased
Photoimmunol Photomed 1999;15:34-6.
13. Mitchnick MA. Zinc oxide, an old friend to rescue. Cosmetics
significantly. Resurgence of physical sunscreens has occurred
Toiletries 1992;107:111-6.
at the most appropriate time and improved technology has
14. Grady LD. Zinc oxide in face powders. J Soc Cosm Chem
made it possible to make them invisible on skin. Moreover,
1947;1:17-21.
physical sunscreens show potential to overcome some of the 15. Gasparro FP, Mitchnick M, Nash JF. A review of sunscreen safety
limitations of chemical sunscreens. They are especially useful
and efficacy. Photochem Photobiol 1998;68:243-56.
in patients sensitive to ingredients of chemical sunscreens,
16. Lademann J, Weigmann H, Schafer H, Muller G, Sterry W.
in children and for long-term use because of their high safety
Investigation of the stability of coated titanium microparticle
used in sunscreens. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol
2000;13:258-64.
17. Tan MH, Commens CA, Burnett L, Snitch PJ. A pilot study on the
A
percutaneous absorption of microfine titanium dioxide from
C K N O WLE D G E M E N T
sunscreens. Australas J Dermatol 1996;37:185-7.
I gratefully acknowledge Dr. Carol Demas for giving permission to
18. Edlich RF, Winters KL, Lim HW, Cox MJ, Becker DG, Horowitz JH,
use the figures 1-4 depicted in this review article. I acknowledge Dr.
et al . Photoprotection by sunscreens with topical antioxidants
Uli Oster Walder and Mr. Uday Kulkarni of Ciba Speciality Chemicals
and systemic antioxidants to reduce sun exposure. J Long Term
Eff Med Implants 2004;14:317-40.
Ltd. for figure 5 depicted in this article.
19. Wakefield G, Lipscomb S, Holland E, Knowland J. The effects
of manganese doping on UVA absorption and free radical
generation of microfine titanium dioxide and its consequences
R E FE R E N C E S
for the photostability of UVA absorbing organic sunscreen
Fairhurst D, Miltchnick MA. Particulate sun blocks: General components. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2004;3:648-52.
principles. In: Lowe, NJ, Shaath NA, Pathak MA, editors. 20. Rouabhia M, Mitchell DL, Rhainds M, Claveau J, Drouin R. A
Sunscreens: Development, Evaluation and Regulatory Aspects, physical sunscreen protects engineered human skin against
2
nd
ed. Marcel Dekker: New York; 1997. p. 313-52. artificial solar ultraviolet radiation-induced tissue and DNA
Derry JE, McLean WM, Freeman JB. A study of percutaneous damage. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2002;1:471-7.
absorption from topically applied zinc oxide ointment. J 21. Schwarz VA, Klein SD, Hornung R, Knochenmuss R, Wyss P, Fink
Parenter Enteral Nutr 1983;7:131-5. D, et al . Skin protection for photosensitized patients. Lasers
Prasad AS. Clinical and biochemical manifestations of zinc Surg Med 2001;29:252-9.
deficiency in human subjects. J Am Coll Nutr 1985;4:65-72. 22. Lowe NJ, Friedlander F. In: Lowe, NJ, Shaath NA, Pathak MA,
profile.
1.
2.
3.
4. van der Molen RG, Hurks HM, Out-Luiting C, Spies F, vant
Noordende JM, Koerten HK, et al . Efficacy of micronized
titanium dioxide-containing compounds in protection
against UVB-induced immunosuppression in humans i n vi vo. J
Photochem Photobiol B 1998;44:143-50.
5. Sayre RM, Kollias N, Robert RL, Bager A, Sadig I. Physical
sunscreens. J Soc Cosm Chem 1990;41:103-9.
6. Dunford R, Salinaro A, Cai L, Serpone N, Horikoshi S, Hidaka
H, et al . Chemical oxidation and DNA damage catalyzed by
inorganic sunscreen ingredients. FEBS Lett 1997;418:87-90.
7. Mitchnick MA, Fairhurst D, Pinnell SR. Microfine zinc oxide
(Z-cote) as a photostable UVA/UVB sunblock agent. J Am Acad
Dermatol 1999;40:85-90.
8. Anderson MW. Broad-spectrum physical sunscreens: Titanium
dioxide and zinc oxide. In: Lowe, NJ, Shaath NA, Pathak MA,
editors. Sunscreens: Development, evaluation and regulatory
aspects, 2
nd
ed. Marcel Dekker: New York; 1997. p. 35-58.
23. Murphy G. Ultraviolet light and rosacea. Cutis 2004;74:13-6,
32-4.
24. Skin protectant drug products for over-the counter human use.
Fed Reg 1978;43:34641-2.
25. Epstein JH. Biological effects of sunlight. In: Lowe, NJ, Shaath
NA, Pathak MA, editors. Sunscreens: Development, evaluation
and regulatory aspects, 2
nd
ed. Marcel Dekker: New York; 1997.
p. 83-100.
26. Baldwin S, Odio MR, Haines SL, OConnor RJ, Englehart JS,
Lane AT. Skin benefits from continuous topical adminitration
of a zinc oxide/petrolatum formulation by a novel disposable
diaper. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2001;15:5-11.
27. Cayrol C, Sarraute J, Tarroux R, Redoules D, Charveron M, Gall
I ndi an JDermatol Venereol Leprol| M arch-A pri l 2007| Vol 73| I ssue 2 84
T
h
i
s

P
D
F

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

f
o
r

f
r
e
e

d
o
w
n
l
o
a
d

f
r
o
m
a

s
i
t
e

h
o
s
t
e
d

b
y

M
e
d
k
n
o
w

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
w
w
w
.
m
e
d
k
n
o
w
.
c
o
m
)
.

More BD: Physical sunscreens
Y. A mineral sunscreen affords genomic protection against
ultraviolet (UV) B and UVA radiation: In vi t ro and i n si t u assays.
Br J Dermatol 1999;141:250-8.
28. Borm PJ, Robbins D, Haubold S, Kuhlbusch T, Fissan H,
Donaldson K, et al . The potential risks of nano materials: A
review carried out for ECETOC. Part Fibre Toxicol 2006;3:11.
29. A review of the scientific literature on the safety of nanoparticulate
titanium dioxide or zinc oxide in sunscreens. Box 100 Woden ACT
2606, OTC Medicines Section, Therapeutic Goods Administration,
2006. Available from: http://www.tga.gov.au/npmeds/sunscreen-
zotd.pdf. [Last accessed on 2007 Jan 5].
30. Muller R, Umbreit J, Liebetrau E, Nekwasil J. Reaction and
effectiveness of prednisolone in zinc oxide containing
dermatologic agents. Dermatol Monatsschr 1989;175:82-6.
31. Timmins P, Gray EA. Degradation of hydrocortisone in a zinc
oxide lotion. J Clin Hosp Pharm 1983;8:79-85.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
The part of the solar spectrum that demands our attention is ultraviolet radiation (UVR) that covers from
400 to 800 nanometers b. 100 to 200 nanometers
is rearrangement of molecules, with effect on the internal structures
is no rearrangement of molecules, without any effect on the internal structures
is rearrangement of molecules, without any effect on the internal structures
is no rearrangement of molecules, without any effect on the external structures
All are physical sunscreen attenuators except:
Zinc oxide b. Titanium dioxide
Increasing the particle size b. Changing the refractive index of the particles
d. Application of lesser quantity of sunscreen
Mobilization of electrons within their atomic structure
Mobilization of electrons outside their atomic structure
Mobilization of electrons to the skin
Immobilization of electrons within their atomic structure
About _______ of UVR of wavelength below 360nm is attenuated by absorbance.
90% b. 80%
b. 0.3
Determined the particle size of the material
Mixing time
The difference in the refractive indices of dispersed material and the dispersing medium,
1.
a.
c. 200 to 400 nanometers d. 250 to 650 nanometers
2. Physical UVR attenuator is a substance, which attenuate the UVR by physical action, in which there
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
a.
c. Talc d. Avobenzone
4. The only drawback of physical attenuators is formation of thick visible pigment layer on the skin which can be reduced by
a.
c. Reducing particle size
5. Absorption of UVR by metal oxides is evident from the
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
a.
c. 70% d. 60%
7. For ZnO and TiO2, it is found that particle size of _______ micron to be maximally effective at attenuating UV radiation.
0.4 a.
c. d. 0.1
8. The opacity of a suspension of ne material is determined by all except
0.2
a.
b.
c.
d. The degree of wavelength of light used in the opacity measurement
9. Following are the refractive index of ZnO and TiO2 respectively
a. 9.1 and 6. 2
b. 1.9 and 2.6
c. 2.6 and 1.9
d. 1.6 and 2.9
10. The exact amount of sunscreen required to be applied on the skin for optimal protection should be recommended by the manufacturer
based on the
a. Method and quantity of formulation used for determination of SPF
b. Cost
c. Number of ingredients in sunscreen
d. Type of the skin
A N S W E R S T O M U L T I P L E C H O I C E Q U E S T I O N S
A n s w e r s : 1 . ( c ) , 2 . ( c ) , 3 . ( d ) , 4 . ( c ) , 5 . ( a ) , 6 . ( a ) , 7 . ( d ) , 8 . ( b ) , 9 . ( b ) , 1 0 . ( a ) .
I ndi an JDermatol Venereol Leprol| M arch-A pri l 2007| Vol 73| I ssue 2 85