Gas Consumption, Time, and Speeds.

Gas consumption in flame hardening varies with the thickness of the

case to be obtained; increasing or decreasing the depth of hardening increases or decreases the amount of
gas used. Massive parts increase gas consumption because of their greater internal cooling effect. In order
to take advantage of the maximum flame temperature from the oxy-fuel gas flame, the distance from the
end of the inner cone of the flame to the work should be 1.6 mm ( 1/16 in.).
The speed of travel of the flame head over the work in the progressive method, as well as the time of
heating in the spot and spinning methods, will vary with the thickness of the case desired and the capacity of
the flame head. The proximity of the quench spray to the last row of flames will affect the speed somewhat
in the progressive method. Progressive and progressive-spinning speeds usually vary between 0.8 and 5 mm/s
(2 and 12 in./min) for most applications, although very thin parts may require speeds of 42 mm/s (100
in./min) or more to avoid overheating or burning. Because of the intense heat involved, the necessity for
accurate control of the rate of travel in the progressive and progressive-spinning methods cannot be
overemphasized.
Time-temperature-depth relationships for various fuel gases used in the spot (stationary), spinning, and
progressive methods of flame hardening are shown in Fig. 5. The family of curves for the spot method (Fig.
5a) was obtained analytically by considering the flow of heat in three dimensions away from a heated spot on
the surface of a rocker arm pad. The calculations were based on heat sources of different strengths, which
were varied on the basis of the combustion intensity of the gases considered (acetylene, propane, and
natural gas). It is understood that the strength of the heat source will also be affected by such factors as
size of tip, distance from tip to work, total gas flow, and ratio of oxygen to fuel gas; hence, these curves are
intended to indicate trends in time-temperature-depth relationships rather than to provide operational
values for particular applications.


Fig. 5 Calculated time-temperature-depth relationships for spot (stationary), spinning, and progressive
flame hardening. Depth of hardness given in millimeters

The curves for the time-temperature-depth relationships of fuel gases used in the spinning method, shown in
Fig. 5(b), were obtained analytically by considering the flow of heat into a cylindrical body from a heat
source supplying heat uniformly over the outer cylindrical surface. It was assumed that the temperature at
the axis would not be raised appreciably during surface heating and that, in spin hardening, the cylinder
would be rotated rapidly enough to give the effect of substantially uniform surface heating. No temperature
decrease at high values of time is indicated, because in this type of process the body is quenched
immediately when the surface temperature reaches a predetermined value.
The curves for the progressive method (Fig. 5c) were also obtained analytically by considering heat flow into
a body from a line source moving along a flat side of the body. The heat source strength and body
configuration were chosen to be representative of progressive flame hardening. In this instance, the time
variable can be correlated with travel speed if the width of the flame zone is known. For example, a flame
zone 25 mm (1 in.) wide will pass over a point on the work surface in 15 s when the travel speed of the tip is
1.7 mm/s (4 in./min). This width of flame zone indicates the probability of a multirow tip, and if the heat
source is as strong as assumed for computing the curves, will undoubtedly damage the work surface.
Consequently, a higher travel speed would be used, for example, 2.5 mm/s (6 in./min), which would heat a
point on the work for 10 s and result in hardening to a depth of about 2.5 mm (0.100 in.). The rapid decrease
in temperature at large values of time is due to the mass quenching effect, which, in practice, would be
augmented by the use of water spraying or other quenching means.


Burners and Related Equipment

Burners are basic components of equipment for all methods of flame hardening. Burners vary in design,
depending on whether they are fired by an oxy-fuel or an air-fuel gas mixture. Flame temperatures obtained
by oxy-fuel gas combustion are 2540 C (4600 F) and higher. Heat transfer is by direct impingement of the
flame on the surface of the workpiece.
This is the reason oxy-gas burners are more commonly referred to as flame heads. Flame temperatures
obtained by airfuel gas combustion are considerably lower (Table 1), and heat transfer is by impingement of
high-velocity combustion product gases (no direct flame) or by radiation from an incandescent refractory
surface.
There is no universal flame head, and no flame head is designed specifically for one particular gas. A well-
designed flame head can be used with MAPP, acetylene, or propane, for example. Better flame head design
usually results in an improved operation and lower gas consumption. Both acetylene and MAPP gas are
somewhat reactive with copper-base alloys having more than 67% Cu. This concern is only a problem with
piping systems, not torches or tips.
In general, a large number of small ports will produce a more efficient heat pattern than a few larger ports.
Port spacing of 2.3 to 3.2 mm (0.090 to 0.125 in.) on centers is, in most cases, advisable. Counterboring
permits higher flame velocities and is frequently advantageous or necessary when propane or MAPP is used.
Because acetylene has a higher flame propagation rate, counterboring is usually unnecessary and is
frequently undesirable. Counterboring reduces coupling distance and permits a stabilized flame at higher
flame velocities. For effective operation, the ratio of counterbore area to throat area should be on the
order of 2 to 1. Ratios as high as 4 to 1 may be used in some cases, however (Ref 2).
Oxy-Fuel Gas Flame Heads. Oxy-fuel gas combustion develops flame temperatures above those at which
useful metals and refractory materials can survive. Accordingly, the flame head is designed to provide a
flame pattern that avoids any direct heating of its parts.
Generally, the flame head consists of a tube or a shell with one or more orifices drilled into it. The number
and arrangement of orifices depend on the required area of heat coverage. Flame heads for use with oxy-
fuel gas are shown in Fig. 6.


Fig. 6 Flame heads for use with oxy-fuel gas

The drilled-face flame head has a limited range of application and is usually designed to meet the
requirements of one specific part to be flame hardened in appreciable quantity. For other applications, the
flame head may be fitted with removable tips of the screw-in or insert type.
The screw-in type of removable tip shown in Fig. 6 is used widely enough that it is available in off-the-shelf
commercial flame heads or is supplied as a standard item by manufacturers of flame-hardening equipment; it
is also simple enough that it can be made to specification by plants applying the flame-hardening treatment.
The insert, or press-in, type of tip shown in Fig. 6 is smaller than the screw-in type and permits closer
spacing of orifices, approaching that of a drilled flame head. Flame heads with removable and replaceable
tips can be used over a wider range of applications by removing one or more tips and replacing them with
plugs.
The heat output of the flame head is governed by the number and size of the orifices, other factors being
equal. The individual orifices range from No. 73 to No. 51 drill size (0.6 to 1.7 mm, or 0.024 to 0.067 in., in
diameter). Such small holes can readily become plugged, and when this occurs, the flame head will not
function properly. Flame heads with removable tips have an advantage over fixed-tip heads in that oversize
or out-of-round holes caused by mechanical or flame damage can be corrected without replacing the head.
Integral parts of the flame system are the mixer block and the mixer tube, which mix the component fuel
gases and convey them through the orifices (Fig. 6). The capacities of mixer block and mixer tube must
match the number and size of the orifices; if the mixer is too small, the flame will flash back, and if the
mixer is too large, the flame head will not function efficiently.