Department of the Environment PPG 14

Welsh Office 1990

PLANNING POLICY GUIDANCE:
DEVELOPMENT ON UNSTABLE LAND
These guidelines explain briefly the effects of instability on development and land use.
Consideration is given to the responsibilities of the various parties to development and the need for
instability to be taken into account in the planning process is emphasised. Ways in which instability
might be treated in development plans and in considering applications for planning permission are
outlined. The role of expert advice is emphasised and Appendices examine and explain the different
causes of instability and indicate some possible sources of information. The guidelines replace
MHLG Circular 44/61 which is hereby cancelled.
CONTENTS
Paragraphs
INTRODUCTION 1
PURPOSE OF THE GUIDELINES 2
EFFECTS OF INSTABILITY AND THE NEED 4
FOR GUIDANCE
CAUSES OF INSTABILITY 13
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTIES TO 16
DEVELOPMENT
PLANNING CONTROL 24
1. Development plans 25
2. Development control 31
a. The application and the need
for information on stability 32
b. The decision and the use of
conditions 36
THE NEED FOR EXPERT ADVICE 46
CONCLUSION 51
APPENDICES
A.CAUSES FOR INSTABILITY
Introduction A1
1. Underground cavities A4
a. Natural cavities A5
(i) Solution cavities A6
(ii) Other natural underground cavities A11
b. Man-made cavities A12
(i) Outcrop mining and bell pits A13
(ii) Room and pillar mining A15
(iii) Longwall mining A26
(iv) Vein stoping A30
(v) Solution mining A34
(vi) Mine entries A37
(vii) Other man-made cavities A40
2. Unstable slopes A43
3. Ground compression A50
B. SOURCES OF INFORMATION
1. Sources of information B1
2. Some examples of useful B11
publications on land instability
INTRODUCTION
1. The Government wishes to encourage the full and effective use of land in an environmentally
acceptable manner. However, difficulties have been experienced in developing land in areas of past
and present mining and in other areas where land is unstable or potentially unstable. Public concern
has been highlighted by recent experience in the West Midlands, where old limestone workings
have caused problems and in other parts of the country where properties have been damaged
following development. Given proper safeguards, however, land which has been damaged by
mining or other industrial activities or which is naturally unstable can often be put to appropriate
use. It can thus contribute to the Government's broad objectives for economy and efficiency in the
use of land and the protection of the environment.
PURPOSE OF THE GUIDELINES
2. The purpose of these guidelines is principally to advise local authorities, landowners and
developers on the exercise of planning controls over development on land which is unstable or is
potentially unstable. The aim is not to prevent the development of such land, though in some cases
that may be the appropriate response. Rather it is to ensure that development is suitable and that
the physical constraints on the land are taken into account at all stages of planning. Any scope for
remedial, preventive or precautionary measures must also be fully explored so that land is not
sterilised unnecessarily. It is equally important that where instability problems do arise, they should
be adequately recorded so that the experience gained can be of benefit to the wider community.
3. These guidelines supersede the advice given in MHLG Circular 44/61 which dealt with
development in coal mining areas. They are intended to clarify the position with respect to all
forms of ground instability and Circular 44/61 is hereby cancelled. In some respects the issues
arising from unstable ground are similar to those of contaminated land. These guidelines are thus
intended to complement advice on contaminated land in DOE Circulars 21/87 (Development of
Contaminated Land) and 17/89 (Land fill sites: Development control).
EFFECTS OF INSTABILITY AND THE NEED FOR GUIDANCE
4. The effects of ground instability vary in their nature, scale and extent. At their most extreme,
they may threaten life and health or cause damage to buildings and structures, so generating public
alarm. Whilst such alarm may or may not be justified, public perception of the risk is such that it
cannot be ignored.
5. Fortunately, major disasters due to instability are rare in Britain. However, a number of lives are
lost every year, as a direct consequence of ground instability. Examples include falls of material
from natural cliffs, quarry faces or other excavations, and tips; collapse of ground into mineshafts,
mine workings or natural underground cavities; and people falling into open mineshafts.
6. Ground instability may thus pose direct risks to life and health. These risks are, however,
relatively small. For example, research in the Black Country Limestone area has identified 100
subsidence events in the last 150 years but no deaths are known to have resulted. Similarly,
research in the South Wales coalfield identified 388 subsidence events due to shallow mine
workings since 1960; in only 23 incidents were people involved (ie nearby) when the incident
occurred and no deaths and only one minor injury have been reported.
7. Ground movements may cause damage to buildings and structures. Such damage may threaten
life directly through collapse of buildings and structures or indirectly eg due to fracturing of gas
mains and other services. Industrial production may thus be disrupted or communications may be
interrupted. Damage due to instability may necessitate expensive remedial action, or in the worst
cases result in loss of buildings, structures or of productive land. If not foreseen before the
commencement of development, problems arising from instability may result in delays and in
increased costs. At worst they may result in the development being abandoned and investment
being wasted.
8. An indirect hazard associated with ground movement which is of increasing concern is the
possible migration of gas, whether of landfill or mine origin, along fracture systems and other
pathways. Gas can travel long distances along such pathways in response to pressure differentials
and the source of the gas does not need to be in the immediate vicinity of the proposed
development for this hazard to arise.
9. Because the losses resulting from instability and the costs of remedial or preventative measures
are spread widely through the community, it is not readily possible to quantify the financial effects
of ground instability. It is known, however, that private sector insurance claims for subsidence
damage are of the order of 100 million a year.
10. Many cases are known of development projects being delayed or even abandoned following
unforeseen ground movements; of houses, factories and public buildings being demolished because
ground movements have rendered them unsafe; and of expensive remedial measures and site works
being needed both before and after development has been completed. Some of these occurrences
undoubtedly could not reasonably have been expected. In the majority of cases, however, the
ground movements could probably have been foreseen if appropriate expert advice had been taken.
11. These experiences and the findings of recent DOE research demonstrate the wide variation in
practice in relation to land stability between different local planning authorities. Some take full
account of potential instability when determining planning applications but this is not common
practice.
12. It has thus become clear that the physical constraints on land may not be adequately considered
in the planning process. These guidelines have been developed to advise on the circumstances in
which such consideration might be needed and how it could be applied in practice.
CAUSES OF INSTABILITY
13. Ground movements vary in intensity and extent and thus in their effects on surface land use.
They occur in different circumstances for different reasons and vary in their predictability.
However, the causes of instability may be placed in three broad categories:-
1. the effects of underground cavities; these may be of natural origin or due to mining
or to civil engineering works;
2. unstable slopes; these may be natural, in both coastal and inland situations; or man-
made, whether excavated, as in quarries or cuttings, or constructed, as in tips and
embankments;
3. ground compression; this may be of natural origin due to peat, alluvial, estuarine or
marine soils; or due to human activities, eg made ground, landfill or restored
opencast mines; and ground subject to movement due to shrinking and swelling
clays.
14. While in all cases instability may arise whether or not there is any development on the surface, it
is important to recognise that development itself or the intensification of development may be the
triggering factor which initiates instability problems.
15. A brief explanation of the different causes of instability is given in Appendix A. This attempts
to explain a relatively complex technical subject for those with no earth science or engineering
background. Appendix B directs the reader to significant sources of information on land instability
and lists some useful publications for further references.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTIES TO DEVELOPMENT
16. The responsibility for determining whether land is suitable for a particular purpose rests
primarily with the developer. In particular, the responsibility and subsequent liability for safe
development and secure occupancy of a site rests with the developer and/or the landowner. It is in
any case in the developer's own interests to determine whether land is unstable or potentially
unstable since this will affect the value of the land the costs of developing it. The developer should
therefore make a thorough investigation and assessment of the ground to ensure that it is stable or
that any actual or potential instability can be overcome by appropriate remedial, preventive or
precautionary measures. It is important that such an assessment of a proposed development site
should examine the site within its geographical context since instability of nearby ground may affect
a site even where there is no evidence of instability within its boundaries.
17. Where there are reasons for suspecting instability, the developer should determine by
appropriate site investigations and geotechnical appraisal whether:-
- the land is capable of supporting the loads to be imposed;
- the development will be threatened by unstable slopes on or adjacent to the site;
- the development will initiate slope instability which may threaten its neighbours;
- the site could be affected by ground movements due to natural cavities; and
- the site could be affected by ground movements due to past, present or foreseeable
future mining activities.
18. If this investigation and appraisal indicates that the ground is unstable or may become unstable
due to the development proposed or for any other reason, the developer and/or his consultants
should then assess the suitability and sufficiency of the proposed precautions to overcome the
actual or potential instability. The provisions of the Coal Mining (Subsidence) Act 1957 and the
Coal Industry Act 1975 relating to preventive work on existing buildings and precautionary
foundation measures for new developments will require consultation with the British Coal
Corporation in appropriate areas. The developer should also provide at his own expense such
evidence as is required by regulatory authorities to indicate clearly that the problem has been
addressed satisfactorily.
19. Subsequently any purchaser or any other party with an interest in the land should make such
enquiries as they consider necessary to satisfy themselves about the stability of the land. In doing
so they should bear in mind the duties of care imposed by the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
and the Occupiers Liability Acts 1957 and 1984.
20. It is not the responsibility of the local authority to investigate the ground conditions of any
particular development site unless they propose to develop it. They are, however, empowered
under the Town and Country Planning Act 1971 to control most forms of development and are
responsible under the Building Regulations and the Housing Acts for controlling particular aspects
of development. When reaching decisions on development proposals, local planning authorities
have a duty to take all material considerations into account. The stability of the ground in so far as
it affects land use is a material consideration which should be taken into account when deciding a
planning application.
21. The principal aims of considering land instability at the planning stage are:-
- to minimise the risks and effects of land instability on property, infra-structure and
the public;
- to help to ensure that various types of development should not be placed in
unstable locations without appropriate precautions;
- to bring unstable land, wherever possible, back into productive use; and
- to assist in safeguarding public and private investment by a proper appreciation of
site conditions and necessary precautionary measures.
22. A planning authority does not owe a duty or care to individual landowners when granting
applications for planning permission and accordingly is not liable for loss caused to an adjoining
landowner by permitting development. Nevertheless, where development is proposed on land
which the planning authority knows is unstable or potentially unstable, it should ensure that the
following issues are properly addressed by the development proposed:-
- the physical capability of the land to be developed;
- possible adverse effects of instability on the development;
- possible adverse effects of the development on the stability of adjoining land; and
- possible effects on local amenities and conservation interests of the development
and of any remedial or precautionary measures proposed.
23. It is the function of the planning system to determine, taking account of all material
considerations of which instability is only one, whether a proposed development should proceed.
Having made that decision, for certain types of development, it is the function of the Building
Regulations to determine whether the detailed design of buildings and their foundations will allow
the buildings to be constructed and used safely.
PLANNING CONTROL
24. It is important that all stability of the ground is considered at all stages of the planning process.
It therefore needs to be given due consideration in development plans as well as in decisions on
individual planning applications.
1. Development Plans
25. In preparing and altering their development plans, local authorities need to take into account the
possibility of ground instability. Development plans provide an opportunity to set out policies for
the reclamation and use of unstable land. Any survey preparatory to drawing up development plans
should identify as far as possible the physical constraints on land within the plan area in the same
manner as any other planning constraint.
26. Structure Plans and Part 1 of Unitary Development Plans provide the opportunity to set out
strategic policies for the use of unstable land. Such policies should indicate that the stability of the
ground is an important issue that should be taken into account by planning authorities when
preparing Local Plans and determining applications for planning permission. Where major areas of
unstable ground are known to a planning authority, their general location should be made clear,
together with any policies that the authorities intend to apply to these areas.
27. Local Plans and Part II of Unitary Development Plans then provide the opportunity to give
detailed expression to the policies or general proposals contained in the Structure Plan or Part 1 of
the Unitary Development Plan. They should set out the criteria which will be used in determining
planning applications and the types of planning conditions normally expected to be met. Such
criteria might include an indication of any specific areas where particular consideration of instability
will be needed, either in narrative form or by reference to maps of physical constraints. These must
be accompanied by the caveat that they have been defined on the basis of the best information
available to the planning authority, that they are not necessarily exhaustive and that the
responsibility for determining the extent and effects of such constraints remains that of the
developer.
28. In some cases a general requirement to satisfy the local planning authority that the site is stable
or that any actual or potential instability can reasonably be overcome might be sufficient. In other
cases, more detailed guidance might be appropriate. For example, the authority might specify that,
where instability is suspected, it will require applications to be accompanied by a stability report
describing and analysing the issues relevant to ground instability and indicating how they would be
overcome. The stability report should demonstrate an adequate appreciation of ground and
groundwater conditions and any other relevant factors influencing stability, based on desk studies,
site reconnaissance and subsurface investigation, laboratory testing and monitoring as appropriate.
29. In the context of the management of coastal zones, coastal authorities may wish to consider the
introduction of a presumption against built development in areas of coastal landslides or rapid
coastal erosion. Consideration may also need to be given to the possible use of Article 4 Directions
under the General Development Order 1988 in some circumstances to control permitted
development. The fact that stabilisation works may, by their size and location, invoke the need for
environmental assessment may also need to be recognised in the criteria established in the Local
Plan.
30. Local Plan development proposals for areas of unstable land should take due account of the
physical constraints. Landowners, prospective purchasers or developers will thus be forewarned of
the likely problems and can estimate the cost implications. Such proposals may recommend action
on land reclamation or other remedial action to enable beneficial use of unstable land.
2. Development control
31. The handling of individual applications for development on land which is known or suspected
to be unstable or potentially unstable will need to take account of the potential hazard that such
instability could create both to the development itself and to the neighbouring area. Whilst there is
scope for flexibility and each application must be treated on its merits, it is important that a local
planning authority should be satisfied by the developer that any instability has been taken into
account.
(a) The application and the need for information on stability
32. Even before an application is made, informal discussions between a potential developer and the
local planning authority can be very helpful. If the local planning authority has reason to believe
that there is a possibility that land might be unstable or likely to become unstable, this should be
brought to the attention of the developer at this stage and the implications explained. The applicant
can then design his scheme so as to take full account of the likely requirements of the planning
authority.
33. If an application is received without prior discussion and the authority suspects that the site may
be unstable or likely to become so, it should advise the applicant immediately that such is the case
and of the criteria which will need to be satisfied. The applicant may then wish to consider whether
or not to proceed with the application as it stands or whether he needs to modify the application
before it is registered. In Districts where instability is known to be a particular problem the local
planning authority may find it useful to include a question on stability on their standard application
form and a note to applicants on the subject.
34. When there are good reasons to believe that instability could make the ground unsuitable for
the proposed development, or could adversely affect it or neighbouring land, a specialist
investigation and assessment by the developer to determine the stability of the ground and to
identify any remedial measures required to deal with any instability may be required before the
application can be decided. Certain aspects of such investigations, such as drilling boreholes, may
themselves require planning permission, as may any remedial action.
35. If the information about instability initially provided by the applicant is insufficient to enable the
authority to determine the application two alternatives would appear to be open to the authority:-
(i) if the application clearly fails to meet other planning criteria then the application may be
refused. Clearly the applicant should not be put to the unnecessary expense of a specialist
investigation if other considerations would result in refusal of permission. In refusing such
applications, however, the applicant should be advised that should he succeed in
overcoming other planning objections he would still need to satisfy the authority on the
question of ground stability;
(ii) if a refusal on other planning grounds is unlikely or not clear-cut, the applicant may need
to be asked to provide further information about stability. It may be possible at this stage
to indicate to the applicant whether stability is the major issue which needs to be resolved
before determination ie if the local planning authority is minded to grant permission
provided that it can be satisfied that any actual or potential instability can be overcome.
The authority would then determine the application in the light of such information as is
provided.
(b) The decision and the use of conditions
36. In some cases, the developer's specialist investigation and assessment may demonstrate that the
development will not be adversely affected by instability and will not adversely affect the stability of
neighbouring land. In such circumstances, assuming other planning criteria are satisfied, the
authority may grant planning permission without conditions relating to instability as the need for
special precautions will have been demonstrated to be absent.
37. At the opposite extreme, the instability may be such that it cannot satisfactorily be overcome
and the authority may have no option but to refuse planning permission on the grounds that
fundamental instability of the ground renders it unsuitable for the development proposed.
Examples might include areas subject to known coastal erosion, areas where any necessary
remedial measures will adversely affect neighbouring land and development or areas where the
necessary remedial measures are not in the control of the applicant.
38. If, however, the developer's specialist investigations and assessment and any consultations by
the local planning authority show that instability can be satisfactorily overcome, planning
permission may be granted subject to conditions specifying the measures to be carried out in order
to overcome such instability. It would be open to the local planning authority to impose any
conditions it felt necessary in granting permission, including any relating to precautionary measures,
where such conditions are expedient on planning grounds. In deciding whether conditions should
be imposed they should not allow their judgement to be affected by any potential statutory or
common law liability of other parties with interests in their land eg mineral owners.
39. Guidance on the use of conditions in planning permission is published in DOE Circular 1/85
(WO Circular 1/85). If a problem cannot satisfactorily be resolved by imposing a planning
condition, it may be possible to do so by concluding a voluntary agreement under section 52 of the
Town and Country Planning Act 1971 or similar powers.
40. Circumstances may arise in which the information available to the local planning authority is
insufficient to fully resolve any questions of ground stability. For example, the developer may be
unwilling or unable to commit investment to the necessary specialist investigation and assessment
until he has the benefit of planning permission.
41. In some cases, the information available will be sufficient to resolve the main issues regarding
stability from a planning point of view but insufficient to resolve specific details. It may then be
appropriate to grant planning permission subject to conditions that the development will not be
permitted to start until an adequate site investigation and assessment has been carried out and that
the development will need to incorporate all the measures shown in that assessment to be
necessary. Such circumstances might arise for example where the expectation is of general
subsidence from deep mine workings or settlement due to foundation conditions; the latter will in
any case need to be investigated in order to satisfy the requirements of the Building Regulations.
42. In other cases, however, the information will be insufficient to resolve the primary issue as to
whether the development should proceed or not. In such circumstances the decision required is not
merely a detail of precise siting or design measures to be incorporated but is the fundamental
decision as to whether the ground is suitable for the development proposed and whether any
instability can adequately be overcome. A permission conditional on site investigation would in
those cases be inappropriate, and permission should therefore be refused or, with the agreement of
the applicant, deferred pending resolution of the stability issue.
43. Specific advice on stability issues in relation to mineral working is published in MPG2
(paragraphs 49-51, 61-62 and 122-130). This advice may be relevant in parts to the consideration
of other developments involving surface or underground excavation.
44. Some of the features which may cause instability or which may result from instability may be of
historical, archaeological or nature conservation interest. Mines and caves may be historically
important, contain important mineral assemblages or archaeological relics or be important as
roosting sites for bats. Natural or excavated faces may be of sufficient geological importance to be
designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Appropriate consultation will be needed on such
sites in addition to consideration of stability aspects.
45. When planning permission is granted, a notice should be issued to the applicant informing him
that the responsibility and subsequent liability for safe development and secure occupancy of the
site rests with the developer and/or landowner. It should also advise the applicant that although the
local planning authority had used its best endeavours to determine the application on the basis of
the information available to it, this does not mean that the land is free from instability. It might also
inform the applicant that the local planning authority's consideration has been on the basis of the
development proposed and that these considerations might be different in relation to any other
development. Additionally, it should advise that the question of stability has been a material
planning consideration and resolution of this issue does not necessarily imply that the requirements
of any other controlling authority would be satisfied; in particular, the granting of planning
permission does not give a warranty of support or stability.
THE NEED FOR EXPERT ADVICE
46. The assessment of the significance of ground instability and of the associated risks requires
careful professional judgement. In line with his responsibility for the safe development of any site,
the developer should ensure that he has available the appropriate expertise to design and interpret
the necessary site investigations and to design and execute any necessary remedial, preventive or
precautionary measures.
47. On the basis of relevant information available to them, including any submitted by developers,
local planning authorities should be able to form a view of the significance of ground instability for
both development plan formulation and general development control purposes. With regard to
specific development, however, it must be emphasised that responsibility for assessment, as well as
investigation, of ground conditions and the design and execution of any necessary remedial or
precautionary measures, rests with the developer and not the local planning authority. The local
planning authority is entitled to require the developer at his expense to provide at application stage
suitable expert advice in relation to such matters, and is entitled to rely on that advice in
determining the application and formulating any necessary conditions.
48. Many local planning authorities may not, in any event, have the required expertise available to
them. Where relevant expertise is available on issues such as mineral planning, waste disposal, land
reclamation, building control, surveying or engineering, the local authority should endeavour to
make use of it. Such advice will be particularly relevant in the formulation of development plans
and of general development control policies relating to unstable land. Consultation as necessary
with bodies such as the British Coal Corporation and other mining organisations, the Mineral
Valuers of the Valuation Office, Inland Revenue, and the Health and Safety Executive is also to be
recommended. It may be appropriate in some circumstances to consider the need to use
commercial consultants who may be members of the relevant professional institutions to advise on
particular aspects of instability.
49. Given access to the appropriate expertise and following the guidelines outlined above,
developers and local planning authorities should be able to form an opinion as to the likely
consequences of development on sites known or suspected to be unstable or potentially unstable.
They should also have some indication of the most suitable form of development for the site, what
special measures might be needed to stabilise the site and protect any buildings or structures and the
likely cost of these. Both developers and local authorities will then be able to form a view of the
risks arising from instability and of the residual risks that will remain following any proposed
treatment. A flexible approach should enable agreement to be reached on the circumstances in
which the predicted effects must be minimised in advance and when it may be more appropriate to
accept the possibility of a small future risk.
50. A realistic appreciation of the problems of ground instability and of the need to seek expert
advice requires sound information. The importance of good accessible records of past events due
to ground movement cannot be over-emphasised and any future events due to instability should be
adequately recorded for the wider benefit of the community. Some sources of information and
examples of useful publications on land instability are given in Appendix B.
CONCLUSION
51. The Secretary of State looks to local planning authorities and developers to implement the
advice in these guidelines. This should ensure that, in most instances, unstable land is identified at
any early stage in the planning process, appropriate policies are developed for its use and planning
applications are decided on the basis of adequate information. Undesirable consequences such as
property damage, personal distress to occupants and degradation of the physical environment
should thus in future be reduced to a minimum. The specific policies and practices to be adopted
by a local planning authority are, however, for them to decide in the light of circumstances
pertaining within their area. It is recognised that there may be some resource implications in
implementing this advice and the Department will, with the Local Authority Associations, keep
them under review.
APPENDIX A
CAUSES OF INSTABILITY
Introduction
A1. Instability which may pose a threat to development and/or to public safety, and which therefore
needs to be considered in land-use decisions, is caused both by natural processes and by human
activities. The ground movements which result are variable in their extent and in their effects on
the surface and subsequently on development. Some ground movements can be predicted very
precisely in both space and time; the likelihood of other movements occurring may be predictable in
space but not in time. There are, however, few situations where, given an adequate investigation
and geotechnical assessment of a site, the magnitude of possible future ground movements cannot
be predicted with reasonable accuracy, thus allowing the measures necessary to prevent such
movements or to minimise their effects to be identified, designed and costed.
A2. These causes of instability may be placed in three broad categories:-
1. the effects of underground cavities;
2. unstable slopes; and
3. ground compression.
A3. Whatever the ultimate cause of instability, the triggering factor which initiates instability
problems is very often human activity. Thus, the act of development in a green field site or the
intensification of development in areas which are already developed may result in instability which
may affect both that development and the land surrounding it.
1. Underground cavities
A4. Underground cavities may pose a hazard to many types of development in Britain. Problems
associated with natural sinkholes in chalk, for example, affected the construction of several of the
motorways radiating from London. The collapse of old limestone mine workings in the West
Midlands has caused surface subsidence and some damage to houses, roads and industrial
buildings. Subsidence effects due to coal mining are also well known.
(a) Natural cavities
A5. Underground cavities are created by a number of natural geological processes. The
commonest, and those must likely to affect surface development, are created by groundwater
dissolving the bedrock.
(i) Solution cavities
A6. All carbonate rocks (limestone, dolomite, chalk) are prone to dissolution by natural
groundwaters, as are evaporite minerals such as gypsum and rock salt. Solution leads to the
development of an often interconnecting network of caves, microcaves and enlarged fissures and
the occurrence on the surface of closed depressions known as sinkholes or dolines (Fig A1). These
depressions may arise:
- directly by dissolution of rock at the surface;
- by collapse of the roof rocks directly into caves;
- by collapse of the ground surface into secondary cavities in the cover material
caused by washing out of that material into underlying solution cavities; these are
one form of subsidence sinkholes;
- by gradual subsidence of the ground surface due to washing out of loose sandy
cover material into underlying solution cavities; another form of subsidence
sinkhole.
A7. Collapse sinkholes into caves are rare in Britain but secondary collapse through cover material
presents a hazard in many localities. This form of subsidence sinkhole usually develops rapidly and
there is often no prior surface indication of collapse; they are therefore largely unpredictable as to
location and time. The other type of subsidence sinkholes develop more gradually and solution
sinkholes very slowly indeed. They may thus present less of a hazard in terms of predictability but
they do indicate the presence of subsurface cavities.
A8. All sinkholes may be infilled naturally or by man. Their location may thus be hidden and
ground movement may be initiated naturally or due to human activities such as groundwater
extraction or alteration of drainage. The presence of buried sinkholes may pose problems for
excavation and for foundations. Unsuspected solution cavities themselves may cause particular
problems to excavation by causing failure of rock faces or unpredictable scattering of rock debris
during blasting.
A9. Rock salt is much more soluble than most other natural materials. Any salt within the zone of
circulating groundwater is dissolved out and the overlying ground then subsides. The effects on the
surface are to create circular depressions and, often, linear subsidence features where preferential
flow paths are established within circulating ground waters. The subsidence so caused is usually
gradual unless the flow of groundwater is increased by pumping operations.
A10. The locations of strata which are susceptible to dissolution is fairly well known. Fig A2
shows as an example the broad distribution of soluble carbonate rock outcrops in England and
Wales. Other strata which may in part be susceptible to dissolution include the evaporite-bearing
Triassic strata of such areas as the Vale of York and the Cheshire and Worcestershire salt basins.
However, the distribution of cavities within the broad outlines of such strata or where such strata
occur beneath a thin cover of other materials and the consequent risks to surface development and
land use are not so readily defined.
(ii) Other natural underground cavities
A11. Buried cavities may be created on a small scale by a number of other geological processes.
The most significant of these are probably tension gulls - fissures caused by tilting of strata along
plateau edges. Such gulls are particularly large (up to a few metres across and several metres deep)
and common along plateau and scarp edges in the Mesozoic limestones of Northamptonshire, the
Cotswolds and North Yorkshire Moor and the Coal Measures sandstones of South Wales. Many
tension gulls originated under glacial conditions and may now be infilled or bridged by soil or drift
deposits. Any lateral movement down the valley side or mining subsidence may result in renewed
opening of tension gulls; such opening may be concealed beneath a soil/vegetation mat.
(b) Man-made cavities
A12. Britain has a long history of mining but reliable records are available only since the latter part
of the nineteenth century. As a result, the first intimation of earlier mine workings may often be the
occurrence of surface subsidence. Mining has taken place at some time in every county in England
and Wales. Fig A3 is an illustration of the widespread geographical distribution of mining in
England and Wales. It is by no means comprehensive and it is not intended to give accurate
locations but simply to give a general picture of how extensive mining has been and a broad
indication of the range of minerals that have been mined in different areas. Almost every mineral
that has been extracted in Britain has been mined underground somewhere. The impacts of mining
on surface stability depend to a large extent on the method of mining, which has varied with time
and with the mineral extracted. (Fig A4)
(i) Outcrop mining and bell pits
A13. The earliest underground mining comprised shallow drift mines from the mineral outcrop.
Later, shallow shafts were sunk through cover rocks to reach the seam. Around the central shaft
the mineral was extracted until the roof showed signs of collapsing. Such bell pits were commonly
used for the extraction of clays and ironstones as well as coal and for chalk and/or flint in south-east
England (dene holes).
A14. Most bell pits are unrecorded but their presence may be indicated by the characteristic
hummocky ground caused by collapses and spoil dumping. Bell pits often occur in large numbers,
either clustered together or in linear belts. All are shallow, generally less than 12m, with diameters
of the order of 8-20m at seam level. Whilst most bell pits have already collapsed causing very
variable ground conditions, those still open may yet cause severe ground disturbance on collapse.
(ii) Room and pillar mining
A15. Subsequent to outcrop and bell pit mining, roadways or galleries were driven into the seam
either from adits or from shafts. Excavations were made into the sides of such roadways and later
passages were cut between parallel roadways. This room and pillar mining goes under a variety of
names in different areas but essentially entailed pillars of intact material being left in place to
support the roof of the workings.
A16. Early room and pillar workings had a somewhat haphazard distribution of pillars but later
ones were developed on a more regular grid pattern. With some minerals, such as coal and
ironstone, waste material was backstowed into the rooms rather than taken to the surface. Because
a substantial proportion of the mineral was locked up in the pillars it was often removed or 'robbed'
on retreat, often to the extent that the remaining pillars could no longer support the roof.
A17. Room and pillar mining for coal, ironstone and fireclay was almost universal in the coalfields.
This technique was also used elsewhere for many other minerals eg limestone in the West
Midlands, the Bath area and parts of Scotland, sand and sandstone in parts of Surrey and West
Yorkshire, ironstone in Cleveland, Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire and chalk in south-east
England. The method is still used for the mining of limestone, gypsum, salt and potash in Britain.
A18. Modern room and pillar mining is generally designed to minimise surface subsidence. The use
of room and pillar mining is, however, largely limited to working depths not greater than 300m and
to situations where adjacent strata have not been destabilised by previous mining. Older room and
pillar mines were often not so designed and the likelihood of subsidence is greater, especially if
pillars were robbed.
A19. The effects of the surface of collapse of older room and pillar workings depend on the depth
and geometry of the workings and the strength and integrity of both the pillars and the surrounding
and overlying strata.
A20. At shallow depths, the collapse of pillars may cause severe localised ground disturbance in the
form of intense trough subsidence or total collapse of the surface into crown holes. At such depths,
however, the load imposed by overlying strata may often be insufficient to cause pillar collapse
unless the pillars were robbed or have deteriorated with time. Disturbance by human agencies,
such as surface loadings and vibrations or changes in groundwater regime may, however, promote
collapse.
A21. More commonly, falls of rock from the roof of rooms, galleries or roadways results in the
formation of a chimney above the workings. Depending on the depth and the competence of
overlying strata, this chimney may progress upwards to reach the surface as a crown hole. Crown
holes are localised and unpredictable as there is seldom any prior surface indication of collapse
which may take place very rapidly. They may occur many years after the mine has been
abandoned. In disused mining areas the widespread cavities which may remain in shallow workings
are generally not detectable even from a close inspection of the ground surface and the absence of
any defects or damage at the surface is no indication that future damage will not occur.
A22. The depth from which a chimney will progress to the surface to become a crown hole varies
with the geometry of the workings and the nature and condition of overlying strata. A depth of ten
times the height of the workings is commonly quoted as the maximum thickness of strata through
which failure can be transmitted to produce a crown hole. Whilst this may be a reasonable estimate
relating to many types of mineral and mining method, there will be exceptions and the
circumstances obtaining in any particular situation need to be considered.
A23. At greater depths, chimneys will choke themselves before they reach the surface due to the
bulking of the fallen debris which takes up more space than the intact strata. Because at greater
depth, the weight of the overlying strata is much greater, the crushing of pillars or the punching of
pillars into soft underlying strata are common modes of failure.
A24. Pillar failures at such depths generally do not give rise to crown holes but to a more extensive
and more gradual general subsidence of the surface. The amount of subsidence depends on the
depth, width and thickness of mineral extracted, on the ratio of extracted void to pillars and on the
area over which underground pillar failures occur.
A25. In relatively weak materials such as coal and ironstone, pillar failures at depth will largely have
occurred within a few years after abandonment or the void will have been infilled by floor lift or
roof collapse. Pillars in stronger materials, such as limestone and some sandstones, may retain their
integrity for many years and the mining voids may remain open. However, natural deterioration
may lead to pillar failures many years after abandonment. For example, pillars at a depth of 150m
in part of the Cow Pasture limestone mine in Wednesbury collapsed, causing subsidence and
damage to property on the surface in 1978, almost 100 years after abandonment of the mine.
(iii) Longwall mining
A26. For coal mining in particular, longwall working has now replaced the partial extraction
methods in which a significant proportion of the mineral was left behind as support pillars. This
method maximises the amount of mineral extracted and it is almost universal practice in the British
coal industry. It was also used in some nineteenth century ironstone and coal workings.
A27. Faces 100-300m long are worked by either advance or retreat longwall mining methods. In
advance longwall mining, service roadways move forward with the working face whereas in retreat
mining the service roadways are formed prior to the commencement of longwall extraction. As the
seam is worked the overlying strata are allowed to collapse into the worked area behind the face.
Longwall mining inevitably produces almost instantaneous general subsidence of the land surface.
The amount of subsidence depends on the depth, thickness and width of the seam being worked
and on the nature and condition of overlying strata.
A28. General subsidence due to longwall mining (or to deep room and pillar mining) extends
beyond the plan areas of the worked seam. It results in lateral compression of the ground in the
centre of the subsidence and extension in the outer area. As a face is worked beneath an area, it
may suffer successive waves of tension and compression. The opening up of pre-existing fractures
within the area of extension may create underground voids which have important implications for
foundation design. Zones of extension and compression may also have significant effects on
groundwater flow and on gas migration.
A29. General subsidence due to longwall mining is reasonably predictable in extent and magnitude
(it is less so for deep room and pillar mining), though there may be abnormal and less predictable
subsidence effects due to near-surface geological conditions or the effects of geological faults or
previous multi-seam working. The precise effects on buildings and structures may not be so readily
predictable. The areas of maximum tension and compression within a subsidence zone can cause
the most damage to buildings and structures but careful subsidence prediction and proper mine
planning can limit these effects.
(iv) Vein stoping
A30. Metalliferous ores such as haematite iron, copper, tin, lead and zinc and associated minerals
such as barytes and fluorspar commonly occur in steeply dipping veins or lodes. These are worked
by driving levels along the veins then cutting away (stoping) between the levels. The resulting void
is then a steeply dipping cavity, often of the same dimensions as the original vein, which may extend
to great depth with little or no support of the overhanging wall.
A31. Metalliferous ores also occur as pipes (ancient solution cavities of an irregular nature within
the host rock and less predictable than veins) and flats (where extensive mineralisation has taken
place sandwiched between two barren horizons). These may have been worked by stoping, block
caving or room and pillar mining and may give rise to large caverns after the mineral has been
extracted. Veins pipes and flats can often be interconnected and frequently occur in metalliferous
orefields associated with limestone areas.
A32. Old metalliferous mines are distributed over large parts of western and northern Britain.
Examples include tin and copper mines in Devon and Cornwall, lead (and subsequently fluorspar
and barytes) mines in the Pennines, Shropshire and Wales, haematite iron mines in Cumbria and
South Wales. The slate mines of North Wales and the Lake District are worked by similar
methods, ie in steeply dipping chambers following areas of suitable characteristics for working.
A33. As most of the metalliferous mines followed steeply dipping narrow veins, often in competent
rock and often at great depth, subsidence may not be a geographically widespread problem. Where
the stoping was at shallow depth, however, void migration may progress to the surface as crown
holes and can be a serious risk where veins reach the surface in mining areas. In particular, where
veins have been worked from the surface and may be linked to underground workings, problems
can arise from inadequate backfilling.
(v) Solution mining
A34. Readily soluble evaporite minerals such as salt and potash may be extracted by conventional
mining techniques or by solution mining. The salt industry in Cheshire, and elsewhere was initially
developed by pumping brine from natural underground brine streams. Pumping increases the flow
of groundwater, and thus increases solution and subsidence; this practice has now virtually ceased.
A35. Around the turn of the century, old rock salt mines which had been excavated below the
levels of circulating groundwater were allowed to fill with water; this caused pillar solution and
collapse. The pumping of brine from the old mines allowed further inflow of fresh water, caused
renewed solution and led to major subsidences in the Northwich area. This practice had ceased by
about 1930 and the cavities remaining are now brine filled and thought to be relatively stable, unless
circulation of groundwater is restarted.
A36. Modern mining of salt, apart from one room and pillar mine and one natural brine pumping
operation, is by controlled solution. Boreholes are drilled to the salt horizon, water is injected to
dissolve the salt and the resulting brine is pumped out. The cavities created are controlled in size
and shape. On completion they are filled with saturated brine and they are believed to be stable
with no threat of surface subsidence.
(vi) Mine entries
A37. Entry to mine workings is normally gained by means of vertical shafts or horizontal or
inclined tunnels called adits. Other openings such as fan drifts and wheel pits are often associated
with mine shafts. Such openings may or may not have been filled, wholly or partially, or otherwise
sealed to prevent entry when the mine was abandoned. Under the Mines and Quarries Act 1954,
there is a requirement that mine entries should be adequately protected on abandonment to prevent
accidental ingress. Many earlier mine entries remain open, however, and may pose a threat to
human safety.
A38. Like many of the old workings, many mine entries are unrecorded. Even when shaft records
exist the location is often imprecise and the shaft may be hidden and difficult to locate.
A39. Collapse of shaft linings or of shaft walls, particularly in superficial deposits and collapse of
shaft fillings, particularly if partial filling was founded on wooden staging part way down the shaft,
pose an obvious threat to life and safety and to any buildings or structures in the vicinity. In
unconsolidated superficial deposits, a funnel-shaped crater may form which is considerably more
extensive than the area of the original shaft. Research has shown eg in South Wales and
Shropshire, that many of the most severe subsidences have occurred in the vicinity of shafts or
adits. Emissions of methane and other noxious gases from shafts may also pose a threat to public
safety.
(vii) Other man-made cavities
A40. Various forms of cavities are associated with civil engineering works. Tunnels driven for
roads, railways, canals, sewerage, water etc are usually well recorded. Older tunnels may not,
however, be adequately documented and problems may arise through broken ground above tunnels
or deterioration of the tunnel lining or of such features as access or ventilation shafts. Similar
problems may arise due to unrecorded cellars and foundations in older urban areas now subject to
redevelopment. Wells sunk for water (or brine) extraction pose similar problems to mine shafts.
Many of these are unrecorded and they may be inadequately protected.
A41. An increasing interest is being shown by industry in positive uses of underground space. For
example, cavities created by controlled brine pumping operations have subsequently been used for
the storage of such materials as ethylene or for the disposal of waste from the chemical industry
which uses the salt. In the Holderness area, solution mining techniques have been used to create
cavities at great depth specifically for storage of natural gas. Existing mined space, natural cavities
and purpose-built cavities may all be modified or designed for long-term stability to enable such
positive uses to take place.
A42. Many underground cavities of both natural and man-made origin have been developed as
show caves/mines or as part of museum complexes. Such cavities may also be of
historical/archaeological interest or of value for nature conservation, particularly as bat roosts or as
Sites for Special Scientific Interest. They also serve for adventurous recreation ie caving.
2. Unstable slopes
A43. Both natural and man-made slopes may be subject to instability due to landsliding or soil
creep. Landslides are mass movements of soil and/or rock under the influence of gravity. The
movement may be slow or it may be very rapid; it may be continuous or subject to intermittent
surges. The scale of the movement also varies, from a few tonnes of material affecting a few
square metres to many millions of tonnes affecting several hectares.
A44. Landslides have been classified in a number of ways by different authorities. Fig A5 shows
diagrammatically the classification adopted for the national landslides review. It is essentially based
on the type of movement, ie the mode of failure, involving a consideration of the initial rupture
surface, the dominant form of displacement and the subsequent behaviour after movement has
commenced and the material is deformed or runs out from its place of origin. The dominant forms
of displacement are:-
- falls - abrupt movement of material detached from a steep slope or cliff with most
of the motion taking place through the air as free fall, rolling or bouncing; initial
detachment may be by sliding, free drop or toppling;
- slides - material moves by sliding movement along a recognisable shear surface (or
surfaces) which may be circular or near-circular (rotational slides) or essentially
planar (translational slides);
- flows - rapid mass movements with a high proportion of water or air which
advance over the land surface as a viscous fluid with movements between grains
predominating over shear surface movements.
In practice, landslides may contain combinations of these various types of movements and there are
other types of movement such as gravity creep, valley bulging, cambering and gravitational
spreading which cannot readily be allocated to these categories.
A45. The importance of ground material in the classification of landslides is recognised by the
further subdivision based on:-
- rock - ie bedrock;
- debris - coarse engineering soils (sandsize or greater and/or an admixture of gravel
or even boulders);
- soil - fine engineering soils (silt, clay, organic material).
As with all classification systems, the boundaries between groups are artificial and one form often
merges into another.
A46. Landslide movement may be initiated by natural processes or by human activities. Table A1
illustrates some of the processes affecting hillslopes which may increase the likelihood of
movement. Slopes will only move if the forces contributing to movement (eg gravity, water
pressure, etc) exceed those resisting movement (eg strength of material, frictional resistance, etc).
Movement can be initiated by changes in any of these factors individually or in combination. For
example, undercutting of slopes by coastal or river erosion or by excavation removes support from
the foot of the slope and thus reduces the resistance to movement. Loading of the top of slopes by
natural deposition, tipping or by construction of buildings increases the weight (load) of the top of
the slope, thus contributing to movement. Increases in water content due to heavy rainfall or
alteration of drainage may increase water pressures and thus decreases the resistance to ground
movement.
A47. Many landslides in Britain originated when climatic conditions were very different. For
example, downslope slumping of saturated material over the frozen subsoil under periglacial
conditions has mantled many slopes with fossil solifluction sheets or lobes (head), often with
internal shear surfaces on which movement took place.
Table A1: Processes involved in landsliding
PROCESS CHANGE TO HILLSLOPE
Weathering- physical, chemical,
biological
Changes size, strength and chemistry of slope
materials; weakens internal discontinuities eg opening
up joints, forming internal layers and basal surface on
which material may move; development of thick soil
layer that could move.
Erosion - by rivers, sea, ice or man Changes geometry, height and angle of slope;
removes basal support and by unloading may cause
expansion, swelling, fissuring, softening.
Undermining- leaching of cements,
underground mining
Changes strength, water concentration and water
pressure; removes physical support, causing ground
subsidence; may weaken internal discontinuities.
Deposition - by rivers, ice, mass
movement or man
Loading of slope changes weight, water content and
water pressure.
Shocks and vibrations, seismic activity Vertical and horizontal stresses within slope; change
strength by disturbing intergranular bonds and
cements; change water table and water pressure.
Water regime change- rainfall,
flooding, drainage alteration
Increase water content of slope and change weight
and water pressure.
Vegetation removal Loss of root strength; less water extracted from slope
by plants; more water arrives on slope because of
reduced interception.
Whilst the evidence of earlier movements can often still be seen, some of them have no obvious
surface expression. Under present conditions such slopes may be stable if undisturbed but the
effect of human activities in developing and using the land will sometimes be sufficient to reactivate
movement.
A48. Whilst present-day natural processes can cause or contribute to landsliding, it is fairly clear
that, at the present time, the main cause of landslide movement, both in terms of first-time
movements and reactivation of ancient landslides, is human activity.
A49. The distribution and significance of landslides is affected by a number of factors, including
bedrock and drift geology, relief, climate, geomorphological processes and human activities.
Whilst we do not know the distribution of all landslides, the national landslides review has enabled
analysis of data relating to landslides recorded in the published literature. Fig A6 shows one
interpretation of that data in terms of the number of landslides recorded per 100 km
2
of outcrop of
individual stratigraphical units. It is useful in that it highlights some, though by no means all, of the
strata which may be susceptible to landsliding. However, it must be regarded as indicative only and
almost certainly represents a bias in the data rather than a true picture of landslide distribution.
Coastal landslides, for example, are under-represented, particularly in areas of clay cliffs such as
Holderness, Norfolk and north Kent. Many areas have a low density of landslides because there is
no information in the literature rather than there being few landslides; given appropriate
topographical and other conditions, landslides may be present or be caused in many areas where the
apparent density is low. Similarly, individual areas of landsliding which have been intensively
studied may bias the data in areas of the same strata in which there are actually few landslides and
thus increase the apparent density.
3. Ground compression
A50. Ground conditions in Britain are very variable. Natural materials affected by development
activities range from very soft and very weak sediments to very hard, very strong rocks. In
addition, human activities, particularly quarrying and tipping may introduce major variations in local
conditions.
A51. Ground compression occurs when all ground materials are loaded or drained but in certain
situations the ground deformation may be sudden or of such magnitude as to cause or to be
considered examples of instability. Some natural materials (eg peat, soft silts and clays) and
landfills and quarry backfill may compress significantly under load or when drained and full
consolidation may take many years. The variable nature of such materials and of the bedrock
surface on which they occur often leads to particular problems of differential settlement, particularly
over the edge of backfilled excavations or across geological fault lines.
A52. Whilst ground compression and differential settlements have to be taken into account in any
proposed development, they are not in themselves aspects of unstable ground. However, broken
ground (resulting from subsidence or underground fires), unconsolidated materials filling sink holes
and other surface depressions, very soft silts and clays and loose sands and loose fill (eg in landfills,
backfilled quarries and opencast mines) may settle suddenly or to an increased extent as a result of
development or of activities outside the development. A rising groundwater table or increased
water infiltration may cause collapse settlement of loose fills. Dewatering may cause increased
settlement of a large area.
A53. Compression of ground materials at greater depth also occurs and may lead to ground
subsidence. The extraction of water, oil or gas has caused particular problems in some countries
overseas and in the North Sea.
A54. Ground compression is thus a physical constraint on development which may lead to
instability. Similar constraints may arise from other properties of ground materials apart from
compressibility. Whilst not strictly unstable land, such constraints may result in damage and
development needs to take them into account.
- Some uncompacted sands can cause serious damage by flowing under load or
when drained rather than simply being compressed (running sands).
- Some clay minerals swell when wet and shrink when dry. Change in the natural
water content of such material due to exceptional weather (as in 1976) or to human
activities (tree planting/removal, leaking services) may lead to settlement or ground
heave and thus damage buildings.
- Pyrite and some other minerals increase in volume on oxidation or other chemical
change and this can cause heave in some Coal Measures shales and Jurassic
mudstones.
- Biodegradable landfill materials decay with time and development on or near such
land could be adversely affected by leachate and/or landfill gas, which may move
some distance from the landfill site.
A55. Rising groundwater has been identified as a significant factor in causing instability due to
ground compression. It may also adversely affect other ground characteristics and may put
development, particularly tunnels and deep basements at risk of flooding. The groundwater table
may rise for a number of reasons. Perhaps the commonest is reduced extraction of groundwater in
older urban areas, where a long history of extraction may have considerably depressed the water
table from its natural rest level. In some areas this reduction is such that with natural recharge the
water table is rising at a rate of over 1m per year. Other activities which may cause groundwater
level to rise include impoundment of water behind a dam, construction of a deep basement or
underground barrier for pollution control, blockage of underground drainage channels (including
unintentional drainage through old mine workings) or cessation of mine or quarry pumping on
abandonment of operations.
A56. Knowledge of the distribution of this wide range of ground characteristics which constrain
development, at least to some extent, and which may lead to instability is extremely patchy. Some
characteristics, eg the distribution of swelling/shrinkable clays in the south east of England, are
readily inferred from knowledge of the geology and are fairly well known. Others, such as old
landfills or backfilled quarries, are much more site specific and may not be so well known.
APPENDIX B
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
1. Source of information
B1. There are many sources of information on ground instability, its causes, effects, investigation
and treatment.
B2. An obvious first source is the geological map and the British Geological Survey. The
usefulness of this source has been extended by the various applied geological mapping projects
carried out for the Department of the Environment by BGS and others. These have generally
resulted in the establishment of databases of relevant information which may be held by the local
authority in whose area work was carried out or by the National Geoscience Data Bank at the
British Geological Survey, Keyworth.
B3. Coal mine abandonment plans are held at the Mining Records Offices of British Coal on behalf
of the Health and Safety Executive. Abandonment plans for mines other than coal are held at the
Health and Safety Executive Mines Inspectorate HQ at Bootle, except for plans of mines in
Cornwall, which are held at the Cornwall County Council record office on behalf of the Health and
Safety Executive. The Mineral Valuers Offices hold many records relating to mining and minerals
of all types which have been collected since the formation of the Valuation Office in 1910. These
are continually updated as further information becomes available. Additionally, Mineral Valuers
collate and record mining subsidence incidents and analyse them. The Mineral Valuers provide
advice on subsidence and the risk of damage in relation to all minerals on request to local planning
authorities and other public bodies; however, they are not authorised to provide advice to private
developers or their advisers.
B4. Local authority records, both technical and archival, are themselves an important source of
information and will often contain records of previous events due to instability, of ground
conditions and of mining.
B5. The Department of the Environment has recently completed a review of landsliding in Great
Britain to determine the distribution of landslides, to review the causes and mechanisms of
landsliding to review and assess the methods of investigation, hazard assessment and remedial
measures which are available and to examine the legislative and administrative provisions relating to
the investigation and treatment of landslides. As a result of this review, distribution maps of
landslides recorded in the published literature have been produced for all counties in England and
Wales and for Scotland. A computerised data-base service has been established and is being
operated by Geomorphological Services Ltd on behalf of the Department for a trial period.
B6. Reviews of the best methods of recording data about old mine entries and mine workings and
of methods of treatment of mine entries appropriate to particular circumstances have recently been
completed. It is likely that further specific guidance will result from these reviews.
B7. The Department has also completed a review of technical, operational, administrative and legal
aspects of the stability and hydrogeology of deep mineral excavations. A comprehensive technical
review has been published, together with a handbook which includes guidelines on the
investigation, assessment and inspection of excavated quarry slopes. A similar handbook on quarry
tips and backfill is also being produced.
B8. Further reviews of mining subsidence, natural underground cavities and of foundation
conditions in Great Britain have just commenced or are about to start. These may also result in
more specific guidance.
B9. Techniques for the assessment of stability problems for planning purposes have been or are
being developed in the Mining Subsidence South Wales Desk Study, the Assessment of Landslip
potential, South Wales and the Assessment of Landslip Potential, Isle of Wight Undercliff, Ventnor.
These studies have aimed to develop techniques which are more generally applicable and could be
taken on board elsewhere by local authorities and others where necessary.
B10. Other studies and guidance of value include publications by the Department of Transport, the
British Standards Institution, the Construction Industry Research and Information Association,
Building Research Establishment Digests and NCB (now BCC) Handbooks. Listed below are
some examples of these and other relevant publications.
2. Some examples of useful publications on land stability
This list is not intended to be comprehensive but merely to give a general indication of the range of
publications available which may be consulted to assist in the assessment of stability problems and
for advice on how such problems might be overcome.
DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT, 1988. Review of the Geological and Minerals
Planning Research Programme 1987 London, Department of the Environment - Annex I contains
a catalogue of projects completed, in progress and in preparation as at December 1987.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SERVICES LTD 1986-87. Review of research into landsliding in
Great Britain. Rpts to Dept Environ. Open-file reports.
Series A Regional review of landsliding Vol 1 South East England and East Anglia Vol II
South West England Vol III The Midlands Vol IV Wales Vol V Northern England Vol VI
Scotland
Series B Causes and mechanisms of landsliding Vol 1 International review Vol II Britain
Series C (by RENDEL PALMER AND TRITTON) Landslide investigation techniques and
remedial measures - Research and Practice 2 Vols
Series D Landslides and policy Vol 1 Landslide hazard assessment Vol II Landslide risk in
Britain Vol III Legislative and administrative provisions. Practice in England and Wales
and a review of overseas practice.
Series E National summary and recommendations
FREEMAN FOX LTD 1988 Methods of compilation storage and retrieval of data on disused
mine openings and workings Lond. HMSO
FREEMAN FOX LTD 1988 Treatment of disused mine openings Lond. HMSO
OVE ARUP AND PARTNERS 1976 Reclamation of derelict land: procedures for locating
abandoned mineshafts, Lond. Dept Environ.
OVE ARUP AND PARTNERS 1983 Limestone mines in the West Midlands: the legacy of mines
long abandoned Lond. Dept Environ, 24pp
DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1983 Policy considerations arising from the study
of limestone workings in the West Midlands - Report by the Steering Group for the Black Country
Limestone Study. Birmingham, Dept Environ, 28pp
GEOFFREY WALTON PRACTICE 1988 Handbook on the hydrogeology and stability of
excavated slopes in quarries. Rpt to Dept Environ, Lond, HMSO
GEOFFREY WALTON PRACTICE 1988 Technical review of the stability and hydrogeology of
mineral workings. Rpt to Dept Environ. London, HMSO
GEOFFREY WALTON PRACTICE 1986 Review of current geotechnical practice in British
quarries and related interests and requirements of mineral planning authorities and other statutory
bodies. Rpt to Dept Environ, Feb 1986
GEOFFREY WALTON PRACTICE 1986 Review of existing relevant controls and legal powers
affecting the stability and hydrogeology of mineral workings Rpt to Dept Environ. July 1986
GEOFFREY WALTON PRACTICE 1986 Report on a hydrogeological and geotechnical study at
a limestone quarry Rpt to Dept Environ, July 1986
GEOFFREY WALTON PRACTICE 1986 Final report on the stability and hydrogeology of
mineral workings. Rpt to Dept. Environ. July 1986
OVE ARUP AND PARTNERS 1985 Mining subsidence South Wales desk Study Report. Rpt to
Dept Environ, Welsh Office, 5 vols Open-file report
SIR WILLIAM HALCROW AND PARTNERS 1986 Assessment of landslip potential: South
Wales. Rpt to Dept Environ, Welsh Office, 3 vols. Open-file report
SIR WILLIAM HALCROW AND PARTNERS 1988 Rhondda landslip potential assessment;
Planning guidelines. Rpt to Dept Environ, Welsh Office. Open-file report
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1981 Code of practice for site investigations: BS 5930.
Lond, BSI
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1986 Code of practice for foundations CP 8004
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1975 Methods of test for soils for civil engineering
purposes, BS 1377
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1988 Code of practice for the identification of
potentially contaminated land and its investigation DD175. Lond.BSI
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 198 Code of practice for earth retaining structures. BS
8002. Lond.BSI
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1981 Code of practice for earthworks. BS 6031.
Lond. BSI
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1980 Code of practice for trees in relation to
construction. BS 5837. Lond.BSI
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 1988 Report on strengthened/reinforced soils and other
fills. PD 6517. Lond.BSI
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT 1982 Design of highway structures in areas of mining
subsidence, BD 10/82
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT 1987 Ground investigation procedures HA 34/87
NATIONAL COAL BOARD 1975 Subsidence engineers' handbook, Lond, NCV, 111pp
NCB MINING DEPARTMENT 1982 The treatment of disused mineshafts and adits, Lond, NCB
88pp
WELTMAN, A J and J M HEAD 1983 Site investigation manual, PSA Civ Engng Tech Guide
No 35, CIRIA Spec Publicn 25, Lond.
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BRE DIGESTS
63 Soils and foundations: Part 1
64 Soils and foundations: Part 2
67 Soils and foundations: Part 3
75 Cracking in building
176 Failure patterns and implications
240 Low-rise buildings on shrinkable clay soils: Part 1
241 Low-rise buildings on shrinkable clay soils: Part 2
242 Low-rise buildings on shrinkable clay soils: Part 3
251 Assessment of damage in low-rise buildings
274 Fill: Part 1 Classification and load carrying characteristics
275 Fill: Part 2 Site investigation, ground improvement and foundation design
298 The influence of trees on house foundations in clay soils
318 Site investigation for low-rise building: desk studies
322 Site investigation for low-rise building: procurement
348 Site investigation for low-rise building: the walk-over survey