Volume.7. Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Vol.7.
Essential Knoweldge Required For
DESIGN AND
MANUFACTURING
OF
HYDRAULIC PRESSES
Q.S. Khan
B.E. (Mech.)
TANVEER PUBLICATIONS
Hydro-Electic Machinery Premises
12-A, Ram-Rahim Uduog Nagar, Bus Stop Lane, L.B.S. Marg,
Sonapur, Bhandup (west), Mumbai - 400 078 (India)
E-mail: hydelect@vsnl.com
www. Tanveerpublication.com
Tel : 022-25965930,25964075-8108000222
CONTENTS
Tolerance
Prefered Number
Surface Roughness
13.1 to 13.2
14.01
15.01 to 15.02
Matarial used in Hydraulic Press

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Classification of Engineering Material
16.3 Ferrous Material
16.4 Cast Iron
16.5 Gray Cast Iron
16.6 Carbon Steel
16.7 Mild Steel
16.8 Effect of Alloying Element on properties of Steel
16.9 Hydraulic Press Common Components and Material
16.01 to 16.05
Heat-Treatment
17.1 Annealing
17.2 Normalising
17.3 Hardening
17.4 Tempering
17.5 Case-Hardening
17.01 to 17.02
Welding Technology
18.1 Welding in Hydraulic Press
18.2 Principle of Welding by Core Welding Rod
18.3 Introduction of Matter and their State
18.4 The Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram
18.5 Effects of Heating & Cooling on Granular Structure of Iron
18.6 Effects of Cooling Rates on Steel
18.7 Granular Structure of Welded Joint
18.8 Deformation and Distorarion in Welding
18.9 Control of Welding Distoration
18.10 Common Weld Defects and their Remedies
18.11 Electrode coating Ingredients and their Functions
18.12 Coding of Mild Steel and Low Alloy Steels Electrodes
18.13 Welding of Press Body
18.14 Welding of Hydraulic Cylinder
18.01 to 18.23
Rolled Section
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Reason for selecting Rolled Section
19.3 Material of Construction
19.4 Detail, Dimension and Data about I-Section
Fasteners
20.1 Types of Fasteners
20.2 System of Designation
20.3 Material of Bolts
19.01
20.01 to 20.07
(A)
20.4 Heat Treatment of Bolts

20.5 Strength of Bolts
20.6 S.S. Bolt
20.7 Failures of Fasteners
Surface Protective Coating
21.1 Chromium Plating
21.2 Chromium Plating Procedure
21.3 Standards of Chrome Platings
21.4 Thickness Measurement
21.5 Adhesive Testing
21.6 Galavanising
21.7 Blackening
21.8 Painting
21.01 to 21.06
Graphic Symbol for Fluid Power Systems
22.01 to 22.10
(B)
Tolerence
Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses
Chapter -13
Tolerance
IMPORTANCE :- Similar to conventional machines such as boring, milling machines, which are
manufactures most precisely and used for precision work. Most of the hydraulic presses also
required similar precision in manufacturing. e.g. Plastic Injection moulding machine, Powder
compacting machine etc. And some components such as cylinders, guides, hydraulic valves etc.
are if not made as per standard tolerance then even if press made for common operation such as
crushing of scrap etc. will also not work.
Hence understanding the standard of tolerance for various component of a hydraulic
press is very important.
Commonly used fits (IS-2709-1964)
Class of
shaft
Recommended
surface
Roughness Ra m
Type of fits
Application
d11
1.6
Loose
running fits
Hydraulic press components, which do not

directly affect the accuracy of presses are made in
this tolerance grade. e.g. Cam and cam rod of
electrical limit switch. Anti-rotation guide rod of
Ram, loose pulley etc.
This range of fits are used where as appreciable
clearance is permissible, for example press-body
and round column assembly, press body and
cylinder shell/flange assembly etc.
In this tolerance range the hydraulic cylinder is
made. Also all precision component such as gunmetal bushes and round column, die and punch
fixing etc. Are made in this tolerance range.
This is too close tolerance range. Hydraulic valves
are made in H6 h5 range, where clearance should
not be more than few micron, and oil under
pressure has to be seal without elastomeric seal
and only with metal to metal contact.
This type of fit is used for accurate location with
relatively non-moving part with easy assembly
and dismantling for example coupling on motor
and pump shaft etc.
This type of fit is used for light press fit
component. Such as phos-phose bronze bush
fitting in its housing.
Class of hole
H6 H7 H8 H9 H11
-- d8 d8-10
e8 e9 e8-e9
--
--
1.6
Easy
running fits
f6
f7
f8
f8
--
0.8 to 0.4
Normal fits
g5
g6
g7
0.8 to 0.4
h5 h6 h7-8 h9 h11
0.4 to 0.2
Close
running fits
Precision
sliding fits
j5
j6
j7
--
0.4 to 0.2
Posh fit
k5 k6
k7
--
0.4 to 0.2
Transition
fit
--
EXAMPLE : - (Related to hydraulic Press)
H7k6
H6 / h5
H7k6
H9 f8 / H9 f9
H 8 / g8
H9e8
H9
h9
f9
h11
= This fit is used for fitting phos phose bronze bush in bearing housing.
= This fit is used for direction control valve body and spool assembly and
similar precision assembly.
= This fit is used for fixing guide housing and moving platen of press.
= These fits are used for cylinder and piston, piston rod and guide-bush
assembly.
= This fit is used between bearing metal bush and round ground and plated
column of press.
= This fit is used for assembly of round column and Bore in press-body.
= This fit is used for cylinder bore, or groove in cylinder.
= This fit is used for Groove on Piston.
= This fit is used for Piston-rod ( Commonly used in hydraulic cylinder)
= This fit is used for piston-rod of high pressure and high precision
cylinder.
Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan
13-1
Tolerence
1.6
0.8
1.6
0.8
H8 g8
H7h 7
1.6
0.8
0.4
0.2
1.6
0.8
H8 g8 H9 f8
H7 h 7
1.6
0.8
1.6
0.8
H7 h 6 H7 h 7
H7 h 7
H9 f8
0.4
0.8
1.6
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.8
0.4
1.6
0.8
Bore
Piston
Double Action Front Flange Mounted Cylinder
Figure No. 13.1
Moving Frame
Bearing-housing
P.B.Bearing
Press-column
H8 g 8
H7 k 6
H7 h 6
Moving Frame
Figure No. 13.2
13-2
Preferred Number
Chapter - 14
Preferred Number
Importance of Preferred Number :-
R5
1
Inside diameter of cylinder is selected as

10, 16, 25, 40, 63, 100, instead of 10,
25, 50, 75, 100. Odd figure such as 16,
63 etc. are given more preference over
round and easy figure such as 25, 50, 75
because 16 and 63 belongs to preferred
number.
Ram dia, seal, capacity of press
etc. are selected as per preferred number.
Hence as a designer of machine tool and
hydraulic press we must have basic
knowledge of preferred number.
Introduction: When a press or machine is to be
made in several sizes and different
capacity. And minimum type, or size, or
capacity should covers vast range, then it
is found that when a geometrical
progression is followed in selection of size
then it efficiently cover a optimum range.
Indian standard IS-1076-1967
has specified four basic series as R5, R10,
R20, R40, as given below beyond this
range other derived series may be
obtained from basic series by simply
multiplying or dividing by 10 or 100 etc.
1.6
2.5
6.3
10
Preferred Number or Basic Series

R10
R20
R40
1
1
1
1.06
1.12
1.12
1.18
1.25
1.25
1.32
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.9
2
2
2
2.12
2.24
2.24
2.36
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.65
2.8
2.8
3
3.15
3.15
3.15
3.35
3.35
3.35
3.75
4
4
4
4.25
4.5
4.5
4.75
5
5
5
5.3
5.6
5.6
6
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.7
7.1
7.1
7.5
8
8
8
8.5
9
9
9.5
10
10
10
14-1
Surface Roughness
Chapter - 15
Surface Roughness
Importance of Surface Finish: -
Hydraulic press works on high pressure hydraulic fluid which required to be sealed and
press has so many moving components rubbing each other. If importance of surface finish is not
understood, and surface roughness not measured and controlled correctly in manufacturing hydraulic
cylinder and over-all press then even with best material used also, seals and guides will fail in very
short period of time. In following paragraph we will study various allowable surface roughness and
its measurement.
Whenever a surface is machined, it has tool marks and micro-irregularities on its surface.
Generally it is in form of peak of hill and valley. As per Indian standard surface roughness is
measured in terms of Center Line Average method, and it is denoted by Ra. It is average value
of the ordinates between the surface and the mean line, measured on both sides of it.
CLA value or Ra in micron) = y1 + y2 + y3 + . yn
n
When y1 + y2 + y3 + . yn are the ordinates measured on both sides of the mean line
and n are the number of ordinates.
y
y1
Ra
y3
y2
yn
lm
Figure No. 15.1
Ra is also known as Arithmetic center line average. For more detail DIN 4762, 4768,
ISO 3274, 4287, 4288 could be referred.
Other method of roughness measurement is Average peak to valley roughness. It is
arithmetical mean of the individual peak-to-valley roughness of 5 adjacent individual
measured lengths. It is denoted by Rz.
y5
y4
Rmax
y3
y2
Rt
y1
lt
le
5 x l e = lm
Start-up-length
Figure No. 15.2
Run-up-length
15-1
Surface Roughness
Note :- Incase of Ra, y1 + y2 + y3 + . yn etc. corresponds to the height of a rectangle, whose

length is equal to the reference length 1, and where surface area corresponds to the sum of the
surface enclosed between roughness profile and center line.
While in case of Rz it is height of individual peak and valley in arbitrarily selected
unit length.
Maximum peak to valley roughness is the greatest individual peak to valley roughness,
occurring any place in total measuring length. It denoted by Rmax.
1. Symbol for Indication of surface roughness and position of surface data in symbol.
a = Roughness value Ra in micron
b = Machining allowance
c = groove direction (direction of tool marks with
reference to our desired axis).
d = manufacturing process, surface treatment.
e = reference length.
f = other roughness measuring variables Rz, Rmax. Etc.
DIN 4763 and ISO 468 suggest following values of center-line average roughness
(Ra) in micron (m) 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 2.5, 3.2, 6.3, 12.5, 25, 50.
b
2.
d
e/f
a)
In case of honed hydraulic cylinder tube, we generally keep surface roughness (Ra)
between 0.2 to 0.4 micron. And maximum upto 0.8 Ram.
b)
In case of ground and hard-chrome plated piston-rod, we keep surface roughness

(Ra) between 0.1 to 0.4 micron.
c)
In case of cylinder, the roughness groove directions are crossing each other and at
450. to central axis.
d)
In case of seal groove, bottom of groove should also have surface finish Ra 0.8m, or
less as o-ring and composite seal etc. makes movement in seal groove.
e)
In case of seal pocket for stationary seals such as u-seal etc. the seal pocket wall of
stationary side of lip should have at least surface finish of Ra 1.6m.
0.8 m Ra
Bottom of seal groove
0.2-0.4
1.6
m Ra
Bottom of seal groove
Ra
Cylinder ID
0.1-0.4
m Ra
Piston Rod OD
Figure No. 15.3
15-2
Material used in Hydraulic Press
Chapter - 16
MATERIAL USED IN HYDRAULIC PRESS

16.1
Introduction: -
Any engineer who has indepth knowledge of metal and their physical and mechanical properties
can himself decide which material could be used for any particular part of a hydraulic press.
Purpose of this chapter is to share the experience and knowledge, which we acquired in long
period of time while manufacturing hydraulic presses. Various types of alloys could be used
to manufacture different parts of a hydraulic press, which will serve the purpose. But in this
chapter we will discuss which particular material best suits to a particular component, with reference
to low cost, good strength, and easy in availability and processing.
First briefly we will describe the materials and their properties, then we will discuss in detail various
material and alloys used in hydraulic press.
16.2
Classification of Engineering Material: -
Engineering materials are classified as: 1)
Metals and, their alloys, such as copper, steel aluminum etc.
2)
Non-metal such as plastic, rubber, glass etc.

Metals are further classified as.
a)
Ferrous Metal: Ferrous metals are those, which has iron as their main constituent.
b)
Non-Ferrous Metal: Non-ferrous metals are those, which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent.
16.3
Ferrous Metals:-
The principal raw material for all ferrous metal is pig-iron which is obtained by smelting
iron ore, with coke and limestone, in the blast furnace. Principal iron ores are magnetite (Fe2 O3),
Heamatite (Fe3 O4), Limonite (FeCO3), Siderite [Fe2 O3 (H2 O)].
Pig-iron is further re-melted, purified, and alloyed to get various forms of iron and its alloys such as
cast iron, steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, heat resistance steel and tool steel etc.
16.4
Cast Iron: -
The cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a furnace knows
as cupola. It is basically an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.7
percent to 4.5 percent. It also contains small amount of manganese, silicone, sulphur and
phosphorous. The properties, which make cast iron valuable, is its low cost, good casting
characteristic, high compressive strength, wear resistance and excellent machinability.
Ultimate strength of cast iron is a follow:
Tensile strength 1000 to 2000 kg/cm2, compressive strength 4000 to 10,000 kg/cm2 and
shear strength 1200 kg/cm2. As tensile and shear strength is low hence it could not be used in those
parts, which are subjected to tensile, shear or shock load.
The various types of cast iron are gray cast iron, white cast iron, mottled cast iron and
alloys cast iron, but in hydraulic press mostly we use gray cast iron.
16-1
16.5
Gray Cast Iron :-
It has following composition

carbon
: 3 to 3.5 %
silicon
: 1 to 2.75%
manganese
: 0.40 to 1.00%
phosphorous
: 0.15 to 01.5%
The remaining is iron.

The gray colour of meta1 is due to carbon being in form of graphite. It has low tensile
strength, high compressive strength and no ductility. It has good machinability.
In hydraulic press it is being used for side guides, gland-bush, piston and moving plate etc.
16.6
Carbon Steel: -
A carbon steel, in defined as a steel, which has its properties mainly due to its carbon
content and does not contain more than 1.5 % of manganese. It has no or very less percentage
of element such as silicon, phosphors, sulphur. Carbon content in plain carbon steel is
maximum up to 1.5 %, the carbon occurs in form of iron carbide, which increase the hardness
and strength of the steel.
Plain carbon steel is broadly divided into four categories depending upon carbon
content as follow.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Dead mild steel

Low carbon or mild steel
Medium carbon steel
High carbon steel
16.7
Mild Steel :-
: upto 0.15% carbon.

: 0.15 %to 0.45% C.
: 0.45% to 0.8% C.
: 0.8% to 1.5% C.
Indian standard has divided four above-mentioned major groups into many grades. But in
construction of press body of hydraulic press we generally use only low carbon steel or mild steel.
Mild steel with 0.15 to 0.35 % carbon and 0.3 to 0.9% manganese is general-purpose
steel. Angel, channel, flat, I-beam etc., which we get from small rolling mills are all this
grade of steel. The material has good weldability and used for general-purpose fabrication. This is
used, when load on steel is less.
Mild steel with 0.35 to 0.45% carbon and 0.6 to 0.9% manganese is called C40 as
per ISI designation and EN8 in British standard. It is economical and easily available in
market. In hydraulic press this metal is wildly used for column, nut, cylinder and flange etc.
For those components, which require welding, the carbon content selected below 0.4%.
Steel with 0.45% to 0.6% carbon and manganese continues 0.3 to 0.9% is classified
as C50 and C55 in ISI standard and nearest British standard is EN9. This is also economical
and easily available. This is used where high strength is required with good wear resistance. This
metal also could be heat treaded.
IS-2062 grade M.S. This is a grade of mild-steel, which has good weldability. Hence mostly steel
plate, rolled section etc. used in hydraulic press is of this grade.
16.8
Effect of Alloying Element on Properties of Steel: -
16-2
All though metal and alloys have been classified in most systematic way and their constitution has
been defined in details by standard setting authority. But in actual practice what material available
at small metal merchant are from small rolling mills and foundries, who are unable to control the
percentage of various elements correctly. Some time good and large size of metal shaft and plate
are also available from old ship breaking yard or scrap. All these metals could be tested in laboratory
and percentage of its various element could be determined. But when some one is fully familiar with
the element their permissible limit in iron, their effect on mechanical properties and in which grade
these iron alloys could be classification, then only one can decide its weldability, heat treatment
ability, and for which part of press it could be used. Hence in following paragraph we are describing
various elements and their effect on iron.
A)
Silicon :-
The amount of silicon in the finished plain carbon steel usually range from 0.05 to 0.35 %
silicon is added in low carbon steel to prevent them from becoming porous, it makes the
steel tougher and harden.
B)
Sulphur :-
It should be as low as possible in steel as it produces red shortness it should not be

more than 0.3%.
C)
Manganese :-
In low carbon steel manganese increase strength and toughness. It combines with sulphur
and theirby decreases the harmful effect of element in steel. Higher percentage of manganese
makes steel brittle and produces cracks in welding joint.
D)
Phosphorous :It makes the steel brittle, it also produces cold shortness in steel.
Following Elements are added in Steel to improve its Properties.
a)
Nickel: It increases the strength of steel and toughness of the steel.
b)
Chromium: -
It is added to increase hardness with high strength and high elastic limits. It also
increases corrosion resistance.
c)
Tungsten: -
It prohibits grain growth, increases the depth of hardening of quenched steel and it conforms
the property of remaining hard even when heated to red-hot. It is used in cutting tools.
d)
Vanadium: It increases strength and elastic limit without loss of ductility in medium carbon
steel.
e)
Cobalt: -
It increases hardness and strength, and retains hardness even at high temperature.
f)
Molybdenum: -
It increases tensile strength.
16-3
16.9
Hydraulic Press Component and Their Material of Construction: -
Sr.
No.
PressComponent
Requirement
Material to be used
Main shell
(1)
ASTM-106A Grade
2
3
Welded-Flange
End-Plug
Piston
Guide-bush
Gland-bush
Bolts
Seals
Columns & Nuts
General purpose and common

cylinder shell should be weld
able, to weld flange. And should
be of ductile material to avoid
sudden cracking and blasting.
(2) For high pressure cylinder when
over all dimension has to be
controlled to minimum, then alloy
steel is used.
(3) Barrels of plastic injection
Moulding
machine,
which
withstand pressure as high as
1500 Bar and high temperature.
Material should have good weld ability.
(1) If end-flange is to be welded then
it should have good weld ability.
(2) If end-flange is to be bolted then it
should not be brittle.
Piston rubs inside surface of cylinder,
hence it should have bearing material
property. It also withstand the load
developed by cylinder hence it should
have good strength.
(1) When only plain metal to be used.
(2) If brazing-lining could be applied
on piston surface.
(3) When guide-ring etc. could be used
0n piston
Guide-bush also with stand full load
developed by cylinder in case of fully
extended stroke. Hence it should have
high strength, weldable and should not
be brittle.
Gland-bush guides the piston-rod as
well as it retain gland-seal. Hence inner
surface of gland-bush should have
lining of bearing material as well as it
should have good strength.
Bolts withstand full load developed by

cylinder hence all bolts used in press
should be high tensile type.
Hydraulic seals avoid the leakage of
highly pressurized oil. Life of hydraulic
system
also
depend
on
and
performance of seal. Hence seals are
carefully selected as per the working
condition of system.
Columns withstand full load developed
by cylinders. Also in each production
cycle stress in column varies from
minimum to maximum.
EN-24
Harden and tempered.
To 35-40 RC
EN-41B
Heat-Treated
And Nitrided
IS-2062
IS-2062
M.S/EN8
C.I. (Gray Cast Iron)

M.S/EN-8 with lining of
bearing material.
M.S./EN8 with GuideRings
M.S/EN-8
Cast iron.
M.S/EN-8 of bronze or
fitted with Guide-Ring
of bronze filed PTFE or
other similar standard
material available with
seal manufactures
High-tensile Bolt of 10.6
or 12.9 grade. Made
from EN-2 or EN-9
Fiber impregnated high
nitrile seal/Polyurethane
Bronze filled Teflon and
Special
Material
developed
by
seal
manufacturing.
M.S./ EN8 for generalpurpose press.
16-4
10
Column - Guide
Guide move on column or guiding

surface. They should have bearing
material property as well as should
have good strength.
11
Press Body
Press-body withstand load developed

by cylinder. Also load is variable in
each cycle.
12
Press-Tools
(1) Pressing Dies for Bending etc.

(medium load)
(2) Pressing Dies for Bending for high
load.
(3) Such tools where hard-surface and
tough core required.
(4) Such tools where hard surface and

high strength required (Cutting
Blades etc.)
(5) Cutting Blade for shearing thick

Steel Plates
C.I., EN-9/EN-24 for

special purpose compact
presses.
Phosphors
bronze bush/or bronze
filled PTFE
Fabricated
structure
should be fabricated
from IS-2062 steel Plate.
Casted body such as
injection-Moulding
machine
should
be
casted in steel casting of
EN-8 grade/or better
grade.
EN-9
Harden and Tempered
EN-24
Harden and Tempered
(45-50 RC)
EN-36
Core-Toughen and case
carbonized
(surface
hardness 55 RC, core
hardness 35-40 RC)
HCHCr (High Carbon
High Chromium) also
known as WPS. Harden
and Tempered (55-58
RC hardness)
pneumatic steel or high

speed steel harden to
55-57 RC
16-5
Heat-Treatment
17. Heat-Treatment
In manufacturing of hydraulic presses we do following types of Heat Treatment.
1. Annealing: - It is done for the softening of the material before machining of forged and difficult
to machine material.
2. Normalising: - It is done to relieve the stress set-up due to welding etc. and refine the grain
structure of component to improve their strength.
3. Hardening: - It is done to harden die, punch, plunger, container and various component of
hydraulic press.
4. Tempering: - It is done to harden material to relieve the stress developed due to quenching and
to reduce brittleness.
5. Case-Hardening: - Carburising and nitriding is done to increase the surface hardness of
component, while core still remain soft and ductile.
17.1
Annealing: -
It is a softening process in which iron base alloys are heated above the upper critical temperature
range, held there for a proper time and then cooled slowly (at the rate of 30 to 150 0C per
hour) below the lower critical temperature range in the furnace itself.
1130
Ferrite+Austenite
Normalising Range
Temperature C
1000
900
Annealing and
Hardening Range
Cementite+Austenite
Upper Critical
Temperature
700
250
Lower Critical Temperature
Ferrite+Pearlite
Pearlite+Cementite
Hypoeuteciod
Hypereuteciod
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
% Carbon
Figure No. 17.1

Heating is done 20 0C above upper critical temperature of steel in case of hypo-euectoid and
steel 20 0C above the lower critical temperature in case of hyper-eutectoid steel. Article is held
at above mentioned temperature for to 1 hour period then cooled slowly.
On cooling, hypo-eutectoid steel produces pearlite and ferrite, hyper-eutectoid steel produces
pearlite and cementite. Due to presence of pearlite the material become soft.
17.2
Normalising: -
In normalizing we heat both hypo as well as hyper-eutectoid steel 40 to 50 0C above upper

temperature range, kept their for sufficient time so that complete mass gets uniformly heated
up and then cooling the article out side furnace in still air at room temperature.
On cooling hypo-eutectoid steel will have ferrite+pearlite grain structure and hyper-eutectoid
steel will have pearlite+Cementite grain structure. But they will not have any harder grain
structure such as martensite etc.
17-1
Heat-Treatment
Welding, cold-working and forging etc. produces coarse and elongated grains, and welding of
fabricated structure produces residual stress in structure. Normalizing is done to produce uniform
fine grain structure and eliminate the residual stress.
17.3
Harding: -
Hardening is done to increase the wear resistance and increase the tensile strength of component.
(This also reduces ductility and toughness).
For hardening, article is heated about 20 0C above upper critical temperature in case of hypoeutectoid steel and 20 0C above lower-critical temperature for hyper-eutectoid steel. Heating
convert all the ferrite in to austenite.
Solution of austenite and cementite then cooled at the rate of app. 200 0C per minute.
At this cooling rate pearlite cannot be formed, hence martensite grain structure get produced.
Martensite is extremely hard. Hence mass of article get hardened.
17.4
Tempering: -
Tempering is a re-heating process of hardened component bellow the lower critical temperature
range. It is done for two purpose.
1. To reduce the internal stress produced due to quenching of component.
2. To change the hardness of components as per requirement.
For tempering component may be heated from 200 0C to 550 0C depending on requirement.
Due to heating martensite start converting in to softer grain structure such as sorbite etc. Hence
hardness also starts reducing. By controlling the re-heating temperature limit and then cooling
rate we control and get the desire hardness of component.
17.5
Case-Hardening: -
In many applications we require soft core and hard surface of a component in hydraulic press.
Soft core avoids breaking of component and hard surface gives resistance against wear and
gives long working life.
In such case case-hardening is done. Case-hardening could be casburising or nitriding.
In case of carburising we induce atom of carbon in lattice structure of iron, and in case of
nitriding we know atoms of iron has fixed type of atomic patterns, that is body-centered cubic
atomic structure bellow 700 0C. This pattern can accommodate only 0.025% carbon atoms.
At this percentage of carbon atoms iron has flexibility to move. Hence iron remains ductaile
and soft.
When we forcefully induce more carbon or nitrogen atom between these cubic lattice structure
of iron, atom of iron do not have space to move and loose their flexibility, and iron becomes
hard. And as we carry out this forceful induction of atom of carbon and nitrogen only on
surface hence only surface of iron gets harden, and core remain soft.
For carburising iron, heat at 900 to 950 0C with charcoal semi-coke, peat coke, barium
carbonate (BaCo3) and soda-ash (Na2Co3)
While for nitriding iron is heated at 600 to 650 0C for prolonged period in an atmosphere of
NH3.
In hydraulic press we case-carburise EN-36, for making tools of crimping machine, while
barrel of injection moulding machine is made EN41B and nitrided.
17-2
Welding Technology
Chapter -18
18. Welding Technology

18.1
Welding in Hydraulic Press: -
Welding technology is a vast subject. There are many types of welding processes.
Each process may require a complete volume of book to describe it. It is not possible for us
to describe the basic welding technology. In this chapter we will only revise some of the
welding knowledge, which you already have, and which are related to and important in
manufacture of hydraulic press.
18.1.1 Importance of Welding in Hydraulic Press: In old days press body and cylinder were steel casted, machined and assembled. But
nowadays only few type of standard presses are steel casted and most of the presses have steel
fabricated body. Hydraulic cylinders are also welded.
Hydraulic press body and cylinders are extremely stressed structures, undergo constant
fluctuating and dynamic loading. The thickness of plate and shell is also more, which are
difficult to weld. If welding technique and welding rod are selected and used incorrectly, then
whole press may fail due to structural failure. Hence knowledge of welding rod, welding technique,
cause of welding cracking and its remedy are very important for successful design and manufacturing
of a hydraulic press. In this chapter we will discuss only the commonly used type of welding
process, that is Welding by flux core welding rod.
18.2
Principal of Welding by Core Welding Rod: -
An arc is setup between flux coated welding electrode and work piece. Heat of arc
melts the joining base metal and core wire of electrode, which gets fused in molten condition.
Flux protects the arc and molten metal till they get solidifies, to produce a strong and sound joint.
Metalic core.
Droplet being transferred surrounded

by gases thus preventing contamination
during its passage through arc stream
and fuging with base metal.
Flux coating which helps in protecting
molten maltal, and stabilizing electric arc.
Solidified slag which covers the

weld metal and allows it to cool
down, slowly, and protecting
it from atmosphere.
Start of formation of molten droplet.
Deposited metal
Electric arc.
Penetration
Parent metal
Pool of molten metal

underneath the arc
(the crater).
Solidifyling slag which prevents

atmosphere contamination
whilst the weld metal is
solidifyling.
Electric welding by
Flux cored welding electrods
Protective gas produced during the

chemical change from flux to slag
which complete cover and protect
the molten metal during welding.
Figure No. 18.1
18-1
18.3
Welding Technology
Introduction to Matter and their State: -
As most of the factors on which strength of weld depends are composition of base metal,
composition of core wire of welding rod, alloying element in base metal, grain structure of welded
joint, and grain structure of surrounding heat effected zone of base metal. Hence to understand this
factor we must have basic knowledge of metallurgy. In following paragraph we will briefly describe
metallurgy, the knowledge that is important and related to welding.
18.3.1 Matter: Ancient philosophers thought that all matters are derived from just five substance, Earth,
Water, Air, Fire and either (space or sky). But with development of chemistry it is found that all
matter on our earth are build up of many pure substances, which are called Elements. There are
total 102 elements. Out of 90% of the earths surface main elements are Oxygen 50%, Silicone
26%, Aluminum 7%, Iron 4% and Calcium 3%.
18.3.2 The States of Matter: The smallest possible partical of pure element is called ATOM. It consist of a positively
charge nucleus, surrounded by a negatively-charge cloud formed by electrons revolving
around the nucleus. The positive and negative forces are balanced, so that the atom as a
whole is electrically neutral.
When atoms combine they form the smallest possible particle of a compound, which
is given the name as MOLECULE. The number of atom in molecule depends upon class or
type of matter. Only in metal do we find just one atom in a molecule.
Matter may occur as solid, liquid or gas. In case of solid, molecules have great
attraction for each other, and although in state of continuous vibration they form a set pattern
giving the solid a definite shape, and they offer resistance to any attempt to charge that shape.
In case of liquid these inter-molecular attraction is relatively less, hence molecules do not
firmly hold each other, but allow relative movement, matter deform easily and take shape of container
in which it is placed in liquid form. In case of gaseous state, there is very less attraction between
molecule hence they do not have any shape.
18.3.3 Forms of Element: The basic 102 elements could be divided in to three categories, namely, metals,
metalloids and non-metals. Example of metal is Gold, Silver, Copper, example of metalloids
is Carbon, Boron, Silicon etc. example of non-metal is Oxygen, Phosphorus, sulphur etc.
These three types of element may co-exist in two forms that are Mixture of two
elements and Compound.
18.3.4 Mixture: In case of mixture two elements are thoroughly mixed with each other as a homogenous
mass. But the small particle of individual element retain their basic properties, they could be
separated again by suitable means to their natural pure state. For example powder of iron
and sulphur could be mixed with each other to form a mixture, but if a magnet is passed
through this mixture, iron particules will again separate out and get attracted to magnet, only sulphur
powder will remain in container.
18-2
Welding Technology
18.3.5 Compound: In case of compound two elements combined chemically and forms a third substance.
Which do not posses any property of basic pure elements. For example if iron and sulphur
are mixed in 7 to 4 ratio and heated then iron-sulphid will form which has properties other
then that of iron or sulphur.
Hence a mixture can be defined as a number of elements or compounds in close
proximity with each other without making any chemical interaction. They are allowing
separation to take place without great difficulty.
A compound is produced by the atomic combination of elements, and the resulting substance
has different property then basic element from which it has been formed. And it is difficult again to
decompose and form again principle elements. As water is a compound form by oxygen and
hydrogen. In a weld joint we find the metal exist in both the above two form. Iron combines with
carbon to form compound called Iron carbide, said compound remains in mixture form with solid
solution of iron and carbon called Ferrite.
18.3.6 Metal and their Alloys: To improve the mechanical property of a metal other elements are added in it. These
added metal may dissolve completely in base metal in molten state and is called Liquid
Solution.
The solubility, which is achieved in molten state may remain in solid state. On solidification
such combination or state of metal is called Solid Solution.
Some time solubility of alloying element decrease as base metal solidify. In such case alloying element
partially separately or precipitate out from base-metal. Hence on solidification base-metal will consist of
Solid-Solution, pure metal and pure-alloying element.
In some cases the alloying element not only remains dissolved in base-metal but also combines with
it on atomic level and forms a hard and brittle alloy called Inter-Metallic Compound.
Above all three states will come in picture when we study weld metal. Pure iron is base metal, carbon
as alloying element, carbide is inter-metallic compound and they will exist in all the state discussed above in
weld deposit.
18.3.7
Formation of Grains in Solids: -
Metals are crystalline is nature. That is when it starts solidifying it just do not form lumps of
homogenous mass and get solidified. But metal solidification process is systematic and well defined.
First few atom near the initial cooling zone form nucleus and other atom start collecting around it in
systematic and symmetric way, more and more atom joint them and they grow larger in volume in form of a
radial arm or star. Then each arm grows and at periodic interval they again form secondary arms at right angle.
This result in formation of a Crystal where appearance is likes a fir free. Hence some time these crystals are
also referred as fir tree crystal. The correct names of such crystals are Dendrites.
Ultimate grain
boundaries
Figure No. 18.3.7

Figure No.18.3.7 (a) Dendrite Crystals

18-3
Welding Technology
As crystal formation starts at number of places at a time. Hence as they grow longer they
come in contact with branches of other crystal. This brings about restriction of crystal growth.
Hence after this stage crystal could not grow in systematic pattern, but just fill all the un-solidified
spaces. On solidification no trace of original fir-free crystal could be found but only irregular spherical.
There irregular spherical crystalline structure is called Grain.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Few Crystals Formed

Crystal grow larger
Crystal touching each other
All the space between dendrites (crystal) filled and grains formed.
Following figure No.13.3 will show a schematic diagram of solidification of metal from molten start
to grain formation.
Figure No. 18.3.7 (b) Grain Formation

18.3.8
Grain Growth: -
When molten metal is poured in a mould for casting. Molten metal which come in contact with cold walls of
mould start solidifying immediately. Many nuclii forms in outer layer, and a layer immediately solidifies.
Resulting in a mass made up of many small crystalline grains generally referred as Fine Grain. After this,
solidification progress in-word toward center. First nuclii forms adjacent to outer solidified layers, as
crystallization begins the crystal immediately come in contact with adjacent crystal in lateral direction hence
crystals get space for growth only in one direction, that is longitudinal direction toward center. Hence the
resulting crystal grains are not spherical but elongated. Such grains are called Columnar Grain.
The continuation of heat loss through out the mass will so reduce the internal temperature that simultaneous
freezing of the remaining molten metal will now take place at central zone. The seed of crystal that is nuclii
forms in all the remaining molten metal. They grow in all the direction, as they do not have restriction from
any side. Two solidified layers that is fine grain and columnar grain acts as casing, though solidified but still
hot enough, hence solidification time of inner core is maximum as compared to outer layer. Crystallization
process continues for longer period. Hence the grain is also growing to large size. As crystal of central portion
grow equally in all the direction hence they are also refer as equi-axed, and as they are large in size hence also
called as coarse grain.
A sectional view of cast ingot clearly shows the three type of crystal formation. Same process also occurs
while solidification of weld metal. Coarse grains decrease the ductility and tensile strength of metal. Hence
always fine grains are desired.
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Welding Technology
Chilled crystals
(Fine-Grains)
Equi - axed crystals

(Coarse-Grains)
Columnar crystals
(Columnar Graining)
Figure No. 18.3.8

Casted Ingot of Pure Metal Showing
Three Type of Crystal Structures
18.4 The Iron Carbide Equilibrium diagram: Iron is an allotropic metal, which means that it can exist in more then one type of atomic arrangement structure
(lattice structure) depending upon temperature. A cooling curve for pure iron is as shown in following figure.
18.4.1 Physical Properties of Iron: -
Molten Iron
0
1539 C
Delta Iron
0
A4
Gamma Iron
TEMP. C
1400 C
A3
Paramagnetic
Alpha Iron
A2
Ferromagnetic
Aapha Iron
910 C
0
770 C
TIME
Figure No. 18.4.1
18-5
Welding Technology
1. Melting point
1539 C
2. Boiling point
2740 C
3. Density
7.87 gm/c.c.
4. Thermal conductivity at 20 to 25 C
0.19 cal/sec/sq cm/C/cm
5. Electrical conductivity at 20 to 25 C
100,000 micro-ohms/c.c.
6. Youngs Modulus of Elasticity
2,000,000 kg/cm2
7. Tensile strength
2,350-2,650 kg/cm2
8. Yield strength
650-1300 kg/cm2
9. Elongation in 50mm at 20 C
20 45%
10. Reduction of Area
70 90%
11. Brinell Hardness
50 70%
12. Impact Strength
2.1 m/kg
13. Creep Strength 300 C
1,100 kg/cm2
400 C
800 kg/cm2
600 C
160 kg/cm2
100C
0.0000126
300C
0.0000146
600C
0.000016
100C
0.12 cal/gm
500C
0.16cal/gm
700C
0.32 cal/gm
900C
18.5 cm/gm
16. Resistivity
9.8 micro-ohms/c.c.
17. Maximum permeability
28,000
18. Hardenability
Can be hardened by very severe quenching.
14. Thermal Expansion per degree centigrade
15. Specific Heat
18-6
Welding Technology
austenite
solid solution of carbon
in face - centred - cubic iron
1000
UPPER CRITICAL POINT

900
Ac3
800
critical range
ferrite + austenite
Ac3
full anneoling
normalizing
hardening
critical range
cementite + austenite
Ac1
700
LOWER CRITICAL POINT
body - centred - cubic iron
Ac1
600
500
degC 0
hypereutectoid steels
pearlite + cemenlite
hypoeutectoid steels
ferrite + pearlite
eutectoid
0.83% carbon
0.2
0.4
0.6
steel
100% pearlite
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
per cent carbon
Figure No. 17.4.1 (b)

18.4.2 Terms Related to IronIron carbide Equiliprium diagram: 1)
Atomic structure of iron (B. C. C. & F. C. C..).
2)
Ferrite.
3)
Cementite.
4)
Austenite.
5)
Pearlite and its formation.
6)
Lower critical temperature line.
7)
Upper critical temperature line.
18.4.3
Body-centered Cubic Atomic Structure of Iron and Ferrite (b.c.c.): -
The atomic arrangement of iron bellow 700 C. is in the form of Body-Centred cubic (b.c.c.) structure, as
shown in following figure. This structure can accommodate less carbon atoms between its b.c.c. Structure.
Only 0.025% carbon can be fully dissolved in such structure and form solid solution. Such solid solution is
called Ferrite. Ferrite is soft and ductile and has hardness only 50 to 100 Brinells.
18.4.4 Face-centered Cubic Atomic Structure of Iron and Austenite (f.c.c.): -
Figure No. 18.4.4
Figure No. 18.4.4 (b) Body Centred Cubic Lattice
18-7
Welding Technology
As temperature of iron increase the atoms of iron re-arrange them-self and become face-centered cubic structure
(f.c.c.) as shown in following figure.
This arrangement of atom can accommodate more atom of carbon between its atomic patterns. 1.7% carbon can
dissolve in iron and make solid solution. But this is an unstable state and cannot exist below 700 C. (lower
critical temperature). This solid solution is known as Austenite.
Figure No. 18.4.4 (c)

18.4.5
Figure No. 18.4.4 (d) Face Centred Cubic Lattice
Cementite: -
Ferrite we have discussed in b.c.c. iron. It is a solid solution iron with 0.025% carbon. It is soft and duclite.
While cementite is an interstitial compound of iron and carbon. It is also called iron-carbide (Fe3C). It has
6.67 percent of carbon by weight. Cementite is extremely hard and brittle material. It has harness 1400 Brinell.
18.4.6
Pearlite: -
When Austenite, which is a solid solution of, face-centered cubic iron and carbon start changing from f.c.c. to
body center cubic structure, which has low solubility of carbon. As re-arrangement of atoms progresses from
f.c.c. to b.c.c., carbon come out of atomic structure in form (Fe3C) cementite, and form a disc or plate like
grain. The iron (ferrite) which has just depleted the excess carbon and has only 0.025% soluble carbon also
accumulate as a layer on both side of disc or plate like cementite. This process continues till all f.c.c. change
to b.c.c.
The alternate layer of ferrite and cementite looks like a fingerprint if observed by microscope, and called as
Pearlite.
peorlite
cementite
Microstructure of Pearlite(Cementite)
Figure No. 18.4.6
18-8
Welding Technology
18.4.7 Critical temperature: When b.c.c. iron are heated, at a particular temperature it starts changing its atomic structure. If it is further
heated the changing from b.c.c. to f.c.c. Continue and at a particular temperature all b.c.c. will change over to
f.c.c.
The temperature at which change over from b.c.c. to f.c.c. begins is called lower critical temperature point.
The temperature at which b.c.c. to f.c.c. charge over completed is called upper critical temperature.
The lower critical temperature is almost constant and same for all the percentage of carbon in iron, while upper
critical temperature depends upon the percentage of carbon in iron.
18.4.8
Eutectoid point: -
When carbon percent in iron is 0.83%. The change over of atomic structure from b.c.c. to f.c.c on heating, or
f.c.c. to b.c.c. on cooling takes place on a single temperature (app 723 C), and upper and lower critical
temperature are same. This point is called eutectoid point. Steel having 0.83% carbon called eutectoid steel,
iron with less than 0.83% carbon is called hypo-eutectoid steel, and iron with more then 0.83% carbon is
called hyper-eutectoid steel.
18.5
Effect of it Heating & Cooling on Granular Structure of Iron: -
We have already studied that when iron-heated up atomic structure of iron changes from b.c.c. to f.c.c. And
above upper critical temperature almost all carbon gets dissolve in iron and makes a solid solution, which is
unstable and cannot exist at room temperature.
Now if same solution cooled down, we will get various types of grain structure at various temperatures, which
depends upon percentage of carbon and rate of cooling. First we will study only effect of carbon, (very slow
cooling).
18.5.1
Cooling of Hypo-eutectoid Steel: -
Hypo-eutectoid is that steel which has less than 0.83% carbon. Above upper critical temperature all the
carbon is in solid solution with iron known as Austenite with f.c.c. As temperature reaches the upper-critical
temperature line, the percentage of carbon austenite can keep is govern by line FD.
Figure No. 18.5.1

Below FD line f.c.c. Iron Start changing over to b.c.c. Pattern, which has less solubility of carbon. Hence
above FD, all the grain was of Autemite, but below FD, some iron change over to b.c.c. which loose carbon
and contain only 0.025% carbon, which is called Ferrite. It accumulates on boundary of austenite grains.
Whatever carbon dissociated from ferrite gets dissolve in austenite as austenite can accommodates upto 1.5%
carbon. When lower-critical temperature reaches, which as line BDE, the austenite which is not changed yet
can absorbe upto 0.83% carbon, and it absorbes that much carbon, from other grain converting to ferrite.
18-9
Welding Technology
Below lower critical temperature f.c.c. structure cannot exist. Hence as temperature drops below this limit,
eutectoid reaction takes place in all the austenite grain and change them to fine finger-print like structure of
ferrite and cementite called pearlite.
18.5.2
Cooling of Hyper-eutectoid Steel: -
Hyper-eutectoid steel is those, which contain more than 0.83% carbon. Various stages of cooling and grain
structure is shown in figure.
Above upper-critical temperature DG, iron is Austenite state which is unsaturated iron-carbon solid solution,
and can dissolve up to 1.7 % carbon. As soon as upper-critical temperature reaches. This amount of carbon
can be dissolve in Austenite is governed by line DG, which indicate that solubility of carbon decrease with
decrease in temperature.. Hence with drop in temperature austenite dissipate excess carbon which in form of
iron-carbide start accumulating on boundaries of austenite grains.
Just above lower-critical temperature austenite contain 0.83% carbons and excess carbon accumulate on
boundary of austenite in form of a networking of iron-carbon. As soon as temperature droops below lower
critical temperature eutectoid reaction takes place and all austenite grain converted in to pearlite grains.
Figure No. 18.5.2

18.5.3
Cooling of Eutectoid Iron: -
Iron with 0.83% carbon called eutectoid iron, when such iron is cooled down nothing happens till lowercritical temperature reaches and whole mass remain austenite with 0.83% carbon. But as soon as temperature
drops bellow lower-critical temperature eutectoid reaction takes place
and at same temperature all austenite grain change over to pearlite
grain.
18.6
Effect of Cooling Rates on Steel: -
At high temperature carbon makes a solid solution with iron

and remains completely dissolved in face-centered cubic
structure of steel. But if said steel cools down very rapidly (
Quenched in cold water) then iron will transform from face
centers body lattice to body-center cubic lattice, but carbon
do not get sufficient time to precipitate out from body centered
cubic structure of iron and get trapped to form an unstable
Figure No. 18.6

18-10
Welding Technology
and super-saturated state of iron which is very hard, and brittle, and consist of an acicular structure,
known as Martensite.
To improve this undesirable state of steel, it is again heated so that
carbon gets time to separate out and unit free iron to form a more stable
state.
When such steel is heated and cooled slightly slower rate then
that required to form martensite, than the resulting structure is
called Troostite. It is slightly softer than martensite but still hard
enough. Micro structure consists of long granules of cementite
present in mantensite.
Microstucture of Troostite
Figure No. 18.6 (a)
When cooling rate is further slower

than that required to produce the Troostite, then Sorbite will form. This
structure consist of a mixture of small un-oriented particle of cementite
and ferrite.
A pearlite consists of laminer structure of cementite and ferrite while a
sorbite has granular structure of cementite and ferrite.
Microstucture of Sorbite
Sorbite is not hard as Troostite

but it is tough with good in overall strength.
Figure No. 18.6 (b)
Microstructure of Austenite
Figure No. 18.6 (c)
Microstructure of Pearlite(Eutectoid)
Figure No. 18.6 (d)
Hence the resulting structure obtained by cooling Austenite depends upon rate of cooling. If is
very fast then very hard martensite will form, as rate of cooling slows down then Troostite, Sorbite
or Pearlite will form.
18-11
Welding Technology
If Martensite is cooled very slowly then all the carbon will come out from solid solution and form
alternate layer of cementite and ferrite and form pearlite.
Figure No. 18.7

Above details explain how important is heating joint before welding, and controlling its cooling
rate. A rapidly cooled joint may have hard marten site or troostite structure, which is hard and
brittle, and joint will fail as soon as load applied.
Even after taking all the precaution some time welded joint and heat-affected area near welding
gets heated. In such case welded structures is heat treated to remove all harden zones.
In chapter of heat treatment we will study the various process of heat treatment used in fabrication
and while manufacturing hydraulic presses.
18.7
Granular Structure of Welded Joint: -
A welded joint can be considered as a castled structure, and process and sequence of grain formation is same
as those of casting.
weld
slot
mild steel plate
(a)
Figure No. 18.8

Under the intense heat of arc core of welding rod melts, and get collected in joint of base metal.
The molten metal first comes in contact with base metal which is much cool, hence solidification
starts from base-metal, and propagates from both side of weld deposit toward center. As each
grain grows it come in early contact with lateral grain, hence growth is mostly in longitudinal direction.
Hence grain produced is of columnar type. Which is weaker than fine structure.
In case of welded joint in which number of welding presses has to be made. The new welding
process heats the last weld deposit above upper critical temperature, because of which recrystylization takes place and helps in formation of fine equi-axed grain structure, which
has much, more strength then columnar grains.
18.7.1
Analysis of the Heat-affected Zone of the Parent Metal: -
A welded joint can be considered as a casted structure, welding rod and base-metal first melt and then solidify.
Iron melts as 1539 0C Electric arc produce very high temperature, hence temperature may be more than 1539 0C.
These heated and molten masses of iron also affect the surrounding area of base metal.
These heat affected zone for simplicity we divide into four zones as follow.
18-12
Welding Technology
a.
Weld metal deposition: -
Due to heat produce due to electric arc welding rod gets melted and get deposited in the joint of base metal.
When weld metal solidify they have elongated or columnar grain structure as shown in figure and as we have
studied in case of billet casting. Solidification starts from base metal and prolongates toward center of deposit
metal.
b.
Over Heated Zone: -
This zone start from fusion line, which is junction between weld dilution and unmelted base metal to the base
metal, which reached temperature very, near to melting point. In this zone severe grain growth takes place due
to over heating, which reduce the mechanical properties of base-metal unless joint is again heat treated.
Coarse grain structure is known as Widmanstatten structure.
c.
Refining Zone: -
This zone starts from over-heated zone and cover those area, which got heated above upper critical temperature
range.
As in this area metal gets heated above upper-critical temperature range hence, carbon dissolves in iron and
austenite microstructure forms. And after cooling rate is sufficiently high to avoid grain growth and forms
fine-grain structure similar to normalized steel is formed.
d.
Transition Zone: -
This zone gets heated bellow critical point. Hence complete re-crystylization does not take place but partial
recrystylization takes place. Hence instead of a clear grain structure pattern a complex structure gets produce.
Annealed base metal
Unaffected zone
300-150 C
Transition zone
900-300 C
Refined zone
1400-900 C
Weld Metal
Over heated zone
1500-1400 C
above
1900 0C
1500-1400 C
1400-900 0 C
Over heated zone
900-300 0C
Refined zone
Transition zone
Unaffected zone
Cold rolled bore metal with

elongated grain structures
300-150 C
After this zone base-metal remains unaffected.
Figure No. 18.7.1

From the knowledge of Mechanism of grain growth, Effect of carbon on iron and Effect of cooling rate
on grain structure of iron. We realize that it is not only the welding rod and technique of welding affect the
strength of a welding joint. But most important is composition of base-metal, core of welding rod, and preheating
and controlled cooling rate of welded joint which governs the strength of welding joint. If due to any reason
base metal has various alloying elements, which are difficult to weld, then special welding rod is to be used to
get good welding strength, which we will study in chapter of selection of welding rod. And in case when
cooling rate cannot be controlled and harden zone are bound to form, the welded structure are heat treated to
reduce the residual stress set up during welding and to eliminate the hard zones.
The heat treatment we will study in chapter on hard treatment.
18.8
Deformation and Distortion in Welding: -
When heated, metals expands, and when cool down they contract. This is basic property of metal, which is
main cause of deformation and distortion of a fabricated structure.
To understand it correctly let us discusses two examples.
Example 1: - Welding of a slotted plate.
18-13
Welding Technology
Sample piece of weld able type iron plate with a slot at center is ready for welding.
When a welding run is passed above the slot on one side. The base metal on topside of slot gets heated up,
and tries to expand. This expansion is resisted by all the cooler area on lower side of slot. Heating reduce the
yield strength of metal. Hence cooler areas are stronger then heated area hence, heated portion cannot deform
the cooler portion. Hence mass of the metal, which is expanding due to heat, cannot expand, so they expand
in thickness side and increase the thickness of plate.
Tendency to deform
(b)
Figure No. 18.8 (a)

Now the welding run is start cooling. As temperature reduce strength increase. Reduction in temperature
results in contraction of heated mass. Upper portion of slot, when contracts it pulls the lower portion of slot.
Lower portion offer resistance as it resisted when upper heated portion tried to push it. But now contraction
portion is much stronger due to reduction in temperature and increase in strength, it over come the resistance
offered by lower portion, tensile stress developed in this portion, reaches the yield point and deformation
takes place as shown in Fig No. 13.21
Same thing also occurs in thickness direction. Hence distortion is not in one direction but in two directions.
The Effects of Distorion

Figure No. 18.8 (b)
CASE 2: - In above example we studied effect of distortion due to welding on single base-metal. Now we will
study the distortion when two base metals joint together.
Consider a single V butt joint. When the root run is laid down. The weld deposit when in heated condition
undergo expansion; but as base-metal are rigid, the welding deposit its self undergo plastic deformation and
swells-out. When it starts cooling, its strength increases and pulls in the base-metal. Hence the direction of
shrinkage is towards weld-deposit.
Now when second run is made. Initially the new deposits tries to push the two base-metal. Which is resisted
by weld-deposit of first run. And when it cool down it pull the base-metal, which is again resisted by weldDesign and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan
18-14
Welding Technology
deposit of first run. But while contracting weld deposit of second run becomes strong due to increase in
strength at low temperature hence it pulls the base-metal. Which results in distortion in angular direction.
direction
shrinkage
of
(a)
one run
direction
of
distrotion
(b)
two runs
Angular Distortion
Figure No. 18.8 (c)

CASE3: - When a base-metal is welded at its center, it also undergoes distortion in longitudinal
and transverse direction as shown in following fig.
direction of
shrinkage
"Longitudinal"
direction of
shrinkage
"TRANSVERSE"
Longitudinal and Transverse Distortion
Figure No. 18.8 (d)

HOT-CRACKING: We have already discussed the process of distortion in welded joint. To avoid distortion, the base metal are
reinforced or supported externally to avoid distortion. In such cases some time crack-appear in weld- deposit,
when it is still in heated condition, this defect is called Hot-Cracking.
Base-metal as well as core of welding rod contains impurities such as sulpher, nitrogen, high carbon, etc.
which has low-freezing point that is they freezes after iron gets solidified. When molten metal of weld-deposit
starts solidifying bellow 1500C the dendrite forms, and grows to make grains. The impurities get collected on
boundary of two grain, and produce a weak joint between two grain. At around 1000 C all mass of welddeposit gets solidified and shrinkage starts. But as weld deposit has weak joint between grain boundaries.
18-15
Welding Technology
Hence the pulling stress produces a fracture on grain boundary, which progress and become a big crack in
weld-deposit. It may remain hidden bellow weld-metal and called under-bead cracking or appear on surface.
18.9
Control of Welding Distortion: -
In welding distortion is bound to happen, but following suggestion will help to reduce it.
1
DO NOT OVER-WELD: - Weld exactly amount required. More welding means more heating. Which
results in more contraction and more deformation.
2
USE AS FEW PASSES AS POSSIBLE: - the more the number of passes, the more is resulting shrinkage,
because shrinkage of each press tends to cumulate, and hence the distortion. Use large size electrode with
high deposit efficiency for welding.
3
Balance two shrinkage force to minimum overall distortion as explain in following fig.
5
3
1
2
4
6
Double Vee Preparation
Figure No. 18.9

4
Pre-heat the base-metal so that the there is no localized heating and cooling which results in distortion
and residual stress. Due to pre-heating, cooling rate of weld-deposit slows down, and it cools along with
whole body hence no contractional force, which cause distortion.
5
NEUTRALIZE SHRINKAGE FORCE DURING AND AFTER WELDING BY PENNING: - Penning is an
operation in which weld-deposit is hammered to make it thin or flat in hot condition to stop its shrinkage
tendency.
In figure (13.22) weld-metal is pulling base-metal for an angular- distortion. When it is hammered, the tendency
of pulling gets neutralized. Use blunt chisel if direct hammering is not possible.
6
Use jigs and fixture or support to avoid distortion. Before welding we can predict how the distortion
will take place. To reduce or avoid it we can use external support or fixture till joint cooled down. But such
procedure produces residual stress in base metal. Residual stress can be reduced by normalizing, or postheating.
7
Use back step and skip method of welding: -
run
run
run
run
run
Skip Welding
run
4
Figure No. 18.9 (a)

18-16
Welding Technology
Overall welding progress from left to right, but each small run is made from right to left.
run
run
run
run
run
run
6
Back Stepping
Figure No. 18.9 (b)
18.10
Common Weld Defects and their Remedies: -
18.10.1 Porosity: Porosity is caused by damp electrodes, rusty and dirty plates. High sulpher contains in plate, and sluggish
welding.
REMEDY: - Bake electrode before welding, clean and grind surface before welding. Select suitable electrode
to overcome effect of sulpher.
18.10.2 Slag Inclusion: This can be on the surface or hidden, and caused by the dirty surfaces of the joint;. Improper sequence and
arrangement of subsequent welding passes. Inadequate cleaning after each pass. Using wrong grade of electrode,
and using large size of electrode for narrow groove.
Remedy: - Clean surface thoroughly, after every pass clean slag completely, and hand grind it if required.
Decide each pass of welding, while welding deep groove; ensure that there is always room and space to clean
slag. Use correct grade and size of electrode.
18.10.3 Lack of Fusion: It caused by incorrect joint preparation, and fit-up. Using too large or small electrode as compared to basemetal size. Too low current for given electrode size. Improper arrangement of passes.
Remedy: - Prepare joint correctly, use deep penetration type of electrode. Use correct current for selected
electrode.
18.10.4 Under Cutting: It is caused by too high current, wrong angle of welding of electrode, too fast welding speed.
Remedy: - Learn the caused by using too low current, too slow welding speed and due to improper angel of
electrode.
18.10.5 Cracking: This is the most severe type of defect which can hamper the performance and life of a hydraulic press
drastically. Their possible cause and remedies are as follow.
a)
Welding will crack if base-metal is high in carbon or sulpher or hardening elements like MO, Cr, V, Ni,
etc. Use hydrogen-controlled electrode for welding and pre-heat job before welding.
b)
Welding will also crack if weld-metal of electrode is not ductile enough, it may be too low in manganese
or too high in carbon. Welding will also crack if electrodes are very damp. Use correct grade of electrode and
bake if before use.
18-17
Welding Technology
c)
Welding will crack if the base-metal are not fitted correctly. At the root base metal must fuse correctly.
If base-metal do not fuse, then cracking propagate from unfused joint of base-metal.
Improve fit-up, use deep penetration type electrode, use correct size of electrode as per gap, and pre-heating
of job.
d)
In high carbon steels and alloy steels, especially when the section is thick Under bead cracks are
more pronounce at the junction between the weld metal and the base-metal. These are not visible initially but
open out to the surface after some period. This can be avoided using ductile type electrode low in hydrogen
and freshly dried in oven before use. Base-metal (joint area) is also adequately pre-heated.
18.10.6 Hydrogen Cracking: Under intense heat of arc, the water in form of moisture gets dissociated in oxygen and hydrogen. The iron at
high temperature is in the form austenite which can dissolve high amount of hydrogen at high temperature, but
solubility decrease with reduction in temperature.
Hence the dissolved hydrogen; starts separating form solid solution with drop in temperature and start the
collecting in gaps, and fissres between the dendrites and grain boundary, and produces a weak joint. This joint
open up in micro-scopic level a under contraction forces set up due to shrinkage. If grows and become a crack
as cooling and contraction completes.
To avoid hydrogen cracking, avoid all source of moisture, use low-hydrogen type of electrode, and back it
before use.
In this chapter we discussed only the commonly used type of welding process, that is Welding by flux core
welding rod. So far we studied theoretical part of welding technology. We also should be aware of the
welding electrode available in market by various manufacturers, coding of various grade of electrode. Flux
used on electrode their function, and importance.
Core metal wire of many electrodes are same. But their quality and grade differ due to the different
type of flux coated on electrode wire. Following paragraph will give you idea about the material used in flux
and their function and effect on welding.
18.11 Electrode Coating Ingredients and their Functions: 18.11.1 Slag Forming Ingredients: Flux consists of silicates of sodium, potassium, magnesium, aluminum, iron oxide, china clay, mica, etc.
These items produce a slag, which because of its light weight from a layer on the molten metal and protect the
same from atmospheric contamination.
18.11.2 Gas Shielding Ingredients: Materials like cellulose, wood, wood flour, starch calcium carbonate etc. are added which form a protective
gas shield around the electrode end, arc and weld pool.
18.11.3 Deoxidizing Elements: Elements like Ferro-manganese and Ferro-silicon refine the molten metal.
18.11.4 Stabilizing Constituents: Material like calcium carbonate, potassium silicate, titanates, magnesium silicate etc. are added to arc stability
and ease of striking the arc.
18.11.5 Alloying Elements: Element like Ferro alloys of manganese molybdenum etc. are added to improve suitable properties and strength
to the weld metal and to compensate the loss of some of the element, which vaporize while welding.
18.11.6 Iron Powder: This element, when added it improve arc behavior, bead appearance and mechanical properties it increase
metal-deposition rate and arc travel speed. Slag is easily detachable. These electrodes because of slag fluidity
are generally employed for welding.
18.12
Coding of Mild Steel and Low Alloy Steels Electrodes: -
18.12.1 American System of Coding (AWS ASTM): E XX XX
e.g.
E 70 18
18-18
Welding Technology
E XXX XX
a)
e.g.
E 100 15
Letter E signifies that electrode is suitable for metal (Electrode) arc welding.
b)
XX or XXX or first two or first three digits indicate the minimum tensile strength of weld-metal in
thousands of pounds per sq. inch., e.g. E 70 18 and E 100 15 have 70,000 & 100,000 lbs/sq.in. Tensile
strength. This value may be 45, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 and 120.
c)
Second last digit indicates the welding position. 1 indicates all position welding, 2 flat and horizontal
and 3 flat positions only.
d)
Last digit indicate, about power supply, type of covering, type of arc, penetration characteristics etc.
18.12.2 Indian System (IS): In is standard electrode is coded as
L
LETTER
XXXXXX
DIGITS
LETTER
Various letters and digits indicates following: i)

1st Letter: - It can be E or R. E indicates that electrode is solid extruded and R means an electrode
extruded with reinforcement.
ii)
Digit: - It indicates the class of covering. It can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 9.
1 Means high cellulose content.

2 Means high titania contents resulting in fairly various slag.
3 Means appreciable titania content resulting in a fluid slag.
4 Means high iron and/or oxides and/or silicates content resulting in inflated slag.
5 Means high calcium carbonate and fluoride contents.
6 Any other type of covering not mentioned above.
iii)
2nd Digit :- It indicates the position in which electrode can weld satisfactorily. Second digit may be 0,
1, 2, 3, 4 or 9.
0 Means electrode can be used for all position.
1 Means electrode can be flat, horizontal, overhead and vertical position.
2 Means flat, horizontal position.
3 Flat only.
4 Flat and horizontal fillet position.
9 Not classified above.
iv)
3rd Digit :- It gives in idea of correct, polarity and open circuit voltage of the welding power source.
It can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 9.
0 Indicate D+, i.e DERP.
1 Indicate D+ A90, i.e DERP or Ac with OC voltage over 90 volts.
2 Indicate D-, A70, i.e, DESP or Ac with OCV over 70 volts.
3 Indicate D-, A50, i.e, DCSP or Ac with OCV over 50 volts.
4 Indicate D+, A70, i.e, DERP or Ac with OCV over 70 volts.
5 Indicate D, A70, i.e, DSSP, DCRP, Ac with OCV over 90 volts.
6 Indicate D, A70, i.e, DCSP, DCRP, Ac with OCV over 70 volts.
7 Indicate D, A45, i.e, DCSP, Ac with OCV over 50 volts.
9 Not classified above.
v)
4th and 5th Digits :- They indicate range of tensile strength and value of minimum yield stress.
18-19
Welding Technology
vi)
6th Digit :- It indicate percentage elongation and impact value.
vii)
Last Digit :- It could be P, H, J, K and L.
= Indicate deep penetration electrode.
= Indicate hydrogen controlled electrode.
=Indicate electrode with iron power coating and metal recovery 110 130%.
=Is similar to J but metal recovery 130 150%.
=Is similar to J but above 150% recover of weld.
In manufacturing hydraulic press Author recommend following grades of electrode.

1.
General purpose fabrication: -
Use E 6013 grade, over-cord or over-cord-S or equivalent grade of electrode for welding press-body up to
20mm thick plate and general fabrication.
2.
Fluid Pipe Line Welding: -
Use E 6013 grade over code-SS or equivalent grade of electrode for welding steel seamless pipeline flanges etc.
3.
Welding Thick Plate: - For welding thick plate use E7018 Grade low hydrogen electrode supercito,
supertherm or equivalent electrode.
4.
For welding thick plate first heat plates between 100 to 200 0C and bake the electrode and in heated
condition weld them.
TYPE
APPROXIMATE COMPARISON OF ELECTRODES OF VERIOUS MAKE

AWS
ADVANI
D & H SECHRON
ESAB INDIA
CODING
OERLIKON
MILD STEEL
E 6010
E 6013
E 6013
E 6013
E 6013
E 6013
LOW HYDROGEN E 7016
LOW HYDROGEN E 7018
IRON POWDER
E 7018 1
E 7018 A1
LOW ALLOY HIGH E 8018 G
TENSILE
E 9018 G
E 100 M
E 110 M
HARD FACING
STAINLESS STEEL
CAST IRON
E 308 16
E 347 16
E 308L 16
E 316 16
E 318 16
E 316L 16
E 310 16
E 317L 16
E 309 16
E 309 Mo 16
E 410 15
E 410 NiMoXX
E 18.8 Mn B 20
EST
ENIFE CI
ENI CU B
ENI CI
EDUNC
CITOJET
OVERCORD
OVERCORD S
OVERCORD SS
OVERCORD S (SPL)
COMET BLUE
UNIVERS
SUPERCITO X PLUS
TANACITO - Z PLUS
MOLYCORD
TENACITO 60
TENACITO 70
TENACITO 75
TENACITO 80
CITORAIL I
CITORAIL II
CITORAIL III
CITORAIL III (L.H.)
CITORAIL V
CITOMANGAN
SUPER INOX 1A
SUPER INOX 1B
SUPER INOX 1C
SUPER INOX 2A
SUPER INOX 2B
SUPER INOX 2C
INOX CW
SUPER INOX 2D
INOX D2
INOX D2 Mo
CITOCHROME 13
CITOCHROME 13/4
CITOCHROMAX ND
CITO CAST
FERRONICRON
SUPERFONTE
SUPERNICRON
BRONZE
-----------NORMA
MEDIO
EXOBEL
MEDIO S
FERROVITE
INDOTHERM
SUPRATHERM
SUPRATHERM (SPL)
MOLY THERM
SUPRATHERM NI (SPL)
TENSAL
ULTRATENSAL M
ULTRATENSAL MH
BOR AR
BOR B
BOR C
-----------D & H 630 H
SMA
RUTOX A
RUTOX A (STB)
RUTOX B
RUTOX Mo
RUTOX Mo (STB)
RUTOX D
D & H 310 16
RUTOX E
D & H 309L
D & H 309 Mo
D & H 13Cr
-----------SIA (RUTILE)
-----------D & H III CI
D & H MONEL
NFM
------------
PIPEWELD 6010R
ESAB FEROSPEED PLUS
ESAB 28/ESAB VORDIAN
ESAB VORTEX 1
ESAB C2 3S
ESAB 56/ESAB FERROWELD - 1
ESAB 36H/ESAB FERROWELD 2
ESAB 36 H (SPL)
OK 74.46
OK 73.08
----------------------ESAB 118
DUROID 250
DUROID 350
DUROID 650
DUROID 650 B / ESAB 600 B
-----------ESAB DUROMANGAN/MN (SPL)
OK 61.50 / CHROME WELD R 316
OK 61.80
OK 61.30
OK 63.50 / CHORMWELD R 316
OK 63.8
OK 63.30
OK 67.13
-----------OK 67.60
OK 68.00
OK 68.10
-----------CHORMIWELD G
-----------FERROWELD 1
FERROLOID 3
FERROLOID 1
FERROLOID - 4
ROYAL ARC
ROYAL 6010
ROYAL BOND
ROYAL S
ROYAL SS
ROYAL S (SPL)
ROYAL 724
ROYAL 7016
ROYAL THERM
ROYAL THERM (SPL)
ROYAL THERM MOLY
ROYAL THERM (NI)SPL
ROYAL 9018
ROYAL 100M
ROYAL 110M
ROYAL C I
ROYAL C II
ROYAL C III
ROYAL C III (L.H.)
ROYAL C- V
ROYAL MANGAN
ROYAL 1A
ROYAL 1B
ROYAL 1C
ROYAL 2A
ROYAL 2B
ROYAL 2C
ROYAL CW
ROYAL 2b
ROYAL D2
ROYAL D2Mo
ROYAL CHROME 13
ROYAL CHROME 13/4
ROYAL 18 / 8 / 5
ROYAL CAST
ROYAL CAST FeNi
ROYAL CAST CN
ROYAL N
ROYAL BRONZE
18-20
Welding Technology
5.
For welding tested ASTM 106 grade seamless pipe of cylinder and endplug of flange etc. first preheat the cylinder, bake the welding rod , and then weld the root run with low hydrogen electrode such as
supercito or super-therm. These electrodes spatter while using welding transformer hence welding rectifier
will be more preferable. After welding root run full welding can be completed with same grade of electrode,
or the last few run could be completed with over-cord-SS or Equivalent electrode.
6.
For welding cylinder pipe of unknown grade or any two base metal of unknown grade, heat the base
metal, and use universe-W grade electrode after baking it.
18.13.
Welding of press body.
When press body is welded it with deform in following way.

1.Rectangular fabricated structure off four-column press
Before Welding
Top view
After Welding
Top view
2. Long fabricated body.
Figure No. 18.13

We know the direction of deformation, before we start fabrication. Hence we provide support in
such a way that it gets minimize. Supports removed after completion of fabrication. Maximum
deformation occurs at the time of cooling of fabricated body. And some deformation continue for
long period of time due to resident stress set in while fabrication . Hence if the accuracy of pressbody is very important them press-body must be annealed before removal of support. And if
accuracy is not very important than also keep the support for maximum possible time, so that
because of natural seasoning tendency to deform get reduced
18.14.
Welding of Hydraulic Cylinder: -
Most critical welding in hydraulic press is a welding of end plug of hydraulic cylinder. Hence we will
particularly study welding procedure of end-plug.
18.14.1 Design of End-Plug And Welding Procedure: 1.
Design and decide the thickness of end-plug by equation.
Top View
Top View
Front View
Front View
After Welding
Before Welding
Figure No. 18.14.1

18-21
Welding Technology
t = D x 0.4 (P/ft)
2.
First end-plug is threaded and fitted in cylinder then welded. Calculate the number of thread required
to takes the full load coming on end-plug.
Load on end-plug (W) = Area x Working Pressure = A x P
W = D x 3.14 x p x N x fs (Number of thread required to withstand this load can be calculated as)
W = Load (kg.).
A = Area of cross-section of cylinder D (cm).
P = Working Pressure kg/cm.
D = Pitch Circle diameter of end-plug / cylinder threading.
p = Pitch of thread.
N = Nos. of thread.
fs = shear stress of material.
Make threading and fit end-plug in cylinder.
3.
For welding prepare the welding joint while machining thread.
4.
Tighten the thread to maximum extend. So that end-plug does not have clearance for movement
under pressure, thread takes all loads. Threads are for taking load and welding though can take load, but use
them only for making joint leak proof.
5.
Heat the joint and cover remaining portion of cylinder to avoid heat loss. Heat between 1000C to
0
200 C.
6.
Use low hydrogen electrode for welding. Bake welding electrode for 2hr. at 1500 to 2000C.
7.
Run first weld as shown in following figure.
Do not weld continuously from one end to another, as it will develop the crack. Weld metal deposit pulls the
end-plug to one side. Hence weld small line is opposite side to balance the pulling force. After one to two
initial such run, then joint can be continuously welded.
8.
In case of large cylinder use penning to over come pulling of end-plug on one side due to shrinkage
in weld deposit. For penning, weld a small portion, clean the flux take a blunt chisel, and hammer the weld
deposit with such a blow that it flattens the weld deposit. Do all this when weld deposit is still at sufficient
high temperature. Repeat this till welding is completed.
9.
After welding gets completed cover the whole cylinder, so that full cylinder gets slowly cooled. In no
condition cool water or any thing fall on heated welding joint. Neither it should left in cool breeze for cooling
down.
By slow cooling fine-grain structure will get produce, which are ductile and soft. Even if coare grain gets
produced which has less strength, then also it does not matter, as load is taken by thread and not weld joint.
All cylinders expand when pressurized and contract on releasing pressure. If rate of cooling allowed to be
vary fast then martensite grain structure will get produced in welded joint, which are very hard, brittle and
welding will crack on cylinder pressurization.
Step in cylinder
bore
Cylinder
V-groove
for welding
13
oil port
15
11
7
8
3
12
16
End-plug
14
10
Figure No. 18.14.2
Section at `xx'
18-22
Welding Technology
10.
Next day clean welded joint, and inspect for any crack developed. Test it and if it is found OK then
said cylinder could be used for pressing.
11.
In case welding crakes, then remove complete cracked weld deposit before welding again, as welding
done on cracked welding tends again. Test chemical composition of base metal, and accordingly select the
welding rod. Universe-W electrode of Advani-Orlekon gives satisfactory result even in those mild steel base
metal in which chemical composition are not as per standard.
18-23
Rolled Section
Chapter - 19
Rolled Section
19.1. Introduction: In hydraulic press rolled I-beam and channel section are used for side column up to 300Ton capacity press. Small presses used for general purpose, such as Bending, Straightening, Bearing
fitting and removing etc. could be completely made from rolled I-section and channel etc. as
shown in following figure. As it is one of the important construction material of hydraulic press,
hence we will briefly study about it.
19.2. Reason for Selecting Rolled Section: Because of following reasons we give more preference to rolled section than fabricated
section.
a) In rolled section the material of construction is known and fixed as per ISI standard and
could be selected as per requirement. For example for a weldable important load taking
structure rolled section with IS-2062 grade material could be selected and used. For
high stress and bolted construction IS-961 could be used. And for general purpose nonwelded structure rolled section made from steel could be used.
b) Rolled sections are made in various sizes. These sizes are internationally fixed and
common. For each section all its parameter is known and data is always available in
table form such as, its cross-section area, weight per unit length, moment of inertial at
various axis, length, width, height, thickness etc.
Hence while calculation of strength we get all the data at our fingertip. So as per our
requirement we can select most appropriate section serving our purpose.
c) Rolled sections are already designed and standarised in such a way that they give
maximum strength with minimum material used. Hence when we make a structure from
rolled section then it always give more strength at less material used.
19.3. Material of Construction: Rolled sections are made from three types of material.
Grade (IS-2062) Mild Steel: When rolled section has to take load and structure is of weldadle type then rolled
section made from IS-2062 mild steel is used.
Grade (IS-961) Alloy Steel: When rolled section has to take high load at lower structural weight than IS-961
material is used. IS-961 is also of two types, weldable and non-weldable.
Grade (IS-1977-1962) Mild Steel: Rolled section made from these types of material used for general purpose and noncritical type of structure.
19.4.
Details, Dimensions and Data about I-section, Channel-section and Angles are as follow.
19-1
Fastners
Chapter -20
Fasteners
Most of the hydraulic cylinders and many parts of hydraulic presses are of bolted type.
Generally four factor of safely are taken while designing and selecting the fasteners. That means at
full capacity of cylinder we only reach up to 25% of permissible tensile strength capacity of fastener
material. But it is observed in many cases that if cylinder is slightly over loaded bolt fails at much
lower stress level than its permissible tensile stress. This is due to many factors such as.
a. Wrong fastener material.
b. Wrong design of fastener.
c. Wrong heat treatment of fastener.
All good fasteners manufactures do their best to produce good quality fastener and inactually
their fasteners are good. But small companies and cheaters who make duplicate fastener do all
these mistakes. If you are purchasing a bolt of reputed make from open market like Nagdevi
Street in Bombay, there are 50% chances that you will get duplicate bolts.
Because of this reason specifically we are presenting this chapter to make you aware of
fasteners.
20.1 Types of Fasteners: There are hundreds of types of nuts, bolts and screws, it is beyond our scope to mention
them here. In hydraulic press, we generally use, Elen and Hex bolts.
Hexagon bolts and screws

Commonly known as Hex-Bolts
Hexagon socket head cap screws

Commonly known as Elen-Bolts
IS :1363, 1364 and 2389
IS : 2269
Figure No. 20.1

20.2 System of Designation: A bolt is designated by nine parameters. We will describe them with an example as
follow.
Hexagonal head, bolt, M20x75x1.5 NL, IS:1364 S 4.6
1
This designation has nine parameters and each parameter describes following characteristic
or specification.
20-1
Fastners
Parameter No.1 = It indicate the type of head. It may be hexagonal head, hexagonal socket head
cap, counter sunk, grub screw type and many more types. In present example
is it is hexagonal head bolt.
Parameter No.2 = It indicates the type of fastener. It may be bolt, screw, nut, grub screw etc.
Parameter No.3 = M20 indicates it is bolt with ISO metric threads with 20mm diameter.
Parameter No.4 = 75 indicates that it has 75mm length.
Parameter No.5 = 1.5 indicates that it has special thread with 1.5mm pitch. For standard thread it
is omitted.
Parameter No.6 = NL indicates the type of Nut. When nut is not used then it is omitted.
Parameter No.7 = IS-1364 indicates the standard by which bolt manufactured, it may be IS:2389
or IS: 2269, IS:6761 and many more as per the requirement.
Parameter No.8 = It indicates the type of grade of surface finish P, S, B, in present example it is S
that is precision type which means good surface finish on all surface and thread,
except point.
Parameter No.9 = It indicates the property of class. First digit is minimum tensile strength and next
digit Ratio of minimum yield stress to minimum tensile strength. 4.6 means, it
has 40 kgf/mm2 as minimum tensile stress and 0.6 as ratio.
Hexagonal head Bolt
Shape of hear
Type of fastener
M20 x 75 x 1.5
Thread
NL - IS:1364 - S - 4.6
Pitch Type of nut IS Number

(Mention only for fine thread)
Length
Grade Property class
P=Precision
S=Semiprecision
B=Blank
1. Minimum tensile strength

2. Ratio of min yield stress to
min tensile strength
Figure No. 20.2

20.3 Material of Bolts: Bolts and nuts are made either from plain mild-steel, brass, stainless steel and alloy
steel etc. In alloy steel bolts are generally made from EN-8, EN-9, EN-19, EN-24 etc. In
hydraulic press we generally use fasteners made from M.S. or alloy steel.
20.4 Heat Treatment of Bolts: General purpose bolts and nuts made from mild-steel are not heat-treated. While bolts
made from alloy steel are harden and tempered.
20.5 Strength of Bolts: As bolts are made from M.S., EN-8, EN-9, EN-19 and EN-24. Hence their strength depends
on material used and the heat treatment. For standardization Indian institute for standardization has
fixed many grades of bolt as per their strength, these are 4.6, 4.8, 6.6, 8.8, 10.9 and 12.9. The
logic behind the grade numbers is as follows.
20-2
Fastners
The first digit of the symbol indicates 1/10th of the minimum tensile strength. While the second
digit indicates the ratio between minimum yield stress and the minimum tensile strength.
For example 4.6 means it has 40kg/mm2 as minimum tensile strength, and 0.6 as ratio minimum
yield stress and minimum tensile stress. Hence we can calculate 24kg/mm2 as minimum yield stress
Min. Yield Stress = 0.6= 24 = (calculated)
Min. Tensile Stress
40
(known)
Mechanical Property of Threaded Fasteners
(for details refer IS-1367-1967)
for Externally Threaded Bolts
Property
Tensile strength
Kgf/mm2
Brinell
Hardness Rockwell
HRC
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
4.6
40
55
110
170
Not
heat
treated
24
22.6
25
-
4.8
40
55
110
170
Not
heat
treated
32
29.1
14
-
Property Class
6.6
8.8
60
80
80
100
170
225
245
300
Not
18
heat
31
treated
36
33.9
58.2
16
12
6
10.9
100
120
280
365
27
38
12.9
120
140
330
425
34
44
Yield stress kgf/mm2 Min.

Proof stress kgf/mm2
79.2
95
Elongation %
Min.
9
8
Impact strength
Min.
4
3
Max. Permissible
stress assumed for
7
9
12.5
20
25
30
calculation kgf/mm2
For dynamic loading permissible stress should be further reduced by approximately 66%.
For internally threaded Nuts

Property
For use with bolts of property class
2
Proof load stress kgf/mm

Hardness
Brinell
HB max.
Rockwell HRC max.
4
4.6
4.8
40
302
30
Property class
6
8
6.6
60
302
30
8.8
80
302
30
12
12.9
120
353
36
Grade number means it is 1/10 of proof load stress nut of higher grade could be used
with bolt of lower grade but not vice-versa.
Standard making authority has graded fasteners as per strength and not material used for
manufacturing. Whatever material manufacturer uses, he has to ensure that final strength of fasteners
should be as per grade.
20-3
Fastners
Tightening Torque (kgf.m)

Grades
Sizes
M6
M8
M8x1
M10
M10x1.25
M12
M12x1.25
M14
M14x1.5
1.38
2.5
3.94
1.48
2.64
4.2
2.2
3.92
6.25
2.36
4.2
6.7
0.17
0.29
0.47
0.4
0.71
1.15
0.42
0.76
1.2
0.8
1.4
2.25
0.83
1.48
2.36
M16
M16x1.5
M18
M18x1.5
M20
M20x1.5
M22
M22x1.5
M24
3.4
6.1
9.7
3.6
6.4
10.2
4.7
8.35
13.3
5.2
9.3
14.8
6.6
11.8
18.9
7.25
13
20.7
8.95
25.6
9.7
27.8
11.5
32.8
M24x2
M27
M27x2
M30
M30x2
M33
M33x2
M36
M36x3
12.3
35
16.7
47.7
17.8
50.8
22.8
65
24.7
70.5
30.6
88
33.2
95
39.5
113
42
119
4.6
6.6
8.8
Grades
Sizes
4.6
6.6
8.8
Grades
Sizes
4.6
6.6
8.8
Fastener
Grade
P
S
B
Surface finish
Surface
Bolt
Nut
All surfaces and threads
All surface and threads
except points
Point of bolt
Minor dia of thread
Thread, shank and
Thread and bearing face
bearing face
Flats and minor dia of
All other faces
thread
Flank and minor dia of
Flank and major dia of
thread
thread
Major dia of thread
Minor dia of thread
All other faces
All other faces
Surface finish
symbol
~
~
20.6 S.S. Bolt: In chemical plant we use Stainless steel bolts. The details and requirement of such
fasteners are as follow.
a)
Dimension Control: Dimensions of screws are controlled as per IS:2269 and Hexagonal socket head cup
screw is controlled by IS:1367 standard.
Thread confirms to IS:4218 tolerance grade-6g-ISO metric screw thread.
b)
Mechanical Properties: The stainless steel bolt material should have following mechanical properties.
c)
Ultimate Tensile Stress
: 52.5 kg/mm2 (min.)
Yield Strength (0.2% offset)
: 21 kg/mm2 (min.)
Percentage Elongation
: 30% (min.)
Percentage Reduction
: 50% (min.)
Chemical Composition: Percentage of various elements in stainless steel is as follow.
20-4
Fastners
d)
Carbon
: 0.08 (max.)
Manganese
: 2.00 (max.)
Phosphorous
: 0.045 (max.)
Sulphur
: 0.030 (max.)
Silicon
: 1.00 (max.)
Nickel
: 10.00 to 14.00
Chromium
: 16.00 to 18.00
Molybdenum
: 2.00 to 3.00
Material: The material property and chemical composition of stainless steel is already described above.
When American standard is considered, the material of AISI grade 316 in carbide solution
treated condition meeting the requirement of ASTM-A-193 B8M is used.
20.7 Failure of Fasteners: There are many factors because of which fastener fails, few of which are as follow.
a.
Incorrect Heat-Treatment: If high tensile bolts only hardened and not tempered then it remains brittle and fails at much
lower stress, duplicate bolt manufactures generally do not temper to save manufacturing
cost, hence bolt fail at much lower stress level or impact load.
b.
Incorrect Design: If high tensile bolts are selected and fitted in mild steel body. If the corresponding
threading in M.S. body is not increased accordingly, then bolt will not fail but threads
in M.S. body will shear out. As ultimate tensile and shear of M.S. is lower than high
tensile bolt. This also happens when lower grade of nut used with high grade of bolt.
c.
Incorrect Manufacturing Technique: Elen bolts are made by forging on bolt forging machine which is called header. From a round
coil of iron bar it continuously produces bolt. Making groove for elen key it punches groove
in solid head. If depth of this groove is more, then elen bolt always fails at bottom of groove
as indicated below.
Correct Design
More depth on
Elen Socket
Pattern of Failure
Figure No. 20.7
20-5
Fastners
Small companies and duplicate bolt manufacturers do not purchase costly forging Header
but use many small machine to make bolts. To make elen bolt, first drill the hole in head of
bolt and then they punch it to make socket for elen key. To keep the correct depth of socket
for elen key they over-drill the head. As some material in next operation of forging for making
hex-socket for elen key also get deposited in bottom of drill. Such bolt always breaks at
much lower stress level.
Hence always design fastener carefully, select right grade of bolts and purchase it from right
source, otherwise your well designed and precisely made machine will fail at much lower
stress at bolted joint.
Pipe Thread (BSP)
Size
inches
1/8
3/8
5/8
1
7/8
1
1
1
2
TPI
28
19
19
14
14
14
11
14
11
11
11
11
Pitch
inches
0.0357
0.0526
0.05263
0.0143
0.07143
0.07143
0.07143
0.09091
0.07143
0.09091
0.09091
0.09191
Depth
inches
0.0229
0.0337
0.0337
0.0457
0.0457
0.0457
0.0582
0.0457
0.0582
0.0582
0.0582
0.0582
Major dia
inches
0.383
0.5180
0.6560
0.8250
0.9020
1.041
1.309
1.189
1.65
1.8826
2.116
2.347
Minor dia
inches
0.3372
0.4506
0.5886
0.7336
0.8108
0.9496
1.1926
1.0976
1.5336
1.7656
1.9996
2.23
Drill
Inches/mm
8.8
11.8
15.25
53/64
24.5
30.75
28.25
39.58
1 25/32
51
2
Alternate
Inches/mm
11/32
11.7
19/32
19
21
24.25
1 13/64
1 7/64
1 35/64
45
-57
20-6
Fastners
Bolt
Thread size
ISO Metric Screw Threads

Design profiles of internal and external threads
Nut
Tensile
stress area
mm2
Pitch
mm
Minor
dia
mm
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
1.171
1.509
1.948
2.387
3.141
4.018
4.773
6.466
8.160
9.853
13.546
16.933
20.319
25.706
31.092
1.27
2.07
3.39
5.03
8.78
14.2
20.1
36.6
58.0
84.3
157
245
353
561
817
Washer
Ellen bolt
mm
Thick-ness
of head
mm
Thick-ness
of nut
mm
Width
across flats
mm
Width across
corners
mm
Outside
dia
mm
Thickness
mm
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.7
0.8
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
1.1
1.4
1.7
2
2.8
3.5
4.0
5.5
7.0
8.0
10
13
15
19
23
1.3
1.6
2
2.4
3.2
4
5
6.5
8
10
13
16
19
24
29
3.2
4
5
5.5
7
8
10
13
17
19
24
30
36
46
55
3.48
4.38
5.51
6.08
7.74
8.87
11.05
14.38
18.90
21.10
26.75
33.53
39.98
51.28
61.31
4
5
6.5
7
9
10
12.5
17
21
24
30
37
44
56
66
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.6
1.6
2
2.5
3
3
4
4
5
Head Head
Dia Thick
5.5
7
8.5
10
13
16
18
24
30
36
45
54
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
24
30
36
20-7
Chapter -21

In hydraulic press, surface of various parts are coated for.
a)
To increase the wear resistance against friction and rubbing.
b)
To increase the resistance against corrosion.
c)
For better outlook.
Piston-rod, guide-rod, columns are hard-chrome plated to increase the surface hardness
and increase wear resistance.
Small components of press-body, parts of valves and Knobs etc. are blakodised to increase
corrosion resistance and better outlook.
Many components of press body are galvanized to increase corrosion resistance. Control
panel, oil tank and many component of press-body are painted or powder coated for better
outlook, corrosion resistance and long life.
For better understanding of said surface protective coating we describe these coating process
shortly as follow.
21.1Chromium Plating: Pure chromium metal is coated on various parts of hydraulic press by electrolysis
process to increase wear resistance, to protect against corrosion and for better outlook.
Chromium plating is of two types.
1. Flash Chrome Plating.
2. Hard Chrome Plating.
21.1.1 Flash Chrome Plating: In flash chrome plating, a very thin lays of chromium is coated on surface. This may vary
from 0.005 to 0.015mm. Purpose of flash chrome plating is for better esthetic outlook
and corrosion resistance. As very thin layer of chromium is plated, hence grinding after
plating is generally not performed to control final size.
21.1.2 Hard Chrome Plating: In hard chrome plating minimum 0.025mm layer of chromium is plated on article.
Maximum thickness of coating depends on requirement, and even 1mm coating also be
applied. As thickness increases cost also increases. The optimum cost economy and better wear
resistance we get at 0.05 to 0.06mm plating.
When article is plated, at its edges more metal is deposited, which is called EdgeBuild-Up. To precisely control size of article slightly more metal is deposited and
then article is grounded to get correct dimension.
Press columns, Guide-bar, Piston-rod, Ram etc. are turned, then ground, then chrome
plated and again ground to get correct size as per tolerance limit, and uniform dimension
through out its length and then buffed to get mirror like finish.
We get 55RC hardness at 0.025mm plating 58RC at 0.05 plating. And after that
what ever may be the plating thickness, hardness could not be increase more than
59RC.
21-1
Baking: The articles, which are hardened or cold-worked may be harmfully embrittled by hydrogen
absorption during chromium plating. The hydrogen may be removed and the physical and mechanical
properties of article restored by baking the component, immediately within one hour after plating in
an oven maintained at a uniform temperature of 190C to 200C for at least 3 hrs. The time of
baking depends on cross section of article, thickness of plating and severity of embrittlement.
21.2 Chromium Plating Procedure: Chromium plating procedure consist of cleaning and plating. As quality of plating
depends on cleanliness of surface, hence many operations performed to ensure perfect clean
surface of article. After plating if baking required then only articles are backed, otherwise it
is not performed.
We described a common chromium plating procedure as follow.
1.
Cleaning: - Article may be cleaned by vapour degreasing, organic solvent, emulsion

cleaners, spray cleaners or by coated buffing wheels.
2.
Racking: - As chrome-plating is an electrolytic process, hence position of article with

anode and its electrical contact is very important. Before plating articles are carefully
racked with clear and tight contact with electric supply.
3.
Electrolytic Alkaline Cleaning: - After cleaning physically and racking, component

may be electrolytically cleared. The electrolyte and current parameter for electrolytic
alkaline cleaning is as follow.
Sodium Carbonate . (Na2Co3)
= 30 to 40 gm/liter of water.
Trisodium Phosphate (hydrate) (Na3PO4.12H2O)
= 15 to 30 gm/liter of water.
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
= 7.5 to 15 gm/liter of water.
Voltage
= 6 volts.
Current density
= 3.2 to 5.4 Amps/cm2.
Cathodic cleaning followed by
= 1 to 2 min.
Anodic cleaning
= 15 to 30sec.
Notes: 1)
Alloy Steel, high strength or hardened steel components (over 40RC) should not be
cleaned cathodically as serve hydrogen embrittlement may result.
2)
High nickel steel components should not be cleaned anodically as this may develope an
oxide film and reduce the adhesion of the chromium. However cathodic alkaline
cleaning may be carried out for these steel components.
Rinsing: To remove all the residual alkaline chemical, the components are rinsed in boiling
water.
Etching: Components are placed in chromium plating bath, electrical contacts are made, article to
be plated is made cathode and a lead sheet as anode. Then just before plating electrical switch is
reversed to make article anode lead sheet as cathode for five minutes.
21-2
Chromium Plating: After anodic etching in chromium plating both, the components are again connected to
negative bus-bar electrically by reversing switch, and made it cathode. Following operating
conditions are recommended for chromium plating.
Chromic Acid (CrO3)
= 250 to 400 gm/litrs of water.
Sulphure (SO4) radical the Sulphate

radical is generally added as 94 to 96
as weight percent of sulphoric acid
(H2SO4)
= CrO3 : SO4
Operating temperature
= 40C : 60C
Current density
= 7.6 to 50 Amp/cm2.
= 100 : 1
After plating article may be ground to control the dimension and buffed to get shining
mirror like finish. If baking required then article should be baked within one hour on plating.
21.3 Standards for Chrome Plating: ASTM B 254 = This standard recommends the practice for preparation
of Electroplating.
ASTM B 177 = This standard recommends the practice for chromium
plating on steel for engineering use.
21.4 Thickness Measurement: The thickness of plating could be measured by micro-meter or caliper or by microscopic
meter. For large size component such as Press column, Ram, Piston rod, etc. size is taken
before plating and after that difference is shown in the plating thickness.
In large quality of small component in which few sample could be spared for
destructive testing are cut into pieces. Polished and etched as we do in metallurgical
laboratories and then observed in microscope. The thickness may be measured with an
accurately calibrated filar ocular micrometer, or the image may be measured with an accurate
ruler on a ground glass focusing plane of a metallographic microscope.
21.5 Adhesive Testing: The layers of chromium should not pill-off. For adhesive test of plating we also chrome
plate a sample stripe of 100mm length, 25mm thick and 1mm thick.
On completion of plating we bend strip at 180 degree. When sample piece break in
to two, then the chromium layer on broken edge should not come out when scraped with a
sharp tool.
21.6 GALVANISING: Galvanising is again similar to chromium plating procedure. In this process zinc is.
deposited on components to be plated.
21-3
Article to be plated is made Cathode, pure zinc metal is made Anode and hydrochloric acid
is used as electrolyte. Approximately 8 to 10 micron is deposited on the surface, and this process
takes approximately 30 minutes time.
Instead of electrolysis process, zinc is also deposited by Hot-Dip galvanizing process,
in which after cleaning job thoroughly dipped in hot zinc bath, then removed. By this dipping
in hot zinc, zinc form a thin layer of alloy with base metal at interface between base metal
and coating.
Zinc form more protective coating on Iron than Tin and other metal. And gives best
protection against corrosion.
21.7 BLACKENING: (Black finishing on Iron and Steel, it is also called blackodising)
In this process iron articles are heated in an alkaline solution, because of which it gets
a black finish on its surface. This is due to chemical reaction. By this process dimension do
not change. But if blacking process carried out for long time then dimension may increase by
0.025mm to 0.05mm.
By this process black finish gives good aesthetic appearance, it is also corrosion resistance
up to certain extent.
Said chemical is available with its commercial name such as Ranuk Hylak salt. This
salt in ratio of 750gm salt in one liter water, heated between 140-144 0C and then article is
dip for 15 to 45 minute for getting black finishing on it.
By this process iron and steel gets a good shining black finish on its surface, which is also
corrosion resistance up to certain extent. Many components of hydraulic valves are blakodised.
21.8 PAINTING: 21.8.1 Introduction: A hydraulic press may remain in operation and give good service for more than 2025 year. The places where oil and grease applied for lubrication remain protected again
corrosion, but majority of surface remain susceptible to corrosion.
Paints are applied for all such susceptible areas, but if surface is not properly
conditioned before painting and correct type of painting procedure are not followed and
paints are not selected correctly then even after spending money on painting, paint will start
pilling-off within six month to one year time. And once paints pill-off from surface corrosion
starts.
Hence we briefly describe the surface preparation and painting procedure in this
chapter.
21.8.2 Surface Preparation: a)
All the surface to be painted should be thoroughly cleaned. Cleaning may be done
by hand-grinding, sand-blasting, de-greasing, picking (de-rusting) etc. After cleaning
white metal finish of iron should be visible.
21-4
b) Automotive industries have well automised painting shop. After thoroughly cleaning surface
they dip sheet metal in a phosphate compound. Which chemically reacts with white metallic
surface of steel and forms a gray colour compound on it. This phosphated surface primer
makes better bounding with white metal. And paint gets more resistance against corrosion and
remain for longer period on surface. For hydraulic press we do not do it. But if some one want
to do it, then such chemical is available in market.
21.8.3 Application of Primer: If paints are directly applied to such clean metallic surface, then they do not stick to surface,
and will pill-off from surface in a thin layer form. Paint is also poor corrosion resistance.
For making good bonding between paint and metallic surface and increase corrosion
resistance primers are applied before painting.
21.8.4 Primer: Primer generally consist of:
a) Resin (10 to 15%).
b) Chemical compound such as Iron-oxide, Zinc-chromed etc. (10 to 15%).
c) Filler such as China clay, Talcum powder, Whiting (40 to 45%).
d) Drier such as Manganese octet, Cobalt octet etc.
e) Base solution such as mineral oil, turpentine.
Resin makes bonding with metallic surface and chemical compound such as Iron-oxide
and zinc-chromed makes a thin film on surface which do not allow oxygen to pass through
it and react with base-metal, hence give corrosion resistance properly.
21.8.5 Type of Primer: Primers are of three types: a) Epoxy bases primer.
b) Zinc chromate primer.
c) Red-oxide primer.
a)
Epoxy Based Primer: In this type of primer epoxy chemical is used, which has best resistance against corrosion
and chemical, as compared to other type of primer. In this type of primer hardener is
separately packed and they are mixed just before painting.
b)
Zinc-Chromate: In this type of primer main corrosion resistance compound is zinc-chromate. This gives
better corrosion resistance than iron-oxide based primer. And gives best results and very
long life to paint if applied on clear white metallic surface.
c)
Red-Oxide-Primer: This is most commonly used primer in industry. In this type of primer iron-oxide is used
which gives corrosion resistance property. As iron-oxide is reddish in colour hence this
type of primer are commonly know as Red-oxide.
21.8.6 Application of Paint: Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan
21-5
After applying primer, Lambi or N.C. putty are applied to fill the uneven surface. After
they dry, they are rubbed with sand paper to get smooth surface. In such rubbing process some
time primer also gets removed at some places. Hence again a coat of primer is applied before
applying the final paint.
Primer sticks to metal surface due to resin in it, when paint applied on primer it fills in
porosily of primer as well as lambi and putty applied to it. Hence it gets good bonding with primer.
And do not pill-off, as it happens when paint directly applied on metallic surface.
After first coat of paint, dry-out, over all quality of paint is inspected. If required again
minor touch-up with N.C. putty is done, then again second coat of paint is applied. This completes
the painting process.
Generally primers as well as paints are applied two coat each. And preferable thickness of
primer as well as paint is between 90 to 100 micron. Hence total 200 micron coating thickness we
get on surface.
21.8.7 Types of Decorative Paint: There are so many types of paint but generally two types of paints are used for
machinery.
a) Epoxy paint.
b) Decorative paint.
a)
Epoxy Paint: -
Epoxy paint is best with respect to resistance against corrosion and service life. Epoxy is
main constituent in paint, it is mixed with hardener just before application of painting and then
applied on surface.
b)
Decorative Paints: -
Decorative paints are available in many commercial grade, such as oil-paint, which has
glossy finish and fully dry in more than 12 hours time. Fast-drying paint, which dry-out in one hours
time. Hammer tone paints, which are similar to oil pain but they have special dented texture. When
surfaces are uneven and it is not economical to finish it by applying lambi and putty etc. in such
condition if hammer tone paint applied then, those defect on surface will not be visible.
We apply total four coats of primer and paint and also a layer of lambi or putty. Precaution
should be taken that when one coat fully dry-out then only second coat is applied. As well as when
putty fully get harden then only rubbed and applied with primer to get better quality of paint and
life.
21-6
Graphical symbols for fluid power systems
Chapter - 22
GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS FOR FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

1.
Scope :-
Defines the principles of the use of symbol and specifies the symbol to be used in diagrams
for fluid power systems.
The use of these symbols does not preclude the use of other symbols commonly used for
pipe work in other technical fields.
2
General Symbol :-
2.0
Symbols Rule
2.0.1
The symbols show connections, flow paths and the functions of the components
represented. They do not indicate construction or any physical relationship such as
location of ports, directions of shifting of spool or the position of actuators; nor do
they indicate values, such as pressure, flow rate or other component setting.
2.0.2
When a component performs more then one function, basic symbols may be combined
and arranged to show each separate function.
2.0.3
With certain obvious exceptions, symbols may be rotated or reversed without altering
their meaning.
2.0.4
The line width use does not affect the meaning of the symbol.
2.0.5
The symbols may be drawn to any suitable size. The size may be varied on any given
drawing for emphasis or clarity.
2.0.6
Arrows are used within symbol envelopes to show the directions of flow through a
component as used in the applications represented. Double-ended arrows are used to
indicate reversing flow.
2.0.7
Each symbol is drawn to show normal, at-rest, or neutral conditions of component

unless multiple diagrams are furnished showing various phase of circuit operation.
An actuator reversing flow.
2.0.8
External ports are located where flow lines connect to basic symbol, except where
component enclosure symbol is used. External ports are located at intersections of
flow lines and component enclosure symbol when enclosure is used.
2.0.9
The words Hydraulic or Pneumatic may be added to the descriptions to distinguish

between the two systems or between one of them and other technical fields, for
example, hydraulic pump, hydraulic cylinders, hydraulic accumulators, pneumatic
motors, pneumatic valve, etc.
22-1
GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS FOR FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

(page 2, clause 2.1.2.5, under column Application ) Substitute semi-rotary actuator/
oscillator for oscillator.
(page 7, clause 3.7, under column Symbol ) Delete the symbol for hydraulic to
pneumatic.
22-2
(page 9, clause 4.2.27, under column Symbol ) Substitute the following for the existing
figure : (page 10, clause 4.2.3.5, under
2.2
Functional Symbol :-
No.
Description
Application
Symbol
2.2.1
Triangle :
The direction of flow and the nature of the

fluid
2.2.1.1
-solid
Hydraulic flow
2.2.1.2
-in outline only
Pneumatic flow or exhaust to atmosphere
2.2.2
Arrow
Indication of :
2.2.2.1
-direction
2.2.2.2
-direction of rotation
2.2.2.3
-paths and direction of flow through valves

Flow regulating apparatus as in 4.4 both
representations with or without a tail to the end
of the arrow are used without distinction
As a general rule the line perpendicular to the
head of the arrow indicates that when the
arrow moves the interior path always remains
connected to the corresponding exterior path
2.2.3
Sloping arrow
Indication of the possibility of a regulation or

of a progressive variability
2.3 Energy Symbol :-
S2
LS1
LS2
S1
FRD
REV
h y d r o-e l e c t r i c
MACHINERY
91-022-564 59 30
R-FUSE
B Y
PB2
PB1
Y B
22-3
No.
1
Description
-Working line return line and feed line

-Pilot control line
-Drain line
Miscellaneous symbols
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
3
Symbol
Flow Lines
1.1
1.2
1.3
2
-Flow line connecting

-Spring
-Restriction
-affected by viscosity
-unaffected by viscosity
Pressure Source
3.1
3.2
-Hydraulic
-Pneumatic
Electric Motor
Heat Engine
Flexible hose, usually connected moving parts
Power take-off
7.1
7.2
8
-plugged
-with take off line
Triangle
8.1
8.2
8.3
9
9.1
9.2
9.3
-direction of hydraulic flow in one direction.

-direction of hydraulic flow in both directions.
-direction of pneumatic flow or exhaust to atmosphere
Arrow
-indication of direction
-indication of direction of rotation
-indication of the posibiity of a regulation or of a
progressive variability
22-4
10
Pump and compressure
10.1
-fixed capacity hydraulic pump with

one direction of flow (a)
-fixed capacity hydraulic pump with
two direction of flow (b)
10.2
10.3
-variable capacity hydraulic pump with

-variable capacity hydraulic pump with
one direction of flow (b)
10.4
-fixed capacity compressure

(always one direction of flow)
10.5
-vaccum pump
11
Motors
11.1
-fixed capacity hydraulic motors with

11.2
-fixed capacity hydraulic motors with

11.3
-variable capacity hydraulic motors with

11.4
-variable capacity hydraulic motors with

11.5
-fixed capacity pneumatic motor with

one direction of flow
11.6
-fixed capacity pneumatic motor with

two direction of flow
11.7
-variable capacity pneumatic motor with

one direction of flow
11.8
-variable capacity pneumatic motor with

two direction of flow
11.9
-hydraulic oscilating motor
11.10
-pneumatic oscaling motor
22-5
12
Cylinders
12.1
-single acting cylinder returned by an unspecifies

force
12.2
-Single acting cylinder returned by spring
12.3
-double acting cylinder with single piston rod
12.3
12.4
-double acting cylinder with double ended

piston rod
-cylinder with single fixed cushion
12.5
-cylinder with double fixed cushion
12.6
-cylinder with double adjustable cushion
13
Hydraulioc pressure intensifier
14
14.1
Variable speed drive unit (torque converter)

-with variable control of pump
14.2
15
-with variable control of both pump and motor

Control vlave
15.1
-two position valve (No.of equare is equal to the

no. of position)
15.2
-two position valve with port poditions shown
15.3
-direction control valve, four way, two position

with manual operation and spring centered.
15.4
-direction control valve, four way, three position

with electromagnetic control and return and return
by spring.
15.5
-direction control valve, four way two position

combined with solenoid operated pilot valve
against a return spring.
15.6
tracer valve with two parts (one throttling orifice)
22-6
15.7
-tracer valve with three ports (ywo throttling

orifice) plunger againsta return spring
15.8
-Two stage electrohydraulic servo valve, with

hydraulic feed back and indirect pilot operation.
16
Non-return valve
16.1
-free (opens if the inlet pressure is greater than the

outlet pressure plus the spring pressure)
16.2
-spring loaded opens if the inlet pressure is greater

than the outlet pressure plus the spring pressure)
16.3
-pilot controlled to prevent closing of the valve (a)
16.4
-pilot controlled to prevent opening of the valve (b)
17
Shuttle valve
18
Rapid exhaust valve
19
Pressure relief valve (safety valve)
19.1
-with remote pilot control
20
Sequence valve
21
Pressure regulator or reducing valve
22
Flow control valve
22.1
-throttling vlave
22.1.1
-with mechanical control against a return spring

(braking valve)
22-7
22.2
-flow control valve with fixed output
22.3
-flow control valve with variable output
23
Flow dividing valve
24
Shut-off valve
25
Silencer
26
Reservoirs
26.1
-with inlet pipe above fluid level
26.2
-with inlet pipe below fluid level
26.3
-with a header line
27
Accumulators
28
Filter or stainer
29
Water trap
29.1
-with manual control
29.2
-automatically drained
22-8
30
Air dryer
31
Lubricator
32
Heater
33
Cooler
34
Temperature controller
35
35.1
Manual controller
-genaral (without indication of control type)
35.2
-by push button
35.3
-by lever
35.4
-by pedal
36
36.1
Mechanical control
-by plunger or tracer
36.2
-by spring
36.3
-by roller
22-9
36.4
-by roller, opening in one direction only
37
37.1
Electrical control
-by solenoid
37.2
-electric motor
38
Control by application or release of pressure
38.1
-by application of pressure (direct acting)
38.2
-indirect control, pilot actuated by application of

pressure
38.3
-indirect control, pilot actuated by release of

pressure
39
Pressure Guage
40
Thermometer
41
Flow meter
42
Intergrating flow meter
43
Pressure switch (electrically operated)
22-10

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What are some common components and materials used in hydraulic presses?

What are some common components and materials used in hydraulic presses?

What are some common types of fasteners used in hydraulic presses?

What are some common types of fasteners used in hydraulic presses?

Vol.7.

Essential Knoweldge Required For

Matarial used in Hydraulic Press

20.4 Heat Treatment of Bolts

Graphic Symbol for Fluid Power Systems

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Hydraulic press components, which do not

EXAMPLE : - (Related to hydraulic Press)

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Double Action Front Flange Mounted Cylinder

Figure No. 13.1

Figure No. 13.2

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Inside diameter of cylinder is selected as

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Preferred Number or Basic Series

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Figure No. 15.2

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Note :- Incase of Ra, y1 + y2 + y3 + . yn etc. corresponds to the height of a rectangle, whose

In case of ground and hard-chrome plated piston-rod, we keep surface roughness

Bottom of seal groove

Figure No. 15.3

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Material used in Hydraulic Press

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

MATERIAL USED IN HYDRAULIC PRESS

Classification of Engineering Material: -

Engineering materials are classified as: 1)

Metals and, their alloys, such as copper, steel aluminum etc.

Non-metal such as plastic, rubber, glass etc.

Material used in Hydraulic Press

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Gray Cast Iron :-

It has following composition

The remaining is iron.

Dead mild steel

: upto 0.15% carbon.

Effect of Alloying Element on Properties of Steel: -

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Material used in Hydraulic Press

It should be as low as possible in steel as it produces red shortness it should not be

Nickel: It increases the strength of steel and toughness of the steel.

It increases tensile strength.

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan

Design & Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses

Material used in Hydraulic Press

Hydraulic Press Component and Their Material of Construction: -

Columns & Nuts

General purpose and common

Bolts withstand full load developed by

Design and Manufacturing of Hydraulic Presses. : Q.S. Khan